The Influence of Music on Driver Stress1

DA VID L. WIESENTHAL2

LaMar.I'h Cel1lrefiJr Researchon r'7o/enceand CO'!(licl Resoluliont()rk Universily

Norlh }ork. Ol1lario. Canada

DWIGHT A. HENNESSY

Bl!{faloSlaleCollege(!f'lheSlaleUniversilyofNel\' }C)rk

BRAD TOTTEN

LaMarsh Cel1lreforResearchon Violence and Co'!(licl ResolulionYork Universily

Norlh York. Onlario. Canada

In order to examine the etlicacy of music in dealing with daily stressors,automobile driv-

ers were randomly assigned to either a music or nonmusic group. The music group lis-

tened to their favorite music, while the nonmusic group abstained from aQYmusic or talkradio during their entire commute to or from school or work. Using a cellular telephone,state measuresof driver stress were obtained during a single commute in low- and high-congestion conditions. A Condition x Music Group interaction was found. Driver stresswas greater in high congestion than in low congestion, but the nonmusic group demon-strated extreme levels of stress within high congestion. Listening to self-selected musicappeared to limit driver stress only within highly frustrating and irritating tramc conges-tion.

Driving as a Sourceof Stress

Automobile driving is an event that is often interpreted as stressful (Gulian;Matthews, Glendon, & Davies, 1989;Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1997).Within any

IThis manuscript is basedon researchconducted by Dwight Hennessy in partial fulfillment ofth~

master's degree requirements of York University and supervised by David Wiesenthal. The author$thank Clary Lay and Mike Ziegler who served on the thesis committee, as well as Bob Lambie and

Torry Hoff for their assistance. Pilot research was assisted by the donation of cellular telephones b~Motorola Canadaand cellular airtime by Bell Mobility Canada.This researchwas partially supporteqby a grant from the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario. Opinions expressed in this report are thos~of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Ministry.

2Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to David L. Wiesenthal, LaMarshCentre for Researchon Violence and Conflict Resolution, 217E York Lanes, York University, 4700Keele Street, North York, Ontario M3J I P3, Canada. '

1709

Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2000, 30, 8, pp. 1709-1719.

Copyright @ 2000 by V. H. Winston & Son, Inc. All rights reserved.

'"

1710 WIESENTHAL ET AL. INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON DRIVER STRESS 1711

driving encounter, there is a multitude of stimuli that may be perceived as unde-sirable or demanding, such as bad weather, time pressures, or slow-movingvehicles. According to Broome (1985), stress typically occurs when goals (e.g.,getting to work on time or traveling at a desired pace) are blocked. Most regularcommuters report facing numerous frustrations or irritations that lead to driverstress (Gulian, Matthews, et aI., 1989;Novaco, Stokols, & Milanesi, 1990).Oneof the most salient sources of driver stress that has been identified is traffic con-gestion (Gulian, Matthews, et aI., 1989;Novaco, Stokols, Campbell, & Stokols.1979).Drivers interviewed in actual traffic conditions report greater driver stressin high than in low congestion, with drivers predisposed to stress reacting mostnegatively in congested conditions (Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1997).Within highcongestion, increased traffic volume forces a slower travel pace and creates thepotential for negative interpretations of the situation. If the number of automo-biles using the road system, in the absence of additional highway construction,continues to increase, driver stress levels are destined to escalate (Taylor, 1997).

Indications of psychologicaland physiologicalstress, such as increasedbloodpressure and heart rate (Novaco et aI., 1979; Stokols, Novaco, Stokols, &Campbell, 1978),negative mood (Gulian,Debney,Glendon, Davies,& Matthews,1989),emotional arousal (Hennessy& Wiesenthal, 1997),and poor general health(Hartley& EI Hassani, 1994),have been observedwithin undesirabledriving con-ditions. Traffic accidents have also been found to increase under conditions ofdriver stress (Selzer & Vinokur, 1974). Other consequences include increasedaggression (Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1999)and poor concentration (Matthews,Dom, & Glendon, 1991),which have been linked independentlywith furtheracci-dent and violation probability (Hansen, 1988;Hartley & EI Hassani, 1994;Mihal& Barrett, 1976; Roy & Choudhary, 1985; Shinar, 1978). The danger of driverstress is amplified by the fact that it interacts within other life settings (Novacoet aI., 1990) to produce a syndrome of negative outcomes. Stress experiencedwhile driving has been found to influencesubsequentaffect, health, and behaviorat work and home (Gulian, Debney,et aI., 1989).

Music and Stress

listened to self-selected music while operating experienced a reduction in bothblood pressure and pulse rate and, as a result, performed more effectively underthe stressful conditions of surgery. Similarly, dental patients who listened tomusic while undergoing treatment rated control over their treatment as higherand displayed less pain and stress, which, in turn, facilitated furtl1er stressreduction in the specialist, who performed a more technically correct procedure(Anderson et aI., 1991). The utility of music as a stress-reduction tool isheightened by the fact that it is very simple to implement, inexpensive, and typi-cally requires little to no training (Avants,Margolin, & Salovey, 1991).

One mechanism through which music facilitates coping is as a distractionfrom stressful stimuli. Music has been found to briefly distract patients from theexperience of pain and stress (McCaffery, 1990; Wostratzky, Braun~ & Roth,1988). According to Hoyos (1988), attention capacity is a limited cognitiveresource, divisible among multiple tasks. As the number of demands for attentionincreases, the amount of resources available to any single source is decreased.Music acts as a distracter in that it assumes a portion of cognitive or attentionalresources that might otherwise be directed toward a stressful situation (Baron,1986). As a result, the salience of the experienced stressor is reduced. However,under conditions of extreme demand or multiple stressors, cognitive overload(Milgram, 1970)can occur, wheredemands exceed cognitive resources, resultingin elevated stress (Wildevanck, MaIder, & Michon, 1978). Under conditions ofoverload, participants have been found to focus attention on the most salientdemands and to ignore more peripheral requirements, such as music (Baron,1986).

Music also acts to facilitate relaxation, which relieves psychological andphysiological arousal (Kroener, Diergarten, Diergarten, & Seeger, 1988). Thoseindividuals listening to music have been found to report greater levels of relax-ation during exposure to the stressors of both social density and excessive noise(Kroener et aI., 1988; Stratton, 1992). Anderson et al. (1991) have also foundincreased relaxation and decreased stress among dental patients exposed to musicduring their procedures. Corah, Gale, Pace, and Seyrek (198 I) provide contraryevidence that relaxed patients failed to display decreased stress when Iistening tomusic because of the possible operation of a floor effect for relaxation level.McCaffery (1990) found that both fast-tempo music (believed to increase physio-logical activity) and soft, relaxation music were equally effective in reducingstress. Allen and Blascovich (1994) found that fast-tempo music may onlyrelieve stress when it is the individual's preferred musical taste. According toStratton and Zalanowski (1984), ratings of relaxation are positively related to rat-ings of liking for musical selections. The option of permitting participants tochoose the music they listen to may provide a heightened sense of perceived con-trol in the presence of an uncontrollable stress agent, thereby strengthening thepositive influence of music on stress (Anderson et aI., 1991).

Music therapy has been found to be an effective tool in controlling psycho-logical stress through a variety of psychological and physiological processes,such as reductions in tension (Holland, 1995); arousal (Takeshi & Nakamura,1991); anxiety (Hammer, 1996; Parente, 1989); negative affect (Hanser &Thompson, 1994); and blood pressure, heart rate, and skin conductance(Aldridge, 1993;Allen & Blascovich, 1994);and an increase in immune response(Bartlett, Kaufman, & Smeltekop, 1993). Music may also increase performanceand perceptions of situational control (Anderson, Baron, & Logan, 1991;Stevens, 1990). According to Allen and Blascovich (\ 994), surgeons who

1712 WIESENTHAL ET AL. INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON DRIVER STRESS 1713

Method

items such as, "When I get irritated I drive aggressively," "Trying but failing toovertake frustrates me," or "I get annoyedby driving behind other vehicles." TheDBI-Gen has been found to be a robust and reliable self-report measure of driverstress (Glendon et aI., 1993).For the purpose of the present study,three items thatdid not pertain to highway driving were eliminated ("Annoyed when traffic lightschange to red when 1approach them," "I am more tense on new than familiarroads," and "I feel bothered when overtaking at a junction"). Two additionalitems were eliminated because pilot-study participants had difficulty understand-ing the key concepts ("Driving gives me a sense of power," and "I do not feelindifferent when overtaking other vehicles"). All items were also reworded torepresent state rather than trait measures of stress; for example, "TryiIlg but fail-ing to overtake is frustrating me," rather than "Trying but failing to overtakefrustrates me." The scoring system was also changed from a 7- point scale to aIOO-pointscale to facilitate its administration to the driver in the automobilewhile in traffic. Previous research has found the DBI-Gen to maintain its stress-

predictive properties under such revisions (Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1997).In addition 10 items from the Stress Arousal Checklist (Mackay et aI., 1978)

were included with the II DBI-Gen items. Half of the Stress Arousal Checklistitems were positive mood items (relaxed, contented, peaceful, comfortable, andcalm) and the other half were negative mood items (tense, bothered, nervous,uneasy, and distressed). Stress arousal items were also reworded to represent astate measure of stress; for example, "I am feeling tense," rather than simply"Tense." Responses were placed on a Likert-type scale ranging from a (stronglydisagree) to 100 (strongly agree), indicating the extent to which participantsagreed that each item pertained to their experience in the present driving situa-tion. A manipulation check was added to determine if low- and high-traffic con-gestion conditions were, in fact, perceived as distinct ("Traffic conditions arecongested"). Finally, three items were used to tap time urgency ("I am in ahurry," "I am concerned about getting to my destination on time," and thereverse-keyed item "I have a flexible time schedule") since it has been found tocovary with driver stress (Hennessy, 1995).Previous research has found the StateDriver Stress Inventory to demonstrate high reliability in both low-congestion(a = .92 to .97) and high-congestion (a = .90 to .95) conditions (Hennessy, 1998;Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1997, 1999).

Predictions

Despite a lack of agreement as to the exact mechanisms responsible for theinfluenceof music on stress, it has been establishedthat music can alleviatestress.However, most research has been concentrated within a medical environment,where patients experience stressful medical conditions or stressful treatments.Comparatively less emphasis has been placed on the stress-reducingproperties ofmusic within common everyday situations,such as automobiledriving. Similarly,there has been little comparison of the influence of music between situations ofvarying degrees of stressfulness, such as low- and high-congestion conditions.According to Hennessy (1995), listening to music is one behavior that is oftenused by drivers to deal with demanding traffic conditions. It is predicted thatgreater stress will be reported in high than in low traffic congestion, and that par-ticipants who listen to music while driving will report decreased stress, particu-larly in high congestion, compared to those who do not listen to music.

Participants

The voluntary participants were 40 York University students and members ofthe North York business community. All of the participants traveled to or fromschool or work along Highway 401 in metropolitan Toronto, Ontario, Canada.Half of the participants were males and half were females; their ages ranged from21 to 50 years of age, with an average age of 26.2 years.

Apparatus

Nokia cellular telephones (model number LX 12/C IS) were equipped with acigarette-lighter power adapter for continuous in-automobile power access and astationary antenna. A visor-mounted microphone provided hands-free capability.Dialing was automatically performed at the push of one button.

Measures of Driver Stress

The State Driver Stress Inventory (Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1997) wasdevel-

oped to assess the situation-specific experience of driver stress, using a variationof the Driving Behavior Inventory-General Driver Stress questionnaire (Gulian,Matthews, et aI., 1989) and the Stress Arousal Checklist (Mackay, Cox, Burro\:Vs,& Lazzerini, 1978). The Driving Behavior Inventory-General (DBI-Gen) scalehas been developed as a valid assessment of a general disposition, or trait suscep-tibility, to driver stress (Matthews et aI., 1991). The DBI-Gen consists of 16

Procedure

The present study was designed to measure driver stress in actual low- andhigh-congested conditions, through the use of cellular telephones. Research par-ticipants were enlisted through course recruitment and personal contact. Duringan initial appointment, informed consent was obtained, and instructions regard-ing the experimental procedure and cellular-telephone operation were given.

1714 WIESENTHAL ET AL. INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON DRIVER STRESS 1715

Participants then provided information regarding their regular travel route alongHighway 40], since all measures were administeredduring their usual daily com-mute. Highway 40] was chosen because it is the major traffic artery for metro-politan Toronto, with as many as 14 lanes divided into a series of express (core)and collector lanes. The average annual daily traffic on this highway for themetropolitan Toronto area is over 255,000 vehicles (Ontario Ministry ofTransportation, 1992). For each participant, two areas along their regular com-muting route were chosen: one that is typically lowest and one that is typicallyhighest in traffic congestion. Two landmarkswere then chosen; one that is uniqueto the selected low-congestion area, and one that is unique to the selected high-congestion area. The landmarks were to be subsequently used during their actualjourney as a cue to initiate a cellular-telephonecall to the experimenter. Both thelow- and high-congestion telephone interviews were scheduled during a singlejourney.

Two groups of drivers were formed: those who typically encounter high traf-fic volumes prior to low traffic volumes, and those who typically encounter lowtraffic volumes prior to high traffic volumes. This process allowed for the assess-ment of cumulative state driver stress through the comparison of the high-congestion-first group and the low-congestion-first group, and helped rule outstate driver stress simply as a function of fatigue. Subsequently, each group wasrandomly divided into either a music or a nonmusic group, with a stipulation ofequal gender representation in each group. The music group was instructed toselect a cassette tape or compact disc of their favorite music to play during theentire trip. The nonmusic group was instructed specifically not to listen to music(or talk radio) during the entire journey. All participants were alone in their auto-mobiles during the entire duration of the journey.

Prior to initiating the commute, participants were allowed to make a practicecellular-telephone call to the experimenter in order to ensure that the telephonewas functioning properly and to avoid any confusion regarding its use while actu-ally driving. No measurement took place during the pretest telephone call. Partic-ipants were reminded of the response scale and were instructed to commencetheir journey as usual. Upon approaching their first designated landmark, partici-pants telephoned the researcher, utilizing a single-button speed-dialing feature.Once a successful telephone contact was made, the State Driver Stress Inventorywas administered verbally while the driver was engaged in the actual driving pro-cess. Upon completion of the first telephone interview,the cellular-telephonecallwas terminated and the participants continued driving until their second land-mark was reached, which prompted the second telephone call. The State DriverStress Inventory was again administeredverbally.

All measures were obtained between October and February in Toronto,Ontario, Canada. Participants were tested only on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, andThursdays, since most participants were not available on weekends, and Mon-

504846

!a 44E 42tf.I40~ 38~36

3432ofLow Hlllh

Congestion Level

Figure I. Mean state stress levels in low-congestion and high-congestion conditionsbetween music and nonmusic groups.

days and Fridays have been found to provide elevated driver stress levels(Gulian, Debney, et aI., 1989). In order to eliminate the possibility of poorweather increasing stress, participants were tested only on partly cloudy to sunnydays.

Results

The automobile trips studied indicated that the two telephone calls wereplaced, on average, about] 6 min apart. Drivers were in their vehicles for at leastone half hour per trip.

Scoring on the State Driver Stress Inventory consisted of calculating themean of the responses given on the 2] stress items (the five positive-mood itemswerereverse-keyed)in bothhighcongestionand lowcongestion.Higherscoresare indicative of greater state driver stress. Cronbach's alphas for the state stressscores in low and high congestion were .90 and .93, respectively. A multivariatesplit-plot factorial analysis was performed with state stress levels and timeurgency scores as dependent factors. The low-congestion and high-congestionconditions represented the within-participantscondition, and the music and non-music, as well as the female and male groups, represented the levels of thebetween-groups conditions.

For state driver stress, no difference was found between females and males(M= 38.80, SD = ]7.56, and M= 39.08, SD = ]3.66, respectively), F(l, 36) =0.87, P > .05. A significant interaction was obtained between congestion leveland music groups, F(l, 36) = 4.37,p < .05. Because of the importance of the two-way interaction, main effects for congestion and music groups will not be pre-sented. As predicted, greater state stress was reported in high congestion,although participants in the nonmusic group displayed elevated stress levels inthe high-congestion condition (Figure] ).

1716 WIESENTHAL ET AL.

Time urgency scoresdid not differentiate between low- and high-congestionconditions (M= 48.78, SD = 23.96, and M= 49.54, SD = 23.75, respectively),F( 1,36) = 2.20,p > .05. Similarly, the music group reported equivalent levels oftime urgency asdid the nonmusic group (M = 53.20, SD = 24.16, and M = 52.85,SD = 23.28, respectively), F(I, 36) = 0.32, p > .05. Finally, female and maleratings of time urgency were similar (M = 52.33, SD = 25.19, and M = 46.38,SD = 22.21, respectively), F(I, 36) = 0.82,p > .05.

Discussion

Consistent with previous research (Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1997, 1999),

driver stress was greater in high congestion than in low congestion, demonstrat-

ing the importance of the driving situation as one important element in deter-mining driver stress levels. Because of increased traffic volume and slower

travel pace, high-congestion conditions represent greater potential for undesir-

able or demanding encounters, capable of taxing a driver's coping resources.

The present findings further strengthen the power of the DBI-Gen as a valid andreliable predictor of driver stress, which has been shown to be capable of pre-

dicting both a trait susceptibility and state levels of driver stress (Gulian, Deb-ney, et aI., 1989; Gulian, Matthews, et aI., 1989; Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1997,1999).

The present findings also highlight the importance of music as a mechanism

for coping with driver stress. Within high congestion, participants who did not

listen to music displayed significantly greater stress than did those who listened

to music. Previous research has shown music to alleviate stress experienced inhighly arousing medical situations, such as dental surgery and cancer treatment

(Aldridge, 1993; Anderson et aI., 1991), and in mildly stressful common situa-

tions where strangers awaiting an experiment felt more relaxed when they couldlisten to music as opposed to waiting in silence (Stratton, 1992). Music has been

found to distract (Wostratzky et aI., 1988) and to relax (Kroener et aI., 1988) peo-ple during stressful encounters.

During periods of high congestion, under conditions of increased attentional

demand, listening to music may act to relax and distract drivers from highly

undesirable circumstances. However, the positive influence of music may be lim-

ited. Within low congestion, the music and the nonmusic groups reported similar

levels of driver stress, possibly as a result of the fact that situational demands are

less severe during periods of low volume. With fewer demands, the potential for

negative interpretations of the situation and perceptions of stress are less likely.

Little attention has been paid, in previous research, to the influence of music on

varying degrees of stress. Perhaps the stress-reducing effects of music operate

only under mild to high stress. Further research is needed to determine the influ-ence of music under low-stress conditions.

INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON DRIVER STRESS 1717

One possible confound exists in the present study involving the choice of lis-

tening to music that had previously been chosen by the driver. It may be thatchoice in and of itself is more important in producing the stress reduction than

the actual playing of recorded music. It may also be that the distraction provided

by the music engenders the stress reduction. These reasonable hypotheses need tobe tested in future research contrasting some drivers listening to talking books

(recorded literature), while other drivers listen to popular music. These are easilycollectible data that could make the highways a safer environment.

References

Aldridge,D. (\ 993).The musicof thebody.Music therapyin medicalsettings.Advances, 9, 17-35.

Allen, K., & Blascovich, J. (1994). Effects of music on cardiovascular reactivityamong surgeons.Journal of theAmerican Medical Association, 272. 882-884.

Anderson, R. A., Baron, R. S., & Logan, H. (1991).Distraction,control, and den-tal stress.Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 156-171.

Avants,S. K.,Margolin,A., & Salovey,P. (1991). Stress managementtech-niques: Anxiety reduction, appeal, and individual differences. Imagination.Cognition,and Personality, 10, 3-23.

Baron, R. S.(1986).Distraction-conflict theory. Progress and problems. In L.Berkowitz(Ed.),Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19,pp. 1-40). New York,NY: Academic Press.

Bartlett, D., Kaufman,D., & Smeltekop,R. (1993). The effects of music listeningand perceived sensory experiences on the immune system as measured byinterleukin-A and cortisol. Journal of Music Therapy,30, 194-209.

Broome, M. R. (1985). The implication of driver stress. Proceedings of the Plan-ning and Transportation Research and Computation (PTRC) Seminar N.,Summer Meeting Vol. P270. London, UK: PTRC Education Research Ser-vices.

Corah,N., Gale,E., Pace,L., & Seyrek,S.(1981).Relaxationandmusicalpro-gramming as means of reducing psychological stress during dental proce-dures. Journal of the American Dental Association, 103,232-234.

Glendon, A. I., Dom, L., Matthews, G., Gulian, E., Davies, D. R., & Debney,L. M. (1993). Reliability of the Driving Behaviour Inventory. Ergonomics,36,719-726. .

Gulian, E., Debney,L. M., Glendon,A. I., Davies, D. R., & Matthews. G. (1989).Coping with driver stress. In F. McGuigan, W. E. Sime,& J. M. Wallace(Eds.),Stress and tension control (Vol. 3, pp. 173-186).New York, NY:Plenum.

Gulian, E., Matthews, G., Glendon, A. I., & Davies, D. R. (1989). Dimensions ofdriver stress. Ergonomics,32, 585-602.

1718 WIESENTHAL ET AL. INFLUENCE OF MUSIC ON DRIVER STRESS 1719

Hammer, S.E. (1996).The effects of guided imagery through music on state andtrait anxiety.Journal of Music Therapy,33,47-70.

Hansen, C. P. (1988). Personality characteristics of the accident involvedemployee. Journal of Business and Psychology, 2, 346-365.

Hanser, S. B., & Thompson, L. W.(1994). Effects of a music therapy strategy ondepressed older adults. Journal of Gerontology,49, 265-269.

Hartley, L. R., & EI Hassani, J. (1994). Stress, violations, and accidents. AppliedErgonomics, 25, 221-234.

Hennessy, D. A. (1995). The relationship between traffic congestion, driverstress, and direct versus indirect coping. Unpublished master's thesis. YorkUniversity, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Hennessy, D. A. (1998). The interaction of person and situation within the driv-ing environment: Daily hassles. traffic congestion, driver stress, aggression,vengeance, and past performance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. YorkUniversity, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Hennessy, D. A., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (1997). The relationship between trafficcongestion, driver stress, and direct versus indirect coping behaviours. Ergo-nomics, 40, 348-361.

Hennessy, D. A., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (1999). Traffic congestion, driver stress,and driver aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 25,409-423.

Holland, P. (1995). The role of music in the effective use of stress. In T. Wigram,B. Saperston, & R. West (Eds.), The art and science of music therapy: Ahandbook (pp. 406-432). Longshore, PA: Harwood Academic Press.

Hoyos, C. G. (1988). Mental load and risk in traffic behaviour. Ergonomics, 31,571-584.

Kroener, H. B.',Diergarten, D., Diergarten, D., & Seeger, S.R.(1988). Psycho-physiological reactivity of migraine sufferers in conditions of stress andrelaxation. Journal of PsychosomaticResearch, 32, 483-492.

Mackay, C. J., Cox, T., Burrows, C. G., & Lazzerini, A. 1. (1978). An inventoryfor the measurement of self-reported stress and arousal. British Journal ofSocial and Clinical Psychology, 17, 283-284.

Matthews, G., Dorn, L., & Glendon, A. I. (1991). Personalitycorrelates of driverstress. Personality and Individual Differences, 12,535-549.

McCaffery,M. (1990). Nursing approaches to nonpharmacologicalpain control.International Journal of Nursing Studies, 27, 1-5.

Mihal, w., & Barrett, G. (1976). Individual differences in perceptual informationprocessing and their relationship to automobile accident involvement. Jour-nal of Applied Psychology,61, 229-233.

Milgram, S. (1970). The experience of living in cities. Science, 167, 1461-1468.Novaco, R. w., Stokols, D., Campbell, J., & Stokols, J. (1979). Transportation,

stress, and communitypsychology.American Journal of Community Psychol-ogy, 7, 361-380.

Novaco, R. w., Stokols, D., & Milanesi, L. (1990). Objective and subjectivedimensions of travel impedance as determinants of commuting stress. Ameri-can Journal of CommunityPsychology, 18,231-257.

Ontario Ministry of Transportation.(1992). Provincial highways: Traffic volumes(Traffic Program Management Office). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: OntarioGovernment Printing Office.

Parente, A. B. (1989). Music as a therapeutic tool in treating anorexia nervosa. InL. M. Hornyak & E. K. Baker (Eds.), Experiential therapiesfor eating disor-ders (pp. 305-328). New York,NY: Guilford.

Roy, G. S., & Choudhary, R.K. (1985). Driver control as a factor in road safety.Asian Journal of Psychology and Education, 16, 33-37.

Selzer, M. L., & Vinokur, A. (1974). Life events, subjective stress. and trafficaccidents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131,903-906.

Shinar, D. (1978). Driver performance and individual differences in attentionand informationprocessing: Vol.I. Driver inattention (Tech.Report DOT HS8-801819).WashingtonDC: U.S. Departmentof Transportation,NationalHighway Traffic Safety Administration.

Stevens, K. (1990). Patients' perceptions of music during surgery. Journal ofAdvanced Nursing, 15, 1045-1050.

Stokols, D., Novaco, R. w., Stokols, J., & Campbell, J. (1978). Traffic conges-tion, Type A behavior, and stress. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 467-480,

Stratton, V. N. (1992). Influence of music and socializing on perceived stresswhile waiting. Perceptualand Motor Skills, 75, 334.

Stratton, V. N., & Zalanowski, A. H. (1984). The relationship between music,degree of liking, and self-reported relaxation. Journal of Music Therapy, 21,184-192.

Takeshi, H., & Nakamura, M. (1991).Can antistress music tapes reduce mentalstress? Stress Medicine, 7, 181-184.

Taylor,B.(1997,August25).Lifein theslowlane.TorontoStar,D1.Wildevanck, C., MaIder,G., & Michon, J. A. (1978). Mapping mental load in car

driving. Ergonomics, 21, 225-229. .Wostratzky, S., Braun, E., & Roth, N. (1988). The influence of distraction on

coping with stress in dentistry.Activitas Nervosa Superior, 30, 120-121.