The Influence of Norse Mythology on the United Kingdom ... · PDF fileThe Influence of Norse Mythology on the United Kingdom, ... The Influence of Norse Mythology on the ... Although

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The Influence of Norse Mythology on the United Kingdom, using

the example of J.R.R. Tolkien’s works

Freiherr-vom-Stein-Schule

Fach: Englisch

Fachlehrer: Frau Becker

Verfasser: Vera Mertens

Kaufungen, den 27.04.2011

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The Influence of Norse Mythology on the United Kingdom,

using the example of J.R.R. Tolkien’s works

1. Preface p. 3

2. J.R.R. Tolkien and the Norse Mythology p. 4

3. Comparing J.R.R. Tolkien’s Middle-earth to the Mythology p. 5

3.1 Runes p. 5

3.2 Names p. 8

3.3 Gandalf the Pilgrim and Odin the Wanderer p. 10

3.4 Norse Gods in Valinor p. 12

3.5 Of Túrin Turambar, Sigurd Fáfnisbani and other epics p. 16

4. “The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún” p. 20

5. Epilogue p. 23

6. List of References p. 24

7. Appendix p. 28

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1. Preface

As I have been interested in Norse Mythology and the works of J.R.R. Tolkien for a

very long time, I decided to write my Jahresarbeit about this topic. The Norse Myths are

very complex and provide many possibilities for interpretation. When the Vikings came

to Great Britain, they brought their traditions and beliefs with them, and even though

the Christianisation erased many Norse beliefs and covered Norse sagas with Christian

virtues, the magic of the Norse era is still there in the United Kingdom and can be found

by those who watch closely. J.R.R. Tolkien, as “a wandering explorer […] in the land

full of wonder”1 saw this magic and, by using the old sagas as an inspiration and

including parts of them in his extensive works, passes it on to those who read his texts.

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2. J.R.R. Tolkien and the Norse

Mythology

J.R.R. Tolkien, a famous author, philologist and

professor best known for his masterpiece “The Lord of

the Rings” (first published in 1954-55), resurrected the

Norse myths in his intention to create an English

mythology on the basis of Scandinavian and Germanic

stories2. Tolkien wanted to show the noble Norse spirit

in its true nature.3 Considering his works as a revival of

old sagas of the Norse, one finds many analogies to

them, especially in the posthumously published books

“The Silmarillion” (1977), which tells about Middle-earth’s history beginning with the

Creation, and, being a new lay of the Niflungs and Völsungs, “The Legend of Sigurd

and Gudrún” (2009). “The Lord of the Rings” contains some influences of the Norse

mythology too.

Two lines of an old poem from the 8th century were the source of all Middle-earth and

its history. Tolkien himself said that these two lines were full of a strange distance and

beauty, and they woke up something within him.4

“Eala Earendel engla beorthtast/ ofer middangard monnum sended”

“Hail Earendel, brightest of angels/ above the middle-earth sent unto men”5

Relating to the fantastical of Norse mythology, J.R.R. Tolkien declared that only few

who have been reading old Norse poems of the Edda “can have missed the sudden

recognition that they had unawares met something of tremendous force, something that

in parts (for it has various parts) is still endowed with an almost demonic energy […].

The feeling of this impact is one of the greatest gifts that reading of the Elder Edda

gives. […]; once felt it can never be buried by mountains or molehills of research, and

Fig. 2: Professor J.R.R. Tolk ien

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sustains long and weary labour.”6 According to this statement, Tolkien found Norse

mythology very fascinating and he was fond of it.

3. Comparing J.R.R. Tolkien’s Middle-earth to the Mythology

3.1 Runes

In Norse mythology, runes appear as signs of wisdom, skaldic poetry and magic. The

Edda tells that Odin sacrificed himself to himself by hanging for nine nights in the

world tree Yggdrasil to achieve the knowledge of runes and their meanings. Finally

knowing the runes and their magical power, Odin sings about their attributes, such as

healing, bringing victory, mediating and, above all, the ability to bring life back to the

dead.7 “Egil Saga”, a saga telling the story of the skald Egil Skallagrimsson, refers to

the healing power of runes: Egil finds a girl who has fallen ill by the misuse of runes

and by using the right runes to correct the mistake he heals her with their magic.8

Nowadays runes are used by the believers of Ásatrú, the Germanic paganism, for

writing, magical rites and divination. Some people wear runes that are of great

importance to them as jewellery and amulets.

Historically, runes were the Vikings’ script, but supposedly they were also used for

magic. The first runic alphabet had had 16 letters and was called Futhark, for its first six

letters were f, u, th, a, r and k. It was used throughout Scandinavia and by many of the

other Germanic peoples. Having been developed for cutting in wood, stone, metal and

bone and not for writing in ink, the letters do only have straight lines and no curves.

Discovered rune-stones are mostly memorials or parts of graves, but there are also

stones and other items inscribed with charms. Old runic inscriptions are hard to read; as

there were not many runes, the Vikings used some of them for more than one letter. For

example, there was no letter for p, so they used b instead.9 During the Migration Period

the languages changed and so did the runes: People developed more alphabets and runes

were added to express new sounds.10

J.R.R. Tolkien, as a lover of languages, etymology and the changes of sounds, found

that language and mythology could not be parted, for every language needs a history,

lands and inhabitants. As Tolkien had always invented languages, he created a world, a

history and a mythology for his languages and, for his peoples, a script for its use.11

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Because of being similar to the Futhark, Tolkien’s Angerthas alphabet might have been

inspired by the old Norse script. The Angerthas developed from an elder runic alphabet

called Cirth, which was conceived to express sounds of the Sindarin, the language used

by the elves in Middle-earth. According to Tolkien, the Cirth contained 20 runes in the

beginning and was later expanded, when new runes were added to express sounds that

were not yet included in the existing alphabet.12

There were several types of Germanic runes; shown here is the Elder Futhark

containing 24 letters, being one of the first Viking alphabets created in the second

century13. The runes can be split up in three so-called ættir of eight letters each. The

Angerthas is one of two of Tolkien’s alphabets. Comparing them, one sees that they

have many runes in common, even if they might not have the same meaning.

Fig. 3: The Elder Futhark Fig. 4: The Angerthas

All of the runes of the Futhark find an equivalent in the Angerthas except for three of

them (no. 12, 16 and 22). Though one quarter of the runes is similar to the Tolkien’s, it

is not exactly the same; the rest of the runes are identical. Even the history of the

alphabet seems to be similar; both of them had had fewer letters in the beginning and

new ones have been added when necessary. Tolkien wrote about his alphabet that the

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dwarves of Moria changed the meaning of some letters and also added new ones, and so

did the dwarves of Erebor14. Both the Norse alphabet and the Tolkien alphabet changed

and evolved new scripts fitting the evolution of language.

It is remarkable that Tolkien indeed used the same runes as the Vikings did, but entirely

changed their meanings. In fact, there is only one pair of runes that has the same

character in the Roman alphabet: Futhark rune 11 and Angerthas rune 39.

Futhark rune no. 11 Angerthas rune no. 39

Roman: i Roman: i (y)

Two other pairs of runes appear to have related meanings. No. 23 and its equivalent

both represent a vowel and the other pair has the sound of d in both runes.

Futhark rune no. 23 Angerthas rune no. 42

Roman: o Roman: u

Futhark rune no. 24 Angerthas rune no. 38 (I)

Roman: d Roman: nd

Although Tolkien copied Viking runes and even made up a similar history of the script,

he did not adopt it the way it was. Tolkien did not adopt any mythological attributes of

the runes; in his world runes have no magical power, people solely used them for

writing. Obviously, Tolkien did not want to copy the old way of writing for his

inventions, but intended to renew it as a part of a completely new world, giving the

runes to new peoples in unknown lands.

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3.2 Names

Some names that appear in “The Lord of the Rings” and “The Hobbit” are taken from

the Völuspá, the Wise Woman’s prophecy, the very first song of the Elder Edda. Mainly

they turn up in “The Hobbit” as the names of the dwarves accompanying Bilbo and

Gandalf on their journey to the Lonely Mountain. The dwarves are, ordered as Bilbo

meets them for the first time, Dwalin, Balin, Kili, Fili, Dori, Nori, Ori, Oin, Gloin,

Bifur, Bofur, Bombur and Thorin.15 These are the stanzas of the Edda, containing some

dwarves’ names:

11 Nyi and Nithi, Northri and Surthri, 12 Vigg and Gandalf, Vindalf, Thrain,

Austhri and Westhri, Althjof, Dwalin, Thekk and Thorin, Thror, Vit and Lit,

Bifur, Bafur, Bombur, Nori, Nyr and Nyrath,-- now have I told--

An and Onar, Ai, Mjothvitnir. Regin and Rathsvith-- the list alright.

13 Fili, Kili, Fundin, Nali, 15 There were Draupnir, and Dolgthrasir,

Heptifili, Hannar, Sviur, Hor, Haugspori, Hlevang, Gloin,

Frar, Hornbori, Fræg and Loni, Dori, Ori, Duf, Andvari,

Aurvang, Jari, Eikinskjaldi. Sirfir, Virfir, Skafith, Ai.16

The names appearing in “The Hobbit” are cursive. Eleven of thirteen dwarves’ names

are mentioned in the Edda, Balin and Oin are the only ones missing.

Another dwarf’s name adopted by Tolkien is “Durin”. He does not appear in “The

Hobbit” though, but he can be found in “The Silmarillion”, being one of the Seven

Fathers of the dwarves and the mightiest and eldest of them. The dwarves think that the

Seven Fathers will reincarnate among their own families again and again.17 In the Edda,

Durin in mentioned as the second of all dwarves and he could be the sovereign of the

peoples living in stones.18 Tolkien did not just adopt the name, he adopted parts of the

character, too. His Durin is the lord of mines of Moria, while the Norse Durin also

reigns over peoples living in stones; both Durins are one of the firsts of their kin.

It is noticeable that even the name “Gandalf” is taken from the Edda. According to

Tolkien, Gandalf and other names he used are mere replacements to express them in

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English. In fact, Tolkien used that name because it seems to include “gandr”, which is

Norse for a staff, in particular a wand. Supposing that Gandalf’s name includes this

word, it could mean “elvish creature with a wand”.19

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3.3 Odin the Wanderer and Gandalf the Pilgrim

Odin is the major god of the Norse mythology; he is the eldest of the Æsir and their

principal. He is the god of wisdom, war, death, magic, runes and poetry and his

characteristics, names and deeds are complex.20 Odin’s attributes are a spear, his hat and

cloak, the ring Draupnir and his being one-eyed. He is accompanied by two ravens

called Hugin and Munin, meaning thought and memory, who explore the nine words

every morning to bring tidings to their master; his horse Sleipnir is eight- legged and

runs faster than all horses. As a death deity, Odin affects the fate of warriors, for he can

bring victory to some but defines their date of death thereby. He assembles the strongest

and most valiant warriors in Valhalla, where they await Ragnarök to fight for the gods.

As a wanderer, Odin sometimes appears as an old grey-bearded man in a blue cloak and

with a wide-brimmed slouch hat and a staff (or spear). Looking for knowledge of the

past and the future, Odin wandered in the nine worlds and soon became the wisest of the

Æsir.21

Gandalf is perhaps the best known wizard in fantasy literature. He appears in “The

Hobbit”, “The Lord of the Rings”, “The Silmarillion” and other collections of earlier

versions of Tolkien’s stories. He is one of the five Istari, wizards who came from the

Undying Lands as envoys to help fighting against Sauron in Middle-earth. As they were

prohibited to use any kind of violence, they appear in human form, having never been

young and growing old slowly. Gandalf is one of the heads of the Istari; being the most

reliable of them he was entrusted with Narya, one of the Three Rings of the Elves, for

giving aid to the fulfilment of his hard mission. He leads and organises the offence and

defence during the War of the Ring.22 Gandalf’s attributes are his hat and cloak, his staff

and the ring Narya. He is a friend of most of the peoples of Middle-earth and he has

many names in different languages. From the king of Rohan he got the horse

Shadowfax, which runs faster than all horses in Middle-earth. Actually, Gandalf’s

outward appearance gives the impression of a weak man, but he is more powerful than it

seems.

Odin, portrayed as an old and robed wanderer, figures in a description of Gandalf in

“The Hobbit”, where he is described as a man with a staff, a tall blue hat, a long grey

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cloak and beard, looking like a small and old man.23 A picture of Gandalf in the film

“The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring” shows a remarkable similarity to

the 1886 drawing “Odin, the Wanderer” by Georg von Rosen. Both Odin and Gandalf

have a long grey beard, wear a hat and a cloak and they carry a staff (or a spear).

Fig. 5: Odin the Wanderer Fig. 6: Gandalf the Pilgrim

Not only their outward appearance is similar, but Odin and Gandalf do also have

resembling characteristics and attributes. For instance both of them are roamers; Odin is

sometimes mentioned as an exploring wanderer, Gandalf is called Mithrandir, which

means Grey Pilgrim, for he has never stayed at one place for long. Additionally, both

Odin and Gandalf are concerned with war matters, for Odin is a deity of war and

Gandalf an envoy to aid the free peoples of Middle-earth in the War of the Ring. Odin

chooses those he wants to win in battle, so one might say he brings esperance to the

fighters. Gandalf, too, symbolises hope for his allies. During the siege of Helm’s Deep,

for example, he gathered Rohan’s men on foot and the Huorns, living trees, and

surrounded the attacking Uruk-hai so that Rohan’s people won. One similar attribute of

Odin and Gandalf is the ring Draupnir compared to the ring Narya. Draupnir, Odin’s

ring, has the ability to produce eight similar rings every nine days. Coming back from

the realm of Hel after Odin gave the ring to his dead son Baldur, the ring symbolises

hope for the return of fertility and peace after Ragnarök.24 Narya, being one of the rings

of the Elves, brings hope and peace too, as well as power for those who bear it and

splendour and luck for the things the bearers create. One other notable similarity is

Odin’s and Gandalf’s horses. Both of them are the princes of their races and the fastest

and most persistent horses existing.

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Both Odin and Gandalf are mighty figures and well-regarded by their peoples and

adherents. With Gandalf showing similar characteristics and attributes compared to

Odin, J.R.R. Tolkien created a powerful wizard for the aid of Middle earth’s peoples.

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Fig. 7: “The Fairy Coast”, a drawing of Valinor, by

J.R.R. Tolk ien

3.4 Norse Gods in Valinor

In “The Silmarillion” Tolkien tells the history of his world Arda. It was created by the

Ainur (also called Valar), the Holy Ones, who originated the world by singing and later

lived in it for preparing it for the Elves’ arrival. They live in the Undying Lands, in

Valinor, where no mortal being

is admitted. During the first and

second age they sometimes

intervened in happenings in

Middle-earth to bring peace in

some degree.25 They are no

gods, for Ilúvatar, the Creator

of the Ainur, is the only god in

J.R.R. Tolkien’s mythology, but

in the following part they will

be mentioned as ‘gods’ where

confusion with the Norse deities

is impossible.

Comparing Tolkien’s Ainur to the Norse Gods, one finds many analogies to them.

J.R.R. Tolkien created many gods having one principal, Manwe; the Norse Gods are led

by Odin. Odin and Manwe are similar as well as the evil gods Loki and Melkor. There

are also remarkable parallels between other major and minor gods of both mythologies.

Manwe, being the master of the Valar, figures in the principal of the Norse gods: Odin.

In the mind of the One God in Tolkien’s mythology, Manwe is the brother of evil

Melkor, yet Melkor is not counted as one of the Valar anymore because of his evil

deeds. Loving all winds and clouds, Manwe is the lord of the air and of all beings living

in there. He loves birds, especially eagles, for they are his ambassadors. Manwe is

married to the mistress of the Valar, Varda. They live on the top of the highest

mountain, Tanequitil; and being there together, Manwe can overview the world and he

sees all.26 Compared to Odin, Manwe is quite similar to him. Both of them are the heads

of their kin and the brothers of the vicious gods Melkor and Loki. Whereas Manwe is

married to Varda, the mistress of the Ainur, Odin is married to Frigga, who is the

greatest goddess. Both Manwe and Odin live on the highest of mountains, Tanequitil

and Hlidskjálf. Sitting there, they can see all that happens in the world. Additionally, the

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two of them have birds bringing tidings to them, for Manwe is the lord of the eagles and

Odin’s companions are the ravens Hugin and Munin.

The greatest lady of the Ainur is Varda, wife of Manwe. She is described as very pretty

and the Elves love and honour her more than any other of the Valar. Varda, having

kindled the stars, is the goddess of light. As the Elves saw her stars when they first

awoke, they sing songs for her at night and call on her from Middle-earth when they are

in need.27

The Norse Frigga, sometimes mistaken with Freyja, is the major goddess of the Æsir

and wife of Odin. She is portrayed as a guardian of life and wisdom and as the Mother

of Earth. With Odin, Frigga lives on the mountain Hlidskjálf, whence they can watch

the world.28 Comparing Frigga to Varda, one sees that they have a few characteristics in

common: Both Varda and Frigga are the major goddesses of their kin and are married to

the head of the gods. Furthermore the two of them are worshipped by a certain group of

people: The Elves honour Varda and Frigga was the patroness of the Lombards.

The evil and malicious person in Tolkien’s mythology is Melkor, who is the first

dictator and predecessor of Sauron. Being Manwe’s brother in the mind of the One God

Ilúvatar, Melkor is as strong and wise as Manwe but spoiled his skills and powers for

evil purposes like tyranny, violence and destruction. Melkor destroys and despises all

which is not his own work. Being devious and full of guile, Melkor manages fighting

the Valar and the people living in Beleriand many times and reigning over most areas of

the world.29 His equivalent in Norse mythology is the fire god Loki, who is the most

negative being of this mythology. He is tricky, sly, cunning and shrewd. He is both

deceiving but, on the other hand, helpful as well, for he helps the gods in many matters

but is also their most powerful enemy. Although being blood-brother of Odin, Loki is

not counted as one of the Æsir anymore. He is a deity of fire and, as a foe of the gods,

causes them much trouble. For instance, Loki is responsible for the fair god Baldur’s

death because of lies and guile. After finally managing to capture him, the Æsir fetter

him and banish him into the underworld; yet Loki is partly responsible for Ragnarök,

freeing himself to fight the gods and having begotten the Fenris wolf, the Midgard

worm and Hel, who arise to bring the end of the Æsir.30 Both Melkor and Loki are the

originators of fights, decay and malice in their worlds. They are tricky and guileful;

Melkor is a foe of the Ainur and Loki is one of the enemies of the Æsir. Having caused

much damage to happen, Melkor was banished into the outer world, whereas Loki was

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fettled in the underworld. One other similarity is the repudiation of both gods. Despite

their being brothers of the heads of the gods, both Melkor and Loki were expelled from

their kin because of their evil deeds.

Yavanna is the second most powerful of the Valier (that being the female Valar). She is

the wife of Aule, who created the dwarves. Yavanna, having created all trees and

flowers in the world, is called “Giver of Fruit” and “Queen of the Earth”31. Where

Yavanna is, all would flourish and grow. Loving plants, Yavanna often appears dressed

in green or shaped as a tree.32 The Norse goddess having approximately similar

characteristics as Yavanna is Idun. She is the lovely goddess of everlasting youth.

Moreover, she owns the fruits of life, which are apples. The Æsir rely on her, for if they

do not eat Idun’s apples, they will age.33 Yavanna and Idun are alike in the matter of

keeping life and youth; whereas Yavanna is in charge of the life of the fauna, Idun is

responsible for the Æsir’s life. Both of them are portrayed as goddesses of lasting

existence.

There are two strong and mighty Ainur as well as two Norse gods fitting in their

description. As they are much alike, they will be compared all together.

Tolkien invented Tulkas and Orome, two powerful Valar fighting against evil actions.

Tulkas, being very brave, is the god of exploit and strength. He came to the Earth to

help fighting Melkor. Tulkas is described as a tall man with red-gold hair and a beard.

Orome is a Valar of great power and strength too. Being forceful and furious, Orome is

the hunter of all evil creatures and beasts and of Melkor himself.34 The Norse gods

matching them are Thor and Tyr. Thor is the god of thunder and of war. Being one of

the most powerful of the Æsir, he is the main defender of the gods and mortal beings;

therefore he was the most honoured god of the Germanic people. Thor appears as a very

tall man having a red beard and red hair. His attributes are the hammer Mjöllnir, a belt

of power, an iron glove and the staff Gridarvölr. Tyr, a brave, courageous and strong

god, is a deity of war too. He lost one arm by putting it into the maw of the Fenris wolf

at the determination to fettle him, as no one else dared to do so. Tyr is much honoured

for his bravery and combativeness.35 Comparing the four gods, one sees that they are

similar to each other. Tolkien’s Tulkas and Orome are as strong and powerful as Norse

Thor and Tyr. Being brave, courageous and combative, Tulkas and Tyr are much alike.

Furthermore, both the Valar and the Norse deities are the strongest of their race, with

Tulkas being the strongest of the Valar and Thor being the strongest of the Norse gods.

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Additionally, Tulkas and Thor have notably similarities regarding their outward

appearance. As for Orome, he has the same characteristics as Thor, for both of them are

mighty and furious and great warriors.

After considering the Valar and the Norse gods, it transpires that Tolkien might have

had the Norse deities in mind when creating the Ainur. With major and minor gods

matching with each other in both mythologies, another trace of Norse mythology is

found in Tolkien’s world.

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3.5 Of Túrin Turambar, Sigurd Fáfnisbani and other epics

In J.R.R. Tolkien’s hero Túrin Turambar, the existence of sun and moon and the

wielding of individual weapons traces of Norse mythology can be found.

In J.R.R. Tolkien’s universe the Narn i Chîn Húrin, the ‘Tale of the Children of Húrin’,

is perhaps the most tragic story of all. This story, telling the dramatic life and fate of

Túrin Turambar, might be inspired by the narratives of Sigurd and Beowulf, for there

are some similarities among the tales.

Túrin is the son of the hero Húrin, whose family was

cursed by Morgoth because of Húrin’s being

steadfast for too long. As a child, Túrin was sent to

Doriath, a realm of the Elves, when his father did

not come back from battle. There, Túrin lives

happily until the ambassadors, who bring tidings of

his mother and sister, do not return, which makes

him suspect misery and war. Therefore he sets out

with his friend Beleg, but being unsuccessful, they

return home. Soon afterwards, Túrin flees Doriath,

for he is responsible for an Elf’s death. Beleg

follows him later to make him return, but they part

their ways again. Finding Túrin at a dwarf’s

dwelling on a later trip, Beleg joins him and his followers. After being betrayed by the

dwarf, Túrin is captured by orcs; Beleg persuades

them hoping to find his friend. He meets Gwindor,

an Elf of Nargothrond, and together they attempt to free Túrin, who, believing that

Beleg is an orc, kills him. Túrin, grieved deeply, travels on with Gwindor to

Nargothrond. There he becomes a mighty and strong man and when war befalls them,

he is courageous and one of the army’s leaders. Nonetheless they could not withstand,

for Morgoth has sent Glaurung, a powerful dragon, and almost everyone was killed

during the siege of Nargothrond. Túrin, succumbing to the dragon’s spell, flees and

Glaurung destroys the city. Believing his mother and sister enslaved, Túrin is hopeless

and joins a group of men and becomes their principal. One day he finds a young woman

who does not remember anything because of being accursed by Glaurung. Without

Fig. 8: Turin Túrambar, by Alan Lee

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knowing that she is his sister, he takes her with him and names her Níniel; they marry

later on. When Túrin declaims against Glaurung and kills him, the curse on Níniel

dissolves and she remembers everything. Totally distraught, she drowns herself. Túrin,

discovering that the bane upon his house has come true in very many ways, commits

suicide by stabbing himself.36

As mentioned before, the Norse sagas resembling the tale of Túrin are the Edda poem of

Sigurd, the Völsunga saga and the epic of Beowulf. Concerning the parallel between

Túrin in Tolkien’s universe and Norse saga of Sigurd, Tolkien’s son stated that “an

association with his own [J.R.R. Tolkien’s] mythology seems […] extremely

probable”37. Sigurd and Túrin are indeed alike regarding the bad fate and history of both

men. Although Sigurd’s house is cursed because of the acts of violence concerning

Andvari’s gold and Húrin’s linage (that including Túrin and his sister) is cursed because

of Húrin’s withstanding, both men’s fates are affected by the banes. When Morgoth

cursed Húrin and his kin by saying that all who Húrin loved shall be brought “down to

darkness and despair”38, Húrin does not believe that these things would ever come to

pass39, yet the bane was fulfilled: Túrin and his sister fell into misery; naught they did

was for good and they committed suicide, trying to escape their hardship. The bane

affecting Sigurd was conjured by the dwarf Andvari, who, being extorted by Loki to

surrender his gold, doomed all to death who were to possess a ring, which was a part of

the treasure.40 Sigurd indeed died early.

In addition, Túrin and Sigurd are alike in matters of fight, love and strange relations

within their families. For example, both Túrin and Sigurd are war heroes; Túrin, being a

successful and feared vagabond in the wilderness and a war hero when fighting in

Nargothrond, figures in Sigurd’s succeeding to claim back his father’s kingdom and his

various glorious fights.41 Moreover, both men kill close acquaintances, although their

feelings towards the murders differ. Túrin, killing his friend Beleg by accident, is

inconsolable, whereas Sigurd, murdering his foster-father Regin, is glad about what he

did.

Furthermore, Turin’s and Sigurd’s defeating a dragon are resembling deeds. Túrin, in

pursuit of vengeance, sets out and kills Glaurung in a similar way as Sigurd kills Fáfnir:

Whereas Túrin hides in a chasm and finally stabs Glaurung in the belly42 (the dragon’s

only weak part of the body), Sigurd does the same by waiting in a hole in the ground

and ramming his sword into Fáfnir’s stomach43. In this way, J.R.R. Tolkien adapted the

fatal characteristic of Norse and Celtic dragons, as their only part of the body without

scales is their belly. Another dragons’ characteristic Tolkien took up is the guilefulness

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of them. Both Glaurung and Fáfnir try to lead astray their victims, the former more

successful that the latter.

Another parallel between the two tales is the love affairs. In regard to this, Tolkien’s

hero is as ill- fated as Sigurd. Both of them experience forbidden love: Túrin’s and his

sister’s falling in love with each other is a case of incest. Sigurd falls in love with

Gudrún although he is engaged to Brynhild. The circumstances of these matters lead to

great misfortune for both men: They die because of their mistakes and because of great

disappointment. Furthermore, the motif of incest appears in both sagas. Regarding

Túrin’s history, it is his and Níniel’s expecting a child; in regard to Sigurd’s history it is

Sigurd’s father Sigmund’s and his twin sister Signy’s having sexual intercourse

although being siblings.44

One similarity between the tale of Túrin and Tolkien’s version of Sigurd’s saga (The

Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún) is the heroes’ destiny to come back from the dead on the

day of the final fights. This does not appear in the original sagas of Sigurd, though.

After his death, Túrin’s spirit shall be in the halls of Mandos in Valinor and he avenges

the children of Húrin by killing Morgoth in the final battle.45 In Tolkien’s poem, Sigurd

is “the World’s chosen”, the “one they waited [for]”46 in Valhalla to fight in Ragnarök.

Hereby J.R.R. Tolkien creates another parallel between his hero and the most famous

one of the Edda heroes. Yet the last battle of Arda is not the fight resulting in the end of

the world (like Ragnarök), for good will reign again after Morgoth is destroyed.

Regarding the similarities between the epic of Beowulf and the Narn i Chîn Húrin, one

can say that there are only small analogies. The most conspicuous one is Beowulf’s

death compared to Túrin’s death: Whereas Beowulf, a successful and renowned hero of

Sweden, dies after his last and glorious fight with a dragon47, Túrin dies after fighting

with Glaurung, too. In this way, both heroes meet their death because of dragons.

Summing up the influence of Sigurd’s and Beowulf’s sagas on Tolkien’s epic of the

Children of Húrin, one can say that it is obvious that J.R.R Tolkien, creating his heroes,

made use of the old Norse sagas. Yet the poems about the Niflungs, Völsungs and

Beowulf were not the only sources for Túrin’s history: According to a letter written by

Tolkien, his inspiration for Narn i Chîn Húrin also was the Finnish national epic

Kalevala, for these sagas’ hero Kullervo has roughly the same fate as Túrin does.48

Considering other epics of the north and their equivalents in Tolkien’s universe, some

more similarities can be found. One notably similarity between Norse mythology and

Tolkien’s mythology is the history and naming of powerful weapons. Tolkien used the

20

Viking tradition of naming weapons of great meaning49 and he created a history of one

of his swords similar to Norse myths: the most famous weapon in The Lord of the

Rings, Aragorn’s sword Andúril. Being reforged out of the shards of Elendil’s broken

sword Narsil, it figures in Sigurd’s sword Gram. This weapon, too, was made of the

shattered pieces of Sigurd’s father’s sword. Both Andúril and Gram were destined for

fulfilling great deeds. Another weapon that can be found in both Tolkien’s and the

Norse mythology is Gil-Galad’s spear Aeglos. Being of great importance and renown in

Middle-earth, it could figure in Odin’s spear Gungnir.

Furthermore, J.R.R. Tolkien’s epic telling the story of the appearance and creation of

Sun and Moon echoes the tale of sun and moon in the Edda. In Tolkien’s mythology,

the Valar create sun and moon out of the last fruits of the Trees of Valinor, which were

destroyed by Melkor. Forging vessels and putting the last flower and fruit of the trees

Telperion and Laurelin in them, the Valar send sun and moon into the sky. The isle of

the moon Isil is pulled by Tilion; the sun Anar is dragged by Arien. One day, Melkor

attacks Tilion because of his being not able to stand light. Melkor, being afraid of the

blazing of Isil and Anar, sends his demons after them.50

The Edda tells that the gods took the siblings Sôl and Mani into the sky to drag the

wagons of the sun and the moon. Since then they are in charge of the race of the

luminaries. They run fast, for they are pursued by some wolves of the evil. One day, by

eating the moon, the mightiest of the wolves takes part in instigating Ragnarök.51

Comparing sun and moon of both mythologies, one sees that they are much alike.

Tolkien’s sun and moon are pulled by a girl and a boy as well as the Norse orbs. Being

attacked and chased by servants of evil, Arien, Tilion, Sôl and Mani have to flee, but

nevertheless they will be destroyed some day.

All in all, J.R.R. Tolkien drew upon the Norse sources to create his heroes and epics and

assimilated them in his mythology by weaving hints of Norse mythology into his own

narratives.

21

4. The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún

In the early 1930s*, Tolkien wrote two long pieces of poetry retelling the legend of the

Völsungs and the legend of the Niflungs. His son Christopher Tolkien published these

works in 2009 as Völsungakviða en nýja, The New Lay of the Völsungs, and

Guðrúnarkviða en nýja, The New Lay of Gudrún. According to a letter written by

J.R.R. Tolkien, his poems were an attempt to organise the Edda songs dealing with the

topic of Sigurd and Gunnar.52

Tolkien’s source was the Eddaic poem of the legend of Sigurd, but with original parts of

this poem missing he also drew on the Völsunga Saga.53 Comparing the original texts to

Tolkien’s poems, similarities can be found as well as a few differences in regard to the

content of the stories. “The New Lay of the Völsungs” narrates the history of the

Völsung race, beginning with the reason of the Völsungs’ misery: The dragon Fáfnir

came to possess the treasure of Andvari by killing him and taking the gold the dwarf

once extorted from the malicious god Loki. As Andvari cursed the treasure, it is the

reason for murder and deceit among the people involved in the story. Sigurd, a

descendant of King Völsung, was raised by Regin, Fáfnir’s brother. By telling that

Fáfnir had illegally gained the treasure, he animates Sigurd to kill the dragon. And so he

does; but noticing that he has been betrayed by Regin, who blames him for the murder,

he kills him and rides away. On his way he passes a supernatural fire and, showing

himself as the chosen one who killed the dragon, is engaged to the Valkyrie Brynhild,

who has been waiting within the fire. Brynhild wants Sigurd to reign a kingdom before

they marry, so he fights with Gunnar and others to claim back his father’s realm.

Gunnar’s mother Grimhild wants Sigurd to marry her daughter Gudrún, and by giving a

potion to Sigurd, he forgets about Brynhild and agrees. Grimhild also wants Gunnar to

marry Brynhild, and through deceit and Sigurd’s help they do so. Finding out about

Sigurd’s betrayal, Brynhild has him killed and commits suicide afterwards. “The New

Lay of Gudrún” narrates the downfall of the Niflungs, who inherited the treasure after

Sigurd’s death. It causes them much trouble too, for Atli (Attila) is greedy for the

treasure and marries Gudrún. Gunnar and Högni (his brother) take over Atli’s castle but

*It is not certain that the poems were written in this time, but Tolkien’s son dates them in the early 30s, the time when his father was professor for Old Norse at Oxford. (The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún, pp 4-5)

22

release him at Gudrún’s request. Coming back and conquering the castle with his

people, Atli arrests Gunnar and Högni; the price for their release is the treasure. Högni

is killed and Gunnar is tormented to death for not revealing the treasure’s position.

Gudrún kills her sons and Atli and drowns herself afterwards.54

The content of both poems is similar to the original stories except for some minor

differences. In the New Lay of the Völsungs, for instance, Tolkien left out the history of

Helgi Hundingsbani, in which the names -- and maybe the women themselves -- of

Sigurd’s and Helgi’s mothers are interchanged. Not taking into account this story, the

names were not exchanged in Tolkien’s poems. In regard to the story of Andvari’s gold,

the Edda narrative differs from the Völsunga Saga. In this case, Tolkien followed the

Edda instead of the Saga. Furthermore, one reunion of Sigurd and Brynhild takes place

in the Saga after their first meeting, which was not adapted by Tolkien.55 Still,

commenting on the New Lay of the Völsungs, Christopher Tolkien claimed there were

“no important differences between the Lay and the old narratives”.56 The New Lay of

Gudrún is not very different from its sources either, but it differs in some ways. For

example, there is no connection between Brynhild and Atli in the New Lay, whereas

they are relatives in the Edda poems. Moreover the reasons for Gunnar’s and Högni’s

arrival at Atli’s fortress in Tolkien’s poem do not really fit into the Edda poems or the

Saga. Because of the two poems giving different reasons for the men’s arrival, Tolkien

drew on both sources, so that his poem combines the possibilities of both of the original

texts.57

In formal matters both the Tolkien poems and the Norse poems have resembling

features. The size of Tolkien’s stanzas and verses fits in with the Eddaic poetry, where

the “norm of the strophe is four lines (eight half- lines) with a complete pause at the end,

and also a pause […] at the end of the fourth half- line.”58

Furthermore Tolkien’s poems fit into the Old Norse metre; he used the old eight- line

fornyrðislag stanza, that being the Norse alliterative stanzaic metre used in the Edda

poems.59 It contains three metres and, being the metre mostly used in the Edda poems,

the fornyrðislag metre was the one utilised by Tolkien. It has the same rhythmical

structure as the Old English metre.60 One other metre is the ljoðahattr, which has

strophes of two half- lines followed by one full line. The principles of alliteration

appearing in the Edda poems and Old English poetry were used by J.R.R. Tolkien, too:

Alliteration takes place in each pair of lines; mostly it does in each pair of half- lines.

There are two stressed syllables in one line and “one full lift in each half- line must

23

alliterate.”61 As the fornyrðislag might have more than two stressed syllables, the first

lift in the second half, bearing the alliteration, is called head-stave. Then the first two

lifts serve as props or supports. The fourth stressed syllable never takes place in the

alliteration.62

As an example, given here is one stanza of the Fafnismal in the Edda and one stanza of

the chapter Regin of Tolkien’s New Lay of the Völsungs, dealing with Regin blaming

Sigurd for fratricide. The stressed syllables are bearing accents, the alliterations are

underlined and the head-staves are highlighted in bold letters.

Regin spake: Regin

“Glád art thou, Sígurth, “Yet glád is Sígurd,

of battle gaíned, of góld thínking,

As Grám with gráss though cléanest; as Grám on the gréy

My bróther fíerce gráss he wípeth!

in fíght hast sláin, ‘Twas blóod of my bróther

And sómewhat I did mysélf.”63 that bláde did spíll,

though sómewhat the sláying

I mysélf must sháre.”64

As for the formal matters, Tolkien stuck by the old Norse principles of eight- lined

stanzas involving a pause after every four half- lines. Although the Edda song of Fáfnir

is written in the ljoðahattr metre, it has the same alliteration principles as the strophe of

Tolkien’s poem written in the fornyrðislag metre. While the Edda strophe does not have

any head-staves, it still alliterates on the stressed syllables in both the half- lines and the

full lines (“glad” and “gained”, “Gram” and “grass” etc.). In Tolkien’s stanza, which

alliterates perfectly well too, there are two head-staves (“grass” and “blade”), being the

third lift in a pair of half- lines.

To conclude, J.R.R. Tolkien rewrote the poems dealing with the Niflungs and Völsungs

well, organising the confused material of the original poems and mastering the Old

Norse metre.

24

5. Epilogue

To summarise the influence of Norse mythology on J.R.R. Tolkien’s works, one can say

that many analogies can be found and that traces of Norse mythology can be discovered

in Tolkien’s complex universe. Professor Tolkien, being one of the few people who can

see the vestiges of the magical Norse era, included the noble Norse spirit into his own

world and brought it to life again in this way.

Concluding working on the Jahresarbeit, I can say that I enjoyed it and found it very

interesting. The topic was interesting and working on it was revealing, for I knew some

similarities between J.R.R. Tolkien’s works, but I also learned some new ones. Yet I

found more examples for the influence of Norse mythology on J.R.R. Tolkien’s works;

I could have written much more. For instance, I wanted to analyse “The Legend of

Sigurd and Gudrún” more in detail and I wanted to work more on the Norse influence

on “The Lord of the Rings”.

25

6. List of references

1 Tolkien, J.R.R.: On Fairy-Stories, in : Tree and Leaf; edited by Tolkien, Christopher;

HarperCollinsPublishers, 2008; p. 3

2 http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Herr_der_Ringe#Hintergr.C3.BCnde, 25.12.2010, 11:46

3 Das Tolkien Lesebuch; hrsg. von Killer, Ulrike; dtv GmbH & Co. KG, 2004; p. 186

4 Das Tolkien Lesebuch; hrsg. von: Killer, Ulrike; p. 425

5 http://liturgiae-causa.blogspot.com/2010/10/crist-of-cynewulf.ht ml, 25.12.2010, 12:37

6 Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; edited by Tolkien, Christopher;

HarperCollinsPublishers, London 2009; p. 17

7 Hávamál 139-164, in: Die Edda; hrsg. von Stange, Manfred; Marix Verlag GmbH, Wiesbaden 2004; pp

65-68

8 “Egil Saga”, a song retelling the saga; by Faun, in: Licht; published in 2003

9 Graha m-Campbell, James: The Viking World; Club Associates, by arrangement with Frances Lincoln

Publishers Limited, 1980; pp 156-158

10 http://www.geschichte-skandinavien.de/futhark.html 27.12.2010, 11:32

11 Das Tolkien Lesebuch; hrsg. von: Killer, Ulrike; pp 423-424

12 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der Herr der Ringe Band 3; Klett-Cotta Verlag, 17. Auflage 2008; pp 451-454

13 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elder_Futhark 26.12.2010, 16:26

14 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der Herr der Ringe Band 3; p. 451 and p. 454

15 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der kleine Hobbit; dtv GmbH & Co. KG, München; Neuauflage 2006; pp 14-17

16 Völuspá 11-13, 15, in: The Poetic Edda, or: Elder Edda; republished by: Forgotten Books, Charleston,

South Carolina; 2008; p. 17

17 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; hrsg. von Tolkien, Christopher; Klett-Cotta Verlag; 19. Auflage

2007; p. 55

18 Völuspá 10 and Gylfaginning 14, in: Die Edda; p. 14 and pp 270-271

19 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Nachrichten aus Mittelerde; hrsg. von Tolkien, Christopher; dtv GmbH & Co. KG,

München; Neuausgabe 2006; p. 519

20 Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; Evergreen / Taschen GmbH, 2008; pp 74-75

21 Peterich/Grimal: Götter und Helden; dtv GmbH & Co. KG, München, 1978; pp 185-187

22 Tolkien : Nachrichten aus Mittelerde; pp 509-517

23 Tolkien : Der kleine Hobbit, p. 10

24 http://www.jok-design.de/rk/mytologie/sonst/draupnir.htm, 10.02.2011, 17:49

25 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Quenta Silmarillion, in : Das Silmarillion; p. 39 ff

26 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; pp 27-28


28 Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; pp 61-62

29 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; p. 37


26

31 http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Yavanna, 23.03.2011, 19:36

32 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; p. 30



35 Die Edda; pp 424-425

36 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Von Túrin Turambar, in: Das Silmarillion; p. 267 ff

37 Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p. 184

38 Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Children of Húrin; edited by Tolkien, Christopher; HarperCollinsPublishers,

2008; p. 64

39 Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Children of Húrin; p. 64

40 Sigurdarkvida Fafnisbana önnur 5, in: Die Edda; p. 181

41 Sin fiötlalok, in: Die Edda; p. 171

42 Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Children of Húrin; pp 236-237

43 Fafnis mal, in: Die Edda; p. 186

44 Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; p. 105

45 http://ardapedia.herr-der-ringe-film.de/index.php/T%C3%BArin_Turambar, 22.04.2011, 11:27


47 Mudrak, Edmund: Nordische Götter- und Heldensagen; Arena Verlag GmbH, Würzburg 2009; pp 102-

104

48 http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Letter_257, 13.04.2011, 21:10

49 http://warviking.tripod.com/realweaponsandarmor.html, 25.04.2011, 12:47

50 Tolkien, J.R.R.: Von Sonne und Mond und der Verhüllung Valinors, in : Das Silmarillion; p. 129 ff

51 Gylfaginning 11-12, in: Die Edda; pp 268-269

52 Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; pp 4-6


54 http://ardapedia.herr-der-ringe-film.de/index.php/The_Legend_of_Sigurd_and_Gudr%C3%BAn,

07.03.2011, 17:46

55 Tolkien, Christopher: Commentary on Völsungakviða en njýa, in: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; p.

181 ff


57 Tolkien, Christopher: Commentary on Guðrúnarkviða en njýa, in: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún;

p. 309 ff





62 http://www.skergard.org/U2eddic.htm, 10.03.2011, 20:22

63 Fafnis mol, in: The Poetic Edda, or: Elder Edda; p. 228


27

List of bibliography

Das Tolkien Lesebuch; hrsg. von Killer, Ulrike; dtv GmbH & Co. KG, München;

4. Auflage 2003

Die Edda; hrsg. Von Manfred Stange; Marix Verlag GmbH, Wiesbaden 2004

Die Wikinger, Kultur und Mythen; Evergreen / Taschen GmbH, Köln 2008

Götter und Helden; hrsg. von Peterich, Eckard / Grimal, Pierre; dtv GmbH & Co. KG,

München 1978

Graham-Campbell, James: The Viking World; Book Club Associates, by arrangement

with Frances Lincoln Publishers Limited, 1980

Nordische Götter- und Heldensagen; hrsg. von: Mudrak, Edmund; Arena Verlag

GmbH, Würzburg; 29. Auflage 2009

The Poetic Edda, or: Elder Edda; republished by: Forgotten Books, Charleston, South

Carolina 2008

Tolkien, J.R.R.: Das Silmarillion; hrsg. von Tolkien, Christopher; Klett-Cotta Verlag,

Stuttgart; 19. Auflage 2007

Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der Herr der Ringe Band 3; Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart, 17. Auflage

2008

Tolkien, J.R.R.: Der kleine Hobbit; dtv GmbH & Co. KG, München; Neuauflage 2006

Tolkien, J.R.R.: Nachrichten aus Mittelerde; hrsg. von Tolkien, Christopher; dtv

GmbH & Co. KG, München; Neuausgabe 2006

Tolkien, J.R.R.: On Fairy-stories, in: Tree and Leaf; edited by Tolkien, Christopher;

HarperCollinsPublishers, London 2001

Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Children of Húrin; edited by Tolkien, Christopher;


Tolkien, J.R.R.: The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún; edited by Tolkien, Christopher;


28

List of figures

Fig. 1, p.1: Norse mythology

http://brainleakage.deviantart.com/art/norse-mythology-48448970

Fig. 2, p. 4: Professor J.R.R. Tolkien

http://www.valinor.com.br/files/2010/05/tolkien11.jpg, 27.04.2011

Fig. 3, p. 6: The Elder Futhark

http://www.albertburger.com/thiot5.jpg 26.12.2010, 16:04

Fig. 4, p. 6: The Angerthas

http://lsdtolkien.altervista.org/img/Angerthas.jpg 26.12.2010, 14:07

Fig. 5, p. 11: Odin the Wanderer

http://www.albertburger.com/woden.jpg 10.02.2011, 17:14

Fig. 6, p. 11: Gandalf the Pilgrim

A picture taken from the film “The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the

Ring”; New Line Cinema, 2001

Fig. 7, p. 12: “The Fairy Coast”, a drawing of Valinor, by J.R.R. Tolkien

Hammond, W.G./Scull, G.: J.R.R. Tolkien, Der Künstler; p. 48

Fig. 8, p. 16: Turin Túrambar, by Alan Lee

http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/File:Alan_Lee_-_T%C3%BArin_Turambar.jpg,

27.04.2011, 21:38

29

7. Appendix

Copies of used internet pages

1. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Herr

_der_Ringe#Hintergr.C3.BCnde, 25.12.2010, 11:46

2. http://liturgiae-

causa.blogspot.com/2010/10/crist-of-cynewulf.html, 25.12.2010, 12:37

3. http://www.geschichte-

skandinavien.de/futhark.html , 26.12.2010, 11:32

4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elder_Fu

thark, 26.12.2010, 16:26

5. http://www.jok-

design.de/rk/mytologie/sonst/draupnir.htm, 10.02.2011, 17:49

6. http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Yavanna, 23.03.2011

7. http://ardapedia.herr-der-ringe-

film.de/index.php/T%C3%BArin_Turambar, 22.04.2011, 11:27

8. http://tolkiengateway.net/wiki/Letter_

257, 13.04.2011, 21:10

9. http://warviking.tripod.com/realweaponsandarmor.html, 25.04.2011, 12:47

30

10. http://ardapedia.herr-der-ringe-film.de/index.php/The_Legend_of_Sigurd_and_Gudr%C3%BAn, 07.03.2011, 17:46

11. http://www.skergard.org/U2eddic.htm, 10.03.2011, 20:22

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