The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)Background and causes

Context1979: Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty1979: Iranian Revolution1980: Soviet invasion of

Afghanistan1982: Israeli intervention in the

Lebanese Civil War

IranOriginally the Persian EmpirePredominantly Shiite MuslimRuled by Shah (king) Mohammad

Reza Pahlavi (1941-79)Close ally of the US until the

Iranian Revolution

Iranian Revolution (1979) The Shah’s policies became unpopular:

◦ “White Revolution in 1963” favoured wealthy classes

◦ Heavy reliance on US support◦ Efforts to secularise Iran◦ Corruption

Religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini became a political figure after being exiled by the Shah in 1963

Khomeini successfully spread his political ideology and united opposition groups against the Shah whilst in exile

Demonstrations against the Shah begin in 1977

Climax in December 1978; over 10% of Iranians demonstrate against the Shah

The Shah is forced to abandon his position in 1979

IraqFormerly part of the Ottoman EmpireBritish mandate until 1932Arab identity; culturally different

from the Persians3 distinct demographic blocs

◦Sunni Muslims (held majority in the government)

◦Shiite Muslims◦Kurdish minority

Rise of Saddam HusseinThe Hashemite monarchy is overthrown

in a military coup in July 1958The coup was inspired by the pan-

Arabism movement by Nasser and was discontent with Britain’s heavy influence in Iraq

Another coup in 1963 established the Arab Socialist Baath Party in Iraq. Saddam Hussein was the Party Secretary at this time.

The Baathists formerly seized power in a bloodless coup in 1968. Saddam Hussein is named President Al-Bakr’s Deputy.

Saddam continued to build his power base, forcing Al-Bakr to resign in 1979

Shatt al-Arab conflictThe Shatt al-Arab waterway laid at the Iran-Iraq

border and was the confluence of many rivers that ran through both Iran and Iraq

Economic importance: The waterway was essential to connect Iraqi and Iranian cities/oilfields to the Gulf

The waterway was critical for Iraq as it had a limited access to the Gulf

The ambiguous border and Iranian support for the Kurds in Iraq led to open conflict in 1974

The conflict was resolved by the 1975 Algiers Agreement. Iraq agreed to divide the Shatt al-Arab equally in return for peace with Iran.

CAUSES

Sunni-Shia divideEarly historians of the Iran-Iraq War contend that the

traditional divide between Sunni and Shiite sects contributed to the outbreak of war

The adoption of Shia Islam as the official state religion in Persia during the 16th century caused territorial fragmentation in the Islamic World. Whilst Ottoman rulers sought to re-establish Islamic unity, Persia, under Shah Ismail I, sought to separate itself from the Sunni faith.

The divide caused intense rivalryKhomeini’s Iranian Revolution can be compared with

Shah Ismail’s doctrine, since both advocated Shia teachings and traditions, and undermined the separation of religion and state.

Essentially the war was a re-emergence of this divide

Results of the Iranian RevolutionAyatollah Khomeini seizes power as the Supreme

Leader of Iran. Under Khomeini, an aggressive and xenophobic Shiite theocracy is set up.

Khomeini needed a distraction from domestic troubles:◦ Economic problems inherited from the Shah’s rule◦ Many who had supported the overthrow of the Shah

now mounted in opposition of KhomeiniIran began to openly denounce the Iraqi

Government, supporting Iraqi opposition groups and engaging in border skirmishes

Saddam Hussein saw this as a violation of the 1975 Algiers Agreement

Results of the Iranian RevolutionKhomeini advocated to “export

the Revolution”. This threatened Iraq, since many Shiite communities in Iraq were underdeveloped and discriminated against.

Iraqi fears of a Shiite rebellion was one of the motivations of Iraq’s invasion of Iran in 1980

Iraqi ambitionsSaddam Hussein wanted to “restore Iraqi-Arab

identity” in the regionSaddam wanted to gain full sovereignty of the

Shatt al-ArabKhuzestan in the southwest of Iran became an

important ploy in Saddam’s rhetoric:◦ Called “Arabistan” during an autonomous period in

the Persian Empire◦ It had a predominantly Arab population◦ It was an oil rich region

Saddam also wanted control of oil rich islands in the Straits of Hormuz

These factors motivated Iraq to invade Iran

Ideological conflictAfter Egypt’s expulsion from the Arab

League in 1979, a power vacuum emerged in the Middle East. Iraq hoped to become the new leader of the Arab world. Pan-Arabism became a strong part of Saddam’s rhetoric.

Iran adopted a slightly different doctrine of “pan-Islamism”. However, the ideal was skewed, implying the unification of Muslims under the Shia sect.

These two doctrines both contested for leadership of the Middle East

Clash of personalitiesThe egocentric personalities and dogmatic

attitudes of Saddam and Khomeini, contributed to the outbreak of war

The fiery rhetoric on both sides intimidated the other:◦ Saddam was called a despotic criminal of the Iraqi

Shiites◦ Similar insulting remarks were made about Khomeini

The exaggerated rhetoric misrepresented the concerns of both countries

Khomeini intentionally did this to quell domestic strife

Saddam intentionally did this to establish his position in the Arab world

Foreign influenceAn arms race was caused by foreign

influence in the region cause by Cold War rivalries◦US support of Iran during the Shah’s rule◦British support of the Iraqi monarchy◦Soviet support of the Iraqi Republic

(before Saddam)The result was a significant stockpile

of arms on both sides before the outbreak of the war

The sparkIran and Iraq engaged in tit-for-

tat diplomacy due to the border skirmishes

Attempted assassination attempt of Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz is blamed on Iran

Iraq invades Iran on 22 September 1980

HISTORIOGRAPHY

Majid KhadduriIraqi-born historianFormer Iraqi UN delegateBook: The Gulf War: the Origins and

Implications of the Iraq-Iran Conflict. Argues that:

◦The origin of the conflict lies in the Sunni-Shia divide

◦Iran disrespected the Algiers Agreement which represented peace between the two nations

◦Iraq did it’s best to seek peace regarding border issues after the Iranian Revolution

◦The invasion was a justified pre-emptive measure

Behrouz SouresrafilExiled Iranian journalistBook: The Iran-Iraq WarArgues that:

◦Centuries of cultural differences does not cause wars

◦Iran-Iraq War a direct result of the Iranian Revolution

◦Iraq feared a Shiite rebellion◦Also contends that a clash of

personalities had a part to play

Daniel PipesAmerican historianA conservative political commentator who is

highly critical of Islamic TerrorismBook: A Border Adrift: Origins of the Conflict.Argues that:

◦ Many observers over-attributed cultural antagonisms as a cause of the war, due to the surprising nature of the Iranian Revolution

◦ In the sixteenth century, although at war, Ottoman sultan wrote literature in Persian, whilst Shah Ismail wrote in Turkic, highlighting minimal cultural tension

◦ Iraq launched the war to wrest full control of the Shatt al-Arab waterway and gain the prestige of victory

◦ Iraq didn’t launch war over fear of a Shia rebellion. There were no major problems with Shia groups in Iraq