The Journal of - Association of British Cycling Coaches...2014/3 ISSN Number 1353-7008 2 Page Strength Training ... Squat, who once performed a squat with 1014 lbs across his shoulders

David Fletcher Orange Monkey Pro MTB team at CAPE EPIC

The Journal of

Cycle CoachingThe Association of British Cycling Coaches

Developing and Sharing Best Practice

2014/3 ISSN Number 1353-7008

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Foreword ��3

Strength Training Awheel ��4

Coaching Women – A Female Perspective ��7

Demystifying the Lactate Threshold ��8

Performance during a time-trial after caffeine ingestion ��10

Keeping Up With The Times ��16

Arginine and antioxidant supplement on performance in elderly male cyclists ��19

Content

The Journal of Cycle Coaching: Issue No 3:2014

Editor: Mr James Smith 27 The Dell Plymouth PL7 4PS Email: james�s@primalwear�com Tel: 01752 696290 Mobile: 07886280979

Administrator: Mark Gorman 3 Glebelands, Calstock, Cornwall� PL18 9SG Email: mark�gorman@abcc �co�uk Tel: 01822 834424 Mobile: 07974 887259

ABCCChairman: Bob Hayward Red House, The Street, Redgrave, Diss, Norfolk, IP221RY Tel: 01379 898726 Email: bob�hayward@talk21�com

Treasurer: Chip Rafferty

Committee Members: Richard Guymer, Gerry Robinson, Dave Wall, Gordon Wright, Martin Nash, Duncan Leith, Richard Reade, Aurial Foster

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Foreword Knowing Your Body!

After some time off the bike I have put on a just a few lbs. Diet is so crucial to cyclists in particu-

lar when it comes to weight. I often attend Time Trials and see the most expensive bikes being rid-den by the most overweight ladies and gents. These guys will often have the most aerodynamic helmets, disc wheels and carbon frames. Why don’t more amateur athletes understand time gains by losing weight or put in a more professional manner power to weight ratio. What we eat and drink during training should marry up to our training goals from sportive to ultra-cycling.Knowing what our bodies need before, during and post training is an essential tool; some of us need more or less. This can even be broken down to type of foods during training; some of us would bene-fit from more sugar during training whilst others might thrive with a little more protein.Second-guessing a diet is no longer needed with the plethora of advice out there. Your clients should look at their diet as a whole with you as their coach and with a sports dietician specialist if needed. A healthy diet should run alongside a full training programme not in isolation. Now I just need to follow my own advice and shift a few pounds. Have a great winter everyone!

James Smith Editor Contribution

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Strength Training Awheelby Gerald Robinson

“How can I propel my bicycle faster”? It’s a simple question asked of coaches by all their riders. In mod-ern parlance the simple answer is, “Produce more power”.In mathematical terms, Power = (Force x Distance)/Time. The length of the crank doesn’t change so we can substitute strength for force and express power as be-ing proportional to strength divided by time. Therefore power can be raised by increasing strength or reducing time (higher cadence) or a combination of the two. While the coach can assist the trainee to ride faster by raising VO2Max and lactate threshold and im-proving aerodynamics, technique and tactics, the rider’s performance ceiling is limited by his or her cycling specific strength. Increased cycling specific strength is essential if this performance ceiling is to be raised and maintained.Weight training in the gym will increase strength but the exercises are not specific to cycling as many exercises use both legs simultaneously and foot position is generally fixed instead of rotating. The nerves and muscles have to be educated to use the increased strength. Uphill sprinting can be used to achieve the same aim. One of the top American running coaches, Brad Hudson, uses only uphill sprints as strength training his runners. Top British runners have strength trained on the sand dunes at Merthyr Mawr in Wales for decades. Any child playing in the sand dunes at a beach will tell you how exhausting it can be.The ultimate strength athletes are weight lifters. We can learn much from them. The following graph is from power lifter Fred Hatfield Ph.D, aka Doctor Squat, who once performed a squat with 1014 lbs across his shoulders. It shows the intensity as a per-centage of 1 rep max versus the number of repetitions to be performed in weight training sessions to achieve specific outcomes.

Defining StrengthStrength is the ability to exert force and is defined by how you exert the force. Hatfield proposes several defi-nitions, each with its own training protocol:

Limit or absolute strength is your one repetition max-imum for a movement and the greater it is, the greater your capacity to apply force to the pedals.Speed strength is a combination of starting strength, the ability to recruit the maximum number of muscle fibres simultaneously, and explosive strength, the ability to keep the fibres firing over time. A good example is man 1 in the team sprint who must accelerate up to speed quickly then hold the effort for the remainder of the first lap.

Anaerobic power can be divided into local muscular endurance and strength endurance. Local muscular endurance is the ability to continue sub-maximal force for a long time as in a pursuit race or prologue time trial. Strength endurance is the ability to make repeat-ed efforts over time such as the repeated accelerations in a circuit race or the devil on the track.Speed endurance is the ability to maintain maximum strength over a period of 10 to 45 seconds as in the finishing sprint at the end of a race.

Increasing StrengthLarge strength gains require heavy loads in excess of 80% of 1 rep max combined with a high recruitment of muscle fibres. In the past it was generally accepted that this required a load which resulted in failure after at most 10 repetitions of a particular lift and that move-ment should be relatively slow to ensure that as many


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fibres as possible were recruited. Several sets would be required to ensure effectiveness and as a result the load must decrease somewhat. Thus movement would be much slower than normal pedalling cadence, probably equivalent to 10 or 15 rpm.In recent years explosive muscle contractions have been promoted as an alternative strength training paradigm. Newton’s law states that Force = Mass x Acceleration. Therefore, if you want to accelerate a large mass very rapidly, much more force must be applied to overcome the inertia of the mass than with a slow movement. This requires the nervous system to activate a large number of muscle fibres in a very short period of time and seems more suited to the high cadences used by cyclists.Australian researchers have compared fast and slow lifting protocols. They carried out a six week study and found that one set of explosive lifts to failure per session resulted in similar strength gains to three sets of slow lifts to failure. Explosive lifting was therefore more efficient with training time.How can the coach translate weight training to on the bike strength training? Unfortunately we don’t have strength meters but power meters measure the rate that force does work (watts) so we have an indirect measure. First we must measure the rider’s maximum power. This can be done with a simple Sargent jump test which only requires a pair of bathroom scales to measure the rider’s mass (weight), a wall, a piece of chalk, a tape measure and a stop watch. We need to know the height gained by the rider’s centre of mass during the jump and the elapsed time of the jump. The rider’s mass will be centred close to his or her navel so we use the chalk to mark the height of the navel on the wall in a crouched position and when standing, the difference in height is then measured. Next the rider stands and marks the maximum height he or she can reach up the wall. Finally, in a crouched position and from a countdown, the rider jumps vertically as high as possible and marks the wall while the coach measures the elapsed time from beginning the jump to marking the wall. The distance between the two upper chalk marks is then measured and the two distances are added together to give the height gained by the centre of mass. Maximum power is then calculated as follows:Power = (Mass x gravitational attraction x height gained by centre of mass)/elapsed timeSuppose an 80 kilogram rider achieves a height gain of

0.8 metres in 0.5 seconds then the power output is (80 x 9.81 x 0.8)/0.5 = 1256 wattsThe rider will have to warm up before the test (bod-yweight squats will suffice) and several jumps should be done to ensure maximum height gain is achieved. Alternatively power meter files from sprint sessions can be scanned to estimate maximum instantaneous power, though the meter must be set to record at one second intervals. Strength training sessions can now be planned using percentages of maximum instantaneous power in accordance with the graph above.It is obvious when you have reached the point of failure while weight lifting. You can’t lift the weight! Momentum makes it difficult to judge the point of failure on the bike. The gradient, gear and effort must be set to achieve substantial power loss after a specified number of pedal revolutions. Limit strength will be trained with uphill sprints from walking pace. Power should be above 80% of max-imum and failure should occur after 8 to 10 pedal revolutions. Movement should be explosive and fast to avoid “learning slowness”. In weight training par-tial squats work mainly the quadriceps at the front of the thigh whereas deep squats bring the hamstrings and buttocks into play more. Therefore some sprints should be out of the saddle and others seated. End the session when power drops to towards 75%. Some days you may manage 8 or 10 sprints, others only 3 or 4.Recovery from a maximal sprint takes several minutes. Fuel replenishment of fast twitch type 2 muscle fibres proceeds at 50% in the first 45 seconds, 25% in the second 45 seconds and so on. Thus at least 4 minutes recovery at low speed is required to maintain the qual-ity of the sprints. Post activation potentiation occurs when an extremely hard effort makes subsequent efforts seem easier and is useful when training fast twitch muscles. Before your initial sprint ride the hill in a high gear which you can only turn slowly. Recover then sprint.Anaerobic power is trained with explosive uphill sprints of 10 to 20 pedal revolutions to failure. Efforts will be 100 to 200 metres long at 60% to 80% of maxi-mum power with high pedal revs. Muscular endurance will be trained with uphill efforts to failure lasting 20 to 40 revolutions. Power will be 40% to 70% of max-imum and cadence will be lower, say 60 to 80 revolu-tions per minute. Sessions will end when you can no longer maintain the required power.Hatfield’s graph suggests that low cadence hill intervals


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from 2 to 5 minutes duration ridden below thresh-old level will train strength endurance, not strength. However, a clubmate reports noticeable strength gains on a local climb which gradually steepens from 4% reaching 8% at the summit. The climb takes him about 2 min 15 sec to complete. He completes 6 climbs alter-nating between a seated climb and a standing climb. The first climb is ridden in 53 x 14 and by the sixth he is in the 11 cog. He is reduced to walking pace at the top of the final climb, about 8 to 10 rpm, so he is effec-tively performing slow single leg squats with extreme muscle tension. Each leg is under tension for about 30 to 40 seconds for the climb compared with 5 to 10 seconds with a short explosive effort. Therefore the force applied can much higher in the explosive effort. Both methods produce the desired result. However a set of 8 explosive sprints will take 30 to 35 minutes plus warm up and warm down so the training session can be completed in 50 to 55 minutes. A set of 8 big gear climbs will take 45 to 55 minutes plus warm up and warm down. Choose either according to the time you have available. Both can be usefully employed in a training programme.100% of a rider’s slow twitch muscle fibres are involved in all cycle races including sprinting. At least 50% of the fast twitch type 1 muscle fibres and 5% of the fast twitch type 2 fibres are used in races up to an hour long. Sprint training doesn’t train just the fast twitch fibres. It increases the speed of contraction of slow twitch fibres and the force with which they contract. Stronger slow twitch fibres will raise the power output at which the fast twitch fibres begin to be deployed and so will raise the point when lactate accumulation becomes problematic.The autumn and winter months provide an opportu-nity for strengthening both slow and fast twitch fibres. Cold weather reduces the effectiveness of outdoor training so strength training on a turbo trainer is likely to be a better alternative. There can be problems with slip between tyre and roller but the new “direct drive” trainers, or perhaps the Wattbike if you are sufficiently wealthy, will overcome this problem.

Periodisation of Strength TrainingIdeally, strength training should be a phased, year-long activity. Adapting Schmitz and Doyle’s recommenda-tions on weight training for cyclists we have six phas-es:-Begin with an introductory, 4 week transition phase

with 2 or 3 sessions each week. Riders work at 40% to 60% of maximum power for 15 pedal revolutions recovering for 60 to 90 seconds between efforts.This is followed by an 8 week hypertrophy (muscle growth) phase with 2 or 3 sessions per week. Power increases to between 60% and 75% of maximum but pedal revolutions reduce to 8-12 with recoveries about 3 minutes long.Subsequently strength is emphasized for about 8 weeks working at 80% to 85% of maximum power. Again we have 2 or 3 sessions each week. Failure should occur within 10 pedal revolutions at this load and recovery will take 4 to 5 minutes.Next strength is converted to power with 4 weeks of short explosive, high cadence efforts of up to 10 pedal revolutions between 70% and 90% of maximum power. Recovery will last 3 to 4 minutes and two sessions per week are sufficient.Four weeks are then devoted to strength endurance. This requires longer efforts from 20 to 40 pedal rev-olutions at 40% to 60% of maximum power and low cadence with up to 4 minutes rest between intervals. A couple of sessions per week will suffice.During the racing season from May to September it is simply a matter of strength maintenance. One session per week with explosive efforts of a dozen pedal revo-lutions at 70% to 85% of maximum power is sufficient. Allow full recovery between efforts.

General PointsSome riders find working in the gymnasium claustro-phobic. On the bike strength training may prove more agreeable for them.A heavy bike will provide a greater strengthening effect than a light bike.Some coaches advise against the use of anaerobic in-tervals lasting more than 30 seconds at and above VO2 Max during the aerobic base phase of training. They maintain that acidosis will damage the mitochondria and aerobic enzymes within the muscles thus adversely affecting aerobic conditioning. Short explosive sprints with adequate recoveries overcome this problem by conditioning the fast twitch fibres without generating excessive levels of acid. If their opinion is correct it infers that long duration hill training during the base phase shouldn’t exceed threshold power for more than a few seconds at a time.Limit strength training will involve high resistance big gear explosive starts from low speed. Choice of resist-


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ance, gear size, cadence and starting speed for training power will vary between individuals. Experimentation and analysis of power profiles by coach and rider will be required to determine the most effective protocol for maximizing power. Warm up for at least 15 or 20 minutes and include some short, intense efforts before sprinting.The main problem for older veteran riders is the gradual decline in strength that accompanies ageing. Regular strength training sessions on the bike offer a simple way to slow down this loss of strength.Concentrate on pulling up as well as pushing down so you strengthen all the leg and hip muscles.A powermeter will enable you to regulate effort more accurately. Ideally it should record torque as well as power.If you are combining strength and endurance train-ing within a session or on the same day, the rule is strength training after endurance, not before. Strength training will be more effective if undertaken in the late afternoon rather than the morning.Make sure you relax your facial and jaw muscles

during the efforts. They constrict your neck, shoulder and chest muscles and restrict breathing when they are tense. The buttock muscles also tighten thus affecting pedalling action. Copy Tony Martin’s relaxed face, do not gurn like Tommy Voeckler. This, of course, applies to all cycling activities.A time trial is normally ridden at 30% to 35% of max-imal power, so strength training must be at considera-bly higher power outputs.Strength training on the bike is a useful, perhaps necessary, precursor to high intensity interval train-ing systems such as Dr. Gordon Wright’s hill interval methods.

References1. Weight Training for Cyclists, Schmitz and Doyle, Velopress2. Power, a Scientific Approach, Frederick C. Hatfield Ph.D, Contemporary Books.

Coaching Women – A Female Perspectiveby Heather Bamforth

With the increase in participation through British Cycling’s Breeze programme and a push throughout different sports for more women to get involved, it should come as no surprise that there has been an in-crease in the number of women who want to compete in cycling.This has also meant that there is now an increasing-ly large number of women who are in need of some coaching but who are also really keen to obtain the skills and fitness to take part – at the start of 2014, we ran three novice race training sessions in the North West, which saw over 100 women attending. The abil-ity range varied greatly but regardless of their level of skill, each rider was incredibly keen and enthusiastic. Of the 100 women attending, around 40 decided to take the plunge and enter some road races. Through being involved with the organisation of these events and through racing with many of the women, I have come to realise that coaching women is a completely different concept to that of coaching men.

It has proved to be somewhat of a learning curve for me this year, probably mainly because I was brought up racing with men in the 1990s when there were hardly any women riding and you essentially had to get on with it or just stick to time trialling. Fast for-ward to 2014 and the number of women involved has increased significantly but the sport is changing too. With the lack of numbers in the ‘90s, it was never real-ly a sport that you did with your mates, but nowadays it is. The team spirit amongst some of the groups who are at the grassroots level of the sport (and who are not yet ready to ride at National Series level) is ever pres-ent and a huge part of them taking part is down to the fact that their mates are.This leads to different issues as a coach. Firstly, the increase in women competing is partly due to some women deciding to switch sports due to injuries or just because they want a change of scenery. This means that the “coaching by numbers” that I seem to see a lot of nowadays doesn’t really apply as much – these


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women tend to be fitter than the average female cyclist and already have a high level of fitness, so giving them a coaching programme which builds on their endur-ance is not as important as it may be with other rid-ers. Many of these women are extremely strong and powerful and can give many male riders a run for their money, until it comes to a corner or a descent when you realise that this superb athlete is still a novice in cycling terms.As a coach to a female rider, it is extremely important that you see what their capabilities are when it comes to bike handling and sitting on a wheel. I have come across extremely fast women who think nothing of riding a 25 mile time trial in less than an hour, but put them in a group scenario and they are unable to sit in a bunch or get round a corner without losing ground to their competitors. At the moment, these women can still make ground up because they are fitter and stronger than the rest, but as soon as they come across somebody who is nearly as fit and strong and who can corner and sit in wheels, they will be in trouble and as a coach you will have to start asking questions as to why they are not performing anywhere near where

they should. The next issue is that the rider you are coaching may have a crisis of confidence because they are not per-forming at the level that they believe they should be. I have lost count of the number of conversations that I have had with riders who don’t believe that they have what it takes to get to the next level, or can’t under-stand why their FTP scores are really good but still they keep getting dropped in every road race they do. Women can be incredibly sensitive (even over-sensi-tive sometimes), which often means that things can be taken out of context and out of proportion. I have found that discussing their strengths with a rider and identifying how that fits in within a race scenario helps them to regain the sense of perspective which has been lost. These riders then regain their confidence and self-belief and tend to go on to achieve their goals.Coaching women is a complex business. We are com-plex creatures after all. But the amount of progress that can be made with a few well-placed words and a bit of patience helps me at least to remember why I became a coach.

Demystifying the Lactate Thresholdthanks pbscience.com

There aren’t many athletes who haven’t come across the phrase ‘lactate threshold’: it’s a commonly cited parameter in training articles from magazines, books, and online resources. These articles all explain how it’s a better predictor of performance in trained ath-letes than the maximal oxygen uptake and how it’s an important intensity to train at. But, underlying these principles is one presumption – that people really un-derstand what it is, and more importantly where it lies in the range of exercise intensities.

If scientists are confused, what hope for the athlete and coach?The phrase ‘lactate threshold’ means many different things to people. Ask a coach about the threshold and the one he / she talks of will probably occur at an in-tensity you can sustain for around an hour. Ask a sport scientist, and he / she will ask “which one?”! And here lies the issue. The original concept of a ‘threshold’ was popularised in the early 1970s with important work by

the group of Karl Wasserman1, a forefather of mod-ern exercise physiology. Essentially, Wasserman and colleagues described how when a person engages in progressively harder exercise, a point is reached where effort can no longer be sustained by aerobic sources alone. Concentrations of blood lactic acid rise and respiratory changes occur. However, what many scien-tists overlooked was how Wasserman and colleagues explained that this threshold was in fact secondary to one occurring at a lower intensity, the ‘lactate thresh-old’. There are numerous terms used to describe the lactic acid and respiratory responses to gradually increasing exercise intensity.

The ‘real’ lactate thresholdBefore we explain why there are essentially two points of interest on the exercise intensity continuum, it’s probably worth explaining the protocol for LT de-termination. The test consists of successive stages of exercise on a treadmill, bicycle ergometer, rowing ma-


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chine etc. Initially the exercise intensity starts very low (30- 40% of the VO2 max). Each stage generally lasts about 3 to 5 minutes. Near the end of each stage, heart rate is recorded, oxygen consumption is measured, and a sample of blood is withdrawn, using a needle prick of the finger or earlobe in order to determine blood lactate concentration. After each stage, the workload is increased and the steps repeated. After 6 stages or more, we would expect to achieve a blood lactate profile similar to that in the figure below. Our lactate threshold is the first sudden and sustained increase in blood lactate concentration – here occurring at 150W and a heart rate of 150bpm.The LT falls between 40% (in sedentary people or pa-tients) and 75% (elite athletes) of VO2max. Despite be-ing a concept long associated with endurance perfor-mance, it is still hotly debated as to what causes the LT response: some scientists arguing its related to hypoxia (a lack of oxygen) in the muscle necessitating anaero-bic metabolism and therefore lactic acid production; others suggesting it is related to the recruitment of the type II (fast twitch) muscle fibres that use the lactic acid producing system of glycolysis. You’ll find a more detailed account of the possible LT mechanisms in another of our PBscience factsheets. So, what is the difference in the two thresholds?The second threshold is most correctly described as the ‘Maximal lactate steady state’ concept – MLSS is defined as the highest running speed or power output at which blood lactate concentration remains stable between 10 and 30 minutes of constant intensity exer-cise2 (see Figure on the right). We tend to observe this

at intensities of 75 to 85% VO2max, again dependent on fitness levels. MLSS corresponds to intensities asso-ciated with 25 mile time trial performance or 10 mile running pace i.e. events of ~1 hour in duration. There is lactic acid in the blood, but it is elevated and sta-ble - the athlete will be able to tell us subjectively that its hard, but they are still in control, just! As to what causes this phenomenon, again research is unclear. However, whereas the LT is probably fundamentally caused by lactic acid production, the MLSS represents the upper limit of the rate of blood lactate clearance. Working above MLSS will lead to blood lactate accu-mulation and is related to a fatiguing state.

Why is it important to clarify which threshold people are referring to?Quite simply, if a coach prescribes training using the phrase ‘lactate threshold’, the athlete needs to under-stand what intensity this refers to. If confused termi-nology is in place, training sessions set as ‘at threshold’ could refer to an intensity we could hold for 3 to 4 hours (the first LT) or one only sustainable for 1 hour (MLSS). How these parameters are related to the exercise training zones is explained in another of our PBscience factsheets.

How do I have my LT and second threshold measured?MLSSThe lactate threshold, along with VO2max, is the most common of lab tests you can have performed. As described above, the protocol is quite straight forward – the hardest part is for the sport scientist to interpret where your LT is on the blood lactate / power graph: not all graphs give a nice, clear LT! It is very common for gas analysis to be performed during these tests too,


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as by looking at the respiratory data can help the sport scientist pinpoint the LT. It also allows an indirect measure of the second threshold without the need to complete a series of 30 minute trials to determine the MLS.In practise it is almost unheard of for an athlete to have their MLSS identified in an applied setting. Much more useful is to use the concept of the functional threshold power (FTP) as popularised by Coggan and Allen in ‘Training and Racing with a power meter’, or in the lab by using gas exchange criteria to identify the second threshold (more specifically the respiratory compensation point) during a ramp test.

How can I use this data in my training?Once you have had the tests done, the sport scientist can provide the power output and associated heart rate at which your LT occurs. Being the upper boundary of zone 2, it’s a very important marker for your training, and indeed, is often the hinge upon which the rest of your training zones can be structured. References1. Wasserman, K. et al. J Appl Physiol 1973, 35, 236-243.2. Philp, A. et al. Int J Sports Med 2008, 29, 475-479.

Performance during a 20-km cycling time-trial after caffeine ingestion

by Henrique Bortolotti

BackgroundRecent studies have shown that caffeine (CAF) can act as an ergogenic aid, both in short and long-term exercise [1]–[4] at both central and peripheral lev-el [4]–[6]. Conversely to what was initially thought, CAF intake does not seem to be able to accelerate fat metabolism and to spare muscle glycogen during exercise, which would explain the increased perfor-mance observed in endurance tasks [4],[7]. Currently, this potential effect of CAF is credited to its affinity to adenosine receptors (A1 and A2a). When CAF mole-cules bind with these pre and post synaptic receptors, it inhibits adenosine action, promoting the release of excitatory neurotransmitters, increasing corticomo-tor excitability [8],[9]. This stimulatory effect of CAF on the central nervous system may be responsible for modifying the motivation parameters that cause sustain discomfort during physical exercise, reducing the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during exercise [10].

Although the ergogenic effect of CAF on the neu-romuscular system has been discussed in detail in a previous review study [11], it is noteworthy that the majority of studies have so far adopted open-loop protocols. Despite being a sensitive test that quantifies

changes in performance [12], it does not represent the reality of sports competitions. Although closed-loop protocols have been less frequently used in investiga-tions on the effect of CAF on physical performance [13]–[16], they have greater ecological validity than open-loop protocols due to its similarity with actual competitive situations, as well as having the ability to evaluate athletes’ pacing strategy [17]. Moreover, few studies have investigated the effect of CAF on RPE on time trials, where the subject can choose and plan his pacing strategy during the effort. As a result, it has been difficult to extrapolate information on the use of CAF to competitive situations.

Therefore, the objective of the present study was to analyze the effect of CAF ingestion on the perfor-mance and physiological variables associated with fatigue in 20-km cycling time trials using a closed-loop protocol.

MethodsExperimental designA double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study with previous familiarization was approved by the Londrina State University Ethics Committee. Thirteen male cyclists (71 ± 9 kg; 176 ± 5


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cm; 253 ± 142 km.week−1) with at least two years of competitive experience were recruited for the study. All participants had been free of injuries for at least six months before the tests. Prior to tests, the subjects visited the laboratory to become aware of the purpose of the study and sign an informed consent. Schedules were set, and subjects returned to the laboratory to perform anthropometric measurements and a pre-ex-perimental trial to become familiarized with the equipment and the experimental protocol.

Participants were randomized into 2 groups and re-ceived caffeine (CAF) capsules (6 mg.kg−1) or placebo (PLA) 60 min before performing 20-km time trials in two different occasions separated by a minimum interval of 72 h. Therefore, the amount of CAF or PLA (maltodextrin) that the volunteers should ingest was determined from the body weight (i.e. a subject weigh-ing 70 kg would ingest 420 mg of caffeine or placebo). Subjects were instructed to abstain from any CAF in the 48 h before the test. Furthermore, instructions were also given to abstain from alcohol intake and strenuous exercise in the 24 h prior to visiting the lab-oratory. For inclusion in the study, volunteers should not use other nutritional supplements. Ambient tem-perature and relative humidity in the laboratory were maintained between 21-24°C and 55-60%, respectively, in all tests. The subjects performed the tests always in the same period of the day to avoid the potential influ-ence of circadian cycle.

During the time between ingesting the capsules and starting the test (60 min), the participants answered the Brunel mood scale (BRUMS) questionnaire, electrodes were placed, specific tests for EMG signal normalization were performed, and a 10-min warm-up was carried out.

Pre-experimental testPrior to the experimental tests, a maximal incremental test for determination of maximum parameters (power and HR) and physiological thresholds was performed, using specific software (Velotron CS 2008™ - Racer-Mate®, Seattle, WA, USA). After warming-up for 2 min at 100 W, the load was increased in 50 W at every 2 min until exhaustion or the inability to maintain the stipulated minimum cadence (70 rpm) for more than 5 s, despite verbal encouragement. The power reached in the last complete stage added to the product of the

percentage of the time spent in the exhaustion stage by the standardized increment (50 W) was considered the maximum power (345.0 ± 41.6 W). The highest HR value at the last minute of test was recorded as the maximum HR (192 ± 11.6 bpm).

Experimental protocolTime trials were performed in a cyclosimulator (Vel-otron™ - RacerMate®, Seattle, WA, USA), which was calibrated prior to each test, according to manufactur-er’s recommendations. The 20-km time trial was built in a straight line and 0° tilt using the same software used in the pre-experimental tests.

The subjects came to the laboratory on scheduled days and underwent a closed-loop test, in which they had to complete the 20-km time trial, in the shortest possible time with free choice of cadence and gear ratio, simu-lating an actual race. All participants received feedback on the time, power, RPM and distance traveled during the test on a monitor. Before, during and after the tests the following variables were analyzed: electromyo-graphic activity of the muscles rectus femoris (RF), vastus medialis (VM) and vastus lateralis (VL), RPE, mood, and HR.

Surface electromyography (EMG)The torque-velocity test (T-V test) was performed to normalize the electromyographic activity [18]. After a 10-min warm-up at 100 W, each subject performed two maximum bouts with duration of 8 s each, with an interval of 5 min between bouts. The load during the test was 7.5% of the volunteer’s body mass. Partic-ipants were instructed to remain seated throughout the test. The electromyographic activity of each muscle was examined between the second and eighth seconds of each maximum bout, and the highest peak ampli-tude found, expressed in root mean square (RMS), was used as the normalization factor.

Electromyographic activity was monitored continu-ously during the tests in both experimental conditions (CAF or PLA) using an eight-channel electromyo-graph (TeleMyo 2400 T G2 - Noraxon Inc., USA). The sampling frequency for EMG records was 2000 Hz and the factor of common-mode rejection ratio was greater than 95 dB. The muscles examined were the superficial quadriceps femoris (QF), RF, VM and VL. The signal was recorded following the recommendations by ISEK.


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After site preparation by shaving, cleansing with alcohol and curettage to reduce skin impedance, active electrodes (TeleMyo 2400 - Norax-on Inc., USA) were fixed to the skin, with inter-electrode distance (center to center) of two centimeters. The reference electrode was positioned over the iliac crest. The location of the anatomical landmarks for electrode placement followed the standardiza-tion proposed by SENIAM [19].

Analysis and processing of the EMG signalRMS (μV) values were averaged for each 30-s period and were used for the analysis of electromyo-graphic signals from RF, VM, and VL muscles and the integrated QF [(RF + VM + VL) / 3]. Data were pro-cessed using a mathematical simula-tion environment (Matlab 7.0 - Math-Works ®, South Natick, MA, USA). To obtain the values expressed in RMS, raw EMG signals were digitally fil-tered, using a band-pass filter of 20Hz and 500Hz, according to the proce-dures proposed by Dantas et al. [20].

Measurement of perceived exertionAll subjects were instructed to report their perceived exertion according to the 6–20 point Borg scale [21] at each 2 km of exercise. From these data, we determined the intercept on the y axis (y-intercept), the coefficient of determination (R2) and the slope between the time and the individual perceived exertion values attributed during each test obtained by linear regression analysis.

Psychological-motivational changesOn test days, subjects responded to the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) when they arrived and after the ex-perimental trial. This questionnaire was used for the detection of mood based on 24 questions, stratified into six areas, namely: confusion, anger, depression, fatigue, tension and vigor. Each domain score was nor-malized by the score obtained prior to the exercise by subtracting the scores at the end of the trial from the scores before the trial.

Heart rateDuring all testing protocols HR was monitored and recorded in RR intervals (ms) and beats per minute (bpm), using a heart rate monitor (Polar RS800CX - Polar®, Kempele, Finland). Data were recorded and stored for later beat-by-beat analysis of the heart’s R-wave signals through a coded Polar WearLink trans-mitter, positioned on the subject’s chest, allowing the transmission of data by telemetry.

Statistical analysesThe normality of data was assessed by Shapiro-Wilk’s test. Levene’s test was used to analyze the homogeneity of variances. Two-way analysis of variance (ANO-VA) for repeated measures was used for comparisons between conditions (CAF and PLA) and over time. The Bonferroni post hoc test was used when a signifi-

Figure 1

Figure 2


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cant F ratio was found for the main or interaction effect. A significance level of 5% was used for all analyzes.

Additionally, the practical inference based on magnitudes was also applied [22]. The chance of a given value to be beneficial (positive) or detrimen-tal (negative) effect [e.g., higher or lower than the smallest worthwhile changes (0.20 multiplied by the initial standard deviation based on the effect size)] was calculated [23]. Thus, the change was assessed qualitatively as follows: <1% almost certainly not; 1-5% very unlikely, 5-25% unlikely, 25-75% possible, 75-95% likely, 95-99% very likely and > 99% almost certainly yes. When the negative and positive values showed results greater than 10%, the inference was considered inconclusive. The effect size (Cohen’s d) was also calculated for the time trial performance and interpreted using the recommendations suggested by Hopkins et al. [22] as follows: 0 = Trivial; 0.2 = Small; 0.6 = Moderate; 1.2 = Large; 2.0 = Very large; 4.0 = Near-ly perfect.

ResultsInformation on power, speed, pedaling cadence, HR and 20-km time trial test duration for PLA and CAF conditions are presented in Table 1. No significant differences were observed between CAF and PLA concerning HR and all the performance variables (P > 0.05). The results of the qualitative analysis proved inconclusive (unclear). The effect size was 0.06, being considered trivial. Power output and speed at every two kilometers in the 20-km time-trial, for CAF and PLA, are illustrated in Figure 1. Although a similar response was observed among groups (P > 0.05), a significant distance main effect in the last two kilome-ters of the test was observed with increased power and speed (P < 0.001). However, no significant group main effect or group by moment interaction was identified (P > 0.05).The EMG pattern during the tests is presented in Figure 2. No difference was found between the two ex-perimental conditions (PLA and CAF) for the VL, RF, VM and QF muscles. Thus, no significant group main effect or group by moment interaction was identified (P > 0.05). There was a progressive increase in the RPE

during the test in both groups, without any statistically significant differences between them (P > 0.05). Only a significant distance main effect was identified for HR and RPE (P < 0.001). No statistically significant difference (P > 0.05) was detected in the RPE increase rate between groups (PLA = 0.88 points.km−1 vs. CAF = 0.95 points.km−1). Mood changes before and after the 20-km time trials are illustrated in Figure 3.

DiscussionThe main result obtained in this study was that the oral administration of 6 mg.kg−1 of body mass of CAF 60 min before the effort had no effect on the perfor-mance of cyclists in the 20-km time trial. The results also indicated that the use of CAF did not promote any changes in pacing strategy during the test or attenua-tion of RPE.

Although our results are interesting, comparisons with previous studies are really very difficult due to differ-ences in the protocols. In a time trial study performed by McNaughton et al. [16], although the distance was similar to that used here, the authors included some uphill stretches, which made the test harder, naturally forcing their athletes to assume different pacing strat-egies. Additionally, their subjects ingested CAF in the form of a low-kilojoule flavored drink, and the authors did not mention whether the subjects were able to distinguish between the drink containing CAF or PLA. In another study conducted by Ivy et al. [15], CAF was used in combination with other substances (labeled as an “energy drink”) to compete a fixed amount of work on a cycle ergometer in significantly less time than after consuming a placebo. Thus, the results of these

Figure 3


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studies cannot be compared with our results.

The stimulatory effect of CAF on the central nervous system appears not only to modify the parameters of motivation, but also to attenuate RPE, enabling cy-clists to sustain the discomfort caused by exercise. The magnitude of this effect has been reported to be close to 6% during constant load exercise, increasing time to exhaustion [10]. However, this effect was not observed in this study. Our results showed that RPE showed no differences when the two trial conditions were com-pared. The RPE increase rate verified by the slope on the regression plot for RPE values throughout the test, showed no significant differences between conditions (0.88 points.km−1 vs. 0.95 points.km−1, for PLA and CAF, respectively).

In open protocols, individuals usually must maintain a fixed work rate to exhaustion. Thus, the fact that there is no defined end prevents pacing strategy planning [14]. However, when the subject does not necessarily need to keep a fixed intensity, this allows the develop-ment of strategies during the race aiming at finishing in the shortest possible time. Therefore, investigations on CAF effect on performance in tests that mimic the actual conditions found in competitions could be more relevant and strengthen the importance of the results found.

Pacing strategy planning is centrally mediated. Due to its direct action on the nervous system, CAF should, therefore, influence and change pacing strategy during 20-km time trials. These changes should be observed by different power, speed and/or rpm behaviors dur-ing the tests. However, our results failed to show any influence of his level of CAF intake on pacing plan-ning. This confirms the results of Hunter et al. [14], who demonstrated that CAF not only had no effect on EMG, RPE, HR and performance (time) parameters during 100-km time trials, but it also had no influence on pacing strategy. Only in the final part of the test were significant differences in pacing strategy observed when compared to the remainder of the exercise. This has already been shown in a previous study where pac-ing strategy varied only minimally in the last 30 s of a 30-min time trial [24].

Few studies have investigated the effect of CAF with-out combination with carbohydrates on medium and

long time trial distances (>5 km) Bruce et al. [13] demonstrated that CAF ingestion significantly im-proved the performance of rowers in the first 500 of 2000 m trials. The authors suggested that CAF may act directly on subconscious brain centers responsible for pacing strategy planning during exercise [13]. On the other hand, Cohen et al. [25] showed a decrease in performance of 0.7% in a 21-km race protocol, after the subjects had ingested capsules of CAF (9 mg.kg−1) 60 min prior to the beginning of the exercise. In a 20-km race protocol, 60 min after the ingestion of CAF capsules (6 mg.kg−1), individuals improved perfor-mance in 1.7%, but this increase was not significant [26]. In this study, we found an improvement of only 0.46% (~10 s) in the performance, again not signifi-cant.

Throughout the test, EMG showed no differences between the experimental conditions and along the 20 km. Muscle activation during the tests was ~25% of the values obtained in the TV-test, with no signifi-cant changes at any time. This suggests the absence of peripheral fatigue during testing. Similarly, Hunter et al. [14] also failed to identify changes in EMG at any point along the 100 km time trial. During exercise, there is a decrease in muscular strength, and the am-plitude of the EMG signal should increase to sustain the same intensity of exercise and/or stay on the task, increasing the firing rate. As a result, the amplitude of the EMG signal should be higher for the same power. But we could not confirm the absence of neuromuscu-lar fatigue during the test as RPE gradually increased. These could be better discussed with the use of dif-ferent techniques for the assessment of central and/or peripheral fatigue, such as the level of maximal volun-tary activation measured by the twitch interpolation technique [27].

In the present study, the BRUMS’s scale, which is intended to allow a quick measure of mood [28], was applied immediately before and after the tests in order to verify possible changes promoted by the admin-istration of CAF (Figure 3). We expected that CAF would modify mood variation, relieving fatigue, and/or strength symptoms, which would explain possible improvements in performance. However, no signifi-cant differences were found between the experimental conditions.


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In the present study we aimed at controlling key varia-bles previously mentioned in the literature, to generate reliable and reproducible information. Thus, some methodological precautions were taken. It is known that several factors appear to influence CAF’s potential and magnitude ergogenic effects, such as the way the substance is administered (capsules, drink, or gum), the moment the substance administered (prior and/or during exercise), whether CAF is associated with some other substances (carbohydrate) or not, fasting status, and habituation, among others [3]. In the pres-ent study, subjects were asked to avoid eating foods containing CAF 48 hours before the test to minimize the possible influence of the level of habituation on the results. However, the level of habituation to CAF and the subjects’ eating habits were not directly controlled. It has been shown that after a period of 2 to 4 days of CAF withdrawal, a tendency to potentiate the effects of CAF on the protocol until exhaustion does exist, when compared to 0 days, but without any differences between those times [29]. However, in an animal mod-el, an increase in the number and affinity of adenosine receptors after 7 days of CAF abstinence was observed [30]. Hence, studies seeking to demonstrate the effect of a prolonged period (>7 days) of CAF abstinence on performance in humans could be of interest. In sports, it might be speculated that when habituation to CAF exists, a restriction in the consumption of this sub-stance for a period of approximately seven days may provide gains and/or potentiate the effect of CAF. But this hypothesis has yet to be verified.

Another limitation of this study was that athletes in the present sample only participate in local compe-titions making it difficult to extrapolate our findings to well-trained athletes, who compete internationally. This probably explains the low power values found here compared to studies that used well-trained ath-letes [31]. Unfortunately, studies with tests of similar duration that demonstrated an ergogenic effect of CAF alone [16] or in combination with other substances [15] have reported no data on the average power ob-served during the time trial, or the maximum power in the incremental test, again making comparison diffi-cult.

In conclusion, our results do not encourage the sup-plementation with CAF in a cycling time trial setting. Studies involving shorter protocols, similar to cycling

events, should be tested for better understanding the use of CAF in closed-loop protocols. Furthermore, future studies should also seek to demonstrate wheth-er CAF abstinence for longer periods could enhance performance on closed protocols and the mechanisms involved in fatigue during exercise.

Referencessee: http://www.jissn.com/content/11/1/45#article-ref-erences


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Keeping Up With The Timesby Roger Palin

IntroductionThe lasts decade has seen a huge explo-sion and developments in the technol-ogy industries that have made the use of technology such as GPS and action cameras much more accepted and far more user friendly.There has always been a selection of devices out there to choose from but in the last few years companies such as Garmin and GoPro and software apps such as Strava, UKBike Trails, etc. These have given rise to a videos, train-ing programmes and online diaries.So what big steps forward in technolo-gy is out there for us? And is this all a benefit to mountain biking communi-ty? Let's look at some of them and how they relate and benefit mountain biking.As there are so many products on the market it would be impossible to review them all, so in this case I will look at Garmin products and how they have combined their Vehicle GPS technology with cameras and soft-ware that many of its competitors will have to look at very carefully to keep up with or ahead of.So why have l chosen Garmin to illustrate what tech-nology is out there for the mountain biker? Simply put, there are a lot of independent companies with some fantastic tried and tested products, such as GoPro, Satmap, etc, but none of them match or offer the prod-uct connectivity that Garmin currently have.

The Fenix 2 Wrist Watch:This is new out this year and is a big improvement on the Fenix 1. It has all the original features but also has many of the fitness functions of the Forerunner series and some of the Edge series. Obviously being packed into a watch they are not quite as functional and if all the GPS tracking features are used then battery life is down to 18hrs. It also has the pretty nifty ability to be the remote control for the VIRB camera

Edge Series:The Edge series are designed for cyclist in mind. Depending on the model you can set training pro-grammes, have a virtual race, get different routes rec-ommended and control the VIRB. They can also share different maps, either turn by turn mapping or OS. Recording different locations on your device allows you to be directed to that place just as your car device would do. Hand Held GPS:The very impressive Oregon 600 series is one of the most user friendly units out there. Logging routes and way points, taking photographs, connect wirelessly to you devices, just couldn't be easier.

Above this is the phenomenal Monterra, this has everything you could dream of, able to surf the net and therefore download apps, you can customize this to your exact and specific needs.These also control the VIRB but also have their own dedicated 8mp camera that can shoot video as well as photos. And these can be shared with on the Garmin Connect site (along with all the other Garmin devic-es you own) and have all your routes and photos as a visible online log.


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VIRB Elite:There is the standard VIRB and an Elite. Both share the same house and cameras but the Elite has GPS functionality allowing you to geotag the photos and footage. It also has a clever stop start function when it recognises it’s not moving, so you don't waste time filming you waiting for your mates or stood in a lift queue.Once you connect your device on Garmin Connect you can then show your route, footage and sensor data easily without the need for 3rd party software.Is the VIRB a threat to the GoPro? Well the camera is only 30fps as opposed to 60fps on the GoPro, but it's the other tricks up its sleeve that separate the two cameras.

ANT+ Sensors:Adding a few extra bits to any of the devices above can really pull out their potential. The obvious one is the Heart Rate Monitor (HRM) and a quick scroll through the set up screen will enable you to see and record how your ticker fairs up and down hill.The bike sensors have a central hub that fits on the chain stay and this combines with magnets fitted to a spoke and on your crank arm that allow you to record your speed and cadence, two very useful bits of info. Those more road and performance orientated can even buy the Vector pedals, allowing you to analyse your power output, but at £1300 you really got to want to have that info.One more really handy add on is the Tempe. This fixes to a strap on your bag or clothing and gives an accu-rate temperature reading. This, being on the outside and away from your body gives a proper reading, rath-er than being effected by being next to your wrist.

The Connecting bit:So all that's pretty impressive stuff but there's definitely competitors out there who have similar or even better alternatives, so what makes the difference here?The connectivity between the devices, the remote control options and shared sensors is very cool but the party piece is Garmin Connect.Garmin Connect is where you register your devices and then have then download their route information. This plots the route on the map, records your speed, cadence, heart rate etc and then give you a fitness summary, whilst at the same time downloading your

photos to the route, giving you a logbook of the day’s events.Highly impressive stuff and whilst this may be possible with competitors products it certainly won't be with the same simplicity or connectivity.

So How Can We Use This As Instructors?Whatever devices we chose to use we must remem-ber they are there to enhance what we do as instruc-tors and not replace skills, knowledge and ability. An instructor’s traditional navigation skills must always be recognized as a core skill of their qualification. But for enhanced guiding other aids to navigation must be considered, and used effectively they will defiantly contribute to the package offered to your group.A base GPS with no mapping added will give peace of mind, providing a 6 figure grid reference but not much more. To get the most from a GPS, it should have a map card added then real time navigation can also take place, with the unit showing routes, directions, heights, position, distances to and some units giving times and speed information. This is information is obviously invaluable when answering your groups questions and planning for the day depending how the group is doing.With the online Garmin Connect pages you can plan a route and then upload it straight to your device, then simply starting the route, will guide you round. Con-versely, set off on a vague and unplanned day and on return you can download it and Garmin Connect will then do its magic and plan your route and if you've added some sensors then you'll see your speed, ca-dence, heart rate and other information.This is great to record as for someone trying improve their personal performances then it is possible to track trends and see where improvements have been made or need to be.The route can also be shared with members of the group and friends, allowing them to see your perfor-mances and then upload the route to follow or even to race you!

How can this aid Instructors manage safety effectively?Many people find the intrusion of electrical technolo-gy as an unwanted intrusion on their outdoor experi-ence and relish the freedom and commitment of being without any of these devices. But as an instructor of guide we have a duty of care to our clients and their families and as even the best of us


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can make mistakes, then carrying a GPS is one of the many options available to us that can help us stay on top of situations when things go wrong.With the evolution of Point of View (POV) Cameras, such as the GoPro, they are now common place on many outdoor activists’ helmets. Hopefully there to record your skills and prowess but occasionally captur-ing situations that may have been unexpected.One area of this is certainly on road riding and just a quick search on YouTube brings up many near car encounters of inner city cyclists. A double edged sword perhaps, but one that used correctly can be used to provide evidence and learn from past mistakes.So what about photos and videos? Many coaches use video evidence as a way of communicating the skills, requirements and outcomes of a performance. A good use of video is setting a task and videoing the out-comes. This can then be gauged to a performance cri-teria or simply by analysing against another performer or against an earlier performance of their own.Any use of video can be extremely powerful in helping the learners visualize there current performance. The Garmin VIRB is certainly capable of creating footage of the performance outcomes but to gain the most from this experience then there are plenty of 3rd party apps out there that maximize the potential of the video coach.One of the better apps is: Coaches Eye. This allows the video to be captured by the app and during playback the coach can play in slow motion, use a slider to move forward and back (frames at a time), draw lines and shapes on the screen and link two clips together in or-der to create a mirror comparison of their current and previous performances.As far as data analysis goes the GPS units can be used to in many ways. The Fenix 2 as well as being a GPS is also a fitness watch that will capture heart rate, speed, cadence, altitude, etc, that when put on Garmin con-nect will give the user a separate graph of each of these statistics and allow them to be compared to previous and future rides. This enables the performance of each ride to be analysed and reviewed to help with perfor-mance of fitness and technique.

The Downside of Technology?Whilst l have naturally focused on the benefits of tech-nology and how it can be used to benefit the end user there are naturally some downsides. Many a hill hoer has assumed the GPS unit will keep them out of harm’s

way, and in many cases this it will. However, once the battery has died, the unit been damaged or broken or a signal is not achievable, then the core skills of map and compass will have to be used, and it's now the rider’s skill that will be tested.Data capture is obviously a problem if it falls into the wrong hands, and the more we put online the more likely this is to happen innocent comments, such as off for a ride, or heading to the lakes for a weekend of mountain biking will often promote the fact that your house is empty.Indeed, certain apps, such as Strava, which have live track function, which used your divides to track where you are and instantly upload this information, where it can be seen by others, allow the unwary to broad-cast their proximity in relationship to their house, and some have returned to find their property has been broken into.In the day and age of photoshopping and body aware-ness, having devices that track and monitor your every move isn't always a good think and can lead to over training and more. Provided they enhance a coaching process or training programme then they are extreme-ly beneficial.

Technology and the Mountain Biker:Technology is now well and truly a part of our lives and its use in mountain biking is a natural one that greatly enhances our experiences and enjoyment.


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Arginine and antioxidant supplement on perfor-mance in elderly male cyclists

by Zhaoping Li

IntroductionHuman exercise capacity declines with advancing age and many individuals lose the inclination to partici-pate in regular physical activity. These changes often result in loss of physical fitness and more rapid senes-cence. A dietary supplement that increases exercise capacity might preserve physical fitness and improve general health and well being in older humans.

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) uses the ami-no acid L-arginine as a substrate to synthesize nitric oxide (NO). When released from endothelium cells, NO can dilate arteries to increase blood flow [1], help maintain endothelial elasticity [2], prevent platelets from adhering to artery walls [3], mediate erections through smooth muscle relaxation [4], and increase capacity for exercise [5]. In addition, NO can play an integral part in the immune system [6], assist in mem-ory function [7] and sleep regulation [8]. It should also be noted that in general, youthful, healthy and athletic individuals have a healthier eNOS system, compared to sedentary, unhealthy and aging individuals [9]. A healthy NO and vascular system facilitates the healthy function of arterioles that mediate oxygen delivery to multiple organs and tissues, including the muscles and kidneys that may impact exercise performance [10].

NO production diminishes in quantity and availability as we age and is associated with an increased preva-lence of other cardiovascular risk factors [11]. Hyper-tension has been shown to promote premature aging of the endothelial system in humans [11]. In individu-als with cardiovascular risk factors including hyperten-sion, hypercholesterolemia, smoking, diabetes, obesity, insulin resistance, erectile dysfunction, and metabolic changes associated with aging, supplementation with arginine has been shown to improve NO-dependent endothelial relaxation [12], and improving age-associ-ated endothelial dysfunction [13].

Antioxidants may prevent nitric oxide inactivation by oxygen free radicals. For example, Vitamin C has

been shown to improve impaired endothelial vasodila-tion in essential hypertensive patients, and effect that can be reversed by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-monomethyl-L-arginine[14]. There is also re-search indicating that the combination of vitamin C, vitamin E (1.0% to water) and L-arginine works syner-gistically to enhance nitric oxide production, through nitric oxide synthase gene expression[15]. A study in Atherosclerosis showed Vitamin E (1000 IU/day) improved endothelium health and increased eNOS expression in hypercholesterolemic subjects [16].

Therefore, the present study was designed to extend the above observations by testing the hypothesis that arginine and antioxidants in combination would en-hance performance as indicated by objective measures in a prospectively randomized, placebo-controlled trial in elderly cyclists.

MethodsHuman subjectsThe experimental protocol was approved by the Insti-tutional Review Board at the University of California, Los Angeles. All subjects were informed of the po-tential risks, benefits, and time requirements prior to signing a written informed consent.

Sixteen male cyclists were recruited to participate in the study through a cycling club in the West Los Angeles area. Men between the ages of 50 and 73 who performed at least 4 hours per week of moderate to intense cycling were screened for this study. Key ex-clusion criteria included smoking, a history of coro-nary heart disease, morbid obesity (BMI > 40), or any prior or current medical problems that would limit the subject's physical performance. The participants were apparently healthy and free of any significant medical problems. They were also not taking any medications that impact eNOS system, or other sports enhancing supplementations during the time of the study.


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Study designThis was a three-week, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical intervention trial. During the screening visit, a history and a physical examina-tion were performed. Baseline blood tests including a complete blood count, a routine chemistry panel, and a measurement of cholesterol were also obtained. All subjects underwent baseline exercise testing. If the subjects showed any evidence of ischemic heart disease based on EKG criteria, pulmonary or musculoskeletal diseases that prevented them from finishing the test, they were excluded from the study. If subjects qualified for the study, they were randomized to either the pla-cebo or the supplementation group in a 1:1 ratio. The supplementation began at week 0 after the baseline ex-ercise testing. The subjects returned to the study center at week 1 and week 3 for further exercise testing.

Performance AssessmentAt the initial screening visit, aerobic capacity and physical fitness were assessed by measuring maxi-mal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and the gas exchange anaerobic threshold (VO2θ) during a symptom lim-ited, incremental work rate exercise test, targeted to last between 8 to 12 minutes. Screening allowed for determination of whether the subject was physically fit to complete the study, could tolerate the experimental setup (including breathing through the mouthpiece), and permitted the subject to accustom to the study protocol. On subsequent visits, exercise endurance was assessed by measuring time to exhaustion at 60% of the maximal work rate achieved during the initial incremental work rate exercise test, with a targeted duration of testing between 45 minutes and 1 hour.

Incremental Work Rate Exercise Test (IWR) for VO2maxMaximal exercise performance was assessed using a symptom-limited incremental exercise protocol on a cycle ergometer [Ergoline 900S; Sensormedics Corp, Loma Linda, CA]. The external work rate was contin-uously incremented in "ramp" fashion by computer control. The rate of incrementation was judged for each individual subject by considering age, gender, height, weight, and level of habitual exercise activity with the intention of obtaining an exercise phase of 8-12 minutes before exhaustion [17]. The increment in resistance for baseline test and two subsequent tests for each subject was consistent.

Minute ventilation was measured using a mass flow meter; expired fractional concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide were continuously monitored by a paramagnetic oxygen analyzer and a non-dispersive infra-red CO2 analyzer, respectively [2900; Sensor-Medics Corp, Loma Linda, CA].

A 12-lead electrocardiogram was obtained at rest and every two minutes throughout exercise [Quinton 5000; Seattle, WA]; heart rate was monitored continuously by rhythm strip.

Constant Work Rate Exercise Tests (CWR)At baseline and final visits, subjects performed a constant work rate (CWR) exercise test at 60% of their maximal work rate determined from the initial IWR test. The experimental setup and monitoring for the CWR tests was identical to the IWR tests.

Subjects arrived at the same time of the day for the baseline and subsequent two visits. They were giv-en general instructions regarding what to eat and/or drink for breakfast on the day of each study, and reminded to ingest the same breakfast each time, so as to minimize variability due to glycemic status and/or time of day. During the endurance exercise test, cumulative oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide output were tracked. Following the test, lactate recovery was measured by earlobe prick lactate analysis at exhaus-tion and every 3 minutes afterwards up to 12 minutes [Accutrend Lactate, Sports Resource Group, Haw-thorne, New York].

When the subject signaled his desire to end the exer-cise (time of exhaustion), a button on the computer immediately converted the work rate to unloaded pedaling (no resistance) for a recovery period. Endur-ance was defined as the duration of the CWR exercise to the point of fatigue and expressed as total work performed.

Detection of the anaerobic threshold for lactate accu-mulation by non-invasive gas exchange measurements is inevitably subject to the possibility of observer error. In order to overcome this difficulty, we separately coded each of the sets of gas exchange data and pre-sented them to two experienced exercise physiologists who were blinded to the study design. A standardized approach to interpretation was agreed beforehand by


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these observers and has been previously validated [18].

Supplementation ProtocolThe proprietary supplement Niteworks® was manufac-tured by Herbalife International Inc. (Century City, California, USA). Each serving contained 5.2 g L-argi-nine in a proprietary blend with L-citrulline, 500 mg ascorbic acid, 400IU vitamin E, 400 μg folic acid, 300 mg L-taurine, and 10 mg alpha lipoic acid in a lem-on-flavored powder form. One serving of supplement powder was mixed with 8 oz of water, administered at bedtime based on the rationale that nitric oxide levels are lowest during sleep due to inactivity, lack of food and low blood pressure [19,20]. The placebo group received a powder with all active ingredients replaced with M-100 maltodextrin.

Blood TestsComplete blood count, routine chemistry panel, and fasting cholesterol were drawn from the subjects as part of the screening visit. Reduced and oxidized gluthathione levels were measured at each visit before and after the exercise testing in whole blood using the Bioxytech GSH/GSSG-412 kit from Oxis Research (Portland, OR).

Statistical and Data AnalysisThe data was analyzed by one single observer who was blinded and has had experience obtaining the thresh-old. The results were verified by the investigator.

All measurements were summarized using mean, standard deviation, median, minimum and maximum for each group at each time point. To summarize changes using mean and standard deviation for each group and at each time point, paired t-tests were used to evaluate whether change is different from baseline within each treatment group. Mixed model repeated measures analysis of variance was used to evaluate changes between groups, and the interaction between changes from baseline according to group. SAS sta-tistical software, version 9.1 was used to perform all analyses. All tests were two-sided with significance level 0.05.

ResultsSixteen cyclists were randomized to two arms (n = 8 in each arm) and all completed the study without any side effects. There were no significant differences in

subject demographics. The supplementation group had 8 Caucasian and the placebo group consisted of 7 Caucasian and one African American. The supple-mentation group's age ranged from 50 to 62 years with an average age of 57.6 years. The placebo group's age ranged from 50 to73 years with an average age of 60.6 years. The weight, height, BMI, blood pressure, rest-ing heart rate, blood count, and metabolic parameters including cholesterol were not statistically different between the two groups of subjects. There were no significant differences in baseline exercise parameters between the two groups (Table 1) including anaerobic threshold (2.04 ± 0.26 L/min and 1.89 ± 0.16 L/min in the placebo and supplemented groups, respectively).

After one week of study, the anaerobic threshold of the supplement group increased to 2.38 ± 0.18 L/min (an increase of 0.34 ± 0.061 L/min with a p-value of < 0.01), while the anaerobic threshold of the control group marginally changed and was not significant This increase in anaerobic threshold was preserved at week 3 with an average increase of 0.29 ± 0.06 L/min in the supplement group (for a total threshold of 2.33 ± 0.40 L/min), while there was no change in the control group (p = 0.21). Therefore, anaerobic threshold in the supplement group increased by 16.7% over baseline at week one and 14.2% over baseline at week three, respectively. (Figure 1, 2 and Table 2).We evaluated between group differences for anaer-obic threshold values at each time point. At week 1 (p = 0.01) and week 3 (p = 0.02), significant between group differences were observed with supplementation

Table 1


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means significantly higher than anaerobic threshold placebo means. We observed a significant interaction between group differences and change from baseline (p = 0.04). Minimal differences for power output (measured in watts) over time compared to baseline and minimal differences between placebo and supple-mentation were observed (interaction p value = 0.12).

While there was not significant change for the control group, the supplement group had a power output at week 1 of 177.12 ± 21.13 watts as compared with base-line of 154.62 ± 23.21 W. At week three, the increase of power output was sustained at 175.27 ± 36.61 W. This translated to an increase of 22.51 watts at week 1 and 20.66 watts at week 3 (p-value < 0.01).

The VO2max results are shown in table 2. There was not any significant change from baseline at neither week 1 nor 3 for either group. Other exercise measure-ments of blood pressure recovery, pulse recovery, peak lactate, lactate recovery, were not statistically between the supplemented and control groups. There were no

changes observed for oxidized glutathione between the two groups or over time.

DiscussionThe role of nitric oxide in cardiovascular health has been well described in literature. The effect of nitric oxide on exercise performance, however, has not been clearly elucidated. During a 5 week progressive strength training program, volunteers were given a supplement containing 1 g arginine and 1 g ornith-ine, or a placebo, each day. The results suggest that the combination of arginine and ornithine taken in conjunction with a high intensity strength training program can significantly increase muscle strength and lean body mass [21]. Campbell et al [22] observed that arginine and α-ketoglutarate positively influenced 1 RM bench press and Wingate peak power perfor-mance in trained adult men. Arginine was also report-ed to improve peak power significantly in non-athlete

men [23]. Conversely, a number of studies have failed to identify any beneficial ef-fect of arginine supplementation. Liu et al [24] investigated the effect of three day supplementation of 6 gram of arginine on performance in intermittent exercise in well-trained male college judo athletes and

found the supplementation had no effect on performance. Similarly, it has been shown that

supplementation of arginine aspartate for 14 days prior to marathon run did not affect the subsequent perfor-mance in trained runners [25].

In the present study, we demonstrated a statistically increase of 16.7% in AT after one week of supplemen-tation with L-arginine and antioxidants. The observed increase in AT was further validated by the increase of 22.51 watts of power output at AT. Based on our data, the supplementation group increased their power output at threshold. Therefore, these physiological changes should be associated with prolonged exercise and a higher work rate due to arginine and antioxi-dant supplementation. These data obtained were also remarkable in that every subject in the supplemented group demonstrated increases in anaerobic thresh-old, while none of the subjects in the placebo group demonstrated any increase.

Youthful, healthy, athletic individuals generally have a healthier NO system, compared with aging, unhealthy,

Figure 1

Figure 2

Table 2


23 Page

sedentary individuals [9]. In humans, exercise capac-ity declines with advancing age and many individuals lose the inclination to participate in regular physical activity. In healthy adults, arginine can be synthesized in sufficient quantities to meet most normal physi-ological demands with the rate of de novo synthesis remaining unaffected by several days of an arginine free diet [26,27]. Our study subjects had an average age >55 years, while other studies included young athletes [24,25]. This difference may explain the significant improvement on AT in our study.

As in other studies [26,28] we did not see an increase in VO2max, which is defined as the highest value of minute ventilation attained and measured during incremental exercise despite the increase in anaerobic threshold. A possible reason for this lack of increase could be the fact that VO2max, as its name implies, is also a maximum effort measurement and, therefore, is effort dependent. By contrast, anaerobic threshold is a more sensitive test to measure changes in exercise performance because it is a submaximal exercise meas-ure that is not effort-dependent. In a recent review in Journal of Applied Physiology [28], Saltin stated that VO2max is limited by cardiac output. With the current study design, we would not expect to see an increase in VO2max because there is no reason for the cardiac output to increase in these athletes.

It is unclear whether the increase in AT that we ob-served in this study was due to L-arginine alone, or a combination of the nutrients. Pre-treatment with vitamins C and E has been shown to block vascular dysfunction caused by a high-fat and high-sugar diet [29]. L-arginine, vitamin C, and vitamin E promote a healthy cardiovascular system by supporting enhanced NO production [15]. NO formation is further in-creased by the recycling effect of L-citrulline to L-argi-nine and the fact that L-citrulline is taken up into cells by a mechanism independent of that for arginine [30].

This study was performed in trained athletes who were without any cardiovascular problems. The role of L-arginine supplementation in cardiac patients re-mains controversial. Furthermore, it is also unclear if arginine supplementation in the sedentary population can have the same results. Further research will be needed to assess the interaction of these factors and to determine the effects of prolonged administration of

arginine and antioxidants on exercise performance.

ConclusionAn arginine and antioxidant-containing supplement increased the anaerobic threshold and the work at anaerobic threshold at both week one and week three in elderly cyclists. No effect on VO2max was observed. This study indicates a potential role of L-arginine and antioxidant supplementation in improving exercise performance in elderly.

Referencessee: http://www.jissn.com/content/7/1/13#article-ref-erences


Association of British Cycling Coaches

Pedal Power Conference 2014This year the annual Pedal Power Conference will take place on Sunday 16th November� The venue for the event is Ramada Hotel, Butts Road, Coventry CV1 3GG� The hotel has dedicated parking which is free to delegates and is a short walk from the railway station� As part of the package we have access to discounted room rates, which can be taken with or without breakfast� You can book by telephoning the hotel on 02476 238110, quoting “ABCC Confer-ence”�The cost for the conference will remain at £30�00� This includes a buffet lunch, tea, coffee, soft drinks and biscuitsA diverse programme will be provided� This year the presentations will be given by:

John is a senior lecturer at Chichester University and an experienced exercise physiologist who has worked with a range of groups from cardiac patients to elite level athletes� John is a keen athlete who regularly competes in endurance events� Each year he completes several long distance mountain bike challenges and participates in 24 hour mountain bike races� He has cycled most of the long distance bridleways in the UK and several in Europe and the USA, including the Great Divide, which is a 2,500 mile off road wilderness ride from Canada to the Mexican border� He is also a qualified mountain bike instructor� His research interests include the assessment of autonomic function and the effects of prolonged endurance exercise� Adam is a renowned time triallist, having won the Best British All Rounder title in both 2012 and 2013�In his work life Adam is a highly experienced IT professional and manager�Outside work Adam’s time trialling exploits will be known to many� Less well known will be his often controversial training methods� He has published an instructional book ‘Time-Trialling� Fly Through The Pain Barrier’� Which explains his ideas about cycling and routes to success�

Adam Topham

John Kelly

Guy has been a professional bike tester for 18 years working for all the major mountain and road bike magazines and global websites� He is based in Yorkshire just a few hundred metres from this years Tour De France Grand Depart route but has ridden all the significant bikes of the last twenty years all around the world� The recently published “1001 bikes to dream of riding before you die” turns the unparalleled experience and specialist knowledge of Guy and his team into a mammoth encyclopaedia� Covering the whole history of bikes from wooden striders to carbon fibres it’s loaded with fantastic stories, riding legends and the technological tapestry that binds them all together�

Guy Kesteven

Pro Ride Guides who are Britain's pre-eminent mountain bike coaching organisation will be attending� Giving an up to the minute presentation on off road riding� For over 10 years they have been coaching and advising elite level racers� In addition to coaching riders they run their own enduro team sponsored by Specialised� They also organise the internationally recognised 'Ard Rock Enduro, voted event of the year by Singletrack magazine in 2013�

"Riding through Glue� The performance leveller"� Mark returned to racing in 2002 after 13 years away from the sport and slowly chipped away at personal best times at 10 miles over the next 8 years as many amateurs do� Purchased a power meter in 2010 and realised that with a meas-ured metric such as power and a background in physics there was much that could be done with position to optimise performance� Having recorded over 15 19 minute ten mile TT`s on ~ 300 Watts (With the most significant being 19:10 off 294w) I believe that aerodynamics is a much over looked subject by riders and coaches alike and there is plenty to be gained�

Mark Jones

To book a place at this exciting event, please visit the following link:http://www.abcc.co.uk/product/pedal-power-conference

Documents

The Journal of - Association of British Cycling Coaches...2014/3 ISSN Number 1353-7008 2 Page Strength Training ... Squat, who once performed a squat with 1014 lbs across his shoulders