THE JOURNAL OF SOLID WASTE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT · the journal of . solid waste technology . ... journal of solid waste technology and management ... of the behavior of msw

THE JOURNAL OF SOLID WASTE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT Formerly The Journal of Resource Management and Technology (Volumes 12-22) Formerly NCRR Bulletin (Volumes 1-11) November 2017 Volume 43 Number 4

THE JOURNAL OF SOLID WASTE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT ISSN: 1088-1697

FOUNDER: Iraj Zandi University of Pennsylvania U.S.A.

EDITOR: Ronald L. Mersky Widener University U.S.A.

SENIOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Wen K. Shieh University of Pennsylvania U.S.A.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS Haluk Akgun Middle East Technical University Turkey Ofira Ayalon Samuel Neaman Institute, Technion, Haifa; Natural Resources & Environmental Research Center, University of Haifa Israel Cristina Braga Universidade Federal do Paraná Setor de Tecnologia Brasil Francesco Di Maria University of Perugia Italy Mervat El-Hoz University of Balamand Lebanon Matthew J. Franchetti The University of Toledo USA Noah I. Galil Technion—Israel Institute of Technology Israel Ilona Sárvári Horváth Swedish Centre for Resource Recovery University of Borås Sweden Chukwu Onu Southern University U.S.A. Adam Read Waste & Resources Management AEA U.K. David Smith The Regional Municipality of Niagara (retired) Canada Zainab Ziad Ismail Baghdad University Iraq

EDITORIAL BOARD Magdy Abdelrahman North Dakota State University U.S.A. Amimul Ahsan Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) Malaysia Steve Bloomer University of Teesside U.K. Sarvesh Chandra Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur India Jess Everett Rowan University U.S.A Patrick Hettiaratchi University of Calgary Canada Isam Janajreh Masdar Institute Abu Dhabi Gennaro J. Maffia Manhattan College U.S.A. Richard Marsh Cardiff University U.K. Franco Medici University of Rome “La Sapienza” Italy Yusuf Mehta Rowan University U.S.A. Ilan Nissim Israel Ministry of Energy and Water Resources Israel

Terry Tudor University College Northampton U.K. V. Sudharsan Varma ARO, Newe Ya'ar Research Center Israel N.C. Vasuki Delaware Solid Waste Authority (retired) U.S.A. Ming-Yen Wey National Chung Hsing University Republic of China Anita Závodská Barry University U.S.A.

The Journal of Solid Waste Technology and Management, is published by Widener University School of Engineering. The responsibility for contents rests upon the authors and not upon the University. This journal is available by subscription and may be purchased at the rates posted at ingentaconnect.com/content/jswt/jswt. Edi-torial and subscription address is: Department of Civil Engineering, Widener University, One University Place, Chester, PA 19013-5792, U.S.A.; Telephone (610) 499-4042; Fax (610) 499-4461. Email: [email protected]. Web site: solid-waste.org. Copyright © 2017 by Widener University. Printed in U.S.A.

ABSTRACTED/INDEXED IN: CAS database (Chemical Abstracts), Engineering Abstracts (Compendex), Environmental Abstracts, Environmental Periodicals Bibliography, Pollution Abstracts, All-Russian Institute of Scientific and Technical Information (VINITI, REFERATIVNYI ZHURNAL ), SCOPUS, Google scholar, EBSCO, SCImago, GreenFILE


273 EVALUATION OF DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE SITES BY GEOPHYSICAL TESTS

B.P. Naveen, T.G. Sitharam, P.V. Sivapullaiah 280 EVALUATION OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SATELLITE TOWNS OF MOHALI AND

PANCHKULA–INDIA Rishi Rana, Rajiv Ganguly, Ashok Kumar Gupta 295 SELF-POWERED WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK FRAMEWORK TO MONITOR BIN LEVEL S. R. Jino Ramson, Dr. D. Jackuline Moni, A. Alfred Kirubaraj, S. Senith 305 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOLOGICAL SOLID

WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000 (R.A. 9003) IN DAVAO CITY Saidamin P. Bagolong 310 DERIVING A PLANTING MEDIUM FROM SOLID WASTE COMPOST AND EXCAVATION

AND DEMOLITION RUBBLE Eleni Assaf, Nadim Farajalla 321 RELIGION ROLE ON COMMUNITY MOVEMENT FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Sophaphan Intahphuak, Narong Pamala, Boonyaporn Yodkhong, Anun Buakhiao


328 EFFECTS OF TRAINING AND PROVISION OF COLLECTION BIN ON SOURCE-SEPARATION OF SOLIDS WASTES AMONG WORKERS OF A TERTIARY INSTITUTION IN NIGERIA

O.O. Elemile, G.R.E.E Ana, M.K.C Sridhar 338 RETHINKING THE LAND APPLICATION VALUE OF MUNICIPAL WASTE COMPOST

THROUGH IMPROVED NITROGEN MANAGEMENT Michael J. Adelman, Arthur D. Kney, Brian C. Peacock, Megan B. Rothenberger, John E. Greenleaf 346 EUTROPHICATION OF WATERS AND SEDIMENT CAUSED BY RUNOFF AND LEACHATE

FROM THE SOLID WASTE COMPOSTING SITE OF SANANDAJ, KURDISTAN (IRAN) Dr. Zahed Sharifi, Sayd M. T. Hossaini, Giancarlo Renella

EVALUATION OF DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE SITES BY GEOPHYSICAL TESTS 273

EVALUATION OF DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE SITES BY GEOPHYSICAL TESTS

B.P. Naveen, Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Amity University Gurgaon, Haryana, India

T.G. Sitharam, Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

P.V. Sivapullaiah, Pro Vice-Chancellor, GITAM University, Bangalore, India

ABSTRACT Landfill design needs to consider dynamic properties for safety not only under static conditions, but also under dynamic loading conditions. In recent years, geophysical surveys are becoming popular mainly to understand the profiles within the landfills and estimate its dynamic properties like shear wave velocity, shear modulus and Poisson’s ratio. Shear wave and P-wave velocity (Vs, Vp) are very well related to the dynamic properties of soil at lower strains. Geophysical tests provide a direct measurement of Vs and hence widely accepted for the seismic site char-acterization purpose. In this study, seismic survey was performed using Multi channel Analyzer of Surface Waves (MASW) technique at Mavallipura landfill site, Bangalore. MASW test in-volves three steps: data acquisition, construction of a dispersion curve (showing the variation of phase velocity among various frequencies), and inversion of the dispersion curve to get shear wave (Vs) profile from the calculated dispersion curve. The typical MASW test setup used for the present study consists of 24-channel geode seismograph and 24 geophones of 4.5 Hz ca-pacity. Seismic data were recorded using geode seismograph with sledge hammer source on one side of the landfill and geophones on the other side with 1m spacing of geophones. The landfill was surveyed up to a length of about 25m from the top level. The deposit consisted of uncompacted waste up to a depth 6m with Shear wave velocity of 74 to 130m/s. Series of 1-D MASW tests have been carried out to map the entire solid waste site and the results will be presented in the paper. Overall, the results from the study showed that seismic surveys have the potential to capture the changes in dynamic properties like shear wave velocity and Pois-son’s ratio with respect to depth of MSW landfill to infer the extent of degradation and provide dynamic properties needed for seismic stability evaluations. Keywords: Municipal solid waste, Shear modulus, Seismic response, Poisson’s ratio

INTRODUCTION In-situ testing is the most reliable method for evaluating the dynamic properties of municipal solid waste in landfill. Recovery and testing of representative, undisturbed samples in MSW is very difficult. Due to limitations in the in-situ testing techniques it affects their applicability and conse-quently reliability of evaluated dynamic properties in MSW. Therefore, these measurements are made in existing MSW landfills while extrapolations are required for design of new landfills (Matasovic et al., 2011). The knowledge of the MSW mechanical properties plays a

vital role in landfill design. The MSW shear strength is a function of many factors such as compaction, waste type, cover, overburden pressure, etc. and evaluating the inclination to be given to the landfill slopes. This is turn governs the MSW landfill capacity also. Various approaches are possible to measure these MSW properties. However, the conventional laboratory tests face two main problems: the lack of repre-sentative of the MSW samples and odour problems. Because of these limitations, the number of published research articles is relatively low. Therefore, the use of in-situ has become an alternative, because it overcomes the above two limitations. In-situ procedures are quite fast and economical, making it

274 JOURNAL OF SOLID WASTE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT VOLUME 43, NO. 4 NOVEMBER 2017

possible to execute multiple tests in a short period and cover-ing a large volume of material. In-situ testing can be classified into two types namely direct measurements of the behavior of MSW and indirect measurement that rely on correlations or back analysis to evaluate the properties of MSW. Certain in-situ test method can directly measure the properties of MSW and similarly few in-situ tests can measure the other properties indirectly. Example, stiffness is measured indirectly and wave propaga-tion surveys for direct measurement of wave velocity. Cone Penetration Test (CPT) dilatometer (DMT) and Standard Pen-etration Test (SPT) can be used to identify the waste profile directly in field and shear strength parameters of MSW can be evaluated by indirectly. Field measurement techniques can be classified into intru-sive and non-intrusive techniques. Intrusive measurements include measurement made in borings or soundings like Seismic up-hole and down-hole, geophysical measurements like SASW (spectral analysis of surface waves), MASW (Multi analysis of surface waves) and various mechanical soundings testing like SPT, CPT, Pressure meter and Dila-tometer. The geotechnical engineers and geophysicists use surface waves for the geo material characterization. The basic principle is the same for all these applications: to use the ge-ometric dispersion of surface waves to infer the relevant me-dium properties by solving an inverse problem for parameter identification (Sebastiano et al., 2014). Surface waves are ideal for the development of noninva-sive techniques for material characterization from very small scale (less than millimeter), to a very large scale (more than a kilometer). The geotechnical engineers and geophysicists use surface waves for the geo material characterization. The basic principle is the same for all these applications: to use the ge-ometric dispersion of surface waves to infer the relevant me-dium properties by solving an inverse problem for parameter identification (Robert and Wride, 1997). Solid Waste dumped site materials are multiphase, com-plex, particulate and discontinuous with different constituents of municipal solid waste like glass, paper, organic waste, inert materials, etc., Material behavior cannot be described using simple models. From the initial stage of loading, municipal solid waste exhibit nonlinear and irreversible behavior. The wave travel through such materials and the two types of body wave propagate in an unbounded, homogeneous, and linear elastic medium namely P-waves (Primary or longitudinal or compression waves) and S-waves (Secondary or distortional or shear or equivoluminal waves). Primary waves propagate with particle motion in the same direction of the propagation and cause volume change without distortion. Secondary wave propagate with the particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The propagation of velocities of seismic waves in a linear elastic solid are associated with the medium’s mechanical parameters through relationships. The two elastic constants are used for the mechanical response of an elastic medium namely Lame’s constants λ and μ, the lat-ter being the shear modulus G in engineering notation. Seis-mic wave velocities can be expressed with relationships be-tween such constants and the material density ρ

G2Vp

(1)

GVs (Or) G = Vs2 ρ (2)

ρ = Density; Vs = Shear wave velocity; G = Shear modulus Changes in density with depth are usually small in compari-son to the change in shear modulus (G) and is normally ig-nored (or) assumed as constant. With known or assumed Poisson’s ratio, one can also obtain P-wave velocity (Vp) pro-file from Vs profile. In body waves, the velocity of propaga-tion is directly related to the stiffness of the medium and is not frequency dependent (in linear elastic materials). P-waves is associated with the young’s modulus, where as S-waves is associated with the shear modulus (Sebastiano et al., 2014). FIELD MEASUREMENT OF VS USING MASW

The MASW method was first introduced by Park [5]. MASW is a fast method of evaluating near surface (Vs) pro-file because the entire range of investigation depth is covered by one or a few generation of ground roll without changing receiver (geophone) configuration. In this test, a source can be created by striking the ground with a sledge hammer (5kg), which generates seismic waves that propagate through the soil and waves are measured by distant receivers called geophones(4.5Hz) aligned in an array and connected to a seismograph. Furthermore, the inclusion of noise wave fields such as body waves, reflected and higher modes ground roll can be identified by their different coherency in arrived time on a multichannel record and can be handled properly by various kinds of multichannel data processing techniques to improve the accuracy of the results from the analysis. The wave fields of horizontally travelling ground roll are recorded by receiv-ers (geophones) laid at the surface with certain spacing dx. Recorded wave fields are then analyzed at different frequen-cies (f) for phase velocity (Cf) based upon the difference (Δtf) in the arrival times of ground rolls at 2 receivers as. Spacing of geophone is dx; Frequency = f; Phase velocity = Cf ; Difference in arrival time = ∇tf , Cf = dx/∇tf The three main steps associated with MASW are: 1) data acquisition using multichannel geophones, 2) plotting the dispersion diagram and fitting a most appropriate dispersion curve to it, and, 3) extraction of the shear wave velocity (Vs) profile from the calculated dispersion curve using an inver-sion procedure. The MASW has been found to be a more efficient method (Park et al., 1999). Figure 1 showing the typical MASW survey.


Study area details The seismic surveys were conducted at the Mavallipura Landfill site, at, Hesaraghatta Hobli, Bangalore North. Figure 2. shows the Mavallipura site location in Bangalore. Waste was placed in the landfill from 2007 to 2013 at the rate of approximately 4,500 tons per day. The waste consisted of approximately 60% biodegradable waste and 40% non-

biodegradable waste. The typical height of solid waste dump-ing is 6m and the deposit consisted of uncompacted waste. 8 Borehole drilling were performed at the Mavallipura landfill. Auger drilling operation using a 150mm diameter is carried out in landfill site. The purpose of the auger drilling operation was to characterize the municipal solid waste visually, to re-trieve bulk samples of waste from different depths, of differ-ent degree of degradation and different age as shown in Fig-ure 3.

FIGURE 1

Schematic showing typical MASW survey

FIGURE 2

Area map of Mavallipura site (Courtesy: google earth images, https://maps.google.com/map)


MASW Testing carried out in Mavallipura Landfill Site The typical MASW test setup used for the present study consists of 24-channel geode seismograph and 24 geophones of 4.5 Hz capacity as shown in Figure 4. Seismic data were recorded using Geode seismograph with sledge hammer source on one side of the landfill and geophones on the other side with different spacing of geophones (1m). Figure 5 shows the MASW testing arrangement in landfill site. The landfill was surveyed up to a length of about 25m at

the top level. The deposit consisted of uncompacted waste up to a depth 6m. Landfill area is divided into 3 girds. Grid 1 consists of 2 bore holes and grid 2 and grid 3 consists of 3 bore holes each. MASW survey is carried out in each grid to map the entire solid waste site and landfill profiles are showed in Figures 6 and 7. shows the shear wave velocity increases with depth from approximately 74 to 130m/s. Figure 8 clearly shows that the top layer 0-2.5m depth is initial stage of degradation (anaerobic acidic phase) the shear wave velocity varies from 68-75m/s then followed by methanogenic phase i.e. 5-10m depth the shear wave velocity varies from 75-90m/s. Finally shear wave velocity increased

FIGURE 3

Typical bore log data & auger drilling for collection of waste samples

FIGURE 4

Spacing of geophone


from 90-130m/s because it consists of waste and soil. Carpen-ter et al (2013) reported similar shear wave velocity for Or-chard Hills landfill, Illinois, U.S.A. The shear wave velocity in the model range from 90 to 210m/s.

CONCLUSIONS In the present study, the seismic site characterization for the Mavallipura landfill site at Bangalore was performed us-

FIGURE 5

MASW carried out in landfill site

FIGURE 6

Landfill profile in grids 1-3


ing MASW. Major conclusions of this paper are as follows. Based on the site characterization at landfill site, it was

found that the Mavallipura landfill site can be categorized as very loose and it is still in a degradation process.

Shear wave and P-wave velocity profile for 8 major locations in the study area were determined and variation of waste material stiffness (shear modulus) corresponding to the in-situ state with depth, was also evaluated. The waste material stiffness of waste strata

corresponding to the undisturbed in-situ state is very essential for the ground response analysis.

Based on seismic survey results shows that the shear wave velocity increase from 90-130m/s at 10-15m depth due to mixture of soil and waste.

REFERENCES 1. Matasovic, N., El-Sherbiny, R., and Kavazanjian, Jr., E.

FIGURE 7

Shear wave velocity vs. Depth

FIGURE 8

Shear wave velocity vs. Depth


(2011) In-Situ Measurements of MSW Properties. Geotechnical Characterization, Field Measurement, and Laboratory Testing of Municipal Solid Waste: pp. 153-194. doi: 10.1061/41146(395)6.

2. Sebastiano Foti, Carlo G. Lai, Glenn J. Rix, Claudio Strobbia (2014) Surface Wave Methods for Near-Surface Site Characterization.

3. Park, C.B., Miller, R.D., & Xia, J. (1999) “Multichannel analysis of surface waves MASW,” Geophysics, Volume 64(3), pp. 800–808.

4. Robertson, P.K. & Wride, C.E. (1997) Cyclic liquefaction and its evaluation based on the SPT and CPT In In Proceedings of the NCEER Workshop on Evaluation of Liquefaction.


EVALUATION OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SATELLITE TOWNS OF MOHALI AND PANCHKULA–INDIA

Rishi Rana, Rajiv Ganguly, Ashok Kumar Gupta*

Department of Civil Engineering, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat, District Solan,

Himachal Pradesh 173234, INDIA

Tel.: +91-1792-239246, Fax: +91-1792-245362 [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The paper presents an overview of generation, collection, transportation, treatment and dispos-al of the existing solid waste management (SWM) practices in Mohali and Panchkula, satellite towns of Chandigarh. Daily average generation of solid waste in Mohali and Panchkula munici-pal corporation area is 150 tons/day respectively (0.267Kg/capita/day). The budget allocated for the financial year 2013-2014 for Mohali municipality was INR 6.5 crores (US$ 1million) and even less for Panchkula municipality which was insufficient to maintain a proper SWM system. The collection efficiency is about 60- 70% from registered households and 10-20% from the slums and surrounding villages in both the satellite towns. Drawbacks in the SWM system in-clude untrained work force, haphazard method of collection and lack of collection vehicles. The system analysis of the waste management in these two cities was determined using the ‘wasteaware’ benchmark indicators and remedial measures suggested. Keywords: Municipal solid waste management, landfill, Public-private partnership, Wasteaware benchmark parameters

INTRODUCTION

Increased industrialization along with high economic growth has led to rapid urbanization leading to production of a huge quantity of waste that is harmful for the existing envi-ronment. As such, an increase in municipal solid waste gen-eration has been recorded worldwide. Municipal solid waste (MSW) management has become a major issue due to poor waste management practices which affect the health and amenity of the cities. The quantity and composition of MSW vary from place to place, and is a reflection of the average standard of living (Hoornweg and Laura, 1999). Solid waste management has always been a pertinent issue for developing

countries (Shekdar, 2009). Solid waste generation in Indian cities per capita vary from 200-870 g/day depending upon the population and the economic potential of the city (Sharholy et al, 2008; Kumar et al, 2009; Agrawal et al, 2013). Table 1 shows the per capita waste generation rate depending upon the population of cities and towns (NEERI 2010). The classi-fications of cities have been based on the population within those cities. Recent studies carried out have indicated that urban area of India is responsible for generation of 48 million tons of municipal solid waste rising to about 250 million tons solid waste by 2050 (Sharholy et al, 2008). As such, municipalities of urban locations are responsible for the proper management

________________________________________ *Corresponding author

mailto:[email protected]

EVALUATION OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SATELLITE TOWNS OF MOHALI AND PANCHKULA–INDIA 281

of such huge amounts of wastes generated and the processes followed are often done in haphazard manner thereby reduc-ing efficiency. The problem is further exacerbated due to additional reasons including poor land use and its reduced availability, lack of proper technical skills in handling such huge volumes of wastes, lack of adequate finances and its management, non-coordination between different authorities and lack of definite legislative policies (Kumar et al, 2009). This often leads to illegal dumping without any regard for the environmental standards (Menikpura et al, 2013). This is true of the study regions wherein it has been reported that with enormous amounts of wastes being generated per day and limiting supporting infrastructure, the twin cities face serious threat of environmental deterioration and health hazards. The annual waste generation has been showing increasing trend in proportion to the rise in population and urbanization (Mor et al, 2006; Punjab Pollution Control Board 2010). Hence, in the above context, it is very important to ensure a safe and proper disposal of the generated solid waste to maintain the serenity and the efficiency of the city. However, disposal of solid waste is a serious problem because if burnt it can lead to increase in air pollutants and if openly dumped can lead to soil and water contamination of the surrounding regions (Lebersorger and Beigl, 2009; Ramachandra, 2009). In developing countries including India, unscientific disposal methods are most common and it has been reported that about 90% of the solid waste produced in India is dumped off di-rectly in the landfills in an unsatisfactory manner particularly in the bigger cities and towns (Hazra and Goel, 2009) Land-fill gas emissions emanating from landfills are also responsi-ble for causing global climate changes (Tan et al., 2014). This has led to an increased awareness in disposing of the generat-ed solid wastes in more environmental friendly manner (Nash 2009; Greene and Tonjes 2014).

Several literature studies have been carried out in Indian context for the proper management of solid wastes generated. The studies conducted vary from existing generation, collec-tion and disposal techniques (Rana et al, 2015), to future pre-diction of wastes based on increase in population predictions (Das and Bhattacharya, 2014) to organic and inorganic com-ponents of solid wastes (Rawat et al, 2013), leachate proper-ties of solid waste (Sang et al, 2010). Despite several studies reported in an Indian context, it is important to determine the main components for reduced efficiency in solid waste man-agement system as they may vary for different locations in-cluding lack of available data, poor planning and improper waste management practices (Lebersorger and Beigl 2011) The present study reports the functioning of the existing waste management system in Mohali and Panchkula, the two satellite towns of Chandigarh City identifying the major pa-rameters responsible for poor waste management practices. A system analysis of the municipal solid waste generated in the satellite towns has been evaluated by the ‘wasteaware’ tech-niques to evaluate its performance. The paper also presents the carbon credit potential for these two satellite towns. Fur-ther, the results from the system analysis results have been utilized for suggesting suitable remedial measures for better management of the solid waste generated.

METHODOLOGY Site Location Mohali is a satellite town adjacent to Chandigarh, lying within the coordinates of 30.78000 N, 76.69000 E. As per the latest population census carried out in India, it has a population of 9,86,147 in the year 2011 (National Census

TABLE 1

Per capita waste generation in cities and towns (NEERI 2010)

Classification Population Range Per Capita

Kg/day

Class 1 5,000,000 Above

0.605

0.448

0.464

0.487

0.448

0.436

1,000,000 4,999,999

700,000 999,999

500,000 699,999

400,000 499,999

300,000 399,999

200,000 299,999

Class 2 100,000 149,999 0.445

Class 3 50,000 99,999 0.518

Class 4 20,000 49,999 0.434


Report, 2011) and an area of 1160 Km2. It is divided into 3 tehsils comprising of 3 development blocks. It is a planned city like Chandigarh and the entire city has been divided in sectors and phases. Along with Chandigarh and Mohali, Panchkula, forms a part of the Tricity. Panchkula lies within the coordinates of 30.74000 N, 76.80000 E and is also a well planned city. It covers an area of 816 Km2 having a population of 5,61,293 in the year 2011 as per the latest Indian census report (National Census Report, 2011). Figure 1 shows the location of Mohali and Panchkula city. Mohali and Panchkula municipal corporation looks after the management of solid waste generated in the city. Wasteaware Benchmark Indicators

A safe and environmental friendly method of solid waste management is a global problem. Further, it suffers from two major issues including lack of suitable data and lack of per-sistent data which can be utilized for comparing the efficien-cies of solid waste management system for different cities. In this context, ‘wasteaware’ benchmark indicators were intro-duced which consists of both qualitative and quantitative in-dicators (Wilson et al, 2013; Wilson et al, 2015). Quantitative indicators comprise of Public Health-collection, Environmen-tal controlled disposal and Resource Management – reuse, reduce and recycling (as percentages) whereas the qualitative indicators are part of governance covering user and provider inclusivity; financial sustainability; and the national policy framework and local institutions (Wilson et al, 2013; Wilson et al, 2015). Matrix Method of Evaluation

A simple quantification method has been proposed using the matrix methodology and has been computed for a better understanding of the system analysis methodology carried out and explained in the earlier section. The proposed grading system used in the wasteaware benchmarks is low (L), Low/Medium (L/M), Medium (M), Medium /High (M/H) and High (H), a certain weightage has been assigned to each of these. The assigned weights are (L=1, L/M=2, M=3, M/H=4,

H=5). The parameters excluded for the study are the back-ground information of the cities and the composition of the waste fraction; since they are not utilized in the grading pro-cess.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Existing Problems in SWM system and possible solutions for Mohali and Panchkula

Source Separation. Source separation of waste leads to re-duced loads on landfills. Figure 2 shows the suggested source segregation using different color coding for different frac-tions of the waste. Similar proposals have been suggested for Chandigarh city (Khaiwal et al, 2015). Further, both the mu-nicipalities should undertake setting-up of biomethanation systems as has been proposed to setup for Chandigarh city. Further community composting will lead to reduction of large quantities of waste and transportation will become easier. Littering by residents after collection. Sweeping and waste collection is carried out almost on a daily basis in both satel-lite towns of Mohali and Panchkula but the littering caused by residents’ poses serious problems. This is particularly due to wastes generated from householders particularly from the slums, low-income and local shopkeepers who are frequently throwing the waste into streets, roads and open drains which cause excessive clogging and littering of drainage system in both the cities. To curb this, Municipal Corporation of both Mohali and Panchkula should notify the residents collection time of waste so as to avoid the littering and also to introduce monetary penalties for littering. The shopkeepers should be provided with the big containers which must be placed outside the shops for waste collection. Both municipal corporations should also spread awareness and education about maintain-ing cleanliness in public areas.

FIGURE 1

Location of satellite towns of Mohali and Panchkula


Poor Conditions of Collection Containers and Areas around them. It has been observed that about 60% of primary collec-tion and storage of waste is done using open storage enclo-sures resulting in unhygienic conditions, foul smell and odor and breeding off flies and other vectors. As a preventive measure, open storage containers should be completely elim-inated and must be exchanged with the closed containers with adequate spacing to hold waste. Further, these containers should be cleaned after waste collection. Proper volume stor-age containers provided will prevent waste spillage and will maintain hygienic conditions in areas nearby of the contain-ers. Distribution of Labor and Resources. Sanitation workers are assigned to different sectors of the satellite towns on the basis of population. Mohali has total 114 sectors and each sector is assigned with only 2-3 sweepers whereas Panchkula has only 30 sectors and each sector is assigned 2 sweepers (Personal

interaction with the sweepers of Mohali and Panchkula). For collection of waste from each of these sectors handcarts have been provided which are operated by a team of two persons. Workers and handcarts are allocated based on population, commercial activities and vehicle road kilometers in various sectors in both Mohali and Panchkula. Certain designated NGO’s supervise rag pickers for improving the collection frequency. The rag pickers must be motivated to work which can be beneficial to both sides. On one hand, it will help in separating out the biodegradable and recyclable waste which would help in improving the efficiency of urban solid waste collection and recovery and on the other hand would provide adequate and ample job opportunities for the informal waste collectors. Recycling and reclamation of waste are now strongly promoted for conservation of resources and prevention of environmental degradation. However, no recovery or recy-cling facilities exist in Mohali and Panchkula cities. Hence, it

Solid Waste Management

Street Sweeping Residential Commercial

Places

Institutional

Areas Industrial Areas

Door-Door Collection of Waste

Segregation at Source

Organic

Waste(Green

Bag)

Recyclable

Wastes(White

Bag)

Inerts (Brown

Bag)

Hazardous

Waste from

Household

Hazardous

Waste from

Household

Paper

Industry Composting

Methods Recycling Landfill CBWTF

WEE Recycling Unit

Leaves Waste

From Door-Door collection to SSKs From Door-Door collection to

SSKs

FIGURE 2

Proposed Waste Management Scheme for Mohali and Panchkula cities


proposed that there should be an introduction of formal recy-cling unit where there should be proper and formal recycling of waste so as to derive all the benefits associated with waste recycling. Presently, in Panchkula, there exist some local non-formal recyclers involved in recycling process and these informal recyclers mainly comprise of unorganized and un-recognized establishments and are not monitored by the gov-ernment and hence do not contribute to the economy. Inter-estingly, even informal recycling is not carried out in Mohali. Poor Working Conditions. Manual collection of waste with-out proper safety measures for the sanitary workers can lead to suffering from parasitic diseases like jaundice, diarrhea and trachoma (NEERI 2010, Bogale et al, 2014). Covered containers and handcarts and mechanical equipments should be used for avoiding manual collection. The residents should be encouraged to have separate containers to collect different types of waste which will help in reducing the multiple han-dling as well as poor productivity. Local bodies and NGO’s in each sector should conduct seminars making sweepers and rag pickers aware of the health hazards associated with such types of wastes. They should be made familiar with the prop-er procedures and methods to be followed during collection and segregation of the waste. The sweepers and sanitation workers should be provided with protective gear (like surgi-cal gloves) to reduce direct contact with solid waste. The sweepers should be advised to regularly undergo medical checkup. Inadequate Maintenance and Replacement of worn-out col-lection vehicles. The vehicles used for transporting the waste to the disposal sites in Mohali and Panchkula are obsolete. Use of such vehicles increase operation and maintenance costs and reduces transfer efficiency and also adds up to the air and noise pollution (Punjab Pollution Control Board 2010; Mohali Development Report, 2013). Proper maintenance of disposal vehicles must be done. An additional set of vehicles must be kept for emergency requirements too. Further, the vehicles should meet Bharat Stage IV standards, which are currently applicable to all vehicles in India. Collection and Transfer System. The collection and transfer of solid waste in both Mohali and Panchkula is carried out in a disorganized manner leading to reduced efficiency. There exists no appropriate collection route and is left to the drivers and every vehicle collects the solid waste along its route until maximum capacity of the vehicle is reached. Since the routes are not properly designed for avoiding traffic, reducing travel times, vehicles often travel extra distance or spend more time at same route leading to more fuel consumption and increas-ing operating costs (Personal communication with Municipal Corporation Mohali and Panchkula Employee, sweepers and drivers, 2015). Hence, the present approach is neither cost-effective nor resourceful. It is suggested that GIS based anal-ysis and optimization techniques must be used for determin-ing most favorable ways of utilizing the manpower and re-source available. Disposal Method. The waste collected from Mohali and

Panchkula cities are directly dumped at the disposal sites un-der unsanitary conditions (Personal communication with Mo-hali and Panchkula Municipal Corporation, 2015). Once the wastes are dumped on the landfills, they are covered with the malba or soil and leveled with bulldozers. No lining system exists for the dumping site to avoid the leakage of leachate from the waste to prevent contamination of the soil and ground water sources in the nearby vicinity. This leads to uncontrolled leaching and thereby contamination of ground-water. Such uncontrolled leachate percolation poses a tre-mendous health hazard from toxic metals (Data given by Municipal Corporation Mohali, Panchkula in the form of presentation, 2013-2015). It is suggested that proper-engineered landfills with proper leachate collection and ex-traction systems will help in minimizing the ground water contamination. In this context, the Municipal Corporations of Mohali and Panchkula have proposed an engineered landfill site and both the municipalities are acquiring different landfill sites which would be made secured landfills in village Samgauli and Jurriwala respectively. Assessment of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management in Mohali and Panchkula

MSW Stakeholders and Budget Allocation. Public Private Partnerships (PPP) are becoming a norm in the management of solid waste. The city municipal corporations often carry out collection and disposal of the solid waste and its usage including Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) is carried out by the private organization. Literature review suggests that all of the major cities in India are now operating under a PPP mode for effective SWM systems (Pfeiffer and Gerlagh, 2010). How-ever, till date, no PPP initiatives exist in Mohali and Panchkula Municipal Corporation. Due to lack of such col-laborations there is a high negligence in management of SWM in both these satellite towns. In comparison, its sister municipality Chandigarh has an agreement between govern-ment and private company functioning under the name of Green Tech Fuel Processing Plant. The company is responsi-ble for complete processing of the municipal solid waste and it derives the refused fuel which is then sold for commercial purposes. The total budget allocated in 2013-2014 for Mohali Mu-nicipal Corporation was INR 6.5 crores (US$ 1million) and even less for Panchkula which was insufficient for maintain-ing a proper SWM system in both these satellite towns. In both these cities, about 80% of total SWM budget is allocated for salary of sweepers and rag pickers and only about 7-8% is allocated for collection purposes, however the collection effi-ciency is about 60- 70% from registered households and 10-20% from the slums and surrounding villages. This propor-tion is significantly less than those of other similar tier-II Indian cities (Hazra and Goel, 2009; Rana et al, 2015).

MSW Generation. Characteristics of solid waste are important for devising effective strategies including collection and dis-posal systems for waste management to prevent any harmful


environmental impacts (Talyan et al, 2008). The major sources of municipal solid waste in both Mohali and Panchkula municipal corporation areas are residential areas, commercial areas, offices and institutions. Mohali and Panchkula generates 150 tons/day, i.e., 0.267 kg/capita/day. The sources of generation of waste obtained as a percentage of different constituents of Mohali and Panchkula are given in Table 2. The per capita generation of solid waste in India is comparatively less than other developed countries. For exam-ple, USA has the highest per capita generation rate of 2.58 kg/day (World Bank, 2014). Similarly, countries in the EU like Germany, France and UK, have higher per capita genera-tion rates of 2.11kg/day, 1.92kg/day and 1.79 kg/day respec-tively. In context of the developed countries in Asia, Japan and China have greater per capita generation rate of 1.71kg/day and 1.02kg/day. Amongst BRICS country, the per capita generation of MSW is less than other developed coun-tries but is still significantly greater than India. For example, Russia has a per capita generation of 0.93 kg/day while Brazil has a generation rate of 1.03 kg/day per capita. Figure 3 rep-resents the amount of waste generation in various countries around the world. The municipal solid waste generated from Mohali mostly comprises of organic matter (55%), paper (7.1), plastics and polythene (8.6), clothes (4.6), glass (1.22%), leather waste (0.99 %) and inerts (22.49%) (Punjab Pollution Control Board 2013). The density of waste for Mohali is estimated to

be 330 Kg/m3 (Personal communication with employee of Mohali Municipal Corporation, 2015). The chemical charac-teristics of waste indicate high moisture content (50%), Calo-rific value of (800-1010 Kcal/Kg) and C/N ratio of 31% (Punjab Pollution Control Board 2013). The municipal solid waste arising from Panchkula city also comprises of high proportion of organic waste, paper, plastic, polythene, glass and inert materials but their exact composition is not availa-ble (Personal communication with employee of Panchkula Municipal Corporation, 2015). The density of the waste from Panchkula is estimated to be 350 Kg/m3 (Personal communi-cation with Panchkula Municipal Corporation, 2015). MSW Collections Process. One of the major drawbacks in SWM system in India is inappropriate collection and storage of wastes and often single bins for all types of wastes are used (Das and Bhattacharya, 2014). Since Mohali and Panchkula both are satellite towns of Chandigarh City they have many similarities (Mohali Development Report, 2013). Both Mohali and Panchkula municipal corporation collects solid waste regularly employing methods including house-to-house collection and by street sweeping (Personal communi-cation with Mohali and Panchkula Municipal Corporation, 2015). For a better SWM system, Mohali and Panchkula have been divided into 114 and 30 sectors respectively (Mohali Development Report, 2013). Each sector is provided with two sweepers. Hand carts and tricycles with a broom are given to

TABLE 2

Sources of municipal solid waste in Mohali and Panchkula

Sources of waste Mohali Panchkula

Household Waste 35.6 34.9

Street Sweeping 22.0 20.7

Institutional Waste 15.0 13.2

Market and commercial Waste 27.4 31.2

FIGURE 3

Municipal solid waste generation in various countries


sweepers to sweep roads, lanes and collect the waste load it into handcarts and transfer the same to the open centers where the waste is stored till they are finally transported to the disposal site (Personal communication with Mohali and Panchkula Municipal Corporation, 2015). Waste is collected in handcarts and tricycles in both these satellite towns. Since both Mohali and Panchkula are satellite towns of Chandigarh, similar sized collection vehicles are used by both these satel-lite cities (Personal communication with Mohali Municipal Corporation, 2015). The volume of waste carried in handcarts is about 2-3 m3 (Rana et al., 2015). This is similar to contain-erized handcarts used in Kolkata having carrying capacity of 160 -200 litres (Hazra and Goel, 2009; Chattopadhyay et al., 2009) whereas in Delhi it varies from 1 – 4 m3 (Talyan et al., 2008). Sweepers also collect wastes from house-to-house on a daily basis due to high organic content of the waste but this is often not done properly and an overall collection efficiency of around 70% is achieved in Mohali (Personal communica-tion with Mohali Municipal Corporation, 2015) and around 60% in Panchkula which includes the registered households and slums (Personal communication with Panchkula Munici-pal Corporation, 2015). The main reason for low collection efficiency in Mohali and Panchkula is lack of adequate manpower and not being educated about the hazards of the solid waste. Both Mohali and Panchkula Municipal Corporation aims at providing a daily collection routine but lack of proper trained manpower, insufficient bin capacity leads to overflowing bins and odor problems emanating from different sectors in these cities. In Mohali, there is a shortage of storage centers and where pro-vided are not in proper conditions (Personal interaction with sweepers and locals of Mohali, 2015) while in Panchkula the lack of safai kendra in each sector reduces waste collection and storage in a systematic manner. Increasing the trained manpower and providing more solid waste storage stations in both these cities will help in increased collection efficiency thereby reducing the harmful effects due to the accumulation of the harmful odor and gases. Figure 4 shows how the col-lection is being done in carts and transferred to the primary

collection points. MSW Storage Process. Mohali Municipal Corporation has built temporary collection stations of waste from where it is transported to the disposal site by vehicles (trolleys, tractors etc.) but they are not available in every sector and are not well maintained in those sectors in which they are operation-al. The sweepers after collecting the waste from house-to-house take the waste to the bins having a capacity of 3-4 tons (Personal communication with Mohali and Panchkula Munic-ipal Corporation and locals of Panchkula, 2015). Often, they are set up in an open field with no proper facilities of bounda-ry walls or drinking and toilet facilities for sweepers and are often accessed by stray animals as possible food source. The boundaries of these storage stations are fenced by tin sheets (Personal interaction with sweepers and locals of Mohali, 2015). The solid wastes collected from domestic households are brought to these stations with the help of handcarts. Fur-ther, during transportation of waste, the waste is spilled on the roads by animals or due to current of air. This creates unhealthy conditions in nearby surrounding areas. Trucks, trolleys and dumpers enter these stations and load the waste to the disposal site. Segregation is done informally by sweep-ers and rag pickers. Unlike Mohali, Panchkula has no storage stations in any of the sector of Panchkula where the solid waste collected from domestic households can be stored temporarily before being taken to the disposal site. The solid wastes collected by the sweepers from households are stored in the temporary bins located at different locations within the sectors. These bins are placed at particular sites in each sector. Each sector has four bins. Not all the sectors have the facility of bins (Personal interaction with sweepers and locals of Panchkula, 2015). Further, the sweepers face enormous difficulty, as it is difficult for the sweepers to bring the handcarts to the bins every time since they are located haphazardly and in various undefined locations (Personal interaction with sweeper of Panchkula, 2015). For those sectors, not provided with bin collection facilities, sweepers themselves empty the handcarts

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4

Handcarts and containers used for Solid Waste collection in (a) Mohali and (b) Panchkula.


full of waste to the disposal site. This is one of the major drawbacks reducing the collection frequency of solid waste in Panchkula. To increase the collection efficiency, provisions of proper storage stations with drinking and toilet facilities for sweep-ers should be made. Since, these waste storage stations also serve as the segregation platform, no segregation is carried out in Panchkula thereby increasing the loads on the landfill. Figure 5a shows the waste storage stations in Mohali and Figure 5b shows collections bins used for temporary storage of waste in Panchkula Transportation of MSW. From the storage stations, solid wastes are directly transported to the dumping site. For col-lecting and transporting the municipal waste from storage container to the disposal site, Mohali Municipal Corporation has provided a total of 17 vehicles (JCB-1) (Personal com-

munication with Mohali Municipal Corporation, 2015), which include tippers (4), tractor trolley (4), tempo (5), dumper placer (2), and loaders JCB (1). The capacity of these vehicles varies from 2-4 tonnes. Similarly, Panchkula Municipal Corporation has provided 25 vehicles for collecting and transporting the municipal solid waste from different container bins to the final disposal sites (Personal communication with Panchkula Municipal Corpo-ration, 2015). These vehicles (2-4 tonnes capacity) include tractor trolley (20) and dumper placer (5). Figure 6a gives view of waste being transported to the disposal site for Moha-li and 6b for Panchkula. The routes used by drivers for transferring wastes are haphazard and depend on the existing traffic of that particular day. Waste is transported in a very inefficient way in open trucks and many times waste tends to fly from these trucks which lead to spilling of waste on road side. Further, the

(a) (b)

FIGURE 5 Storage of Solid Waste in (a) storage stations in Mohali (b) container bins in Panchkula

(a) (b) FIGURE 6

Secondary collection of solid waste (a) in Mohali (b) in Panchkula


wastes are neither cleaned nor given any treatment with sprays so as to avoid any contamination or spread of disease. Disposal of MSW. Previously, all the solid waste generated from domestic wastes, sludge generated from treatment plants were disposed in rivulets in absence of appropriate land as none was owned by the Mohali Municipal Corporation (Mo-hali Development Report, 2013). This caused environmental hazards downstream in the nearby slum area as heavy foul smell and leachate percolation was taking place as no preven-tive measures were ensured before dumping the waste in the rivulets (Mohali Development Report, 2013). In view of the above, a new site was acquired by the mu-nicipal corporation of Mohali at Sector 74, Phase-8B for waste disposal. This is shown in Figure 7a. Figure 7b shows

the actual dumping site. The dumping site covers an area of around 8 acres. More than 90% of the total waste generated in the Mohali Municipal Corporation area is disposed of at this disposal site (Mohali Development Report, 2013). After dumping of waste, daily a layer of 4 inch of soil is being laid on the dumped solid waste. Herbal sanitizer is being sprayed daily at the dumping site. Fogging of the dumping site is also being done on weekly basis. With the exception of the men-tioned simple methods, no further treatment of solid waste is being provided at the site (Personal communication with Mo-hali Municipal Corporation, 2015). The site used for dumping the municipal solid waste of Panchkula city is situated in sector 23 in Panchkula. Figure 8a shows a map depicting site of the dumping ground and Figure 8b shows the actual dumping site in Panchkula. The

(a) (b)

FIGURE 7

Layout of existing dumpsite in Mohali (a) Map (b) Actual dumping site location

(a) (b)

FIGURE 8

Layout of existing dumpsite in Panchkula (a) Map (b) Actual dumping site location


total area of dumping ground is 10 acres (Personal communi-cation with Panchkula Municipal Corporation, 2015). This dumping ground is in use for the past 15 years and about 95% of the total waste generated in Panchkula Municipal Corpora-tion is disposed of at this site. The solid waste reaching the dumping site is getting segregated at the site informally by the rag pickers. The waste is daily covered with a layer of silt from street sweepings, drainage cleanings and soil using a dozer and after that OS1 bacterial solution is sprayed to keep in check flies and mosquitoes. At present, no treatment is provided for the solid waste (Personal communication with Panchkula Municipal Corporation, 2015). System Analysis using Wasteaware benchmark indicators for sustainable waste management Previous studies of ‘wasteaware’ benchmark indicators include Chandigarh (Rana et al, 2015) and Surat (Wilson et al, 2013) for tier – II Indian cities based on the original pro-posed ‘wasteaware’ benchmark indicators (Wilson et al, 2013). However, after rigorous testing of the original ‘wasteaware’ benchmark indicators, certain changes were introduced to incorporate additional qualitative and quantita-tive indicators (Wilson et al, 2015). Using these new addi-tional indicators (Wilson et al, 2015), a ‘wasteaware’ bench-mark indicator has been developed for Mohali and Panchkula. Further, the previously generated benchmarks for Chandigarh (Rana et al, 2015) and Surat city (Wilson et al, 2013) have been updated using the new ‘wasteaware’ benchmark indicators and have been compared with ‘wasteaware’ benchmark indicators of Mohali and Panchkula. This is shown in Figure 9 wherein the ‘wasteaware’ benchmark indicators of Mohali and Panchkula have been compared with Chandigarh and Surat (tier-II cities in India) and Lahore (comparative city in Pakistan). Figure 9a

and 9b presents the radar diagrams for Mohali and Panchkula. Figure 9c presents the comparative radar diagram for Mohali, Panchkula, Chandigarh, Surat and Lahore. It is observed from Table 3 that all of these cities experi-ence similar nature of solid wastes generated with the highest proportion of organic waste. It is observed that Lahore city which has almost eight times the population of Chandigarh almost generates twice the amount of waste per capita due to higher population density. Interestingly, this is also observed for Mohali city which has a higher population generate lower waste per capita than Panchkula city which has a lower popu-lation. Further, comparison of the ‘wasteaware’ benchmarks parameters for Mohali, Panchkula, Chandigarh, Surat and Lahore shows that Chandigarh, Mohali and Surat have very good collection efficiencies as compared to Panchkula and Lahore which showed ‘low-medium’ and ‘medium’ index on ‘wasteaware’ benchmark indicators respectively. The major difference between Mohali, Panchkula, Chan-digarh, Surat and Lahore is in the disposal methods and in the efficiency of 3R method. While Surat scores a ‘Low/Medium’ index for environmental controlled waste treatment and dis-posal method as reported earlier (Wilson et al, 2013), Mohali and Panchkula scores ‘Low’ index similar to studies carried out in other tier – II cities of India including Chandigarh (Ra-na et al, 2015) and Lahore (Wilson et al, 2015) scores in the same category. This is because the disposal sites are unsani-tary landfill in nature. Though, EM and bacterial solution and leveling of waste are done, these are not proper engineering solutions to handle the hazards arising from solid waste. Fur-ther, there is no lining provided at the landfill site to prevent the percolation of leachate in groundwater thereby contrib-uting to environmental hazard. Further, Surat and Lahore scores a ‘Low/Medium’ index for efficiency of 3R methodology (reduce, reuse and recycle) as reported in earlier studies (Wilson et al, 2013; Wilson et al, 2015), however Mohali, Panchkula and Chandigarh (Rana et al, 2015) scores ‘Low’ index in the same category as no recy-cling facilities exists in these cities.

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 9

Radar Diagram summarizing the Wasteaware ISWM benchmark indicators for (a) Mohali (b) Panchkula and (c) comparison be-tween different cities


Quantification of indicators using Matrix Method of Evaluation

Using the methodology of matrix method as mentioned earlier, the weights were assigned for the respective indica-tors (in brackets) and has been presented in Table 4. The final scores obtained using the matrix methodology has been summarized in Table 5.

The matrix method for evaluation showed the best possi-ble results for Surat city with an overall score of 52%, being classified as L/M category. Qualitative and Quantitative pa-rameters for Surat were almost of equal score (Quantitative parameters = 50%, Qualitative parameters = 55%). In con-trast, the quantitative parameters were significantly less than the qualitative parameters for Chandigarh, Mohali and Panchkula. The overall classification of the three cities was in

TABLE 3

Comparison of Wasteaware parameters for Mohali and Panchkula compared with other tier –II cities of India and Asia

No. Category Indicator Chandigarh City Results Mohali City Results Panchkula City Results Surat City Results Lahore City Results Background Information of the City

B1 Country Income Level

World Bank Indicator Level

Lower-Middle

Lower-Middle

Lower-Middle

Lower-Middle

Lower-Middle

GNI per Capita $1,420 $1,420 $1,420 $1,420 $1,140

B2 Population of the City

Total Population of the City

1,055,450 9,86,147 5,61,293 4,600,000 8,160,000

B3 Waste Generation MSW Generation (tons/year)

13,5050 37,595 54,750 45,6250 1,916,000

W1 Waste per Capita MSW per capita (kg per year)

128 38.12 97.54 119 219

W2 Waste Composition 3 key fractions – as % wt. of total waste generated

W2.1

Organic

Organics (food and green wastes)

52%

55%

-

54%

65%

W2.2

Paper

Paper

6%

5%

- 8%

2%

W2.3

Plastics

Plastics

7%

4%

-

10%

12%

1.1 Public health – Waste collection

Waste collection coverage

90%(M/H) 90%(M/H) 60%(L/M) 95%(M/H) 77%(M)

1C Quality of waste collection service

90%(M/H) 75%(M) 60%(L/M) 95%(M/H) 58% (M)

2 Environmental control – waste treatment and disposal

Controlled treat-ment and disposal

30%(L) 30%(L) 30%(L) 55%(L/M) 8%(L)

2E Degree of environ-mental protection in waste treatment and disposal

L (0%) L (0%) L (0%) L/M (37%)

L/M (37%)

3 3Rs – reduce, reuse and recycling

Recycling rate

0% (L) 0% (L) 0% (L) 30% (L) 35% (M)

3R Quality of 3Rs provision

L (17%) L (10%) L (12%) L/M (29%) L (17%)

Governance Factors

4U

User inclusivity

User inclusivity

M (75%)

M (75%)

M (74%)

M (80%)

L/M (37%)

4P

Provider inclusivity

Degree of provider inclusivity

M (78%)

M (76%)

M (75%)

M (82%)

L/M (50%)

6N

Sound institutions, proactive policies

Adequacy of national SWM framework

L/M (60%)

L/M (60%)

L/M (60%)

L/M (60%)

L/M (29%)

6L Degree of institu-tional coherence

M (75%)

M (75%)

M (75%)

M (77%)

M/H (62%)


the low categories. Interestingly, governance factors for all the Indian cities were equal with 55% of weightage. The main difference between categorization of scores between Surat and Chandigarh and satellite towns is primarily due to increased scores for Surat cities for better environmental con-trol facilities (2 and 2E) and recycling facilities (3, 3R). Inter-estingly, no recycling facilities exist for Chandigarh, Mohali and Panchkula.

MSW processing and minimization

Recycling possibilities. The system analysis of the waste gen-erated showed the absence of recycling facilities in the satel-lite towns of Mohali and Panchkula, similar to Chandigarh (Khaiwal et al, 2015; Rana et al, 2015). This is a great setback to proper management of MSW generated in these two cities. To enable to have an operational recycling facility, proper segregation of waste should be carried out for the collected wastes generated from these two satellite cities. The munici-palities of Mohali and Panchkula should encourage this prac-

tice by utilization of rag pickers under the supervision of a local NGO. Similar practices have been followed in Chandi-garh (Khaiwal et al, 2015) and in Delhi (Aggarwal et al, 2015). A combined recycling unit could be set up to serve both the satellite towns. Recycling is one of the best methods that could be imple-mented successfully in the satellite towns of Mohali and Panchkula. There exists ample potential of recycling in both the satellite towns, primarily because the MSW generated from both these satellite towns consist of high fractions of recyclables (plastics, paper and glass). Unfortunately, no ded-icated recycling facilities are available in these two satellite towns. A plastic recycling plant for both these satellite towns will cost about INR 35-40 lakhs ($52000 - $60000). A similar plastic recycling plant was set up in Kozhikode (MSW gener-ation rate of 250TPD) in 2013 at a cost of INR 62 lakhs ($93000) was closed after sometime due to dispute between contractor and the state government. Latest reports suggest it will soon become operational again. A paper recycling plant of 1 lakh tons capacity would cost around INR 200 crores ($30000000). A recycling plant of such capacity is already in

TABLE 4

Weightage Assignment for evaluation using matrix method

No. Category Indicator Chandigarh City Results

Mohali City Results Panchkula City Results

Surat City Results Lahore City Results

Quantitative Indicators (Public Health, Environmental Control, 3R)

1.1 Public health – Waste collec-tion

Waste collec-tion coverage

90%(M/H) (4)

90%(M/H) (4)

60%(L/M) (2)

95%(M/H) (4)

77%(M) (3)

1C Quality of waste collec-tion service

90%(M/H) (4)

75%(M) (3)

60%(L/M) (2)

95%(M/H) (4)

58% (M) (3)


Controlled treatment and disposal

30%(L) (1)

30%(L) (1)

30%(L) (1)

55%(L/M) (2)

8%(L) (1)

2E Degree of environmental protection in waste treat-ment and dis-posal

L (0%) (1)

L (0%) (1)

L (0%) (1)

L/M (37%)

(2)

L/M (37%)

(2)

3 3Rs – reduce, reuse and recy-cling

Recycling rate 0% (L) (1)

0% (L) (1)

0% (L) (1)

30% (L) (1)

35% (M) (2)


L (17%) (1)

L (10%) (1)

L (12%) (1)

L/M (29%) (2)

L (17%) (1)

Qualitative Indicators (Governance Factors)

4U

User inclusivity

User inclusivi-ty

M (75%)

(3)

M (75%)

(3)

M (74%)

(3)

M (80%)

(3)

L/M (37%)

(2)

4P

Provider inclu-sivity

Degree of provider inclu-sivity

M (78%)

(3)

M (76%)

(3)

M (75%)

(3)

M (82%)

(3)

L/M (50%) (2)

6N

Sound institu-tions, proactive policies


L/M (60%)

(2)

L/M (60%)

(2)

L/M (60%)

(2)

L/M (60%)

(2)

L/M (29%) (1)

6L Degree of institutional coherence

M (75%)

(3)

M (75%)

(3)

M (75%)

(3)

M (77%)

(3)

M/H (62%) (4)


operation in Coimbatore in India. One of the major ad-vantages of the waste recycling is that a substantial amount of revenue can be generated which can be utilized for treatment cost of MSW. Recycling facilities provide tangible financial benefits from recycling of certain products and thereby also increase the lifespan of the landfill sites. Major infrastructural requirements for optimizing recy-cling activities are stakeholder infrastructure, cognitive infra-structure and recycling infrastructure. Stakeholder infrastruc-ture involves the decision-making capabilities of concerned stakeholders (government, contractors, and consumers) as their decision highly influences the results of the recycling period. Cognitive infrastructure depends upon the willingness of the consumers and general public to go for recycling pro-cess and in turn use reuse the recycled products so manufac-tured. An unwillingness to recycle products and reuse of such

goods may have severe detrimental effects on the recycling process. Recycling infrastructure deals with the actual daily processes involved in the recycling process. This includes existing infrastructure for collection, transportation, pro-cessing etc. Available resources for these processes can sig-nificantly affect the overall efficiency of the recycling pro-cess. Mohali and Panchkula together with Chandigarh are known as tri-cities and located in Northern India. Chandigarh serves as the capital of two of the most important states and is bordered on by satellite towns of Panchkula and Mohali without any actual physical demarcations. All the three cities have their own separate municipal corporations, which gov-ern the management of the MSW generated in their respec-tive cities. Further, Chandigarh has been designated as an important upcoming business city in India and there is ex-

TABLE 5

Summary of scores obtained using matrix method

No. Category Indicator Chandigarh City Results

Mohali City Results Panchkula City Results

Surat City Results Lahore City Results

Quantitative Indicators (Public Health, Environmental Control, 3R)

1.1 Public health – Waste collec-tion

Waste collec-tion coverage

4

4

2

4

3

1C Quality of waste collec-tion service

4

3

2

4

3


Controlled treatment and disposal

1

1

1

2

1

2E Degree of environmental protection in waste treatment and disposal

1

1

1

2

2

3 3Rs – reduce, reuse and recy-cling

Recycling rate 1

1

1

1

2


1

1

1

2

1

Total Score (Quantitative Indicators) 12 11 08 15 12 Maximum Score 30 30 30 30 30 Weightage (%) 40 37 27 50 40

Qualitative Indicators (Governance Factors)

4U

User inclusivity

User inclusivi-ty

3

3

3

3

2

4P

Provider inclu-sivity

Degree of provider inclu-sivity

3

3

3

3

2

6N

Sound institu-tions, proactive policies


2

2

2

2

1

6L Degree of institutional coherence

3

3

3

3

4

Total Score (Qualitative Indicators) 11 11 11 11 9 Maximum Score 20 20 20 20 20 Weightage (%) 55 55 55 55 45 Total Score (Overall) 12+11 = 23 11+11 = 22 08+11 = 19 15+11 = 26 12+09 =21 Total Maximum Score 30+20 =50 30+20 =50 30+20 =50 30+20 =50 30+20 =50 Overall Weightage (%) 46 44 38 52 42


pected to be a rise in increase in population and a possible increase in its business potential will lead to further increased MSW generation. However, these cities are mostly urban in nature with a well-educated population. Thereby, an increase in MSW generation may also lead to greater recycling productivity and with mostly of an urban population these satellite towns there exist possible consumer market for reuse of such recycled products. Utilization of RDF facilities in Chandigarh. Integrated Waste Management Techniques are highly preferred as they help in achieving potential economic and environmental benefits. The municipalities of the Mohali and Panchkula can utilize an existing and fully operational RDF unit in Chandigarh. The RDF plant located in Chandigarh has the capability of treating of 500 tons of waste per day (Khaiwal et al, 2015; Rana et al, 2015) with the average calorific value of RDF generated being 3100 Kcal/kg having moisture content less than 15% (Khaiwal et al, 2015; Rana et al, 2015). The plant utilizes about 30% of the fraction of waste received and only about 20% is converted to RDF fluff (Khaiwal et al, 2015).

Recent improvement and Interventions taken by Municipal Corporations of Mohali and Panchkula

The Government of India has launched a “Swachh Bharat Abhiyan”- “Clean India Mission” in 2014 for making efforts towards making substantial improvement in public health and thereby ultimately contributes to the national economy. In this context, the municipalities of Mohali and Panchkula have introduced many new resolutions for better solid waste management. This includes introduction of more number of garbage bins of appropriate capacity in different sectors. Fur-ther, both municipalities have sanctioned buying of more dumpers, trucks and containers for the financial year 2015-2016 (Personal interaction with the employees and drivers of Municipal Corporation of Mohali and Panchkula, 2015) for effective collection and disposal of solid waste. Both munici-palities are focused on overall development of an integrated solid waste management to effectively manage essential ac-tivities starting from segregation and storage of waste at the sources, implementation of public-private collaboration which will work towards the better and efficient integrated solid waste management. The development of an integrated system will optimize better utilization of the solid waste gen-erated by recycling, RDF, composting etc. As mentioned ear-lier purchase of new dumping sites fitted proper lining sys-tems to prevent leachate percolation and appropriate gas col-lection are already in process for both the municipalities. This will prevent contamination of groundwater in the nearby vi-cinities of both the cities. CONCLUSIONS The paper reports that daily average solid waste produc-

tion in Mohali and Panchkula are 150 tons/day. The collec-tion efficiency of Mohali and Panchkula is only 70% and 60% respectively, which is very poor. As such, the paper has also highlighted some possible reasons for such low collec-tion efficiency including existing deficiencies in the solid waste management system for both the satellite towns includ-ing insufficient manpower, insufficient number of bins and bin capacity in service for the different sectors in Mohali and Panchkula, non-maintenance of collection vehicles and hav-ing no defined routes for waste collection. Further, though collection centers are present in Mohali, they are not properly maintained and no collection centers exist in Panchkula. The paper has also suggested remedial measures to overcome some of the drawbacks including proper maintenance of col-lection vehicles, upgrading to new vehicles, installing ade-quate number of bins and bin capacity depending the popula-tion of different sectors in the two municipalities and proper design of collection routes to increase the efficiency. Further, recruitment and training of additional sanitary workers should be carried out to increase collection efficiency. Further, it has been determined that no PPP initiatives for SWM systems exist in either of the satellite towns and it has been recom-mended to implement such initiatives. The present landfill sites in Mohali and Panchkula have no proper lining system to control the percolation of leachate in the groundwater. Un-der the Clean India Initiative both the municipalities of the satellite towns are in advanced talks to purchase new landfill sites which will have proper lining system to minimize leach-ate percolation and avoid any groundwater contamination. The wasteaware benchmark indicators for Mohali and Panchkula show very poor performance in environmentally controlled waste treatment, disposal method of waste and the 3R methodology in comparison to Chandigarh and Surat (tier-II cities) in India.

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Chattopadhyay, S., A. Dutta, S. Ray. 2009. “Municipal Solid Waste Management in Kolkata, India – A review.” Waste Manage. 29:1449-1458.

Das, S., B.K. Bhattacharyya. 2014. “Estimation of Municipal Solid Waste Generation and Future Trends in Greater Metropolitan Regions of Kolkata, India.” Indus Eng Man-age Innov. 1:31-38.

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http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2013.42019

SELF-POWERED WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK FRAMEWORK TO MONITOR BIN LEVEL 295

SELF-POWERED WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK FRAMEWORK TO MONITOR BIN LEVEL

S. R. Jino Ramson, Asst. Professor, Dr. D. Jackuline Moni, Professor,

A. Alfred Kirubaraj, Asst.Professor, S.Senith, Assistant Professor

Dept. of ECE, Karunya University, Coimbatore-641114, INDIA

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Development of an application of Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) powered by solar energy harvesting system to monitor the unfilled level of bins through central monitoring system is pre-sented in this paper. The nodes called Solar Powered Wireless Monitoring Unit (SPWMU) are installed in each and every bin and the sensor present in the SPWMU measures the unfilled level of the bins and transmit the data to the Solar Powered Wireless Access Point Unit (SPWAPU). The SPWAPU receives data from the SPWMU’s and sends the data to the central monitoring station through a gateway and the level of the bins are monitored by using graphical user interface. The difference between experimental data and manual data have been evalu-ated, also battery charging time and life expectancy of SPWMU have been estimated. It is found that battery takes 6.26 hours to get fully charged and the charge will long last for 27 days 17 hrs. Even in worse cases like rainy days, the unfilled level of bins can be monitored perfectly without any interruption. Keywords: Solar powered, Bin, Solid waste management, Remote monitoring, Wireless Sen-sor Networks

INTRODUCTION Wireless sensor Networks (WSNs) are highly promising outfits in the field of remote monitoring [1]. Several monitor-ing systems have been implemented by using WSN [2-3] such as Solar Powered Aquatic environment monitoring [4], On-board monitoring of Railway Freight Wagons [5], Cattle health monitoring [6], monitoring an ozone sterilizer [7], monitoring radioactive materials [8], smart medication sys-tem [9] and so on. Solid waste management is one of the im-portant applications of WSN. Solid waste management is the process of collecting, shipping, treating and disposing of waste material. Improper handling of solid waste leads to unsanitary conditions and this can create environment pollu-tion and diseases. The responsibilities of handling solid waste present complex technical encounters. The critical issues in handling solid wastes are, if solid wastes are scheduled to

collect in daily basis, in case if the bins are unfilled, then it is wastage of time, fuel and manpower, and if the solid wastes are scheduled to collect in weekly basis, in case if the bins overflow, it spreads around the area, producing illness to the peoples and pollutes the environment [10-12]. Remote moni-toring system using wireless sensor networks resolve the above said critical issues and provide a clean environment. Several existing bin level monitoring systems have been im-plemented by using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology [13] - [15]. It uses RFID, Global Positioning Sys-tem (GPS), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Geo-graphic Information System (GIS) along with camera tech-nologies. All these have been integrated and mounted in bins and truck. Low cost cameras are mounted on the top of the truck in order to catch images and the images are transmitted from the truck to the designated server through GPRS con-nectivity. Then the level of bins have been determined by



using image processing techniques. The crucial problems of RFID technologies are, in order to measure bin level, the ve-hicle has to move around and snap images of each bin, dead areas and orientation problems, security concerns, ghost tags, proximity issues, unread tags and vulnerable to damage easi-ly. Wireless sensor network overcomes the above said issues. Only two works have been reported so far by using WSN [3]. [16] and [17] presents bin level monitoring by using WSN. In [16], the deployment of WSN is not clearly mentioned and no practical results were provided, and [17] shows the deploy-ment and evaluation of wireless links but the sensor nodes run with battery power which will last long around 28 days for 1000 mA*h batteries. Also, a computer is needed to send data for remote monitoring. This paper presents a WSN framework with solar energy harvesting which will overcome the above-mentioned issues. The rest of this paper is orga-nized as follows. Section 2 shows system description, Section 3 gives the results and discussion and the paper is concluded in Section 4. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION Figure 1 portrays the WSN framework proposed in this article. The proposed self-powered WSN framework mainly consists of SPWMU, SPWAPU, Router, and Graphical User Interface. The SPWMU is fitted in every bin, which measures the unfilled level of bins and transmit the data to SPWAPU.

The SPWAPU collects all the data from the SPWMU’s and sent the data to the central monitoring station or Municipal Corporation through the wireless router. By using Graphical User Interface, the unfilled level of every bins will be dis-played accurately in a laptop or mobile. The description and installation of SPWMU, SPWAPU, Router and Graphical User Interface are discussed in this section. SPWMU SPWMU mainly consists of an ultrasonic sensor, an eZ430-rf2500 end device board, batteries and solar panels. The installation of SPWMU into the bin is shown in the Fig-ure 2 and the block diagram of SPWMU is shown in the Fig-ure 3. The sensor used in this remote monitoring system is an ultrasonic sensor, which is fabricated into the bins to measure the unfilled level. The sensor includes ultrasonic transmitter, receiver and a control unit. It offers excellent non-contact range detection with high accuracy and stable readings with a range from 2 cm to 400 cm. It consists of 4 pins specifically, trigger, echo, Vcc (5V) and Gnd. This sensor is directly con-nected to the digital input/output lines of the MSP430F2274 microcontroller. A pulse of high (5V) with a time period of at least 10 microseconds is applied to the trigger pin, this will generate the sensor to transmit out 8 cycles of ultrasonic burst at a frequency of 40 KHz. This ultrasonic burst hits the waste which is present in the bin and reflected back. The echo pin is set to high (5V), when the sensor detected ultrasonic from the

FIGURE 1 Scenario of Self-powered WSN framework


receiver. The unfilled level is calculated by using the simple formula

TimeUnfilled level in centimeters = (1)58

Where, Time is the width of echo pulse in microseconds [18].

The RF network end device board used in this remote monitoring system is commercially available Texas Instru-ment’s eZ430-rf2500 board, which mainly comprises an ul-tra-low power consumption microcontroller (MSP430F2274) and a radio device (CC2500). The microcontroller includes a 16-bit RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) CPU, 16-bit register10-bit A/D converter, data transfer controller

FIGURE 2 Implementation of SPWMU

FIGURE 3

Block diagram of SPWMU


(DTC), two general purpose operational amplifiers and 32 input/output pins. The digitally controlled oscillator (DCO) which is present inside the controller is used to wake-up the controller from low power modes to active modes in less than 1µs. The radio device CC2500 is a low-cost, low-power con-suming 2.4GHz RF transceiver which is designed for low-power consumption devices. This device is used to transmit the data from SPWMU to SPWAPU. Once the SPWMU is initialized, it searches for SPWAPU to connect. Upon discov-ery of an SPWAPU, the SPWMU attempts a network link. Once the link is successfully established, a message array is created in SPWMU to store the unfilled level of bins. Now the radio device in the SPWMU goes to ON state. SPWMU waits for an acknowledgement (ACK) from the SPWAPU to transmit the data. Once the ACK is received, the created mes-sage buffer is divided into packets for data transmission. SPWAPU receives all the packets from SPWMU through polling method [19]. The microcontroller MSP430F2274 uses SimpliciTI protocol to control the packet transmission from SPWMU to SPWAPU. SPWAPU sends an ACK to SPWMU to stop the transfer. On receiving the ACK, the radio device CC2500 goes to OFF state. An unconditional loop at the end

of the program makes the flow to shift at point where the unfilled level value is stored in the message buffer. The proc-ess takes place in the SPWMU is stated in the Figure 4. Now, the process of sending ACK, dividing message into packets is repeated till the SPWPU is powered OFF [20]. SPWAPU Figure 5 shows the block diagram of SPWAPU. It con-sists of a RF network access point board which is also an eZ430-RF2500 target board, used in the receiver mode and a simple link Wi-Fi device CC3200. The SPWAPU searches for SPWMU device to receive data packets. When it detects a SPWMU, it assigns a linkID. After assigning a linkID it es-tablishes a connection for reception of the packets. A mes-sage buffer is created in SPWAPU to store all the data re-ceived from SPWMUs. SPWAPU process all the data packets received through the channel. Once the process is completed the connection with SPWMU for transmission of data packets is terminated.

FIGURE 4

Flow chart of SPWMU


The process takes place in the SPWMU is stated in the Figure 6. All the received data packets are processed in the SPWAPU and are sent to CC3200 simple link Wi-Fi device

through an UART backchannel [18]. CC3200 module is a wireless network processor from Texas Instruments that shortens the implementation of internet connectivity and in-

FIGURE 5

Block diagram of SPWAPU

FIGURE 6

Flow chart of SPWAPU


tegrates a high-performance ARM cortex-M4 microcontrol-ler, runs at 80 MHz. Once CC3200 is initialized, it will be connected to router (TP-Link TL-MR3020 Wireless Router). The values which were stored in CC3200 will be sent to the monitoring station. An unconditional loop at the end of the program makes the flow to move at point where the empty level value is kept in the message buffer. Graphical User Interface The graphical user interface uses Microsoft C# program-ming language based on .NET architecture which is shown in the Figure 7. The SPWAPU’s are connected to remote moni-toring station through client server TCP connection. CC3200 acts as client and remote monitoring PC acts as server. Once the client socket is opened, PC will be connected with server by means of IP and port number. Now the unfilled level will be sent to the client. Once the values are sent, the client socket will be closed. The process takes place in server side which opens the socket, creates a TCP server, listens for con-

nection, accepts a connection, receives packets and closes the socket. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Experimental reading vs Manual data An experiment has been conducted to evaluate the differ-ence between experimental reading and manual data. The unfilled level received from the sensors through wireless router is continuously monitored using the graphical user interface and the results obtained are displayed and discussed in this section. One time every second, the sensor unfilled level is received from the TCP connection and all the bins are mapped to their sensor unfilled value. Considering the bin levels and the maximum unfilled levels of the bins, the plat-form maps each bin to a colour code depending on the level to which the bin has been filled. The extreme value of the bins used in this experiment is 59.6 cm. The threshold levels used in this experiment is presented in the Table 1.

FIGURE 7

Screen shot of Graphical User Interface

TABLE 1

Threshold levels

UNFILLED LEVEL (cm) FILLED AREA COLOUR

STATUS

Unfilled level=59.6 Green Empty

Unfilled level >50 Green Lightly Filled

15< Unfilled level <50 Orange Partially filled

Unfilled level <15 Red Almost full


The Main window of the program displays entire regions representing the entire bins in the bin level remote monitoring system. The colour of the home screen is mapped to the col-our of the bin with the lowest unfilled level. Here the unfilled value of bin 1 is 10.8cm which is less than 15 cm. Hence, if any one of the bins is in the almost full or unfilled level<15 cm, the display on the home screen shows a red colour coded building draws immediate attention to the status of the system as almost full to the waste collector which is exposed in the Figure 8. The region image which is shown in the Figure 9 also serves as a progress bar that shows the average level of all the bins on the system. When the user clicks main window, a new window is displayed which shows a number of regions, each mapped to each region under the bin level monitoring system which contains bins fitted with the application sen-

sors. Each region icon is colour coded to show the level of their constituent bin with the lowest unfilled level. In Figure 10, the colour code of region labelled as region 1 is red, since the unfilled level value of bin 1 is 10.8 cm. Regions labelled as region 2 and region 3 are orange colour since the unfilled level values of the sensors are greater than 15 cm and region labelled as region 3 is green in colour because all the unfilled level values of the sensors are above 50 cm. Therefore, if all the bins under a region are in the safer level, the colour of region icon will be green. If anyone of the bins is nearly filled status, the colour code of the building will instantly change to red colour. The region icons also serve as a progress bar dis-playing the average value of bins that are under the specific region. When the user clicks a region icon, the application opens up another window that displays all the bins that are under the specific region. The bins show the exact level of their sensor inputs and are also colour coded according to its unfilled level values of the sensor. When the user soars his mouse over bin 1 of the bins, the deployed system displays a label that shows present unfilled value as 10.8 cm. In this way, the waste collector can monitor the level of each bin from a remote central station using the bin level monitoring system. From the graphical user interface, the readings of bin 1 is noted at different levels and equated with the manual data is shown in the Figure 11. Figure 11 clearly shows the difference between the manual data and the automated system readings. The difference between the experimental and manual data ranges from 0.2 cm to 0.9 cm, since the surface level of waste present in the bins. Energy Requirement The total energy required for SPWMU in sleep mode and active mode for 24 hours is calculated as 17.3009 watt-hour. The battery which is used to power up the SPWMU is Came-lion Nickel Cadmium of 1000 mAh, 1.2 Volts x 4 numbers and the size of the solar panel which is used to charge up the

FIGURE 8

The graphical user interface displaying overall levels of bin

FIGURE 9

The graphical user interface displaying overall status of each region

FIGURE 10

The graphical user interface displaying status of each bin in region 1


battery is 2 Watts. An experiment was conducted to find the battery charging time, and it is plotted in the Figure 12. From the figure 12, it is found that the total time taken to charge the battery is 6.26 hours (11.40 am to 6.06 pm) and the maximum current produced by the solar panel is 310 mA and the maxi-mum voltage is 6.19 Volts. Figure 13 shows the power supplied by the solar panel for different instants of time. From the figure 13, it is observed that the maximum power of 1.8662 watts is supplied by the solar panel. Once the battery is fully charged (charging time-6.26 hours), according to the calculation of life expectancy

[17], the charge will long last for 27 days 17 hrs. Even in worse cases like rainy days, the unfilled level of bins can be monitored perfectly without any interruption. WSN performance, Wireless Link Quality, Maximum distance data transmission The metrics related to WSN performance such as maxi-mum throughput, packet error rate, delay, and metrics related to wireless link quality such as Received Signal Strength In-

FIGURE 11 Experiment data versus Manual data

FIGURE 12 Battery charging current versus Time


dicator (RSSI) and Link Quality Indicator (LQI) have been analysed in [17]. From the experiment, it is observed that Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) values lies between 98.12 to 99.24 for RSSI values from -87 to -73decibels (dBm). Also, it is observed that PDR lies between 98.12 and 99.24 for Link Quality Indicator 223 and 237.The metrices RSSI and LQI clearly proves that excellent link (PDR more than 98%) which can be achieved when RSSI value is -87 dBm and the LQI value is 223. The excellent link quality between SPWMU and SPWAPU is achieved (PDR=99.24) when the RSSI value becomes -73dBm and LQI value becomes 237. Also, the maximum distance of data transmission between SPWMU and SPWAPU is found as 27 meters of diameter [17]. From the experiment, it is found that additional area of more than 27 meters of diameter needs additional installation of SPWAPU results in the movement of bins in bigger envi-ronment. CONCLUSION An application of Wireless Sensor Networks to monitor the unfilled level of bins through a remote central monitoring system has been designed and studied. Two important ex-periments have been carried out in this solid waste bin level remote monitoring system. Firstly, the remote monitoring system has been deployed and evaluated the difference be-tween system reading and manual reading, which is found to be 0.2 cm to 0.9 cm due to surface level of waste present in the bin. Secondly, battery charging time and life expectancy of SPWMU have been calculated and the battering charging time found as 6.26 hours and observed that the charge will long last for 27 days 17 hours. Even in worse cases like rainy days, the unfilled level of bins can be monitored perfectly

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http://www.ti.com/lit/%20ds/symlink/cc3200.pdf

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT 305

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

ACT OF 2000 (R.A. 9003) IN DAVAO CITY

Saidamin P. Bagolong

The University of Mindanao Daxao City, Philippines

ABSTRACT The implementation of Republic Act 9003 or known as the “Ecological Solid Waste Manage-ment Act of 2000” highlights the proper way of segregating waste disposal and assigns who shall be in charge in the implementation. This study aimed to determine the extent of commu-nity participation on the implementation of R.A. 9003 in Davao City. Descriptive-survey method was utilized to 100 selected respondents from 10 largest barangays in Davao City employing mean as statistical treatment. Findings showed that the extent of community participation in terms of solid waste management, penalties, and seminars and programs were high with a mean of 3.8, 3.7, and 3.6 respectively but on materials and utilities, and incentives were only moderate with both mean of 3.4. In spite of high community participation, respondents still need to be educated because some of the penalties imposed were not properly explained to them. Thus, a massive information education campaign is necessary to both the community and the barangay leaders along with other stakeholders. Keywords: Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, Republic Act 9003, Public Ad-ministration, Descriptive-Survey Method, Davao City, Philippines

INTRODUCTION

All individuals generate wastes. At times, the waste vol-umes are hardly managed and produced volume is greater than the volume which is responsibly handled (Mukisa, 2009). Similarly, other environmental issues such as pollution, fisheries depletion, human population growth, deforestation, and ozone layer degradation, exhibit these features as well (Sandler, 2010). These environmental problems are generally complex and blind to disciplinary boundaries. Efforts to de-vise long-term solutions require collaborative research that integrates knowledge across historically disparate fields, yet the traditional model for training new scientists emphasizes personal independence and disciplinary focus (Moslemi, et. al., 2009).

In the global context, waste management is one of the costliest public services. Conventional responses to collec-tion, transportation, treatment, and disposal of waste in an environmental friendly way became a burden due to the rapid increase in waste generation levels as a result of urbanization and economic growth (Memon, 2010). This management of waste is also a dilemma like in Surat, India, where disease outbreak and many incidents that caused threat to public health is rampant because of improper segregation of waste (Shalini and Kurian, 2012). In other developing countries, Philippines has been carry-ing the problem on waste management for years. Prior and after the creation and implementation of the Republic Act 9003, waste management has continued to be a problem. This Act takes a holistic approach in dealing with a problem and it acknowledges the important participation of all sectors for its


effective implementation (Atienza, 2010). Moreover, solid waste disposal practices in the Philip-pines involved mainly open dumping. In fact, in Davao City, open dumping occurred in a steep ravine along a major access route. As stipulated in Republic Act 9003, the need to adopt systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste man-agement programs shall ensure proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environ-mental practices in ecological waste management excluding incineration. Those wastes must be deposited in sanitary landfill to ensure protection of public health and environment (Official Gazette, 2001). Furthermore, the Local Government Units shall be pri-marily responsible for the implementation and enforcement of the provisions of this Act within their respective jurisdic-tions (Official Gazette, 1991). Section 10 of R.A. 9003 clear-ly states that segregation and collection of solid waste shall be conducted at the barangay (municipal administration dis-trict) level specifically for biodegradable, compostable and reusable wastes, and Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) must be established in every barangay or cluster of barangays (Section 1 of Rule XI of the IRR 9003), provided, that the collection of non-recyclable materials and special wastes shall be the responsibility of the municipality or city. It is in this context that this research is conducted to de-termine the extent of community participation on the imple-mentation of Republic Act 9003 in Davao City.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This study is based on theory of political participation which focused on political change that molds the stability of a political system where modernization is the opening of politi-cal participation. According to this theory, as modernization continues, societies will be more likely hard to handle and become chaotic. If the system of social modernization that caused chaos is not intertwined with the system of political and institutional modernization; the result would be violence (Huntington, 1968). Furthermore, in Chapter II section X of the R.A. No. 9003 mandated the role of Local Government Units in Solid Waste Management, “pursuant to the relevant provisions of R.A. 7160, otherwise known as the Local Government Code, the LGUs shall be primarily responsible for the implementation and enforcement of the provisions of this Act within their respective jurisdictions.” Hence, the role of the Local Government Units specifical-ly the barangays shall be seen as vital in cooperation with the other agencies/sectors as they constrain the action of the peo-ple.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of community participation on the implementation of R.A. 9003

in Davao City in terms of Solid Waste Management, Materi-als and Utilities, Penalties, Seminars and Programs, and Benefits/Incentives.

MATERIALS AND METHODS This study utilized the descriptive-survey method as part of quantitative research. Survey method is where participants answer questions administered through interviews or ques-tionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researcher describes the responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid, it is important that the questions are constructed properly (Jackson, 2014). A total of 100 respond-ents from the 10 largest Barangays in Davao City namely Lubogan, Mintal, Dumoy, Sasa, Lapu-Lapu, Hizon, Centro, Indangan, 9-A, and 37-D, were chosen to answer the survey questionnaire. For valid reliable interpretation of data, statis-tical treatment using mean was used to measure the level of community participation on the implementation of R.A. 9003.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This section presents the data gathered, analyzed and in-terpreted based on the statistical result to measure the extent of community participation on the implementation of R.A. 9003 in Davao City in terms of solid waste management, ma-terials and utilities, penalties, seminars and programs, and benefits/incentives.

Extent of Community Participation on the Implementation of Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 or the Republic Act 9003 in Davao City

Presented in Table 1 is the extent of community participa-tion on the implementation of R.A 9003 in Davao City which is measured based on five (5) identified indicators namely solid waste management, materials and utilities, penalties, seminars and programs and incentives. Based on the results, a grand mean score of 3.58 or high, indicates that the implementation was carried-out well and above the minimum requirement but not the maximum level of the implementation. Also, it manifested that the implemen-tation of R.A. 9003 was well-addressed according to the re-spondents but not always or regularly done. Thus, the baran-gays in Davao City gave high regard on the implementation of solid waste management program with 3.8 mean. As observed, in terms of solid waste management, four (4) items got a high descriptive equivalent which indicates that each barangay has created a committee which will be respon-sible for the implementation of the solid waste management with a mean score of 4.2 or high. However, on the implemen-tation of the “No segregation, No collection policy,” baran-gays moderately imposed this policy with a mean score of 3.45. Thus, the local government units are tasked to be the implementer and enforcer of whatever rules, but it is ob-


served that they do not completely conform to the rules and regulations on solid waste management and that the facilities are insufficient. All authorities should act towards betterment of the im-plementation of this Act since it is their responsibility. There must be well-crafted strategies to be made that would strengthen and enhance the system and eventually help lessen

the load of waste (Pathak, at. al., 2012). Similarly, for Local Government Units that lack political determination, a genuine responsibility and courage to manage waste; its operational platform, development, and sustainability are in jeopardy which will surely result to undesirable impact on the envi-ronment (Magante and Almase, 2013). In terms of materials and utilities, results showed that

TABLE 1

Extent of Community Participation on the implementation of R.A. 9003

STATEMENT MEAN DESCRIPTION

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 3.8 HIGH

1. The budget is enough for the implementation of Solid Waste Management Program. 3.7 High

2. The Barangay creates committee which will be responsible for the implementation of the Solid Waste Management Program.

4.2

High

3. The Barangay designates Solid Waste Enforcers at the collection area to monitor the proper disposal of wastes.

3.83 High

4. The Barangay strictly impose the “No segregation, No collection” policy. 3.45 Moderate

5. The City Environment and Natural Resources Officer (CENRO) monitors the participation of the Baran-gay in the implementation of Solid Waste Management.

3.82

High

MATERIALS AND UTILITIES 3.4 MODERATE

6. The Solid Waste enforcers inspected the garbage bins during duty time. 3.78 High

7. The Solid Waste enforcers segregate the unsegregated wastes in the garbage bins. 3.37 Moderate

8. The garbage bins are enough for the garbage disposal. 3.18 Moderate

9. The Barangay has a Material Recovery Facility (MRF) to dispose the waste products. 3.4 Moderate

10. The Material Recovery Facility stores waste in an ecological manner. 3.45 Moderate

PENALTIES 3.7 HIGH

11. The Barangay sets penalties to the violators of Solid Waste Management. 3.57 High

12. The Barangay orients the community about the nature of the penalties. 3.69 High

13. The penalties for the violators were done in a procedural manner. 3.57 High

14. The penalties charged is reasonable. 3.5 High

15. The imposed penalty restraints people from violating the Solid Waste Management Act. 3.96

High

SEMINARS AND PROGRAMS 3.6 HIGH

16. The Barangay conducts seminars to educate the people about Solid Waste Management. 3.85 High

17. The Barangay conducts seminars to lessen the load of the garbage. 3.73 High

18. The Barangay creates programs for women. 3.53 High

19. The Barangay creates programs for the youth. 3.34 Moderate

20.The community knows and participates with the programs and seminars conducted by the Barangay. 3.74

High

INCENTIVES 3.4 MODERATE

21. The awarding of incentives was based on the plans and programs of the Barangay. 3.77 High

22. The incentives given are difficult to achieve. 3.25 Moderate

23. Our Barangay receives an incentive. 2.96 Moderate

24. The incentives received are used to improve the implementation of Solid Waste Management. 3.28 Moderate

25. The incentives received motivates the Barangay to perform better. 3.71 High

GRAND MEAN 3.58 HIGH


solid waste enforcers inspected the garbage bins during duty time with a mean score of 3.78 or high, which implies that the barangays act and monitor the solid waste enforcers including properly inspecting the wastes as a way of complying with the guidelines of R.A. 9003. However, the garbage bins were moderately enough to accommodate garbage waste with a mean score of 3.18. Thus, the Local Government Units must be provided by the national government with technical assis-tance they need to develop their solid waste management programs, and monetary assistance for the establishment of their Material Recovery Facilities, build sanitary landfills, enough garbage bins and other environmental technologies that would help in addressing environmental problems (An-tonio, 2009). In terms of penalties, all items got the descriptive equiva-lent of high which indicates that the penalties were properly imposed. The imposition of penalty will restrain people from violating the Solid Waste Management Act. Violators of R.A. 9003 will make people more responsible for their acts and thus, it will restrict them on doing things that will cause vio-lation with a mean score of 3.96 or high. Moreover, charges for the penalties imposed for the violators were just enough with a mean score of 3.5 or high, which would mean that both the person in authority and the community participated well on the implementation of the law. However, despite its good implementation, the people were becoming hard-headed, hence, to discipline them, increase of fines and penalties for noncompliance should be obliged by the National Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC) to the local government unit to better implement the law as clearly stipu-lated in this Act. In this law, various list of unwanted acts were listed, namely: (1) throwing of wastes everywhere; (2) actions pertaining to the violation of cleanliness (3) burning of wastes in an open field, etc. (Ecological Solid Waste Man-agement Act of 2000) (Teves, 2014). In terms of seminars and programs, most indicators got a descriptive equivalent of high. The barangays conduct semi-nars to educate the people about Solid Waste Management with a mean score of 3.85 or high, which implies that the barangays have informed its residents on how they should act in accordance with the law. However, the barangays have not informed the youth about their important role in the imple-mentation of the law because of lack of programs created for them with a mean score of 3.34 or moderate. Hence, as stipu-lated in the R.A. 9003, apart from the role and responsibility of the local government to inform the people, it is also the duty of the non-government organizations and the civil soci-ety to take part. Information and education of the people is an immediate response as this task is also delegated to civil soci-ety and NGOs. Also, solid waste management is integrated in the curricula to enhance awareness and promote the right attitudes of the youth. As opined by Randy (2009), that well-informed and educated people will immediately respond to this call. Lastly, in terms of incentives, most of the items were rat-ed as moderately implemented. In spite of this, still, the ba-rangays highly implement the awarding of incentives based on their plans and programs with a mean score of 3.77, which implies that the respondents perceived that an incentive will

be given to the barangay only if the barangay is worthy of emulation. However, despite the award to be received by the barangays, few of them have moderately received an incen-tive with a mean score of 2.96, which implies that the re-spondents observed that there were only few barangays re-ceived an incentive. Although essential on motivating the people and the barangays, the respondents barely feel that it has to be properly observed. Thus, the act (R.A. 9003) gives emphasis to the need of having incentives in order to pursue an effective management of waste and encourage the com-munity and the local government units to participate (Ong, 2009) and that giving incentives to people who actively par-ticipate with the plans and programs by the government will do, because an incentive motivates people to participate and do their tasks not only for providing recycle services but also in all aspects that would help iron out problems pertaining to waste management (Halvorsen, 2010). Over-all mean showed that the extent of community par-ticipation on the implementation of the R.A. 9003 or also known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 in Davao City is high, but as observed, there are still guidelines on the law which are not totally participated. In fact, materials and utilities and incentives got the descriptive equivalent of moderate which means that there are loopholes and lapses that should be addressed and given attention by the local government unit as the main implementer of the law. CONCLUSIONS Upon analysis of the data gathered, the researcher con-cludes that communities in Davao City highly participate on the implementation of R.A. 9003 or the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. However, in spite of high participation, community respondents still need to be educat-ed because some of the penalties imposed were not properly explained to them. Thus, a massive information education campaign is necessary for both the community and the baran-gay leaders along with other strategies.

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DERIVING A PLANTING MEDIUM FROM SOLID WASTE COMPOST AND EXCAVATION AND DEMOLITION RUBBLE

Eleni Assaf

Department of Landscape Design and Ecosystem Management [email protected]

Nadim Farajalla, Ph.D.

Climate Change and Environment Program [email protected]

Issam Fares Institute for Public Policy and International Affairs

American University of Beirut P.O. Box 11-0236, Riad El-Solh/ Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon

ABSTRACT

The combination of construction, demolition and excavation (CDE) waste along with the in-crease in solid waste generation has put a major stress on the country and on the management of its solid waste. Compounding this problem are the issues of quarries closure and rehabilita-tion and a decrease in forest and vegetative cover. This research aims to provide an integrated solution to the stated problem by developing a “soil mix” derived from a mélange of the organic matter of the solid waste (compost), the CDE waste, and soil. Excavation and construction de-bris were ground to several sizes and mixed with compost and soil at different ratios. Replicates of these mixes and a set of control (regular soil) were used. In this mix, native and indicator plants are planted (in pots). The plant species used are Mathiolla crassifolia and Zea mays (Corn). Results have shown successful growth of both corn and Mathiolla seedlings in the mix-es with higher amounts of construction rubble and compost i.e. Rubble: Soil: Compost Ratio of 2:1:1 and 1:0:1. However treatments with no compost and with less quantities of rubble demon-strated the inability of the soil used to sustain plant growth alone (1:1:1 and 1:1:0). Last but not least, the control consisting of soil only ended up being the weakest mix with yellow corn leaves and small Mathiolla seedlings fifty days after planting and fertilizing. Additionally, soil analysis, rubble and compost analysis were conducted. The samples were tested for heavy metals, nu-trient availability and values of pH and EC. No contamination has been reported and an abun-dance of macronutrients and micronutrients was documented for the soil and compost. High al-kalinity is due to the presence of concrete and the high percentage of Calcium Carbonate in Lebanese soils. Accordingly, the most adequate mixes for planting are treatments A (2:1:1) and B (1:0:1) and they should be pursued for a pilot scale study.

INTRODUCTION Lebanon’s rapid urban expansion (1% annual growth rate according to the World Bank, 2012) and high urban popula-tion density, is one of the main factors contributing to envi-ronmental degradation by converting more agricultural lands into buildings and houses. Additionally, the absence of na-

tional policy enforcement leads to uncontrolled real estate development, quarries, haphazard dumping of municipal solid waste etc. However, Ministries and Stakeholders are not pas-sive about the subject and many initiatives have been taken in order to reduce the environmental impact of a growing popu-lation that often disregards the influence that human activity has on the ecosystems surrounding it. Out of the many envi-



DERIVING A PLANTING MEDIUM FROM SOLID WASTE COMPOST AND EXCAVATION AND DEMOLITION RUBBLE 311

ronmental problems that Lebanon needs to address, two are the target for this research: quarries and construction and demolition waste. The latter have major impacts on both en-vironmental and socio-economic levels. Both problems are part of the same cycle: As the population grows, the demand in the construction sector increases, more older buildings are torn down to make room for new larger buildings leading to more construction and demolition waste being generated and more raw materials being required, thus more quarries are active. Accordingly, measures need to be taken to control both the quarrying sector in Lebanon and the construction and demolition waste management practices. Treatment and management practices of construction and demolition waste need to be optimized to reduce the impact on the environment as well as society. Lebanon has a major problem in handling its construction and demolition waste (CDW) waste as well as its municipal solid waste (MSW). The main reason behind this challenge is the ever-expanding construction industry that was first boost-ed in the early 90s after the war, and the “emergency demoli-tion waste” (Tamraz et al., 2011) generated during the war of July 2006 and the Nahr El Bared conflict in summer of 2007. The volumes generated were estimated at 3 million m3 in 2006 and 0.6 million m3 in 2007 (Tamraz et al., 2011). The rubble was disposed of in temporary reclaimed sites; howev-er, until today the waste is still there with no apparent plans to remove it. Unfortunately, Lebanon has no official man-agement plan for CDW, not enough landfill space for dispos-al of the waste and very little knowledge on the environmen-tal and economic benefits of CDW recycling (Tamraz et al., 2011). Additionally, between the years 1996 and 2005 the num-ber of quarries, in Lebanon, increased from 711 to 1278 quar-ry and the quarried land area increased from 2875 ha to 5283 ha during that period (Darwish et.al, 2008). Weak national policies and institutional frameworks for the quarrying sector contribute to development of quarries without any environ-mental consideration (Darwish et.al, 2008). Quarries develop without a post-operation reclamation plan leading to consid-erable impact on natural resources. To make matters worse, the quarrying industry’s annual production is estimated at 3.0 million m3, which is not enough to accommodate the annual demand for construction that is of 3.77 million m3 (Tamraz et al., 2011). An impact assessment of the quarries showing the degree of impact that the different quarrying sites in Lebanon have on natural resources was conducted by Darwish et. al in 2011. The findings of the study state that nearly a quarter of all quarries (929) have moderate to high impact on natural resources in Lebanon, while only 349 have a low impact. The study attributed this fact to the haphazard distribution of quarrying sites that are in turn a result of failed national poli-cy. The purpose of this study is to ultimately provide a poten-tial solution to a dual problem faced in: management of con-struction and demolition waste on one hand and the rehabili-tation of abandoned quarries on the other. The planting medi-um created could be used to backfill abandoned quarries where the topsoil has been removed and thus accelerate the recovery process.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Materials used in this experiment consist of construction demolition waste (CDW) namely concrete blocks, organic compost and soil. In addition, the plants used are Mathiolla crassifolia and Zea mays, commonly known as corn. Mathiolla crassifolia is a native Lebanese species that is clas-sified as a pioneer species occurring during the first stages of succession. It is a coastal wild flower that grows on rocks in proximity to other plant communities. Experimental Design In this research, five different planting mixes are assessed in which two different plants are grown. The experimental design consists of five treatments and one control treatment applied to both Mathiolla crassifolia and Zea mays (corn). Five replicates of each treatment were prepared; thus, the experiment consists of 50 pots in total. The five treatments were designed as follows:

Treatment A: 2:1:1 (CDW: Soil: Compost) Treatment B: 1:0:1 (CDW: Soil: Compost) Treatment C: 0:1:0 (CDW: Soil: Compost) Treatment D: 1:1:1 (CDW: Soil: Compost) Treatment E: 1:1:0 (CDW: Soil: Compost)

The pots for the various treatments and control were placed in an open area exposed to the elements. Beirut’s cli-mate is typically Mediterranean with an average of 620mm falling in a relatively short rainy season from November to March followed by a long dry season. The experiment began in February 2014 and ended in September 2014. Figure 1 illustrates the layout of the pots in the experimental design as adapted in the greenhouse. The weight capacity of each pot was determined to be 8 kg. The mixture quantities for each treatment were deter-mined by a weight ratio of each constituent. Figure 2 shows the weight allocation for each treatment. EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE Preparation of the Mixes The materials needed to constitute the mixes were brought in over a period of one month. The compost was first ac-quired and three bags of 25 kg of organic compost from the local solid waste management company, Sukomi were deliv-ered on February 10, 2014: They were opened up and aired out to dry. Next, blocks of concrete from a building renova-tion site were collected (see Figure 3). The collected concrete was ground (Figure 4) in an industrial grinder (see Figure 5). Soil from a nursery was brought in to the greenhouse area. The materials were mixed according to the ratios mentioned in the experimental design.


Figures 6 through 10 show the different mixes on day one of the experiment. The different colors of the mixes are dis-tinctly apparent. Planting and Monitoring Plant Growth Seedlings of Mathiolla crassifolia were planted in 25 pots (Three seedlings per pot) and Zea mays (corn) seeds were

planted in the remaining 25 (five seeds per pot) on April 4, 2014. A week later all treatments were fertilized with N: P: K 20:20:20 over seven days in irrigation water. Each treatment was irrigated on average with 8 Liters of water every day, in which 2g of the stated fertilizer were added. By the end of the seven days each pot had received 1.75g of fertilizer. The experiment was conducted for a period of 40 days and growth patterns of the plants were documented through-

FIGURE 1

Experiment Layout

Treatment Number Treatment Type Required Ratio (Rubble:Soil:Compost)

Required Quantity of Rubble (Kg)

Required Quantity of

Soil (Kg)

Required Quantity of

Compost (Kg)

Total Weight of Material

(Kg)

Treatment A 2:1:1 4 2 2 8

Treatment B 1:0:1 3 0 3 6

Treatment C Control 0:1:0 0 6 0 6

Treatment D 1:1:1 2 2 2 6

Treatment E 1:1:0 3 3 0 6

FIGURE 2 Experimental Design

FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4 Concrete Blocks Ground Concrete


out that period. Traditional plant growth analysis is adopted in this study since the primary aim is simply to test the ability of the dif-ferent treatments to sustain plant growth. Therefore, in this experiment, the indicators used to assess successful plant growth were:

Number of plants in pot Average Height of the plant or Stem Length Fruit/Flower

The number of plants, number of flowers per plant and the number of leaves per plant were all counted manual-ly. The height of the plants and the length of the leaves were measured using a regular ruler. Laboratory Analysis In addition to the physical attributes, chemical attributes

FIGURE 8

Treatment C (0:1:0)

FIGURE 9

Treatment D (1:1:1)

FIGURE 10

Treatment E (1:1:0)

FIGURE 5

Industrial Crusher

FIGURE 6

Treatment A (2:1:1)

FIGURE 7

Treatment B (1:0:1)


of the input materials were also analyzed. Samples of all three input materials (Soil, CDW, and Compost) were ana-lyzed for the presence of some heavy metals and for available nutrients. Triplicate samples of each material was taken be-fore mixing and prepared for analysis. Table 1 lists the ele-ments that were tested for in each sample. In order to analyze the samples using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy for the presence of heavy metals and available trace elements in the input materials, the samples were first digested or extracted. For the determination of heavy metals, ground concrete was digested using 1M HNO3 and boiled for 10 minutes. The analysis of the compost was also done using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy but the samples were pre-pared using dry digestion. As for the available trace elements in the soil, samples were digested using DTPA. The laboratory analysis included testing of available mac-ronutrients, micronutrients as well as Cadmium and Lead which are classified as heavy metals. Macronutrients and micronutrients are essential to plant growth however the presence of cadmium and nickel in the soil highlights a con-tamination. The main sources of Cadmium are phosphate fertilizers, coating of metals, fireworks and rubber as well as nickel-cadmium batteries (Alloway, 1990). It is also found in rock formations in Lebanon (Abou Mosleh, 2005). Nickel on the other hand comes from magnetic tapes and nickel-cadmium batteries (WHO, 1991). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Different growth patterns were observed during the exper-iment which means the plants interacted differently with each of the mixes. Measurements were collected in the first four weeks of the experiment and the last four weeks of the experiment. The first four weeks of the experiment data on the emergence and initial rate of growth were collected particularly for corn. Mathiolla served more as an indicator of plant survival and establishment in the different mixes. Thus, emergence and establishment of the plants were mainly assessed in this phase

of the experiment. PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES Corn The physical attributes that were measured in order to evaluate growth of the corn crops during the twelve weeks of experiment include: number of plants in pot, average height, number of leaves, average length of leaves and the pres-ence/absence of flower. The first two weeks of the experiment, all treatments were found to be growing at the same rate (see Figure 11). This is probably due to the fact that the seed was still the main source of nutrients. By the end of week 3 in the control treatment, treatment C, plants were growing a little faster than all the others. Treatment B started off as the weakest among the five treatments in terms of germination and sur-vival, with most of the Mathiollas wilting and germination of fewer corn seeds. By the end of the first month (Figure 12), difference in growth was still not very significant among the five treat-ments. As shown in Figure 11, crops were growing at approx-imately the same rate in all treatments: all were at about the same height, same average number of leaves, length and col-or of leaves. In treatment C however, leaves of plants started becoming chlorotic, this remained throughout the rest of ex-periment. Additionally, by the end of the first month, the germina-tion rate of the corn seeds could be measured. Figure 13 summarizes the germination rates of all five treatments. Twelve weeks after planting, significant difference in growth was observed among the five treatments. In terms of stem height, treatment A (2:1:1, CDW:Soil:Compost) was the highest, followed by treatment B (1:0:1, CDW:Soil: Com-post). Although these two treatments did not have the highest germination rates (72% and 56% as shown in Figure 13), the seeds that did germinate reached an average height of 110-120 cm (Figure 11) by the end of week 12, which is the high-est among all five treatments (see Figure 14 and Figure 15).

FIGURE 11

Corn Growth Over Time

TABLE 1 Elements for Testing

Soil Concrete Compost

Texture pH pHpH EC ECEC Na C:N Ratio

%OM Cl %OM%CaCO3 Cd P

P Pb KK FeFe ZnZn CuCu MnMn Cd

Pb


Also, by the end of the experiment, corn in treatments A and B had reached Silk stage of the flowering phase in corn crops which is the last stage before Yield Formation (see Figure 16). Treatment D also reached Silk stage where flowering oc-curs even though the plants did not grow as healthy and big

as in treatments A and B. Treatments C (Control) and E re-mained the smallest and weakest among treatments exhibiting the shortest average stem height (up to 30 cm), the least num-ber of leaves, length of leaves and the leaves in both treat-ments were chlorotic (see Figure 11). Both treatments did not reach flowering stage. Furthermore, Figure 14 and Figure 15

FIGURE 12

Pot Experiment Week Four

Treatment Germination Rate

A 72%

B 56%

C 68%

D 84%

E 96%

Corn Germination Rate per Treatment

FIGURE 13

Corn Germination Rates

FIGURE 14

Pot Experiment Week Eleven


show the difference in leaf color among the treatments -treatments C (0:1:0, CDW:Soil:Compost) and E (1:1:0. CDW:Soil:Compost) exhibit an obvious chlorotic leaf color that began to appear on the fourth week as previously men-tioned and which remained all throughout the experiment. The treatments containing compost were more successful than the ones containing no compost. The probable reason behind that is the gradual decline in the initially high pH of the compost with time. So starting with a relatively high pH the first three weeks of the experiment, the plants in all treat-ments performed similarly. With the passage of time, anaero-bic bacterial activity is replaced by aerobic bacterial activity in the compost which lowers the pH level making micro nu-trients more available to the plants – metals (most of the mi-cronutrients) are more soluble – thus more available for plant uptake - at lower pH. Thus, the treatments containing compost grew better than the others. Moreover, comparing treatments A (2:1:1) and D (1:1:1), treatment A was more successful than treatment D although both contain compost in the mix. However, treat-

ment A having more ground concrete in the mix, must have had better drainage whereas treatment D had poorer drainage thus poorer root zone aeration. Therefore, the ground con-crete also contributed to the success of treatments A and B by providing a better texture for drainage. Additionally, the chlorosis in treatments C and E, containing no compost high-lights an environment that was not suitable for the growth of corn crops. Mathiolla crassifolia Similar to corn, physical attributes in Mathiolla were measured in order to assess the ability of the mixes to sustain plant growth. However, growth of Mathiolla is measured in terms of the plant’s diameter (horizontal vegetative growth) as it does not grow upwards very much. Mathiolla crassifolia is a native Lebanese species that is classified as a pioneer species occurring during the first stages of succession. It is a coastal wild flower that grows on rocks in proximity to other plant communities (Itani, 2015). The indicators that were

FIGURE 15

Pot Experiment Week Twelve

FIGURE 16

Treatments A and B at Silk Stage


evaluated include: number of plants in pot, average diameter and the presence/absence of flower. Unlike corn that started off as a seed, Mathiolla seedlings were used in the experiment in order to test the ability of the treatments to support plant establishment. Three seedlings of approximately 3 cm each were planted). Four weeks after planting, survival rate of the seedlings was documented. The highest survival rate was calculated at 73.3% for treatment E (1:1:0, CDW:Soil:Compost) and the lowest was treatment D (1:1:1, CDW:Soil:Compost), 13.3% (see Figure 17). Never-theless, treatment E was not the most successful in terms of plant growth. Similar to corn crops, Mathiollas in treatments A and B were the most successful but with treatment B doing slightly better as observed in Figure 18 and Figure 19. The plants reached an average diameter of 24cm on average in treatments A and B by the end of week 12 of the experiment (Figure 18). Treatment C (Control) as shown in Figure 16 and in Fig-ure 20 was the weakest among the five treatments. The aver-age diameter reached did not go over 10 cm in 12 weeks with a 46% seedling survival rate (see Figure 18). Drainage in treatment C was not good as irrigation water was accumulat-ing on the surface and draining very slowly from the pots. The absence of compost also plays a role in the weakness of the plants as discussed in the previous section. Treatment D (1:1:1 CDW:Soil:Compost) and treatment E (1:1:0 CDW:Soil:Compost) had the same growth pattern and

reached approximately the same diameter by week 12 (14.8 and 15 cm respectively as shown in Figure 16). However as previously mentioned, treatment D had the lowest survival rate (13.3%) and treatment E the highest (73.3%). Figure 20 shows the two Mathiollas that survived in treatment D and Figure 21 displays the high survival rate of the plants in Treatment E. Similar to corn, the Mathiolla seedlings planted in treat-ments A and B were the most successful (up to 25 cm diame-ter). It was also noticeable that the treatments containing no compost did not perform well (Treatments E and C). Treat-ment D with a ratio of 1:1:1 CDW:Soil:Compost also did not perform well. Survival rate of treatment D was documented as the lowest among the five treatments and the two seedlings that did survive did not grow more than 15 cm in diameter in contrast to a 30 cm diameter in treatment B by week twelve. Additionally, in all four treatments (A, B, C and D) except treatment E, both corn and Mathiolla were either successful or grew poorly, similarly. In treatment E corn crops were not successful and ended up small and wilted by week twelve although it had the highest germination rate (96%), whereas the Mathiolla seedlings managed to grow (even if not as big as A and B) 12 cm wider than they were when first planted with the highest survival rate among all treatments (73.3%). Mathiolla is a hardy plant that tolerates alkaline soils since

FIGURE 19

Treatment A on Week Twelve

FIGURE 20

Treatment B on Week Twelve

Treatment Survival Rate

A 40%

B 60%

C 46%

D 13.30%

E 73.30%

Mathiolla Seedling Survival Rate

FIGURE 17

Matthiola Survival Rates

FIGURE 18

Matthiola Growth Over Time


Lebanese soil is characterized by a high percentage of CaCO3. It is considered a hardy plant since it grows between rocks on the coast. Thus the fact that it grew in mixes con-taining concrete and in treatment E which does not contain any compost, highlights the fact that it is tolerant to high pH levels and it is resilient. CHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES The chemical attributes of each of the input materials were also investigated and tests for the presence of heavy metals and the availability of trace elements were conducted. Results of the analysis of the soil, CDW and compost are presented in Table 2.

Soil Analysis Texture, Electrical Conductivity, pH, %CacO3, %Organic Matter. The soil used in the experiment is a sandy loam with a pH of 7.19 - this is considered neutral to slightly alkaline but optimal for plant growth (Miller and Gardiner, 2008 - , and electrical conductivity of 192 µS which means the soil is non-saline (Miller and Gardiner, 2008). In addition, the soil has 28% Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and 2% organic matter. Phosphorous (P) and Potassium (K). The total amount of phosphorus in the soil used in the experiment was in 56 ppm (see Table 2) which, according to Bashour 2001, is consid-ered a high value (see Table 3). The amount of potassium in the form of K2O is 53.07 ppm (see Table 2) which is a relatively low value according to Bashour (2001) - see Table 3. Potassium deficiency is gener-ally expected in soils low in clay (Miller and Gardiner, 2008). The tested soil contains 16% clay. Trace Elements: Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Manga-nese (Mn)- DTPA Extraction. Analysis of the soil for availa-bility of micronutrients was conducted using Atomic Absorp-tion Spectroscopy with extraction using DTPA. The soil used in the experiment is rich in micronutrients. It has a very high Iron content of 52.25 ppm (see Table 2) which is reflected in its red color typical of the Red Mediter-ranean soil that is rich in iron and associated with hard Lime-stone, the Terra Rossa found across Lebanon (Darwish and Zurayk, 1997).

Copper (Cu) was found to be abundant in the ana-lyzed soil - 3.546 ppm.

Zn was found at concentrations of around 1.908 ppm.

Manganese (Mn) concentration of 16.42 ppm was found in the tested soil used in the mix- this is con-sidered relatively high (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978).

The results reported in Table 2 reflect a soil rich in micro-nutrients with low potassium content. Therefore, the reason behind the failure of treatments C and E could not have been a deficiency in nutrients since the availability of macronutri-ents (except for potassium) as well as micronutrients is high in the soil. The compost in the other treatments certainly made the nutrients more available to plants by lowering pH levels in the mixes. The poor performance of treatment C could be due to a combination of lack of availability of mi-cronutrients due to relatively high pH levels, and poor drain-age (this was improved in the other treatments by the ground concrete pieces). In treatment E, the high alkalinity and salin-ity (Na and Cl) of the concrete which constitutes 50% of the mix would have inhibited nutrient availability for plant up-take, thus the small size and poor condition of the corn crops and the somewhat acceptable condition of Mathiolla. The latter is a coastal plant tolerant to salt and hardy which makes it easier for it to grow in harsh conditions (Itani, 2015).

FIGURE 21

Treatments C and D on Week Twelve

TABLE 2

Results of Chemical Analysis

Soil Concrete Compost

Texture Sandy Loam - -EC 192 µS 1759 µS 13.51 mSpH 7.19 10.96 7.91

%CaCO3 28 - -

%OM 2 - 88

C:N Ratio - - 16:01

Na - 185 ppm -Cl - 67.5 ppm -P 56 ppm - 8000 ppmK 53.07 ppm - 10980 ppmFe 52.25 ppm - 5600 ppmZn 1.908 ppm - 220 ppmCu 3.645 ppm - 250 ppmMn 16.42 ppm - 120 ppmCd - 0 0Pb - 0 100 ppm


CDW Analysis Concrete is basically made from three raw materials: ce-ment, water and aggregates. Cement however, is a combina-tion of compounds made by burning Limestone and Clay together at high temperature (University of Illinois, 1995). Results of the tests conducted on concrete are shown in Table 2. The concrete that was ground and used in the mixes does not contain any Cadmium (Cd) or Lead (Pb). Sodium and chlorine content were high (185 ppm and 67.5 ppm re-spectively) resulting in a high electrical conductivity (EC) of 1759 µS. pH was also found to be high (10.96) reflecting the typical alkalinity of concrete. The alkalinity and the high concentration of sodium in the concrete would have had an adverse impact on the growth of plants. Compost Analysis The compost (Grade A) used in the experiment was brought in from Sukomi, a composting plant in Beirut. Typi-cally, many elements are essential for microbial decomposi-tion however Carbon and Nitrogen are the most vital (Chen et al., 2011). The ideal C:N ratio at the beginning of the com-posting process is 25-30:1 but as composting proceeds, this ratio decreases to reach 15:1 ideally (Chen et al., 2011) some-times ranging from 15 to 20:1 (UMass Extension, 2014). As seen in Table 2, the compost used in the experiment has a C:N ratio of 16:1 and a pH of 7.91 along with an EC of 13.51mS. Typical pH levels for composts range from 6.5-8 (Chen et al., 2011). EC in compost exceeds the 1-10 mS range typical of compost (UMass Extension, 2014). Addi-tionally, the compost contains 88% organic matter. Macronu-trients including phosphorous and potassium are found in abundance: 8000 ppm and 10980 ppm respectively. Similarly for the micronutrients, high levels are found in the compost (see Table 2). Iron was reported at 5600 ppm, Zinc at 220 ppm, Copper at 250 ppm and Manganese at 120 ppm (See Table 2). In addition, no Cadmium was detected but 100 ppm of Lead was reported. Given that the normal range of Nickel content is between 3 and 100 ppm (Abou Mosleh, 2005), the concentration reported is within range. In summary, the re-sults of the chemical analysis of the compost explain the Growth Rate of the treatments containing compost. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS Treatments A and B turned out to be most successful mix-

es where treatment A had the best growth of corn and treat-ment B the best growth of Mathiolla. Corn in treatments A and B reached a 110-120 cm height respectively whereas the Mathiolla seedlings grew 25-30 cm in diameter respectively (). Treatment D displayed the lowest survival rate of Mathiolla seedlings (13.3%) although in general both corn and Mathiolla seedlings grew to a height of 50 cm in corn) and a diameter of 15 cm in Mathiolla. Thus Treatment D did sustain plant growth but not as well as A and B and would need further improvement in terms of nutrient availability and drainage for better results. Treatments C (control) and E re-sulted in the weakest plant growth. Corn did not grow more than 30 cm in height and was chlorotic which reflects a nutri-ent deficiency. Mathiolla, it did not grow larger than 12 cm in diameter in treatment C but reached 15 cm in treatment E, which was made up of concrete and soil only. The explana-tion behind the different growth patterns of the Mathiolla is the fact that it is a coastal hardy plant that grows in environ-ments such as between rocks and anywhere on the coast in addition to being a native plant thus it is tolerant to alkaline soils. In terms of nutrients the soil is adequate for planting how-ever the compost is the material containing the most nutrients and that was reflected in the results. Additionally, it is im-portant to note that neither the concrete nor the compost con-tains any Cadmium or Lead in amounts considered contami-nating which makes it possible to use the planting mix for agriculture as well. In summary, treatments A and B are the best and should be pursued for further study such as a pilot project. Finally, several future recommendations are proposed for a better understanding of the results. First of all the analysis of each of the mixes should be carried out on the first and then last week of the experiment along with an analysis of the leachate from irrigation. Also, the water holding capacity of each mix should be tested because the different input materi-als exhibited different water holding capacities throughout the experiment. Furthermore, two or three cycles can be re-peated using the same mix to test whether the mix degrades or it gets better with time. Finally, a pilot project should be conducted in an actual quarry to assess the impact of scale.

REFERENCES

Abou Mosleh, R. (2005). Characterization of river pollution

through riverbed sediment analysis. Alloway, B.J. Heavy Metals in Soils. Blackie Academics and

Professional. 2nd EdB, J. (editor). London: Blackie and Son Ltd., 1990.

TABLE 3

Nutrient Range in Soils (ppm)- Bashour 2001

Nutrient Very Low Low Medium High Very High

Phosphorus (ppm) 0 to 3 3 to 8 8 to 14 4 to 20 > 20Potassium (ppm) 0 to 85 85 to 150 150 to 250 250 to 450 > 450


Bashour, I. and H.A. Sayegh, Methods of analysis for soil in arid and semi-arid regions. Course Manual, Department of Land and water Resources, American University of Bei-rut, Beirut, 2001.

Chen, L., M. De Haro Marti, A. Moore, & C. Falen, (2011). The Composting Process.

Darwish, T., R. Stehouwer, D. Miller, J. Sloan, I. Jomaa, A. Shaban, C. Khater, and M. Hamzé 2008. Assessment of Abandoned Quarries for Revegetation and Water Harvest-ing in Lebanon, East Mediterraean.

Darwish, T., & R. Zurayk, (1997). “Distribution and nature of Red Mediterranean soils in Lebanon along an altitudinal sequence.” Catena, Volume 28, pp. 191-202.

Gardiner, D., & R. Miller, (2008). Soils in Our Environment (11th ed.). Carlisle Publishing Services.

Itani, M. Physiognomy as a basis for plant species conserva-

tion in urban areas: Beirut as a case-study. American Uni-versity of Beirut, Beirut, 2015.

Tamraz et al., S.N. Construction Demolition Waste Manage-ment in Lebanon. Diss. American University of Beirut, ASCE, 2011. Print.

University of Illinois. (1995, January 1). Scientific Principles of Concrete. Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://matse1. matse.illinois.edu/concrete/print.html

University of Massachusetts at Amherst. (2014). Interpreting your compost test results. In Retrieved from http:// soiltest.umass.edu

World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 108: Nickel. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1991.

World Bank, 2013. Country data. Accessed online in April 22, 2016? at: http://data.worldbank.org/country/lebanon

http://matse1/

http://data.worldbank.org/country/lebanon

RELIGION ROLE ON COMMUNITY MOVEMENT FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 321

RELIGION ROLE ON COMMUNITY MOVEMENT FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Sophaphan Intahphuak1

School of Nursing, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand 57100 Telephone: +66-813417342; Fax: +66-53916867

[email protected], [email protected]

Narong Pamala San Pak Wan Municipality, Hang Dong, Chiang Mai, Thailand 50230

Boonyaporn Yodkhong

San Pak Wan Health Promoting Hospital, Hang Dong, Chiang Mai, Thailand 50230

Anun Buakhiao San Pak Wan Municipality, Hang Dong, Chiang Mai, Thailand 50230

ABSTRACT

The amount of solid waste in Thailand has increased rapidly over the last ten years. The in-creasing amount of garbage has cause both social and health problems. It is important to mo-tivation to change the attitude and behaviour on waste management. This study aims to de-velop a suitable strategy and cooperative to increase awareness of solid waste management in the community. Participatory Action Research was used as the tool to encourage social learning and development. The data were obtained through participation observations, focus groups, and questionnaires. It was found that most of the waste in households was recyclable waste (49.24%) and food waste (49.24%). People lack the ability to separate garbage. The monks, involved stakeholder in the entire waste management system, helped publicize the campaign on Buddhist holy days, during religious ceremonies and taught people to be respon-sible for the garbage problem in their community as well. It was found that religion encouraged the people to separate recycled garbage and established cooperation from all sectors in the community. The results obtained suggest that religion is not only the moral center of the com-munity, but also the center of community empowerment to consciousness in waste manage-ment. Keywords: Religion role, monk, solid waste, waste separation, community

INTRODUCTION The amount of solid waste in Thailand has increased rap-idly over the last ten years. The amount of garbage is rising

each year as a result of population growth, urbanization, and economic expansion (Bureau of Environment Health, De-partment of Health, Ministry of Public Health, 2012). Unsani-tary solid waste management such as open burning, burying,

___________________________________________ 1Corresponding Author



and dumping in various places is causing a negative impact to the environment, economy and increasing human health prob-lems (Rana, 2007; Bureau of Environment Health, Depart-ment of Health, Ministry of Public Health, 2012; Sharma et al., 2014; Agamuthu & Herat, 2014). Poor waste management and the amount of solid waste left on the ground may cause infestations of rats, flies, mosquitoes and cockroaches, which are the vectors of communicable diseases such as diarrhea and parasitory diseases (McKenzie et al., 2012; Agamuthu & Herat, 2014). The goals of waste management are the protec-tion of human health, the environment, and the conservation of resources (Brunner, 2013). The suburban community in Chiang Mai province, located in northern Thailand, was selected for this study because of its rapid urbanization in recent years which has led to an ab-normal increase of waste production. The sample observed is located 12 kilometers from the center of Chiang Mai and co-vers of 13 km2. The increasing garbage has been a social problem since 2009, the amount of garbage was three to four tons per day or 1,100 tons per year and the amount has risen to about five to seven tons per day or 2,046 tons per year in 2012 (Finance Division Department, San Pak Wan Munici-pality, 2013). Solid waste management is the responsibility of the municipality. Most local government organizations hire private companies to handle such undertaking; however, the operations have been found to lack proper control measures as some of the waste was illegally dumped in public places while the rest was disposed of by open burning or open dumping, resulting in disease-carrier breeding grounds, foul odors, nuisances, and infectious agent sources. Additionally, there was little public cooperation in separation the garbage due to the lack of community’s concern. Concentration on solid waste separation at the source with the participation of all sectors should be performed in the community. It is pre-dicted that the amount of solid waste will be increase, if inac-tive and inefficient operations continue to persist. This study aims to build the capacity of all sectors in the community to participate in the development of an appropriate strategy to increase awareness of solid waste separation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Description of study area This study selected a suburb of Chiang Mai municipality named San Pak Wan sub-district because it is an agricultural rural community that became urbanized more rapidly than other regions. It covered an area of 13 km2 divide into 7 vil-lages and 30 housing developments. The population and household’s numbers are 12,143 and 6,781 respectively (Fi-nance division department, San Pak Wan Municipality, 2013). Method Participatory Action Research was used as the tool to en-courage social learning and social development. The study is divided into three phases:

Situation analysis phase: a baseline assessment was ob-tained for the waste management behavior, knowledge and attitudes by using questionnaires and focus groups. The ques-tionnaire survey with the convenience sample group of 600 households was carried out in March 2012 by health volun-teers. We excluded missing information on waste manage-ment behavior (n=11). The focus groups of health volunteer (14 persons) and local resident (14 persons) were held sepa-rately at the health promotion hospital. The health volunteers were selected by purposive sampling and they were head and sub-head of health volunteer from each village. The local residents were villagers, who were willing to give more in-formation about household and community waste manage-ment, were selected from those 589 households and each vil-lage. The semi-structured interviews with municipality staff, community leaders and participant observation about the causes of the problem were performed at the same time. Af-terwards the results of these activities were reflected on and discussed with stakeholders (municipality officers, communi-ty leaders, monks, teachers, health volunteers, and communi-ty residences). Develop and implementation of action plan phase: Once the data were collected, the preliminary findings were then shared to the stakeholders and action plan was drafted. The stakeholders participated in brainstorming to create the action plan that would help solve the solid waste management prob-lems. Majee & Hoyt, (2011) mentioned that the community interaction and potential members acquire skills could in-crease their confidence, ability to work, and participation in social activities. The action plan includes goals, objectives, determines the resources needed, the date, and place for im-plementation. In this phase, the merit-making strategy to en-courage community participation and awareness was created by the chief monk. The implementation began in January 2013. According to Bailey & Sood (1993), religion includes beliefs, values and behaviors which are motivated by ritual, doctrine and guidance from religious leaders (Baxamusa & Jalal, 2014). Religion is a primary element of culture and social behavior. The variables that influences on health be-havior are attitudinal, social, self-efficacy and stage of change Fishbein et al. (2001) and Noar et al. (2008). Temples and monks in Thai society have long played an important role within the community using their religious services and Bud-dhist rituals to nurture faith and promote community coopera-tion in order to maintain social harmony (Assanangkornchai et al., 2002; Boonaree & Tuamsuk, 2013). Buddhism has influenced the lives of Thai people by emphasizing the con-cepts of merit and sin. Thai Buddhists believe that whatever one does whether good or bad, will return to us someday in this life or next life, which can be defined as the term sin or a law of karma. When they participate in religious activities such as religious ceremonies and religious festivals, their attendance is partly to make merit and meet their social du-ties. There are three ways to accomplish merit 1) meritorious action involving in giving or generosity 2) meritorious action involving observing the precepts or practicing moral behav-iors 3) meritorious action involving mental development (Bhromkunaporn, 2003).


Evaluation phase: According to Hoyt (2004), the empow-erment is achieved when community members work together and learn that they can rely on each other and on their ability to act collectively to improve their personal circumstances and the well-being of their community. The focus group was held with all stakeholders to requesting them to openly write their feelings about certain projects, participation observa-tions, operational obstacles, impact of interventions, and sug-gestions for project improvement and long-term engagement. Open-ended questions were used for group reflection and discussion. Trust is a key of success for working in community so during these activities we always on time, behaved in an ap-propriate manner and respect to the community culture and religion tradition. Data collection Quantitative and qualitative methods, participatory obser-vation, questionnaire surveys, semi- structure interviews and focus group discussions were performed to gather infor-mation on waste management. Informed consent has been obtained from the participants. Materials and data analysis

An interview to measure knowledge and attitudes on waste management was used, including a 10 items, yes/no questions on perceived level of knowledge. Attitude towards

waste management was measured by 10 items, five-point scale which included question on level of attitude ( reliabil-ity = 0.75). Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistic. Qualitative data were analyzed using a content anal-ysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

RESULTS Situation analysis According to the results of the questionnaire survey, it was found that most solid waste in households were either recyclable or food waste 290 households (49.24%) (Table 1). Their solid waste management was unsanitary. Mostly, 323 household (54.84%) dumped all kinds of garbage into plastic bags (Table 2) and placed them in front of their houses or deserted areas along the streets and waited for municipality to collect and transport it to a temporary landfill in other dis-tricts. The knowledge and attitude in waste management at a good level were 430 (70.38%) and 324 (53.03%) respective-ly. The focus group interview was found that there were three causes of the increasing amount of garbage. Firstly, local people lack awareness of the social problems that have been going on. They especially lack the ability to separate and re-duce garbage. Secondly, most people consider waste man-agement as the responsibility of the sub-district municipality, not their own; thus, they leave most of the work to the munic-

TABLE 1

Composition of solid waste (n=589)

Type of solid waste No. of respondents Percentage (%)

Recyclable waste (i.e. paper, plastic, glass) 290 49.24

Food waste 290 49.24

Infectious waste (i.e. bandage, dressing cotton/gauze) 5 0.85

Industrial waste (i.e., battery, rubber) 4 0.67

TABLE 2 Disposal system in household (n= 589)

Disposal system No. of respondents Percentage (%)

Dump in plastic bag 323 54.84

Segregation and sold for money 136 23.09

Composting and Pet food 102 17.32

Open burning 21 3.57

Burying 7 1.18


ipal government. Thirdly, the smuggled garbage from other areas is dumped along the roadside. People who are passing by constantly dump their garbage in the area of the communi-ty we studied. Development and Implementation The communication and learning exchange process of all stakeholders in the community occurred through informal discussion on the garbage problem in order to create aware-ness, mutual understanding of the effects and responsibilities, and the implementation of action to solve the problems which were agreed upon by all. This process brought religion’s role into the issue of solid waste management. Monks employed the concept that monks were not only the practitioners of religious activities but also the participants in philanthropic activities. The chief monk created a campaign to reduce the solid waste in community under the concept of “merit-making through garbage recycling.” In creating mutual un-derstanding about the project, the chief monk could help pro-vide clarification to the community. All sectors in community accepted the campaign and plan for implementation. The ac-tivities included the establishment of community awareness and education. The network of community leaders and health volunteers was established automatically. The community leaders promoted household garbage separation through the public-address system. Health volunteer spread the garbage separation practice to their family members and the people in their community. A two-slot cage for separating garbage was made from an old metal fence from San Pak Wan health promoting hospital was placed in front of the temple (Figure 1a). At the first stage of the campaign, there were only a small number of people who paid attention, since the project had not been publicized. The monks helped publicize the campaign on Buddhist holy days, and during religious ceremonies. They also taught people to be responsible for the garbage problem in the community. Also, vinyl banners were made in order to inform people about the objectives of the project. Moreover, people in community helped to publicize the campaign by word of mouth. As for the recycling of garbage brought for merit-making, it was sold and the money was used to help build the temple’s pavilion. A monk stated “When I joined the community meeting, I had an idea that monks were a part of the community and that got me thinking of how religion could help the community to reduce solid waste. If people can separate the solid waste, collect it and bring it to the tem-ple, the money earned from garbage selling could be used for religious benefits. It would be a good thing for the communi-ty.” The results showed that more people, both local residents and residents in housing developments, separated and dumped their recyclable garbage in the cage as an activity in which volunteerism and public participation. There was no problem in terms of wages and transportation costs. The resi-dences could separate recyclable garbage and changed their public attitude and behavior on waste management. The top three items of recycle garbage are plastic bottles, paper, and glass. Money earned from selling recyclable garbage was 600

Bahts ($16.5) in the first month and up to 1,200 Bahts ($ 33) per month six months later. After the monks publicized the garbage movement campaign, more recyclable garbage was separated at the cage and it was sold twice a month. All of money was contributed to the construction of the temple’s pavilion. This project also helped create awareness in garbage separation among monks, junior monks and the community’s children. Six months after implementation, the two-slot cage was not big enough, for the recycle garbage brought to the temple. A four-slot case was made for storing the recycle waste (Fig-ure 1b). The campaign was spread to four temples in the neighborhood. The use of a religious institution as the center of collabo-ration in the community resulted in the ABDS Model to alle-viate garbage problem as shown in Figure 2. A refers to as-sessment, acceptance and action. The beginning process on waste management is community assessment of their needs

(a) two slot cage

(b) four slog cage

FIGURE 1

Slot cage for solid waste segregation


and cooperation in community problem solving by using the civil society concept (A: assessment). The acceptance (A: acceptance) is all sectors aware of the community problems and willing to change their attitudes on problem management. Actions (A: action) are taken to solve the problem. There are three groups of community member’s activities: 1) Monks publicize and drive the campaign “merit-making through gar-bage recycling” on important religious days, and teach people to be responsible for solid waste problem. 2) Community leaders help publicize the campaign, create understanding and invoke cooperation and make arrangements for garbage sell-ing. 3) People in community help to publicize the campaign and improve behavior about solid waste separation. As a re-sult of Buddhism, traditions and culture, people believe that donation is a form of merit-making and good karma, especial-ly donating for a pavilion, it would help them have a better life in their next incarnation (B: belief). Since people believe that donation is merit-making, they bring garbage from home to the temple, receiving spiritual benefit from that deed (D: donation). When the goals are achieved and the people culti-vate a proper way of waste separation (S: success), the people will learn about the benefit of the activity in which all sectors have made contributions, resulting in the behavioral sustaina-bility and extension of results to other communities (S: sus-tainability).

Evaluation activities It was found that most of the community residents appre-ciated the Merit-Making aspect of Garbage campaign and their attitudes on waste management changed. The Knowledge-exchanging learning process, participation and public space development encouraged all sectors to think together, operate together, and gain social benefits together. Thus, it showed that it is possible to develop a sustainable solution to social and environmental problems. Effective and sustainable waste management can be achieved by creating awareness about the importance of garbage management to the community, and making them realize the importance of participatory public management. The people’s view that waste management is the responsibility of the local govern-ment needs to be reconstructed, so that they realize that the task is everyone’s responsibility. Moreover, the community involvement through religious and monk participation can encourage the community movement for solid waste recy-cling.

DISCUSSION The results of this study showed that most waste composi-tion are either recyclable waste or food waste which is similar to some cities in Asian developing country (Ngoc & Schnitzer, 2009; Dhokhikah & Trihadiningrum, 2012; Dhokhikah et al., 2015). The composition of solid waste is related to rapid population growth, economic development growth, consumption life style changing (Ngoc & Schnitzer, 2009; Othman et al., 2012). According to other studies (Ngoc & Schnitzer, 2009; Dhokhikah & Trihadiningrum, 2012), solid waste in the area has been collected and disposed by the municipality, dumped at the roadside, and burned. Religion role on waste management The study found that religion influences solid waste man-agement under the concept of “monks as an agent of change” and “merit-making through garbage recycling.” This cam-paign emerged from a Thai Buddhist cultural context in which the community has close relationship to religion through faith and merit-making. Most of Thai Buddhism of-ten means merit making activities especially contributing to the construction projects of the monastery. When residents donate recycle waste to the temple, they help the temple build the pavilion indirectly, as the temple can use the money earned from recycling garbage selling for the construction. Taking part in the donation project may be also considered merit –earning (Bhromkunaporn, 2003). Another factor that contributes to the behavior is the belief in supernatural agents that affect immoral behavior (Otsuki, 2013). Some religious leaders state that the natural environment is in ruins of human because of sin (Williams et al., 1998). This religious concept forced a changing attitude and the practice of environmental management (Hunter & Toney, 2005). The results are sup-ported by academic peer reviewed literatures relating to the relationship between the beliefs, attitude and behavior chang-

FIGURE 2

ABDS model


ing (Fishbein et al., 2001; Noar et al., 2008; Sharma et al., 2014), especially on environmental problems (Hunter & Ton-ey, 2005; Owen & Videras, 2007). Monks also played an important role in motivating the civic action on solid waste management. They convinced the responsibility for solid waste, created a campaign of “merit-making through garbage recycling,” and use temples as the center of solid waste separation. These results are in agree-ment with the findings of Guerrero et al. (2013) report that cooperation in recycling campaign depend on the providing information about the utility of garbage separation and awareness campaigns. According to several studies, knowledge and attitude influences the behavior of individual people (Keramitsoglou & Tsagarakis, 2013; Babaei et al., 2015; Lederer et al., 2015). Cooperative development on waste management This study could help establish cooperative from all sec-tors in the community through the religious strategies of monks and community leaders in solving waste management problems. The results indicated that religion and faith influ-ences on people through social engagement and their concern to solve problems in their community (Lam, 2002; Ecklund & Park, 2005; Knitter, 2010; Lewis et al., 2013). Success of waste management in small communities depends on how much the community can engage in overall the management rather of waste rather than the influence of technology (Agamuthu & Herat, 2014). Cooperation is an important fac-tor for novelization of local resources into a critical mass. This project was the result of community cooperation through the participatory action research process (Baum et al., 2006; Majee & Hoyt, 2011; Guerrero et al., 2013) and the role reli-gion (Assanangkornchai et al., 2002; Boonaree & Tuamsuk, 2013). After the research funding was completed, this study showed that the research project could be sustainable. Monks and community member committed to continuing the cam-paign and sharing the experience from the project to another community. Using research, education, and an action for change can effectively engage a community in a sustainable way (Minkler, 2000). The ABDS model was developed with the concept of religion strategy on solid waste management. However, this model needs to be applied to other communi-ties to evaluate its effectiveness and limitations. Limitation: The study could not measure the amount of solid waste in each village in community because of the mu-nicipal’s policies on waste management. The amount of recy-clable garbage also could not be measured because there are many kinds of the recyclable waste. It would be useful if the amount of solid waste and recycled garbage could be meas-ure.

CONCLUSION The results obtained suggested that religion was not only the faith center of community, it was also the center of com-

munity empowerment. Awareness in waste management re-lating to health was raised. The people had the chance to make merits in three ways; (1) Reducing the pollution in the community. (2) Making contributions to the construction of a new pavilion through the money earned from recycle waste sales. (3) Changing their behavior in garbage dumping thus reducing solid waste problem in the community.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank The Thai Health Promo-tion Foundation for providing financial support (Grant No. 55-00-0977, Project code 55-01995), The School of Nursing, Mae Fah Luang University and the people of San Pak Wan sub-district for their support. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST The authors report no conflict of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of this pa-per.

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EFFECTS OF TRAINING AND PROVISION OF COLLECTION BIN ON SOURCE-SEPARATION OF SOLIDS WASTES AMONG WORKERS

OF A TERTIARY INSTITUTION IN NIGERIA

*O.O. Elemile, G.R.E.E Ana, M.K.C Sridhar

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Science and Engineering Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Source-separation is a solid waste management strategy which aids recycling. This concept is relatively new in Nigeria. The study therefore assessed the effects of a training intervention, education and awareness and provision of a refuse bin on workers’ practice of -separation. A validated questionnaire with a 5-point knowledge scale was used to collect data at baseline from two groups made of the Experimental Group (EG) (180) and Control Group (CG) (168) workers respectively in the University of Ibadan on source-separation of solid wastes. A fabri-cated waste bin with three compartments was placed only at the EG and the workers there were trained on its utilization for source-separation of solid wastes. The CG was left to continue with the usual practice of waste collection without source-separation. At the end of the one-month intervention, a post-intervention data collection from the two groups was conducted with the same questionnaire used at baseline. Descriptive statistics and t-test were used to analyse data. Findings revealed that the training and provision of a collection bin was effective in facili-tating the practice of source-separation among the Experimental Group. Therefore, advocacy, training and provision of refuse bins are needed to promote the adoption of source-separation in the institution. Keywords: Source-separation, Waste sorting, Training intervention

INTRODUCTION The day to day human activities generally draw inputs from the natural base in his environment. This may be by way of raw materials for industrial production or by direct utiliza-tion of the resources from the reserve in land. However, the use of these resources in turn results in the generation of var-ious classes of unwanted, useless, damaged and discarded materials termed “waste” (Anurigwo, 2000). As urbanization

continues to take place, the management of solid waste con-tinues to raise major concerns for the environment and public health in urban areas of many developing countries. Such concerns are serious, particularly in the capital cities that, are often gateways to the countries of foreign diplomats, busi-nessmen, and tourists. The poor aesthetics of these cities re-sults in negative impacts on official and tourist visits and foreign investment (Ogawa, 2007). Waste segregation refers to a solid waste management practice of separating and storing different materials found in

____________________________________ *Correspondence author


EFFECTS OF TRAINING AND PROVISION OF COLLECTION BIN ON SOURCE-SEPARATION OF SOLIDS WASTES AMONG WORKERS 329

solid waste in order to promote recycling and re-use of re-sources and to reduce the volume of waste for collection and disposal (Bennagen et-al., 2002). Waste segregation at the household level is not widely practiced and waste recycling is minimal. The reasons are not far-fetched, traditionally most people forget about their rubbish after leaving it out for col-lection, or after visiting ‘the dump’. In recent years, however, the growing awareness of the environmental effects of indis-criminately disposing of waste either openly or into trenches has increased the community’s expectations for enhanced environmental quality standards. In Nigeria, the commonly practiced waste management option basically involves the collection of mixed waste mate-rials and subsequent dumping at designated dumpsites. The solid wastes are seldom well disposed and it is gradually be-coming an issue of environmental concern as solid wastes are dumped erratically into streams, drains and open dumps thus attracting vectors and pests. This can be attributed to poor waste management practices as it is not a practice to separate waste materials at source or any point during its management (Adekunle et al., 2011); therefore, the introduction of the practice of waste-separation and segregation would go a long way in reducing the problem. Although waste bins had been used in advanced countries for the collection of source separated solid waste, the conven-tional system generally use a system of bins at the individual residential and business settings. These bins must be washed by the individual users on a regular basis because there is a significant amount of waste deposited in the bins or contained in torn plastic bags. Also, problems of conventional separa-tion and collection systems include the high cost and the fact that they do not adequately address the disposal of composta-ble waste materials. Additionally, conventional curbside bins are difficult to collect after any episode of rainfalls, as a re-sult, garbage is often left on curbs for several days. There is therefore the need to look at the utilization of appropriate waste bins with different compartments in devel-oping countries for sorting of waste at the collection stage at the community level and how this influences the practice of source separation among people in developing countries. The concept of source-separation as a waste management strategy is relatively new especially in developing countries. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to assess the effects of adopting source-separation of waste coupled with training in the management of waste in the non-residential areas of the University of Ibadan.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The Study Area Ibadan. Ibadan is the capital of Oyo State in Nigeria and the largest city in West Africa in terms of geographical area and even population (Lagos is a State which comprises of cities and towns). It is an indigenous African town that lies between latitude 7o 23’47o N and 3o55o 0’ east of prime meridian (Wikipedia, 2014). Ibadan is located in south-western Nigeria

in the south-eastern part of Oyo State about 120 km east of the border with the republic of Benin in the forest zone close to the boundary between the forest and the Savana. The city ranges in elevation from 150m in the valley area, to 275m above sea level on the major north-south ridge which crosses the central part of the city. The city’s total area is 1,190 square miles (3,080 km2) (Wikipedia, 2014). By the year 2000, it is estimated that Ibadan covered 4000 km2) (Onibo-kun and Faniran, 1995). Most of the people are engaged in petty trading and small-scale business, while others are civil/public servants. Ibadan is noted for several institutions and over 300 schools made up of both public and private nursery, primary and secondary schools.

The University of Ibadan. The study was carried out in se-lected areas in the University of Ibadan (UI). The University of Ibadan is made up of 13 Schools which offer both under-graduate and postgraduate programmes viz -Arts, The Social Sciences, Technology, Basic Medical Sciences, Pharmacy, Public Health, Law and others. The Schools are housed in 205 Academic Blocks; 9 students Hostels; Senior and Junior Staff quarters, commercial centres such as the Students’ Un-ion Building and the Black market. Other sections in U.I in-clude: The Central Administration, the Kenneth Dike Library and the University Health Centre. Estate and Works Depart-ment, Waterworks, Workshops and Power house. Others are the University Press, Black Market, Sports Complex, Stu-dents’ Union Building (SUB), Senior Staff Club, Abadina Community Centre, Trenchard Hall, Botanical Garden, Zoo-logical Garden, shops, primary and secondary schools. (Uni-versity Planning Unit, 2007 -2008 Statistics). The university has a total population of 33,481; out of which 29,021 are stu-dents with 35% post graduate and 65% undergraduate, 1,197 are academic staff and 3,263 are non-academic staff (Oyedele, 2013). The study population comprised workers of the Students’ Union Building (SUB) who are mostly business operators, and those of the Faculty of the Social Sciences and Works Department which consists of academic and non-academic staff and students of the University of Ibadan respectively.

Study Design A quasi-experimental design was adopted with work-ers/traders of the Students’ Union Building (SUB) serving as the Experimental Group (EG), while those at Works Depart-ment (WD) and Faculty of the Social Sciences (FSS) consti-tuted the Control Group. The study involved field survey, design and fabrication of a three compartment wastes bin, as well as the training of workers on and the application of the designed and fabricated waste bin for source-separation of solid wastes at the Students’ Union Building.

Questionnaire Administration A 53-item, semi-structured, interviewer administered questionnaire was developed and used for data collection. The questionnaire was divided into five major sections for


ease of administration. The sections include demographic section, knowledge about source-separation and waste recy-cling on campus, attitude towards source- separation of solid waste on campus, practice of source separation and waste recycling on campus and problems of current waste manage-ment options on Campus. The questions on knowledge in-clude: Which of these wastes do you generate/handle most often in your place of work/shop/office? What do you know about waste recycling? Have you heard of source-separation of solid wastes? If yes, what do you know? In what way can waste generated be converted into useful materials? Which of these wastes do you think can be converted into useful materials? In all 348 validated questionnaires were adminis-tered to elicit information at baseline from the study areas namely; the SUB, FSS and WD all in the University of Ibadan. Knowledge was assessed based on a 5-point knowl-edge scale. The same questionnaire used at baseline was then administered at all locations after the training and provision of the fabricated waste collection bin for the SUB following an intervention period of a month. This was done to assess the effects of training and provision of a fabricated waste collection bin on source-separation of solid wastes among workers in the University of Ibadan. Four trained Research Assistants conducted face-to-face interviews with respon-dents (business operators and workers) in the study areas. The interviews were conducted in English or Yoruba (the lan-guage widely spoken in the study area) to ensure good com-prehension. The Structured questionnaire was administered to all the research participants except the cleaners at the Faculty of the Socials Sciences and Works Department. Sampling Technique Sampling Procedure for Study Locations. The non-residential areas of the University comprising the Students’ Union Building (SUB), University of Ibadan Works Department (WD) and the Faculty of the Social Sciences (FSS) were pur-posively selected. Sampling Frame. The sampling frame included 180 workers of the SUB as the experimental group and 72 workers of the FSS and 96 workers of the WD making 168 as the control group. Training of Participants on Source Separation of Solid Waste A major Training session was conducted for randomly selected 94 business operators domiciled in the SUB. The training was to enhance the knowledge, attitude and practice of the business operators on source-separation and recycling, introduce them to source-separation of solid waste with the use of a three-compartment solid waste bin to facilitate the adoption of source-separation as a waste management strat-egy among workers in the SUB. A pre- evaluation test was conducted before the training and the same test was con-ducted after the training session so as to appraise the effects of the training on the participants KAP.

Design and Fabrication of a Three Compartment Waste Bin After the determination of weight and assessment of solid wastes generated across the three locations, a single unit three compartment waste collection bin was designed and fabri-cated. The appropriate waste bin was fabricated to accommo-date the weight of 25 kg for each of the three types of waste that was highly generated at the University of Ibadan Stu-dents’ Union Building. The wastes were; paper, nylon and plastics and food waste. The volume of the appropriate bin was obtained from the density obtained for each of the wastes at the Student Union Building. The bins for the paper and nylon and plastics were constructed from high gauge wire gauze with 25mm angle iron from the design dimensions while the frame was fabricated with 38mm angle iron. The bin for the food waste was fabricated from galvanized iron because of its malleability, lightness, availability, and antirust properties. The bins were painted accordingly viz: paper (Brown), plastics (Blue) and food waste (Green). The busi-ness operators at the SUB were trained on the proper use of the bin. Monitoring on the proper use and effectiveness of the bin was carried out for a month while the workers at the con-trol group were left to continue their normal practices of waste management. Figure 1 illustrates the design of the bin using AutoCAD, while Plate 1 shows the fabricated three compartments waste bin. Data Analysis and Management Data was analyzed using SPSS computer software version 15. The results were presented in frequency tables, charts and figures at P = 0.05. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Worker’s Demographic Distribution A total of 348 respondents comprising 168 from the Fac-ulty of The Social Sciences (FSS) and Works Department (WD) who, and 180 from the Student Union Building (SUB) were interviewed. The characteristics as shown in Table 1 revealed that there were significant differences in the educa-tional status, marital status, ethnic origin, sex and occupation of workers across the locations. Workers who had post-secondary education as their highest educational qualification were found mostly at the FSS and WD. Those with secondary education as their highest educational qualification were found mostly at the Students’ Union Building. This may be due to the nature of occupation and the level of education required for such occupations. More married workers were found at the FSS and WD. In contrast to this more un-married workers were found at the SUB. It is not surprising to find that the highest proportion of self-employed workers were found at the SUB because of the predominant commercial activity in place while the univer-


sity employees were predominant at the WD and the FSS. Male workers were found mostly in all locations. Gender is a variable that has received consistent attention among re-searchers (Jones & Dunlap, 1992; Arcury & Christianson, 1993 and Petts, 1994). Raudsepp (2001) found that women were significantly more likely than men to be concerned with environmental problems. Females have been consistently shown to have higher environmentally conscious attitudes than men. The common reason advanced for gender differ-ences is the different socialization patterns between boys and girls. More often than not, girls are made to carry out most of

all the sweeping and cleaning activities; they are called upon more than their male counterparts to perform maintenance tasks at home or in schools. It would therefore take greater efforts for the concept of source separation to be accepted at the locations.

Knowledge of Participants on the Source Separation and Recycling of Solid Waste Table 2 refers to the respondents’ knowledge on waste recycling and source separation of solid waste. The

FIGURE 1

Design of a Three Compartment Waste Bin with the Aid of AutoCAD (dimensions are in mm)

PLATE 1

Fabricated Three Compartment Wastes Bin


knowledge of respondents on waste recycling was low. Ma-jority 67.2% at FSS and WD as against 72.6 % at SUB had no knowledge about recycling. FSS and WD (0.6%) in com-parison with and SUB (1.2%) respondents reported the repro-cessing of waste into useful items. At the FSS and WD 32.2% reported the conversion of waste into other products as against the 4.2% at SUB while 0.0% at the FSS and WD re-ported the dumping of waste properly in comparison with 21.4% at SUB. The knowledge of participants on source sep-aration was low. Majority 72.8% had no knowledge of waste separation at source at the FSS and WD in comparison with 78.0% at the SUB. About 25.5% (FSS and WD) reported that source-separation indicates separating different waste com-ponents using different bins before disposal in comparison

with 14.9% at the SUB while 1.7% (FSS and WD) in com-parison with 3.5% SUB) revealed that it means separation of papers and nylon from others. Table 3 shows the proportion of respondents with good knowledge about source-separation of solid waste and recy-cling which was determined by the use of SPSS version 15.0 which categorized respondents who were able to have at least 3.75 which was the 75th percentile of the total scores of 5.00 as those with good knowledge of source-separation. It could be seen from the survey that the proportion of respondents (16.1%) at the FSS and WD had good knowledge than 8.2% at the SUB, although the knowledge of respondents was gen-erally low. This could be associated to the fact that the re-spondents at the FSS and WD have a higher level of educa-

TABLE 1

Demographic Characteristics FSS + WD SUB N=168(%) N=180(%)

Age <20 5 (3.0) 18 (10) 20-29 36 (21.4) 115 (63.9) 30-39 82 (48.8) 31 (17.2) 40-49 36 (21.4) 14 (7.8) 50+ 9 (5.4) 2 (1.1) Sex Male 109 (64.9) 98 (54.4) Female 59 (35.1) 82 (45.6) Marital Status Single 34 (20.2) 124 (68.9) Married 124 (73.8) 56 (31.1) Religion Christianity 134(79.8) 145 (80.6) Islam 34 (20.2) 35 (19.4) Traditional 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Ethnic Group Yoruba 131(78.0) 150 (83.3) Igbo 33(19.6) 27 (15.0) Others 4 (2.4) 3(1.7) Educational Status Primary Education 18(10.7) 0 (0.0) Secondary Education 62(36.9) 105 (58.3) Tertiary Education 88(52.4) 75 (41.7) Occupation Self employed 29(17.3) 180 (100) University Staff 139 (82.7) 0 (0.0) Number of Persons Per Office/Store 1 to 5 91 (54.2) 146 (81.1) 6 to 10 57 (33.9) 16 (8.9) 11+ 20 (11.9) 18 (10.0)


tion. According to (Nixon and Saphores, 2009); (Oskamp et al., 1991) that the level of education of people will influence the knowledge on the environment and waste management. This is because they are more likely to access information from friends, newspaper, television and books. Chanda (1999) also reported that environmental concerns vary ac-cording to education and income levels. The low knowledge of respondents in general agrees with the findings of Grodzinska- Jurczak et-al (2003) that the level of knowledge among people regarding municipal waste and waste man-agement is low and incomplete.

Effect of Training Session on Knowledge of Source Separation

A mean score of 4.98 was obtained from the pre-training evaluation test which was conducted for 96 workers at the SUB and after the training, the same questions used during pre-evaluation were used for post evaluation revealed a mean score of 5.60 making an increase of 12.5%. This confirmed and indicated an increase in participant’s knowledge. Table 4 shows the statistical analysis of the mean knowl-edge scores of the workers. It revealed no significant differ-ence were observed at the baseline between the Mean knowl-edge scores of Experimental group (EG) and Control group (CG) respectively. Significant difference was observed be-tween The Mean baseline knowledge score of EG and that of its post-intervention mean score. The mean baseline knowl-edge score of CG and the post-intervention score showed no significant difference. The difference between the two groups’ post-intervention mean scores was significant (p<0.05). This

TABLE 2 Knowledge of Respondents on Recycling and Source Separation of Solid Waste at Baseline

Variable Options FSS + WD SUB

N = 168(%) N = 180 (%)

Knowledge on Waste Recycling

No Knowledge 121(67.2)

122(72.6)

Reprocessing of Waste into Useful Ones 1(0.6) 2(1.2)

Conversion of Waste into other Products 58(32.2) 7(4.2)

Reuse of Waste 0(0.0) 1(0.6)

Dumping of Waste Properly 0(0.0) 36(21.4)

Knowledge about Source Separation of Solid Wastes

No Knowledge 122(72.8) 131(78.0)

Separation of wastes with different bins before disposal 43(25.5) 25(14.9)

Separation of waste according to type 0 (0.0) 5(3.0)

Separation of Paper and Nylon from Others 3(1.7) 6(3.5)

Separation of Waste into useful and useless products 0(0.0) 1(0.6)

TABLE 3

Determination of Proportion of Respondents with Good Knowledge of Source-Separation of Solid Waste Using Percentiles

Percentile Score SUB

N= 180% FSS + WD N=168%

100th 5.00 0(0.00) 0(0.00)

75th 3.75 15(8.2) 27(16.1)

50th 2.50 48(26.7) 76(45.2)

25th 1.25 59(32.8) 34(20.2)

0th 0.00 58(32.2) 31(18.5)


revealed that at baseline, the proportion of workers with ade-quate knowledge of source-separation and recycling of solid waste among the workers was low and inadequate. This is in agreement with the findings of Grodzinska- Jurczak et-al., (2003) who stated that the level of knowledge among people regarding municipal waste and waste management is gener-ally low and incomplete. After the training and provision of the bin, there was significant increase in knowledge among the experimental group while at the control group where there was no intervention there was no increase in knowledge. It was therefore ascertained that the training and provision of a collection bin was effective in facilitating the practice of source-separation among the Experimental Group. This cor-roborates the findings of Grodzinska- Jurczak et-al (2003) which reported that environmental education had a positive and significant impact on environmental knowledge. Effect of Environmental Training and Provision of Wastes Bin on Attitude The results of the survey as shown on Table 5 revealed the attitude of workers towards waste recycling and source-separation at baseline and after intervention respectively. Among the EG, 5.6% and 52.0%, agreed that waste recycling was necessary in the University of Ibadan Community at baseline and post intervention respectively. Another 12.8% at baseline and 54.4% after intervention agreed that individual sorting of waste was necessary for proper source segregation of waste. 2.8% and 52.8% agreed that solid waste has mone-tary value while 9.5% and 56.7% agreed that a single unit bin with three compartment would enhance source-separation of waste at baseline and post intervention respectively. This Among the CG, 47.0% and 51.2% at baseline and after inter-vention respectively agreed that waste recycling was neces-sary in the University of Ibadan Community. Another 70.2% at baseline and 72.6% after intervention agreed that individ-ual separation of waste is necessary for proper separation of waste. 66.7% and 69.0% agreed that solid waste has mone-tary value while 64.9% and 67.2% agreed that a single unit bin with three compartments would enhance source-separation of waste at baseline and post intervention respec-

tively. This revealed that there was a significant difference in the attitude of the workers at baseline and after intervention at the Students’ Union Building while no such difference was found in the attitude of workers at baseline and after interven-tion at Faculty of the Social Sciences and Works Department. This finding was in agreement with Barr and Gilg (2007) who reported that situational variable of physical infrastructure such as the provision of the waste bins and provision of envi-ronmental training could improve the attitude of people. The change in attitude at the experimental group also corroborated the finding of Kallegren and Wood (1986) who reported that knowledge may also be seen as a key variable affecting levels of environmental action including attitude. Also, the personal experience of receiving training is also a factor that may in-fluence attitudes and behaviours according to Kallegren and Wood (1986); Oskamp et al., (1991) and Daneshvary et al., (1998).

Office/Shop Solid Waste Management Practices in The Study Locations The results (Table 6) showed the source-separation’ prac-tice of workers at baseline; the practice of source separation before disposal at all locations was very poor; Majority 91.7% at the FSS and WD as against and 97.8% at the SUB do not separate their waste. 7.7% of the respondents at FSS and WD as against 0.0 % at the SUB reuse their waste. It was also only at the SUB that 2.2% of respondents that sell their wastes.

Effect of Environmental Training and Collection Bin on Practice Table 7 illustrated the effect of the intervention on the practice of source-separation of solid waste. This revealed that the effect of the training on the practice of source-separation of solid waste was significant among the experi-mental group of the Students’ Union Building. At baseline, 2.2% of the workers were involved in source separation and recycling, while at post-intervention 30% of the workers were

TABLE 4

Evaluation of the Changes in the Mean Knowledge of the Experimental and Control Groups Before and after Intervention

Parameter Options Experimental Group Control Group

P- Value SUB (N=180) FSS + WD (N = 168)

Pre-Intervention Mean Score 2.2 + 1.5 1.6 + 1.1 > 0.05

Knowledge Post-Intervention Mean Score 3.0 + 1.3 1.9 + 0.6 < 0.05

P-Value < 0.05 > 0.05


involved. This shows that the proportions were increased significantly among the experimental group. While at the control group, at baseline, 12.9% of the workers were in-volved in source separation and recycling, while at post-intervention 17.3% of the workers were involved thus reveal-ing that there was no significant difference in the increase at the control group. This contradicts what other previous inves-tigators observed that environmental education does not nec-essarily lead to improved practice (Tikka et al., 2000); Amini and Ramazini (2001); Mesgarof et al., (2001). In the same vein, another study showed that better integration was re-quired between recycling programs and existing informal

waste collection systems (Hernandez et al., 1999). Plate 2 illustrates the application of the three compartments wastes bin CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The study was carried out in the non-residential area of the University of Ibadan. The effect of Environmental train-ing and provision of a locally fabricated and an adaptive three compartment solid wastes bin on source-separation of solid waste among workers was also assessed.

TABLE 5 Effect of Environmental Training and Collection Bin on Worker’s Attitude towards Source-Separation and Recycling of Solid

Waste before and after Intervention

Statements Options

Experimental Group Control Group

(SUB) N=180(%) (FSS + WD) N = 168(%)

Pre-Intervention

Post- Interven-tion P- Value Pre –

Intervention Post- Interven-

tion P-Value

Waste recycling is necessary in the University of Ibadan community.

Agree 10 (5.6) 92 (52.0) < 0.05 79 (47.0) 86 (51.2) > 0.05

Disagree 170 (94.4) 88(48.0) < 0.05 89 (53.0) 82 (48.8) > 0.05

Individual separation of waste at the shop/office is necessary for proper management of waste.

Agree 23 (12.8) 98 (54.4) < 0.05 118 (70.2) 122 (72.6) > 0.05

Disagree 157 (87.2) 82 (45.6) < 0.05 50 (29.8) 46 (31.9) > 0.05

Solid waste has monetary value.

Agree 5 (2.8) 95 (52.8) < 0.05 112 (66.7) 116 (69.0) > 0.05

Disagree 175 (97.2) 85 (47.2) < 0.05 56 (33.3) 52 (31.0) > 0.05

A single waste disposal bin with separate compartments for different component of waste would enhance source- separation of solid waste.

Agree 17 (9.5%) 102 (56.7) < 0.05 109 (64.9%) 113 (67.2) > 0.05

Disagree 163 (90.5) 78 (43.3) < 0.05 59 (35.1) 55 (32.8) > 0.05

TABLE 6

Practices of source-separation at office/shop before disposal by Respondents

Responses FSS+ WD

N = 168 (%) SUB

N = 180 (%)

Sell 0(0.0%) 4(2.2%)

Reuse 13(7.7%) 0(0.0%)

Process 1(0.6%) 0(0.0%)

No 154(91.7%) 176(97.8%)


It was observed that not much work had been done on the source-separation of solid waste and the recycling potential of wastes generated in non-residential areas of institutions of higher learning. At the end of the study, it was concluded that the knowledge, attitude and practice of the workers towards source-separation of solid waste was very low at baseline, there was compliance in the utilization of the fabricated multi-compartment bin. The co-intervention was effective as it enhanced the knowledge, affected the attitude and changed the behaviour of the workers towards the source-separation of solid waste. Nevertheless, a better integration was required between recycling programs of source-separation and existing informal waste collection systems. It is therefore recommended that to promote effective waste management on campus; there should be a separate office of solid waste management and recycling for the Uni-versity. This office would be saddled with the responsibility of engaging on advocacy, environmental training and educa-tion. There should also be mass production of the multi-compartment wastes bin to encourage the adoption of source separation of waste as a waste management strategy, there should be more regular training sessions especially for gen-erators of high volume of waste in other non-residential areas

of the University.

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Amini, A.M. and M. Ramazani, (2001) Students Recycle and Environmental Protection-4th National Congress of Envi-ronmental Health-Yard. Iran, pp. 26-30.

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TABLE 7 Effect of Environmental Training and Collection Bin on Worker’s Practice of Source-Separation of Solid Waste

Variable Group Pre-Intervention (Yes) Post-Intervention (Yes) P- Value

Do you Separate your waste before disposal

Experimental (SUB) N= 180 (%) 4 (2.2) 54(30.0) <0.05

Control (FSS + WD) N=168(%) 12(12.9) 16(17.3) >0.05

PLATE 2

The Fabricated Three Compartments Waste Bin in use at the SUB


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RETHINKING THE LAND APPLICATION VALUE OF MUNICIPAL WASTE COMPOST THROUGH IMPROVED

NITROGEN MANAGEMENT

Michael J. Adelman,1 Arthur D. Kney,2 Brian C. Peacock,3

Megan B. Rothenberger,4 John E. Greenleaf5

1Environmental Engineer, MWH Global, Inc., 300 N Lake Ave, Pasadena, CA 91101

2*Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Acopian Engineering Center, Lafayette College, Easton, PA 18042

[email protected]

3Software Design & Development Consultant, Chicago, IL 60624

4Associate Professor, Department of Biology, Kunkel Hall, Lafayette College, Easton, PA 18042

5Assistant Professor, Department of Engineering, Quinnipiac University, Hamden, CT 06518

ABSTRACT

Composting is gaining popularity as a sustainable means for the recycling of organic waste, and this technique has positive implications for water quality protection, waste management, and sustainable farming. However, the nutrient content of compost, particularly compost made from municipal solid waste (MSW), is often not sufficient for use in large-scale agriculture. Therefore, the conservation of nitrogen in composting is a subject of current research interest. In this study, compostible MSW materials (yard trimmings and food scraps) were treated in pi-lot-scale batch reactors. Various process modifications and improvement techniques were test-ed in pilot-scale batches. The addition of shredded paper, strong acid, or acid-loaded bentonite clay to the batches all proved to be successful in increasing nitrogen concentrations by 25% to 125% compared to unmodified control batches. The collection of compost leachate also ap-pears to be a viable technique to conserve nitrogen in MSW composting. Keywords: Nitrogen, composting, nitrogen management, solid waste, municipal waste

INTRODUCTION Over the past few decades, large-scale composting has grown significantly to become an important resource recov-

ery method that treated about 8.8% of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in the USA in 2013 (US EPA, 2015). Many MSW materials such as yard trimmings and food scraps are readily composted, but composting remains more familiar in rural settings. As a result, compared to agricultural

__________________________________ *Corresponding author


RETHINKING THE LAND APPLICATION VALUE OF MUNICIPAL WASTE COMPOST 339

composts, urban waste composts have not been as thoroughly studied (Castaldi et al., 2005; Canet et al., 2000). In fact, over the last 10 years or so it has become more and more difficult to find applied research within the literature that deals with MSW compost. Most chemical studies of MSW composts emphasize their suitability (or unsuitability) in agriculture, and focus on chemical transformations and nutrient behavior once the compost is finished and applied to agricultural land (Alburquerque et al., 2009; Wolkowski, 2003; Mamo et al., 1999; Sanchez et al., 1997). MSW presents a particular chal-lenge in compost engineering: the lesser quality of MSW composts, compared to conventional fertilizers and composts made from other material, has led to some concern in apply-ing MSW compost to agricultural land (Tognetti et al., 2007; Wolkowski, 2003). However, the relatively low nitrogen con-tent of MSW compost represents a fundamental problem and is the focus of this study. Although recent research has focused on conserving ni-trogen during the composting process, most studies have used agricultural materials (e.g., manure and crop residues) rather than MSW (Zvomuya et al., 2005; Raviv et al., 2002). In a study by Rahn et al., (2009), nitrogen loss from farming plots was successfully reduced by the application of biodegradable waste, but crop yields were generally lower. In light of the growing importance of composting and the pressing need for improvements in MSW compost quality, the objective of this study was to test the effectiveness of various modifications to the MSW composting process to improve the nitrogen con-tent of the end product. Possible improvement techniques tested at the pilot scale in this study included augmentation of batches with acid or bentonite clay, capture of nutrient-rich compost leachate, increase of the C:N ratio in the initial mix; and decrease of the operating temperature and extent of batch aeration. The overall goal of these modifications techniques was to prevent nitrogen losses, either by slowing the mineral-ization of organic nitrogen to ammonia or by preventing the subsequent escape of this ammonia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Pilot-scale experimental vessels The pilot-scale experiments were performed as an in-

vessel batch process using five rotating tumblers. These tum-blers were constructed using 55-gallon (208 L) reconditioned steel drums (Rahway Steel Drum Company, Avenel, NJ).

As composting reactors, these rotating tumblers had the following characteristics:

Mixed contents. The tumblers were turned daily to mix the compost material.

Aerated system. The tumblers had eight 3.81 cm (1 ½”) diameter holes for air intake, and approximately half of the tumbler volume remained as air space so that air could be mixed into pore space of the com-post pile when the tumbler was turned.

In-vessel system. The tumblers were enclosed, pre-venting intrusion of pests and debris. In practice, in-vessel processes are often preferable for composting food waste.

Batch process. The drums were loaded with waste and incubated for three weeks. No solids flowed into or out of the reactor during the course of the com-posting process.

These process characteristics are representative at pilot scale of the actively aerated processes that are typically used for MSW composting, particularly for food waste (Haug, 1993).

Feedstock description and mix design The MSW used in this study was sourced locally from the Lafayette College campus in Easton, PA and consisted of leaves, grass clippings, food waste, and shredded paper. The-se feedstocks are representative of available MSW sources typically used in composting (Haug, 1993). Their nitrogen content was analyzed using the total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) technique described below. Results are shown in Table 1, and were typical of reported values for these materials (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993; Niessen, 1977). Leaves serve as a carbonaceous feedstock, while grass clippings and food scraps are nitrogenous feedstocks. The pilot-scale tests began combining measured amounts of the MSW feedstocks (Table 1) and mixing them thorough-ly in the tumblers. C:N ratios were maintained within the range of general design practice, which recommends a C:N ratio between 20 and 40 for effective decomposition, and a bulk density less than 600 kg/m3 to maintain sufficient poros-ity for aeration (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993).

TABLE 1

Description of municipal solid waste (MSW) materials used in this study, including the amount of each material in pilot com-post batches as well as typical properties from Tchobanoglaus et al (1993).

Material Mass in mix (kg)

Measured TKN (g/kg) Typical properties

Mean Range Density (kg/m3) C/N Ratio

Food waste 9.00 15 8 to 29 300 20

Leaves 3.60 1.8 0.5 to 3.5 120 55

Grass clippings 2.25 7.6 6 to 8 200 15


Compost batch operation For the next three weeks after loading with the initial mix, the pilot-scale reactors were turned daily for aeration and mixing, and compost parameters were measured 2-3 times weekly. Parameters measured in situ included compost tem-perature and ambient temperature using an 8” (20 cm) steel thermometer (Trend Instruments, Lawrenceville, GA); and pH with a Vario handheld soil pH meter (WTW, Weilheim, Germany). Samples were also taken for laboratory analysis of percent moisture and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN). The moisture content of the compost was maintained at approxi-mately 70% through the periodic addition of small amounts of water. Each experiment was constructed with two control batch-es: one “experimental control” with food, leaves, and grass; and the other “practical control” with only leaves and grass (Figure 1). The other three batches were constructed with the same food to leaves to grass ratio as the experimental control, but were modified in some way. All of these batches, control and experimental, were performed simultaneously such that the results could be compared independently of changing external conditions. The results from the experimental batches were quantita-tively compared to the experimental control, to determine whether the modification had any effect on nitrogen in the MSW compost batches. The practical control allowed for comparison of the experimental batches to batches containing only yard waste, which are more typical of the majority of solid waste compost produced at municipal scale in the USA (US EPA, 2015). The quality of composts containing food waste must improve relative to yard waste composts in order for food waste composting to be a more attractive waste man-agement alternative. In considering the results of the pilot-scale study, experi-mental batches were only compared alongside compositional-ly consistent control batches prepared from the same loads of food waste and yard trimmings and simultaneously subjected

to the same outside conditions (external temperature, humidi-ty, etc.). No comparisons were made between batches from different parent loads or those run during different months.

Addition of process amendments The following amendments were tested in the pilot scale batches: 1. Acidification: 1 M hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) or

rock sulfur was added to acidify the compost, and the re-sultant pH was measured.

2. Bentonite Clay Addition: 2.5 lb (1.1 kg) of bentonite clay was added per batch to increase the ion exchange capaci-ty. Some clay was pre-treated with 1 M HCl.

3. Capture of Leachate: Water (1 L or 200 mL per batch) was passed through the pilot-scale compost reactors and collected from ½” drainage holes as leachate. TKN was measured in this leachate and, in some cases, the leachate was passed through the reactor a second or third time.

4. C:N Ratio Variation: Paper or freshly cut plant matter was added to alter the C:N ratio. Paper, added at a rate of 3 lb (1.4 kg) per batch, would shift the initial C:N ratio more towards carbon by raising it to around 22; while fresh plant matter, added at 8 lb (3.6 kg) per batch, would shift it in the direction of nitrogen and reduce it to around 20.

5. Passive Aeration: Perforated PVC pipes placed within the compost pile were used to passively aerate a pilot-scale reactor, unlike the other reactors which were ac-tively aerated by turning.

Analytical methods Moisture content was measured by quickly taking 2-3 g samples of compost for drying in a microwave (Oster Manu-facturing, Rye, NY). The wet mass of the compost was rec-orded, and the sample was then dried until its mass remained

FIGURE 1

Conceptual diagram of the pilot-scale experiments. Five tumblers were run simultaneously with the same MSW feedstocks, including two controls and three experimental batches with some amendment or process modification.


constant. TKN was measured by digestion of a solid sample of compost (about 0.5 g) in sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide at 440ºC, on a Digesdahl variable-temperature digestion ap-paratus (Hach Company, Loveland, CO). The digested solu-tion was analyzed for ammonia by direct Nesslerization: ab-sorbance was measured at 460 nm, which was recorded using a spectrophotometer (AquaMate Plus, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA). The amount of TKN in the original sample was then calculated by mass balance. The results of the pilot-scale study were considered by plotting weekly average TKN measurements versus time. For the initial measurements of nitrogen characteristics in the Lafayette College MSW material (as noted in Process Theo-ry), the above digestion procedure was used to measure TKN. Other forms of nitrogen were also analyzed, by extracting solid samples with NaOH solution and quantifying both am-monia and nitrate in the extract. These solutions were ana-lyzed for ammonia by direct Nesslerization and spectropho-tometry without a digestion step, and for nitrate using an ion chromatograph (Dionex Corp., Sunnyvale, CA).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Composting conditions The pH, temperature, and moisture content are among the most important measurable conditions in a compost pile (Liang et al., 2003; Martin and Gershuny, 1992). Except in cases in which acid was applied to the compost as a process amendment, biological waste treatment processes were not hindered by extreme pH (Figure 2(a)). Temperature increases showed that microorganisms in the compost batches were active, and temperature decreases signaled the end of the ac-tive composting process following the three-week incubation period (Figure 2(b)). The moisture content, which averaged 67% water by mass, was typical for raw organic waste and operating compost piles (Haug, 1993). Because moisture lev-els remained near constant during the course of the compost-ing process (Figure 2(c)), the nitrogen content within a given set of compost batches could be compared on a mass concen-tration basis. Data for pH, temperature, and moisture content are summarized in Table 2. Summary of improvement techniques The pilot-scale experiments started with an initial study of unmodified compost batches, which lost about 30-80% of their original TKN (Adelman and Kney, 2010). This observa-tion was consistent with other data reported in the literature (Raviv et al., 2005; Eghball et al., 1997) and confirmed the expectation that compost made from MSW would ordinarily be relatively nutrient-poor (Tognetti et al., 2007). Subsequent pilot-scale experiments focused on improving nitrogen con-servation in compost batches through the various process amendments, and Table 3 gives both the effective and less effective results from these experiments. Weekly average

TKN measurements indicated that strong-acid addition, addi-tion of acid-loaded bentonite clay, and addition of paper to shift the C:N ratio were all successful in improving the nitro-gen content of the pilot-scale batches relative to their associ-ated controls, as shown in Figure 3. Evaluation of effective techniques The addition of 1 M HCl to the compost showed some success in pilot-scale tests. One batch amended with 300 mL

FIGURE 2

Example composting condition data from one set of pilot-scale batches, including

(a) pH, (b) temperature, and (c) moisture content.


of acid had very high TKN concentrations throughout the process, as in Figure 3(a). However, the other batch misted with approximately the same volume of 1M HCl, and the batch with rock sulfur (included as a slow-release acidic soil amendment material) conserved less nitrogen. Keeping the pH within the correct range appears to be crucial to the effec-tiveness of an HCl application to conserve nitrogen in a given compost batch. The batch with the highest TKN in Figure 3(a) had its initial pH reduced by acid, but the pH never dropped below 6.0 during the entire process. On the other hand, the unsuccessful strong acid batch had its pH reduced to below 3.0 by excessive acid application. Such rapid pH changes could be highly destructive to the typical biological function of a compost pile: pH values below 3.0 and above 11.5 are known to kill many composting microorganisms (Haug, 1993). The acid-loaded bentonite outperformed both the practical and experimental controls for nitrogen conservation, while

the untreated bentonite batch was only slightly improved rela-tive to the control, as shown in Figure 3(b). This observation provides some circumstantial evidence that ion exchange is the mechanism for the additional nitrogen retention observed in this trial. The cation-exchange sites naturally present on the surface of the clay particles due to isomorphous substitu-tion can pick up ammonium (NH4

+) produced from the de-composition of the organic waste (Ruiz et al., 1997). The pre-treated bentonite did this more effectively, because it released H+ ions from its cation exchange sites thus shifting the equi-librium between ammonia and ammonium towards ammoni-um. This produced more NH4

+ that could then be taken up on the surface of the clay. Nitrogen-rich liquid leachate was successfully produced, and two important trends were noted. First, diluting the leachate reduced TKN: the leachate generated with 200 mL of water had the highest TKN at 947 mg/L, while the concentrations were lower in the 1 L leachates. On the other

TABLE 2

Mean values and typical trends for composting conditions in each pilot-scale batch, along with the range of values that includes 95% of all the samples taken.

Condition Mean 95% Range N Typical Trend

pH 7.22 5.9 - 8.5 150 Often indiscernible; sometimes a slight rise at the beginning of the pro-cess and a slight drop at the end

Temperature 23.2°C 10°C - 35°C 150 Rises as the batch becomes active, falls at the end of the process

Moisture 67% 48% - 80% 120 Maintained as close to a constant level as possible within each set of pilot-scale batches

TABLE 3

Summary of the results from the pilot-scale experiments with each amendment, including “successful” improvements and results from other experiments.

Modification Metric Effective Experiment Less Effective Experiment

Trial Result Trial Result

Acidification Compare TKN with exper-imental control

HCl added, pH kept above 6.5

Average TKN in-crease of 125%

Used rock sulfur or excessive HCl

TKN unchanged or decreased

Bentonite clay Compare TKN with exper-imental control

Added clay pre-treated with HCl


Added clay with no pre-treatment

TKN slightly in-creased (9%)

Capturing N in leachate

Concentration of TKN in the leachate

Collected or recycled leachate

Up to 1 g/L TKN achieved

Varying C:N ratio

Compare TKN with exper-imental control

Added paper as car-bon source


Added cut plants as an N source

TKN unchanged or decreased

Varying tem-perature

Compare TKN with exper-imental control Passively aerated a

batch TKN slightly in-creased (3%)


hand, recycling the leachate through the batch tended to increase the nitrogen content. A single liter of leachate recycled twice through a compost batch had 127 mg/L of TKN, which was increased to 448 mg/L following a third recycle. These results suggest that contact time between the water and the compost increases the concentration of nitrogen in the leachate. The carbon amendment portion of the study showed mixed success. In the summer, a “High Carbon” batch with shredded paper as an amendment outperformed the experi-mental and practical controls as shown in Figure 3(c). How-ever, the paper-amended batch did not differ significantly from the controls when this trial was repeated in the fall. It is

likely that the mechanism for the successful batch was bio-logical: a higher C:N ratio favors the growth of nitrogen-immobilizing bacteria in soils (Pierzynski et al., 2005), and these organisms would likely be observed in compost as well. This immobilization process prevents the ammonia from be-ing lost to the atmosphere and preserves it in the compost as biomass. This biological mechanism might also explain the difference between the summer and fall batches amended with paper. While the summer batches never dropped below 20°C, the fall batches were colder than 10°C at one point. Temperature changes can significantly alter the microbial communities in a compost batch, and cold conditions in the fall batches may have severely disrupted the biological pro-

FIGURE 3

Nitrogen concentration data for successful experimental batches and their associated controls, including (a) strong acid addition, (b) bentonite clay, and (c) shredded paper.


cesses within the compost and, therefore, the mechanism by which paper helps conserve compost nitrogen.

Evaluation of less effective techniques The compost batch passively aerated with the intention of reducing airflow and temperature, and in turn ammonia volat-ilization, was not met with much success. The average TKN in this batch over the three-week period of the test differed only slightly from the controls (differences in TKN concen-tration were on the order of 3%), and the marginal gains in nitrogen content were offset by the ineffectiveness of the waste treatment process. Visual observation showed that the MSW in this batch was not fully treated as in the other batch-es, and the resulting compost was malodorous and did not appear humified or stable. Though the flow of air through the compost pile may contribute to losses of nitrogen, it is im-portant if effective treatment of the waste is desired. The nitrogen amendment was also relatively unsuccessful. The batch with green plants added did not outperform either of the controls. Accepted soil science theory predicts that a lower initial C:N ratio will simply result in nitrogen being lost at a greater rate. Furthermore, Pierzynski et al., (2005) show that excess nitrogen (i.e., a lower C:N ratio) in the raw ingredients of compost creates an imbalance in the C:N ratio such that the microorganism population that is established cannot incorporate the nitrogen into its biomass. This results in nitrogen loss through such routes as leaching and volati-lization. Based on our results substantiated by accepted prac-tice and current research, it does not appear as though in-creasing the nitrogen content of compost is as simple as add-ing extra nitrogen at the beginning of the process. CONCLUSIONS Improvement of the nutrient characteristics of MSW com-post requires that ammonia volatilization be prevented. Sev-eral possible methods for conserving nitrogen in municipal waste compost were identified through pilot-scale testing:

• Paper addition: Adding shredded paper to the batches was sometimes (but not consistently) ob-served to increase the measured TKN. This tech-nique may work by providing bioavailable carbon to nitrogen-immobilizing bacteria.

• Acidification: Provided that the compost is kept within a reasonable pH range and not over-acidified, the addition of dilute HCl to the compost conserves TKN by shifting the ammonia equilibrium towards NH4

+. • Clay amendment: Bentonite clay pre-treated with ac-

id has the ability retain nitrogen in the compost through its cation exchange capacity.

• Leachate collection: Passing water through compost batches, either once or multiple times, yielded a liq-uid leachate rich in TKN.

These process modifications and techniques should be further studied at full scale, and they may be useful in prac-tice to improve the quality of MSW composts.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to the Lafayette College students – Bryan McAtee, Hannah Griesbach, Christina DeSalva, Stacey Dorn, Nicole Elstein, Ben Swartout, Raphael Cuomo, Seth Price, Marcus Cox, Max Caserta, Emily Clark, Britta Moore, and Jenn Bell – who have been instrumental to the campus com-posting project. Thanks also to Dr. Steve Mylon for his in-sight and contributions, and to the Lafayette staff who have supported this work: Tom DeFazio in the engineering labs, Bob Chunko of the Grounds Department, and Joe Binotto and Jaime Porter of Dining Services. Funding for this research came from the Lafayette Society of Environmental Engineers and Scientists, the Lafayette EXCEL research fund, the PA Department of Environmental Protection Growing Greener Grant program, and the US EPA “People, Prosperity, and the Planet” award.

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https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/


EUTROPHICATION OF WATERS AND SEDIMENT CAUSED BY RUNOFF AND LEACHATE FROM THE SOLID WASTE COMPOSTING

SITE OF SANANDAJ, KURDISTAN (IRAN)

Dr. Zahed Sharifi*1, Sayd M. T. Hossaini1, Giancarlo Renella2

1Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran

2Department of Agrifood Production and Environmental Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

Phone: (+98) 87 33620552, Fax: (+98) 87 33620553 [email protected] and [email protected]

ABSTRACT

We studied the rate and environmental risks associated with sediment and water stream pollu-tion by excessive nutrient concentrations caused by runoff and leachate from the municipal sol-id waste composting plant of Sanandaj (Kurdistan, Iran). Sediment and water samples were analyzed for physico-chemical parameters including: sediment particle size distribution, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), water total dissolved solids (TDS), water total hardness (TH), total organic carbon (TOC), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKNS), inorganic nitrogen (NO3

- and NH4+), phos-

phorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K). The results showed that the wa-ter was unfit for irrigation and drinking purposes, and threatened the aquatic life, and that the quality of the sediments was degraded, as the physico-chemical parameters had higher values than those of quality guideline values for nutrient elements. Furthermore, in comparison with previous studies, in most cases the concentration of the surveyed parameters in the studied stream water and bed sediments was higher. Overall, the stream water and sediment pollution clearly reflected the impact caused by the runoff and leachate from the composting site, and posed risks for the surrounding ecosystems. Therefore, technologies for preventing emission from the composting plant and remediation actions on the contaminated area are recommend-ed. Keywords: MSW composting plant, Leachate and runoff, Sediment and stream water pollution, Nutrient elements

INTRODUCTION Sustainable municipal solid waste (MSW) management in the perspective of a continuous population growth is a global concern. Landfilling and composting are the two main MSW management options, and there is clear evidence of a shift from landfilling to composting in the most developed coun-tries during the last decades (USEPA, 2006; EEA, 2013). In

the period 2001-2010 MSW landfilling decreased by 41 mil-lion tons per year while composting increased by 28 million tons per year in the 32 European Union countries (EEA, 2013) and in the period 2008-2011, waste recycling in the USA MSW stream increased by 18.5 million tons per year while landfilling decreased by 23 million tons per year (Themelis and Mussche, 2014). Diverting MSW management from landfilling to composting has general environmental

________________________________________ *Corresponding author



EUTROPHICATION OF WATERS AND SEDIMENT CAUSED BY RUNOFF AND LEACHATE 347

benefits by the reducing air, soil and water pollution, and has also positive economic balance through the reduction of land-fill storage (USCC, 2011; Seng and Kaneko, 2012). There is also a consensus around the idea that use of the compost as a soil conditioner or fertilizer is a sustainable re-cycling practice owing to its positive effects on soil fertility and plant growth, allowing the reduction use of chemical fer-tilizers (Hargreaves et al., 2008; Mylavarapu and Zinati, 2009). Compost amendment is particularly beneficial in agri-cultural soils of arid and semi-arid environments that general-ly have low organic matter content, thus lower the production costs through the reduced use of chemical fertilizers and to soil conservation. For these reasons, compost incorporation into agricultural soils it is expected to steadily increase in the developing economies (Turmel et al., 2015). While compost-ing is showing an overall increased trend in MSW manage-ment, composting of MSW in open windrows can involve environmental risks, particularly in relation to concentrations of heavy metals, nutrients and salts, which must be contained during compost production (Ulen, 1997; Krogmann and Woyczechowski, 2000; Achiba et al., 2010; Larney et al., 2014; Cheng et al., 2015; Sharifi et al., 2016). Several studies have reported contaminant properties of leachate and runoff from composting of various wastes such as dairy cow/horse/sheep manure (Sharpley and Moyer, 2000; Web-ber et al., 2009, 2011; Komar et al., 2010), hay yard waste (Cabrera et al., 1998), mature yard and food wastes (Mullane et al., 2015) or cattle manure (Larney et al., 2014). While, the impacts of runoff from open MSW composting sites on water and sediment quality of streams receiving runoff from com-posting sites are still poorly characterized particularly in emerging countries which have not implemented the most efficient technologies for controlling the release of nutrients and pollutants from MSW composting plants. This paper re-ports the eutrophication of stream waters and sediments caused by the composting plant of Sanandaj (Kurdistan, Iran) characterized by insufficient control of runoff and leaching. In particular, we evaluated the quality of sediment as poten-tial sink of nutrients and stream water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes, and for conservation of aquatic life. MATERIAL AND METHODS Site description Sanandaj, the central city of Kurdistan province, is located in West Iran (E 46° 55' - 47° 5', 35° 12' - 35° 23' N), has a semi-arid climate with mean annual temperature of 14.5 °C and annual precipitation of 439.0, with precipitation peaks in the January-May period. According to the Sanandaj Waste Management Organiza-tion, the MSW generation is in the order of 320 t day-1 and about 200 t of MSW are being composted in open windrows at the Sanandaj MSW Composting Plant. The MSW compost is of low grade because MSW is not sorted at source, and therefore contains plastics (8%), glass (2%) and metallic resi-dues (1%), in addition to the organic fraction (71%) (Rezaee

et al., 2014). Exposure of open windrows and stockpiled compost to climatic events cause leaching and run-off which exceed the capacity of the containment basin and is released into a receiving water stream located in the south part of the site (Figure 1), which is tributary of the Sanandaj-Kamyaran River, also that is used to irrigate vegetables and crops. Water and sediment sampling and preparation Sediments and waters were sampled from three sampling points along a 600-m transect of the stream with 200 m inter-val as composite samples (3 subsamples each) (Figure 1). Surface water was sampled using plastic bottles whereas sed-iments were collected from the 0-5 cm depth with a stainless-steel cylinder (5.0 cm height, 5.3 cm diameter) with the help of hand ring holder-type auger. All samples were immediate-ly transferred to the analytical laboratory for chemical analy-sis. In the laboratory, the water samples were filtered and di-vided into two aliquots: one water sub-samples were acidified at pH < 2 using ultra-pure HNO3 for cation analysis, the other sub-sample was used for analysis of anions, pH and electrical conductivity (EC) values. The sediment samples were also divided into two parts: one sub-sample was passed through a 2 mm sieve and then refrigerated (4 °C) prior to analysis of anions, the other sub-sample was air-dried at room tempera-ture and sieved (2 mm) prior to analysis of cationic elements.

Water and sediment analysis Sediment particle-size analysis was determined using the hydrometer method as reported by Gee and Bauder, (1986). Water total dissolved solids (TDS) were calculated according to TDS (mgl-1) = 640 × ECw equation, where ECw is electrical conductivity of water samples as dS m–1. The pH and electri-cal conductivity (EC) values of the sediment and water sam-ples were measured by a pH meter (Metrohm Pty Ltd., Herisau, Switzerland) and a conductivity meter (Metrohm Pty Ltd., Herisau, Switzerland), respectively. Sediment pH and EC values were determined using slurries prepared by 1:2 sediment:water w:v ratio. Sediment total organic carbon (TOC) content was determined by dry combustion using 0.58 as the conversion factor for the loss on ignition (Nelson and Sommers, 1996). Total sediment N was determined by the Kjeldahl method according to Bremener and Mulvaney (1982). Sediment available Ca, Mg and K concentrations were determined by extractions with 1.0 M NH4COOH at pH 7.0 (Knudsen et al., 1982). Calcium and Mg were determined by a complexometric method (Botha and Webb, 1952), and the K content by flame emission photometric method, using a flame photometer (Model BWB-1, Technology, UK Ltd.). The same methods were used for quantifying Ca, Mg and K concentrations in stream waters. Available P (Olsen-P) was quantified by the method of Olsen et al., (1954) using 0.5 M NaHCO3 at pH 8.5 as extractant, followed by colorimetric quantification according to Murphy and Riley (1962), using a spectrophotometer (Cary 50, Varian Australia Pty Ltd. Mul-grave, Victoria). The NH4

+-N and NO3--N in the water sam-


ples were determined by the steam distillation method (Bremner and Keeney, 1996).

Data analysis All analytical results are presented as mean values (± standard errors). The linear Pearson's correlation method was used for correlation analysis, conducted using the SAS (9.1) software.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physical and chemical properties of sediments Main physico-chemical properties of studied sediments are shown in Figure 2 and Table 1.

FIGURE 1 Map of the site of the compost producing of Sanandaj, Kurdistan Province, Iran, green trigonals showing the sampling points (a), Leachate and runoff flow into downstream water (b), Curing compost piles eroded by runoff (c), Detention pond in the bottom of

site 1 (d) and MSW windrows (e). Derived from Sharifi et al. (2016).


Particle size distribution

The sediment texture was sandy clay loam with a percent-age of clay, silt, and sand of 27.2, 20.9, and 51.9, respectively

(Figure 2). Although the texture of river sediments is highly site dependent, clay and silt comparison factor (CCF, SCF), i.e., the clay and silt contents in similar studies-to-clay and silt contents in this study, showed that clay and silt contents

FIGURE 2 Clay (a), silt (b) and sand (c) content in the studied sediment in compared to other studies. Solid lines represent the values of comparison factor (CF), i.e. the each particle size content in the similar studies -to- the particle size content in this study. Red, yellow and green filled circles respectively represent exceed, equal and low CF values.


in the studied sediments were in the range of that of Gomti River in India (Singh et al., 2005) and Abshineh River in Iran (Jalali and Naderi Peikam, 2013), and lower than the Pak Phanang River in Thailand (Noicharoen et al., 2012), Kor River in Iran (Sheykhi and Moore, 2013), and Hahndorf Creek in Australia (Wakelin et al., 2008) (Figure 2). Higher proportion of fine particles in the studied sediments increase the specific surface area and, in turn, the ion retention of bot-tom sediments (Coz et al., 2007). However, the sand compar-ison factor (ACF) showed the opposite trend of clay and silt

in compared to the above-mentioned water bodies, the excep-tion was Gomti River in India (Singh et al., 2005) which its sand content was higher than studied sediment (Figure 2). Total organic carbon and nitrogen Total organic C (TOC) and N (TON) concentrations were 1.8 and 0.26 g.kg-1, respectively. Total sediment N concentra-tion in this study was lower (3.1 fold) than the mean reported


by Varol and Şen (2012) for sediment of Tigris River (Tur-key) and higher (2.0 fold) than the mean reported by Wakelin et al., (2008) for sediment of Hahndorf Creek in Australia. In comparison to stream water receiving compost leachate, total N in our sediments were 3.5 times lower than values reported for leachate of compost piles of cow manure and but more than 30 times of those receiving leachate from sawdust (Sanders et al., 2010) (Table 1). The TOC content (1.8%) of sediment in this study was 8.2 times lower than the mean value reported for sediment of Coina River in Portugal (Abreu et al., 2014) and for sediment of Tapti River in India (Marathe et al., 2011), whereas it was in the range of other sites in 78.0% of the cases (Table 1). Re-tention of nutrients by sediments is dependent on the content of clay and organic matter (OM) (Chen and White, 2004), and in the present study TOC content was positively correlat-ed with clay content (r = 0.68; P < 0.1). This result paralleled those of Sharma and Singh (2015). Nutrient and TOC sorp-tion are both dependent on the specific surface area of clays (Horowitz, 1985), and in the studied sediments most of the organic C is originated by dissolved and particulate organic matter (POM) comes from composting plant inputs to the stream water. Thus, the organic C along with high clay con-tent create a highly reactive environment in the studied sedi-ments, because higher specific surface area and higher ion exchangeable capacity of the fine particles increase retention of organic and inorganic substances such as heavy metals and nutrients on the sediments (Coz et al., 2007; Arnepalli et al., 2008; Rogers et al., 2011). However, in eutrophic aquatic ecosystems the elemental equilibria depend on both microbial decomposition of the organic matter and changes in the redox conditions caused by depletion of water dissolved oxygen in eutrophic ecosystems (Harnett et al., 1998; Abdel-Raouf et al., 2012).

Electrical conductivity and pH Sediment pH and electrical conductivity (EC) values were 7.6 and 1.7 dS.m−1, respectively. The pH value was within the pH range of sediments of the previously reported data in the Table 1. The only exception was those of the Kor River in Iran having sediment pH value in the range 8.1-9.4 (Sheykhi and Moore, 2013). Differently, the EC value in the studied sediment were lower than the previously reported data, with the exception of the Abshineh River in Iran (0.5 dS.m-1) (Jalali and Naderi Peikam, 2013) and Hahndorf Creek in Aus-tralia (0.4 dS.m-1) (Wakelin et al., 2008) (Table 1).

Sediments nutrient elements Although the mechanisms that lead to eutrophication (nu-trient enrichment) are complex, the main cause of the phe-nomenon is the large input of nutrient element particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) to water bodies that result in high levels of phytoplankton. The nutrient elements build up in the sediments of aquatic bodies in available and unavaila-ble forms. When they build up in unavailable forms, they at-tached to sediment particles and they are generally do not

support phytoplankton growth. Thus, we focused our study on the available nutrient forms, which can encourage the growth of aquatic organisms. Concentration of available P )226.8 mg.kg-1( in the studied sediment was much higher (on average 6.3 times) than reported average for other river sedi-ments (Table 1), and it has been reported that eutrophication can be prevented if total P and orthophosphate concentrations are below 0.5 and 0.05 mg.l-1, respectively (Dunne and Leo-pold, 1978). As will be discussed in the water quality section, excessive available P in the studied sediment was likely re-sponsible for the elevated total P and orthophosphate in the studied stream water. Average sediment available potassium (K) value in this study was 1674.3 mg.kg-1. Potassium is an essential nutrient is requiring for normal alga growth; however, scientific evi-dence suggests that increased amounts of K in water may in-hibit excessive alga growth (Shukla and Rai, 2006 and 2007). The closest average sediment potassium (K) value (1236.8 mg.kg-1) to our study (1674.3 mg.kg-1) was Coina River in Portugal (Abreu et al., 2014), however the mean K value in this study was much higher (8.9 times) than the mean report-ed by Wakelin et al., (2008) for sediment of Hahndorf Creek in Australia. Furthermore, the K value in the surveyed sedi-ments fell out of the range reported by Abdel-Satar (2005) and Shaha et al., (2013) respectively for sediments of Nile River in Egypt and Mayur River in Bangladesh (Table 1). The sediments average available magnesium (Mg) value (224.7 mg.kg-1) in this study fell into the bottom of the range reported by Abdel-Satar (2005), Wakelin et al., (2008) and Shaha et al., (2013) respectively for sediments of Nile River in Egypt, Hahndorf Creek in Australia and Mayur River in Bangladesh. However, it was much lower (10.8 times) than the mean value reported by Marathe et al., (2011) for sedi-ment of Tapti River in India (Table 1). The sediments aver-age calcium (Ca) value (3146.6 mg.kg-1) in this study fell very close to the mean value of Tapti River in India (Marathe et al., 2011) and the maximum value reported for Mayur Riv-er in Bangladesh (Shaha et al., 2013). However, it was higher (1.3 times) than the mean value reported for sediments of Hahndorf Creek in Australia (Wakelin et al., 2008) and the maximum value (3.6 times) of Nile River sediments in Egypt (Abdel-Satar, 2005) (Table 1). Water quality assessment The physicochemical analyses of the water samples were statistically analyzed and the results are presented in Table 2. In this study, the suitability of collected water samples for drinking, aquatic life and irrigation was evaluated by the fol-lowing basic criteria.

Electrical conductivity and pH Electrical conductivity (EC) generally reflects the water capacity to convey electric current. It signifies the total min-eral content dissolved in the water (TDS). The EC value (5.1 dS.m-1) of the studied waters was similar to that of mean val-ues of water samples impacted by leachate of turned compost


windrow of food/paper/grass/cow manure (Ulen, 1997) and runoff of cattle manure feedlot (Miller et al., 2004, 2006) (Table 2). However, the mean EC content (0.6 dS.m-1) in Nambul River, impacted by runoff and leachate of Imphal MSW disposal site in India (Singh and Dey, 2014) was lower than the value of the studied water, whereas the EC value of

18.0 dS.m-1 reported by Mullane et al., (2015) for simulated runoff from yard and food wastes compost and the value of 12.0 dS.m-1 reported by Jarecki et al., (2005) for leachate of spent mushroom compost were 3.5 and 2.3 times was higher than the study, respectively.


The total dissolved solid (TDS) (3.2 g.l-1) value in the wa-ter samples was higher than the maximum permissible limit (600 mg.l-1) for drinking water (WHO, 2011). Furthermore, based on the TDS (USSL, 1954) and EC (Wilcox, 1955) grading standards for irrigation purpose, the studied water samples could be classified as doubtful to severe water cate-gory, respectively. The results suggest that induced excessive amounts of salts from the composting site to the water body make it unsuitable for drinking and irrigation usage. The re-sult supported by that Sharifi and Renella (2015) reported that the EC of the compost manufactured by the open com-posting plant is 5.7 dS.m-1. The pH value (6.3, weakly acidic) of the stream water was slightly more acidic than the permissible range of pH for drinking (6.5-8.5) water and within the range (6.0-8.5) for irrigation usage (Ayers and Westcot, 1985 and Sharifi and Safari Sinegani, 2012a). Compared to previous studies, the pH value of the studied stream water was near to the mean value or in the range values of other sites in 71.0% of the cas-es (Table 2). The pH values of other case studies in the Table 1 (29.0%) was higher than the present pH value, particularly for the pH range value (8.2-9.2) reported by Miller et al., (2006) for runoff from cattle manure.

Water nutrient elements Nitrogen. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) content (379.4 mg.l-1) of water in this study fell into the range of other sites in 54.0% of the cases (Table 2). However it was lower (3.5 times) than the mean reported by Sanders et al., (2010) for leachate from compost piles of cow manure. In other cases our TKN was higher, particularly with regard to combined runoff and leachate from sawdust turned compost piles, which its TKN value was 30.1 times lower than the study (Sanders et al., 2010) (Table 2). The aqueous NH4

+-N and NO3--N concentrations were

114.6 and 85.6 mg.l-1, respectively (Table 2). The observed concentration of NH4

+-N concentration fell into the upper of the range reported for simulated runoff beef manure compost windrows (Larney et al., 2014) and laboratory column leach-

ate of farm and yard wastes manure (Confesor et al., 2009). They were lower than concentrations reported for leachate of MSW stockpiles (Peckenham et al., 2008) and turned com-post piles of cow manure (Sanders et al., 2010), whereas, in several other cases (67%) the NH4

+ concentration in the stud-ied water samples was higher than the compared case studies (Table 2). The NO3

--N concentrations were higher than those other previously reported data in 70% of the cases (Table 2), but lower than water bodies receiving leachate from biosolid composts plants (Confesor et al., 2007, 2009), or simulated runoff from yard waste (Xia et al., 2007) (Table 2). The detected concentration of NO3

- in the water samples exceeded the limit concentrations for NO3

- (45.0 mg.l-1) in drinking water suggested by Health Canada (2014). Concern-ing the suitability of the water samples for irrigation, Duncan et al., (2000) indicated that water samples with higher than 30 mg.l-1 NO3

-, can cause severe toxicity in various plants, and therefore the studied waters had excessive NO3

- content for irrigation purposes. Concentrations of NH4

+ and NO3- in this

study were also higher than the critical concentrations of 1.5 and 13.0 mg.l-1 for NH4

+ and NO3-, respectively to protect the

aquatic life forms (Environment Canada, 1997 and 2002). Phosphorus. The concentration of phosphorus (P) and phos-phate (PO4

3-) in this studied water were 16.7 and 51.2 mg.l-1, respectively. Although no limits are given for P in drinking water by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environ-ment (CCME) guidelines, a safe limit concentration for phos-phates to prevent eutrophication were indicated by the OECD, France (Vollenweider and Kerekes, 1982) and CCME, Canada (Galvez-Cloutier and Sanchez, 2007) in 0.03 mg PO4-P l-1. The USEPA (1986) indicated 0.05 mg.l-1 total P in its water quality criteria. Relying on the available P con-centrations in the studied water its eutrophic status fell in to the hyper-eutrophic class of the Environment Canada (2004) classification (Table 3). Overall, the detected mean P values was close to the upper range of other sites (41.0%), and lower (on average 6.5 times) than maximum value of leachate from different biosolid waste composts (Confesor et al., 2007 and 2009), and for simulated runoff from beef manure compost

TABLE 3

Trigger ranges for total phosphorus based on trophic classification of lakes, rivers and streams (µgl-1)1

Trophic level Lakes Rivers and streams

Ultra-oligotrophic < 4 -

Oligotrophic 4-10 < 25

Mesotrophic 10-20 25-75

Meso-eutrophic 20-35 -

Eutrophic 35-100 > 75

Hypereutrophic > 100 -

1Derived from the Environment Canada (2004).


windrows (Larney et al., 2014). Furthermore the observed mean P value in this study waters was lower (on average 5.4 times) than the average values reported by Adams and Adetoro (2014) for a stream water near to the Adebayo dumping site and those by Sanders et al., (2010) for leachate of cow turned compost piles. In 27% of the case study listed reported in Table 2, the P concentration in the studied water samples was higher.

Calcium, magnesium and potassium. The calcium (Ca), mag-nesium (Mg) and potassium (K) water concentrations were 306.7, 84.8 and 508.0 mg.l-1, respectively. Concerning Ca and Mg ions, based on water hardness classification by Saw-yer et al., (2003), the studied water fell in the upper class val-ues, which make it unsuitable for drinking purpose (Sengupta, 2013). Furthermore, the WHO (2009) reported that the water with excessive amount of K may cause some health effects in susceptible individuals. Although Ca is not considered to have a directly toxic effect on plants, high Ca concentrations may interfere with the absorption of P and K by plant roots, also immobilize other nutrients such as Fe, Zn, Mg, B and Cu (Sharifi and Safari Sinegani, 2012b). Water with K, Ca and Mg concentrations below 30, 80 and 35 mg.l-

1, respectively are suitable for irrigation (Duncan et al., 2000; Sharifi and Safari Sinegani, 2012b); therefore the studied wa-ter was not fit for irrigation purposes due to excessive K, Ca and Mg concentrations. Compared to previous studies, the Ca and Mg concentrations were higher, except for those reported by Sanders et al., (2010) for leachate from cow turned com-post piles and Jarecki et al., (2005) for leachate of spent mushroom compost which their Ca content fell very close to the mean of the study (Table 2). Concerning K, its concentra-tion fell in the range of other sites in 57.0% of the cases, it was lower (1.4 times) than the mean of combined runoff and leachate of sawdust turned compost piles (Sanders et al., 2010) and higher (on average 1.3 times) than the mean for leachate of spent mushroom compost (Jarecki et al., 2005) and for leachate of cow turned compost piles (Sanders et al., 2010) (Table 2).

CONCLUSION This study showed that uncontrolled release of nutrients due to leachate/runoff from open-air windrows of MSW composting plan, increased concentrations of NH4

+, NO3-, P,

Ca, Mg and K to levels that will likely cause eutrophication of stream water and sediment. The nutrient concentrations in the studied stream water and sediments reflected the quality of the compost produced by the composting plant, more than the characteristics of the catchment area, and were frequently higher than the average values obtained by the literature sur-vey. Pollution control measurements for the MSW compost-ing plant of Sanandaj and remediation of water and sediments are needed to prevent detrimental effects on the surrounding agro-ecosystem.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to acknowledge University of Kurdistan, Iran for funding this project.

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