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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 15th December 2016. Vol.47. No.1

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THE INFLUENCE OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS ON THE

TEACHING OF WRITING: THE USE OF MOBILE PHONES TO PERFORM

BRAINSTORMING: “SOFT BRAINSTORMING”

Mustafa Shentour

King Abdel Aziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the influence of new technological applications on the

teaching of writing, namely using mobile phones to perform the brainstorming task. The

researcher coins the phrase “soft brainstorming” as to oppose the “traditional” brainstorming.

It is hypothesized that using mobile phones to do this task is more effective and interesting than

traditional brainstorming. To test this, a group of twenty seven students, selected randomly, was

asked to write a paragraph about the meals in their country. All of them are foundation year

students. They had been familiarized with the concept of the paragraph and how to develop it.

First, they were asked to write a paragraph on the given topic (Meals in Saudi Arabia) according

to the instructions of the writing pack using traditional brainstorming. Then they were asked to

write on the same topic after soft brainstorming. The reason for choosing this topic is all

students involved in the study are familiar with it and it has been chosen by them from several

topics.

1. Introduction

Writing is one of the four skills that

everyone has to learn to master any

language. Writing and speaking are the two

productive skills. Unlike listening and

reading, the receptive skills, the productive

skills are more difficult to master. The

researcher argues that writing is generally

the hardest of the skills even for native

speakers of any language since it involves

many sub-skills. Teachers too encounter

great challenges to teach it. Writing is not

just putting pen to paper or writing down

ideas in note forms, but it is how these ideas

are presented or expressed effectively. In

this study, therefore, the researcher tries to

see how practitioners can exploit new

technological applications to develop this

skill in an interesting way.

1.1 Objectives

The objectives of this study are:

* to utilize new technologies to

develop writing skills and

eventually literacy,

* to overcome some of the

constraints which affect the

teaching of writing,

* and to avoid some boredom

associated with the process of

writing.

1.2 Questions of the study

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1.2.1 How can teachers

exploit new

technological

devices to develop

writings skill?

1.2.2 How can

practitioners avoid

the boredom and

writer’s block

associated with

writing skill?

1.3 Significance of the study

The study is expected to encourage

learners to utilize electronic devices,

mainly mobile phones to enhance

writing skill. It also hopes to make

writing skills more interesting by not

only giving them the topics they are

familiar with but involving them in

choosing it, as well.

2. Background

A group of twenty seven students

was asked to write a paragraph about the

meals in their country. They students had

been familiarized with the concept of the

paragraph and how to develop it. A model

paragraph on the topic was discussed in the

class. Then the students were put into a

WhatsApp group and asked to write about

the topic, Meals in my country. They were

given the topic inside the classroom and

most of them started writing in the

classroom. They were very hesitant at the

beginning, but soon they started writing

after consulting each other. Unlike in a

normal class, everyone was communicating

with someone using his phone. To my

surprise they did not stop during the break

and some of them did not even leave the

room, because they were enjoying

brainstorming via their mobile phones.

It was obvious they were struggling a

lot at the beginning. Most of them were

repeatedly writing, deleting, asking me, and

checking with each other. They started

answering questions one by one in one word

answers or phrases. Then gradually they

began to answer them in complete

sentences. There were many spelling and

punctuation mistakes. Then the misspelt

words were highlighted and students were

asked to correct their mistakes. First they

started with spelling; and after that they

moved to punctuation. They were also given

some hints regarding the choice of words by

the instructor highlighting the frequently

repeated words. For example, most of them

kept repeating the verb “eats” several times.

When the researcher asked them to replace it

with synonyms, they came up with “have”

and “take”. Another sign of progress they

made was when they were asked to change

the word “all” which a few of them used in

the first sentence. The researcher stressed its

inappropriateness by stressing the word “all”

in the phrase “all Saudis” they came up with

“some”, “many”, and “most” to replace it.

The quality of their writing was getting

better and better; and the feedback from the

researcher and their peers improved their

ability to self-correct, which is a major

breakthrough for language learners. The idea

will be clearer when one looks at the

procedures followed and progress, before

looking at the end product.

One of the most important factors of

learning writing is the learners’ familiarity

with the topic. So, the participants were





17

involved in choosing the topic by selecting

one from the following:

A: Your everyday routine, what you do

every day,

B: A member of your family,

C: Your best friend,

D: Meals in your country.

The majority chose the last topic. So, that

was the assigned topic.

The researcher started the topic by asking

the following questions as a lead-in:

1. How many meals do Saudis eat in a day?

2. When do they have (eat) these meals?

3. What do they have for each meal?

Then some of their different answers were

written on the board for each question. Next,

some key words expected to be needed were

pre-taught using the whiteboard, e.g.

breakfast, meal, and lunch.

3. Literature Review

3.1 Approaches to Teaching ESL/EFL

writing It is important within the scope of

this study to briefly describe the four main

approaches to teaching ESL/EFL writing.

These four approaches are product approach,

process approach, genre approach and post-

process approach.

3.1.1 Product Approach

The product approach highlights students'

finished written products. It focuses mainly

on linguistic knowledge, stressing the

appropriate use of vocabulary, syntax,

mechanics and cohesive devices. In this

approach learners are encouraged to produce

a text that is similar to a given model which

is presented, studied, and analysed at an

earlier stage and then followed to produce a

piece of writing. Zamel says “the final

product which reflects the writer's linguistic

knowledge is highly valued. In this

perspective the teacher plays a primary role

as an examiner” (1987, p. 697–715).

3.1.2 Process Approach

This approach considers writing as a

complex cognitive process which involves

many classroom activities such as

brainstorming, group discussions, drafting,

editing and rewriting. Zeng (2005) describes

it as “a complicated cognitive process”

which “involves multiple stages: prewriting,

drafting, revising and editing”. (p. 67)

Therefore, the most significant difference

between the product approach and the

process approach is that students do much

more writing in the process approach.

Unlike the product approach, the end

product is not the focus of the process

approach. What really matters is helping

students through the various stages of

composing and revising.

3.1.3 Genre Approach

The Routledge Encyclopaedia of

Language Teaching and Learning has

defined the genre approach as “a framework

for language instruction” (Byram, M., & Hu,

A., 2004, p. 234). Swales (1990) views

genre as “a class of communicative events,

the members of which share some set of

communicative purposes”. (p. 58) The genre

approach exposes students to models of the

target genre that they are studying which

helps them to understand and analyse its

structure and features. This approach is

based on “learning through guidance and

interaction”. Badger & White (2000)

summarise the genre-based approach

highlighting that it focuses on writing in





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terms of linguistic knowledge and a social

purpose. However, the development of

writing takes place by analysing and

imitating the texts that the teacher provides.

“The learning-teaching cycle in shown in:

modelling a text, joint construction of a text,

and independent construction of a text”

(Cope & Kalantzis, 1993; Dudley-Evans,

1997; Firkins et al., 2007 as cited in Ahmed,

2011, p. 51). “Genre proponents believe in

the dialogic nature of writing due to its

presupposition and response to an active

audience, and its involvement in many

voices through links to other texts”

(Bakhtin, 1986 as cited in Ahmed, 2011, p.

51). “Therefore, genre writing is embedded

in discourse community where writers, texts

and readers interact in a particular discursive

space” (Swales, 1998, as cited in Ahmed,

2011, p. 51).

3.1.4 Post-Process Approach

The post-process movement does not

represent a unified theoretical front, but it

might be defined as “the rejection of the

dominance of process at the expense of

other aspects of writing and writing

instruction” (Matsuda, 2003, p. 79-80). The

modelling process mentioned above helps

students to be self-confident in their skills,

motivated to write and critical of others’

writing. Badger & White (2000, p. 157-160)

developed an approach to teaching writing

informed by blending the three approaches:

product, process, and genre. They argue that

each of the three approaches complements

the other. Their approach views writing as a

series of stages derived from a certain

situation to produce a text. When learners

lack knowledge, the teacher, other learners,

and examples of the target genre can be used

as potential sources. The teacher’s role in

this approach provides the required

knowledge and skills to facilitate students’

progress. The concept of this approach sees

writing as “a complicated cognitive process”

and “involves multiple stages: prewriting,

drafting, revising and editing” (Zeng, 2005,

p. 67). One of the core principles of

National Writing Project says “There is no

single right approach to teaching writing;

however, some practices proved to be more

effective than others. The researcher also

believes that the approaches of writing

complement one another and usually go

together in teaching writing process.

3.2 Paragraph as the Backbone of

Writing

Writing can take different forms

from a word, phrase, or sentence to a

paragraph or essay. The researcher considers

the paragraph as the backbone of any piece

of writing. When a writer masters the

concept of paragraph - its elements and

characteristics, then he/she will be able to

handle any form of writing adequately. For

this reason, participants in this study were

asked to write a paragraph.

A paragraph is a sequence of

sentences that are put together by a writer in

a coherent way, namely they are all related

to one topic sentence. Any piece of writing

that consists of at least a few sentences

should be organized in a logical sequence.

This sequence makes it easier for the reader

to get the meaning; follow the flow of

information; see the organization of the

piece of writing and grasp its main points. A

paragraph may have examples, describe a

place or a character, relate a series of

different events in logical sequence,

compare, and / or contrast, classify, or give

causes and effects.

Irrespective of the kind of

information they contain, all paragraphs

share specific characteristics. One of the

most important of these is a topic sentence.





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A well-organized paragraph supports or

develops a single controlling idea, which is

expressed in a sentence called the topic

sentence. The topic sentence usually is the

first sentence of the paragraph; however,

this is not a rule. The topic sentence can be

the last sentence or sometimes it can be the

second sentence. A topic sentence has

several important purposes: it guides the

order of the supporting sentences; and it

advises the reader of the subject to be

examined and how the paragraph will be

handled. Experienced readers generally look

to the first few sentences in a paragraph to

get the subject and gist of the paragraph. For

this reason, it is better to put the topic

sentence at the very beginning of the

paragraph. In some cases, however, it’s

more useful to place another sentence before

the topic sentence, for example, a sentence

linking the current paragraph to the previous

one, or the one giving background

information.

3.3 Writing in Digital Age

As “digital writing” is one of the main focal

points of this study, the researcher deems it

important to shed some light on this

concept: “digital writing” and the phrase

associated with it, “digital age”. Digital age

is defined by Wikipedia (n.d.) as “a period

in human history characterized by the shift

from traditional industry that the industrial

revolution brought through industrialization,

to an economy based on information

computerization”.

It is, therefore, synonymous with Computer

Age, Information Age and New Media Age.

All these terms refer to the time in human

history when people started using

computers, networked computers and other

technological communication devices.

Digital writing is difficult to define, because

technologies change very fast as De Vass

(2010) states. Consider the definitions given

by some interviewees in her book Because

Digital Writing Matters. One of the

interviewees simply defines it as “any

writing that requires a computer to access

it”. Another labels it as “writing which, at

minimum, would be diminished if it were

presented in a non-digital format, and at

best, which is effectively untranslatable out

of the digital format” (p. 6).

With reference to the above, one can say

that digital writing is the ability to produce

and use texts digitally. Of course, it is not

simply a matter of learning about and

integrating new digital tools into an

unchanged collection of writing processes,

practices, skills, and habits of mind. Digital

writing is also about the dramatic changes in

the nature of writing and communication.

The researcher thinks the 2008 study of

Lenhart, Arafeh, Smith and Macgill (as cited

in DeVoss et al., 2010) who surveyed some

teenagers and parents gives the reader useful

idea about what digital writing is:

Writing today is not what

it was yesterday. New

technologies and new job

tasks have changed the

meaning of what it means

to write and write well.

Our educational

institutions know they

must review what

constitutes effective

instructional practice. to

ensure that writing

curricula and

instructional methods

that support writing





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excellence, incorporate

technology, and engage

and motivate students at

all ages. (p. 35)

David Crystal (2006) argues in his book,

Language and the Internet, that "netspeak"

(the language and characteristic mode of

speaking peculiar to the Internet and online

communication, especially acronyms and

shorthand) is a radically new linguistic

medium that we cannot ignore. As the

Internet has become incorporated into our

lives, it is becoming clearer how it is

shaping and adapting language.

Crystal also makes very interesting

statements during an interview with Channel

Four TV regarding the influence of texting

on the English language. Below are partial

transcripts of that interview. It is obvious

that spoken language is different from

written forms. So, the quotes from the

interviews in this study appear as they were

uttered. Therefore, there are a lot of

incomplete sentences, contractions and

informal language.

The language we use when

we’re blogging is not the

same as the language we use

when we’re instant

messaging. And so we could

go on through all these

different mediums and point

to new styles of English that

are emerging as a

consequence. The actual

language itself hasn’t

changed that much. It isn’t

the case that, as you look

through these different

technological manifestations

of English, you see new

grammar, for instance. We

don’t get new patterns of

grammar emerging, new

types of verb ending or

anything like that. Nor is

there that much new

vocabulary actually. I mean

a few hundred new words

have come into English as a

consequence of the internet

but that’s not very many

considering the more than a

million words that there are

in English. New

pronunciations – not really.

New punctuation- yes a bit.

The uh you do certainly get

new features of punctuation

arriving on the internet -

emoticons for example

being used in clever ways.

People using punctuation in

an exaggerated form that

they never used to do before

simply because you can

hold the key down. People

can say ‘fantastic’

exclamation mark

exclamation mark

exclamation mark

exclamation mark and it can

go on and on and on and on

for as long as you like. So

there are a few novelty

features like that but on the

whole you look at a screen

and what you see on the

screen is the same kind of

English language that you

saw before the internet

came into existence. Except

now there are these new

styles to exploit. The





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language has become

expressively richer as a

result of the internet.

4. Methodology

4.1 Subject

All students in this study are Foundation

Year Students at King Abdel Aziz

University. Students are grouped into

sections according to their performance in

the proficiency placement test which has

been developed by Oxford University Press

(OUP). The test in use for placement is the

Oxford Online Placement Test (OOPT).

The average number in each class is 25 to

30. The four-level intensive English

language course is an integrated-skills

programme and content-based, ranging from

false beginner to intermediate on the CEFR

scale. The participants in this study are in

level two according to CERR scale. As per

the learning outcomes in writing skill

students are supposed to be able to develop a

paragraph. There were 27 students in this

section aged between18-20.

4.2 Procedures

The study took place in the second quarter

of the first semester in 2014. The researcher

implemented the following procedures to

administer students’ work:

1. The group involved in the study was

selected randomly. The policy of Eli is to

assign teachers to sections randomly.

2. The students were asked to write a

paragraph on a given topic (Meals in Saudi

Arabia) after they had covered the writing

syllabus which helps them to write a

paragraph. The reason for choosing this

topic is all students involved in the study

were familiar with it.

3. The researcher followed the procedure

given to the writing pack to introduce the

topic.

4. Students were supposed to submit the first

draft the next day, but only 6 out of 27

managed to do so.

5. By the end of the deadline only 11

submitted the first, second and final. The

rest managed to submit only the final draft

on the last day.

6. The researcher then gave the learners the

same topic, but he introduced it differently

this time using soft brainstorming = online

brainstorming (students discuss a topic

online using mobiles on Whatsapp.) Then 25

students started to interact immediately, but

with difficulty; some of them with single

words or phrases.

7. While interacting they were writing and

receiving feedback from both the teacher

and peers.

8. When they finished the first draft online,

the researcher asked them to submit the final

draft as a handwritten hard copy.

9. Finally the researcher analyzed the hard

copies.

5. Data Analysis

The analysis in this study is based on

the rubric used for writing assessments at

this university, namely content, register,

accuracy, conventions and organisation.





22

Analysis of writing samples helps teachers

to have a complete picture of a student's

writing performance across different text

structures and genres. It also helps in

identifying strengths and weaknesses,

planning activities, evaluating teaching

activities, giving feedback, observing

performance, and reporting improvement.

So, in this study analysis of students’ work

will be handled in two ways. The first

section discusses a summary of the general

points usually used to give feedback on any

piece of writing such as content,

communicative achievement, organization

and language. The second section analyzes

these features in details.

5.1 Content

Content focuses on how well

candidates have fulfilled the task. In other

words, it measures if they have done what

they were asked to do. Content includes

elements such as cohesion and creativity.

With regard to composition, teachers and/or

assessors generally look for a clear

beginning and a logical ending. Is there a

logical order of sentences, ideas or events?

Cohesion answers the questions related to

the topic and gives clear reference when

using demonstratives such as this and that.

Taking these points into consideration, the

researcher has found out that: 40 per cent of

the surveyed students managed to fulfill the

task adequately. This is not surprising,

because the content issue is generally the

major problem when they practise writing

skill. Students are familiar with this topic,

“Meals in your country”, but when it was

introduced for the first time using traditional

brainstorming, only a few students

responded. However, when the same topic

was introduced using soft brainstorming, as

in the teaching event above, twenty-six out

of twenty-seven started writing immediately.

All the participants managed to stick to the

topic and all the sentences are linked to the

topic. Generally students force many

irrelevant sentences when writing on any

topic. The main reasons behind this, besides

unfamiliarity with the topic, are the guided

questions and the soft brainstorming. 56% of

the participants managed to use simple

discourse markers, such as first, second,

third and last. The content of only 12% of

those who have been surveyed is below their

level. That is – the content is mostly

irrelevant with digression from the main

topic and information and ideas are not

organised in clear progression. This is clear

progress which can be attributed to the

online discussion of the group or, in other

words, the soft braining storming.

5.2 Register

Register focuses on how appropriate

the writing is for the task and whether the

candidate used the appropriate formality and

style. Because of the nature of the topic,

students had no difficulty with register.

Eighty-eight percent of student participants

used language with appropriate style and

level of formality. Usually learners at this

level find it hard to use the right register, but

most of the students managed to achieve the

appropriate register, because the task is

simple, clear and well-guided.

5.3 Accuracy

Accuracy focuses on the use of

appropriate vocabulary and correct

grammar. So, it includes the range of

vocabulary and accurate use of grammatical

structures within the learners’ overall level

of English. 88 percent of the participants in

this study managed to write the 40-word

paragraph with few expected grammatical

mistakes. The common mistakes were word

order, subject-verb agreement and using

wrong words. Altogether there were 51





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mistakes related to grammar or vocabulary.

However, there were 84 spelling mistakes.

The reason for highlighting this point is to

draw the reader’s attention to the fact that

most of the mistakes the learners committed

are spelling mistakes; and these mistakes,

although they negatively impact the overall

impression of writing, do not affect the

content very much.

5.4 Conventions

Assessors, as we know, are more

influenced by what we can call the outer

shell of composition; namely length,

spelling, words choice and handwriting than

the content and organization. Therefore,

writers must follow standard rules of writing

such as correct spelling, capitalization,

punctuation and legible handwriting. If a

piece of writing is illegible, it does not

achieve its communicative goal. If the end

product is not presentable or legible, it gives

a negative impression of the composition

and/or the writer. To have a fair analysis of

conventions one has to consider areas of

strength in comparison to weaknesses. The

researcher gives conventions more attention

because it is the most crucial part that affects

any piece of writing negatively or positively.

The following table shows the analysis of

elements of convention.

Punctuation

Very poor = 90% of punctuation is incorrect

Poor = 75% of punctuation is incorrect

Adequate = 50% of punctuation is incorrect

Good = 75% of punctuation is correct

Very good = 90% of punctuation is correct

Capitalization

Very poor = 90% of capitalisation is incorrect

Poor = 75% of capitalisation is incorrect

Adequate = 50% of capitalisation is incorrect

Good = 75% of capitalisation is correct

Very good = 90% of capitalisation is correct

Handwriting

Very poor = 90% of words cannot be read

Poor = 75% of words cannot be read

Adequate = 50% of words cannot be read

Good = 75% of words can be read

Very good = 90% of words can be read

Student Spelling Punctuation Capitalisation Handwriting

1 2 good good poor

2 5 good good adequate

3 6 poor poor adequate

4 4 very bad very poor poor

5 4 bad poor poor





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6 17 + 2 missing poor poor very poor

7 2 poor poor adequate

8 1+4 missing

words good good adequate

9 4 very poor poor adequate

10 3 very poor very poor poor e.g. letter (g)

11 2 very poor very poor adequate

12 2+3 missing

words poor good adequate

13 4 very poor good adequate


15 3 good good very poor e.g. letters

r, v ,h and n

16 1 missing words poor poor adequate


18 6+ 1 missing very poor good poor

19 2+ 1 missing good good poor

20 2 poor poor poor

21 2 poor good poor

22 3 very poor poor adequate

23 1 missing poor good poor

24 7 poor good adequate

25 2 poor good very poor

Total 84 11 poor, 7 good,

7 very poor

14 good, 8 poor,3

very poor

13 adequate, 9 poor,

very poor 3

Student Mistakes Analysis Table

The data in the preceding table illustrates

that conventions, especially spelling, are

problematic in writing. Spelling causes a big

problem for the participants. As shown in

the table, everyone wrote at least one

spelling mistake. Student 6, in fact,

committed seventeen spelling mistakes plus

two missing words. The percentage of

spelling mistakes is high compared to the

average number of words in the

composition, 35 words. Students averaged

3.36 misspelt words per 35 word-paragraph,

or almost 10% of words. Most of these are

very frequent words such as between,

people, coffee, time, lunch, chicken, third,

o’clock, after, usually, cheese, night, always,

and bread. Referring to Cambridge Learner

Corpus (CLC), (CLC is the electronic

collection of exam candidate writing papers

from IELS and the Cambridge English

Exam), it is found that most of these words

cause problems for Arabic-speaking

learners. It is also known that there are no

similarities between the English and Arabic

writing systems. Arabic writing system is

simple and almost phonetic. Arabic speaking

people tend, therefore, to pronounce and

write English words phonetically. The

analysis also highlights that there is a big





25

difference between soft copies and

handwritten versions, especially in spelling

6. Conclusion

“Soft brainstorming” paves the way

for the learners and helps them produce

meaningful compositions, irrespective of its

quality. However, when the same topic was

introduced in a traditional way, only a few

of them manage to produce something.

In recent years, the increase in

electronic written communication has

resulted in the development of registers

associated with these modes of

communication. Some people feel that this

is not ‘correct’ language and believe it

should not be focused on during lessons.

However, others believe that written

electronic communication (or ‘e-

communication’) has its own conventions

and learners need to be aware of these in

order to survive in a digital world.

Writing in English can be quite

challenging for many learners. Some feel

unsure of how to organise their writing

because in their first language, texts have a

different structure. Others feel that writing is

frustrating because they don’t always

receive a response to what they write as they

usually do when they speak.

Teachers have to make sure that

writing gets ample time and learners know

exactly what they have to do. It is always

important, if possible, to involve the learners

in choosing what they are supposed to write

about or at least they have to be familiar

with it. Teachers should also give them

enough help to make them feel confident

before they start.

The burning issue in this study is

how to utilize new technological

applications to develop language teaching

despite many erroneous beliefs that

technology has an undesirable impact on

language. This study proves that new

technological applications are workable and

effective.

The big difference between

students’ handwritten work and soft copies

of their work during brain storming is a clear

indication that new technological

applications have negative impact on

spelling and handwriting. This can be

noticed in the big number of the misspelt

words and in their handwritten versions

which is, in some cases, illegible. The other

problem which is associated with

handwriting problem is time factor. It took

most of the learners a lot of time to write

with their hands.

7. Recommendations:

1. Technology can be used to enhance

reading and writing illiteracy as well as

digital literacy.

2. The digital generation, being

knowledgeable in technological applications

and multi-takers can be used to make

dramatic changes in the teaching of writing

skills.

3. Despite the current negative image of

new technology in the eyes of some

educators, I optimistically envisage a bright

future due to some applications. This is

based on my confidence in dedicated

teachers, especially those who are still

tenaciously retentive of their ethics and at

the same time ready to update themselves in

the field of new technology.





26

4. It is evident that spelling is the biggest

problem when learners write or chat online,

because they depend on electronic

dictionary on their devices. Teacher,

therefore should always ask their learners to

submit handwritten copies.

5. A teacher can be as good as he/she wants

to be. I know many teachers and educators

who work in poor educational environments,

with limited and out of dates digital devices,

but if they have the determination, the

dedication and competitive drive, they can

make changes and catch up with affluent

and developed nations if they exploit

electronic devices effectively.

Bibliography

1. Ahmed, A. H. M. A. H. (2010).

Students’ problems with cohesion

and coherence in EFL essay writing:

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