An American Failure

The Internment of Japanese Americans During WWII and the

Campaign for Redress.

Jared Lutz

Prior to WWII there was a history of discrimination, especially in California, that was based on a perceived threat

to white dominance.

“As long as the Japanese remained docile, their hard labor was welcomed, but as soon as they showed signs of initiative, they were perceived as threats to white dominance.” (JACL, 2002, p. 2)

“Given the historical legacy that encourages whites to feel a sense of superiority… such competition is bound to provoke anger and resentment…” (Johnson, 2006, p. 48)

Japanese immigrants were considered “ineligible for citizenship.”

The Japanese formed their own communities based on their traditional values and beliefs.

The Japanese started their own local protective, educational, religious, and banking organizations.

Their cultural values “included a vertical, male dominated family and community structure; the values of hard work, loyalty, and obedience; and prescriptions on how to act with the “superior” dominant community.” (Maki, Kitano, & Berthold, 1999, p. 23)

December 7, 1941: The Empire of Japan attacked the Naval Base at Pear

Harbor, Hawaii

This attack set in motion a chain of events leading to the detainment of virtually the entire Japanese American population residing on the U.S. West Coast

Image Source Page: http://todaystoptrends.com/december-7th-attack-on-pearl-harbor.html

The attack on Pearl Harbor was leveraged to remove Japanese

Americans from the West Coast.

The war became the perfect pretext for anti-Japanese groups to accomplish their goal to eliminate Asians from the West Coast.

“The California lobby pressured the federal government to remove and/or lock up all Japanese Americans.” (JACL, 2002, p. 7)

Oregon and Washington supported California’s demands.

February 19, 1942: President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066.

Executive order 9066 gave broad authority to the military to create military zones from which individuals could be removed regardless of citizenship.

“Although the executive order was carefully crafted so that specific groups of people were not singled out, the ultimate implementation of the order resulted in the removal and imprisonment of virtually the entire Japanese American population residing on the West Coast of the United States.” (Tateishi & Yoshino, 2000, p.1)

Spring 1942: Military posted notices in Japanese American

communities, imposing curfews and ordering all Japanese to report to assembly areas.

Over 120,000 persons of Japanese ancestry were imprisoned in 10 camps.

IMAGE SOURCE PAGE: http://bss.sfsu.edu/tygiel/Hist427/1940sphotos/internment/internment.htm

IMAGE SOURCE PAGE:http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~usmiltp/relocation/pics/document1.png

US Supreme Court determines that the exclusion of Japanese

Americans from the West Coast is legal.

June 1943: Hirabayashi v. U.S. and Yasui v. U.S.The Supreme Court determines that curfew orders are legal but avoids commenting on the Constitutionality of the exclusion orders.

December 1944: Korematsu v. U.S.The Supreme Court determines that the identification and exclusion of a single racial group is allowable, however, three Justices disagree and issue dissenting opinions.

January 2, 1945: The exclusion order is rescinded. Returning

Japanese Americans faced persecution and violence.

“Japanese homes that remained standing were often vandalized, and everything of value taken.” (Neiwert, 2005, p. 220)

IMAGE SOURCE PAGE: http://www.bookmice.net/darkchilde/japan/camp5.html

1978: Japanese American Citizens League (J.A.C.L.) launches a Campaign for Redress.

Although not the only attempt at Redress, the 1978 campaign by the J.A.C.L. is the most effective.

“(JACL) launched a campaign for redress calling for restitution in the amount of $25,000 per internee, an apology by Congress acknowledging the wrong, and funds to establish an educational trust fund.” (Tateishi & Yoshino, Pg.2)

The JACL utilized the media to educate the public about the World War II incarceration.

Members of Congress and the American public knew little about the internment.

The J.A.C.L. used media to educate the public and gain support for their legislative efforts.

Major newspapers and network television published stories about the Japanese American internment.

The J.A.C.L. focused legislative efforts on convincing Congress to examine the Governments actions

in 1942.

1980, Congress passed a law creating a Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (or CWRIC)

The CWRIC “…conducted hearings in nine cities across the country, heard testimony from more than 750 witnesses, and examined more than 10,000 documents.” (JACL , 2002, p.17)

June, 1983: The CWRIC issued its report, PERSONAL JUSTICE DENIED.

The Commission concluded that:

The declaration of Executive Order 9066 was not justified by military necessity.

The broad historical causes which shaped these decisions were race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership.

Excluded ethnic Japanese suffered enormous damages and losses, both material and intangible.

Image Source Page: http://www.jacl.org/edu/edu-resources.htm

During the 1980’s Japanese Americans achieved redress for the wrongs committed against

them.August 10, 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed the bill authorizing redress payments for Japanese Americans.

The Act provided an apology, individual redress payments of $20,000 to each affected Japanese American, and a community public education fund.

Image Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ronald_Reagan_signing_Japanese_reparations_bill.jpg

Meeting the learning outcomes.

Learn Actively: I researched related information to deepen my learning about Japanese Americans and the cultural processes that led to their internment and eventual redress.

Think Critically: I used knowledge of cultural history and of how culture works in order to analyze and interpret the redress movement.

Communicate with Clarity and Originality: I made a presentations that reflects an understanding of course content.

Interact in Diverse and Complex Environments: I am able to use empathy and thoughtful analysis to improve my communication with others.

References

Japanese American Citzens League (2002) Historical Overview: Curriculum and Resource Guide. Retrieved December 10, 2011, from http://www.jacl.org/edu/JAHistory.pdf

Johnson, A. (2006). Privilege, Power, and Difference. (2ed.) Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.

Maki, M., Kitano, H., & Berthold, S. (1999). Achieving the Impossible Dream: How Japanese Americans Obtained Redress. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Neiwert, D. (2005). Strawberry Days: How Internment Destroyed a Japanese American Community. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Tateishi, J., & Yoshino, W. (2000). The Japanese American Incarceration: The Journey to Redress. Human Rights, 27(2), 10. Retrieved from http://offcampus.lib.washington.edu/login? url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=3119051&site=ehost-live