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Volume 37. No. 2June 2010
RATELThe Journal of the Association of British
and Irish Wild Animal Keepers
The Association of British & Irish Wild Animal Keepers (ABWAK)
ABWAK is a non-profit making organisation catering for those interested in and involved with the keeping of wild animals. The aim of the association is:
“To achieve and advance the highest standards of excellence in wild animal care”We believe that:• We are the voice of animal keepers in Britain & Ireland for whom excellent animal welfare is the highest priority • We can have a significant impact in welfare issues by bringing keepers and stakeholders together and by being a strong representative & consultative body• We can make a significant contribution to the training & development of animal keepers thus raising standards and increasing the recognition of wild animal collections • By developing the skills & expertise of our members we can make a unique contribution to conservation
Membership rates (2010) Professional or Associate £25 Joint Professional £45 Overseas £45 Subscription to RATEL only £25 Overseas Subscription to RATEL only £35 Subscription is for ONE copy of each issue of RATEL and does not give membership privileges or rights
President: Stewart Muir
Vice Presidents: Jonathan Barzdo; Rick Green; Dr Miranda Stevenson
ABWAK COUNCIL (2010)Chair: Ross Snipp, Flamingo Land Vice Chair & Editor: Stephen Woollard, RZSS Edinburgh ZooHonorary Treasurer: Richard Barnett, NEZS Chester Zoo Honorary Secretary: Marilyn Beech, Myerscough CollegeSymposium Secretary: Laura Gardner, Leeds Castle Aviary Membership Secretary.: Alaina Macri, RZSS Edinburgh Zoo Other Members of ABWAK Council:Lynsey Jones, NEZS Chester Zoo Paul Howse, NEZS Chester ZooRichard Champion, Reaseheath College Lesley Harmer, priavte keeper/breederDanielle Smith, Flamingo Land Mairee Vincent, Leeds Castle AviaryChris Mitchell, South Sta�ordshire College, Rodbaston Campus John Ray, Tropical WingsLindsay Lederer, Capel Manor College Julian Chapman, Paignton Zoo
www.abwak.org
To contact the ABWAK Council: Membership: contact Alaina Macri, Membership Secretary [email protected] Back Issues & merchandise: contact Mairee Vincent [email protected] Articles and advertising: contact Stephen Woollard [email protected]
RATEL is published four times a year: March, June, September, December. (Deadlines for submission 23rd Jan; 23rd April; 23rd July; 23rd Oct). We will try to publish your material as soon after receiving it as possible.
All material should be sent to: Stephen P. Woollard, Editor RATEL, c/o RZSS Edinburgh Zoo, 134 Corstorphine Road, EDINBURGH, EH12 6TS
Email: [email protected] expressed by contributors are not necessarily those of the editor or ABWAK.
Advertising Full, half and quarter page advertising space is available (colour or black and white) – contact the Editor for rates.
© Copyright 2010 Association of British and Irish Wild Animal Keepers ISSN 0305 – 1218
Contents From the editor
ABWAK Symposium Report Stephen Woollard
Giraffe lovers overseas: a trip to IAGCP at Phoenix Zoo Paul Rose & Sarah Roffe
Obituary: Devra Kleiman Stephen Woollard
Homerus Swallowtail Campaign Chrissie Jackson
Endocrinology: How can it help wildlife management? Rebecca Watson, Thijs Van de Houten & Katie Edwards
Avian rearing Resource Website Louise Peat
Are Tigers Really solitary? Ian Hickey & Paul Rose
Hazel Dormouse Conservation Nida Al Fulaij & ian White
Cover PhotographHamadryas baboon enclosure,
Flamingo LandStephen Woollard
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Vol.37. No.2. June 2010
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Writing for RATELRATEL depends on ABWAK members and others for articles. The journal provides an opportunity for sharing information, research projects, latest developments, enrichment techniques etc., with those involved in wild animal keeping in the UK and Ireland (and beyond).
We accept articles throughout the year - please note the publication deadlines (see inside front cover).
Articles should be your own work. They should not be published elsewhere (although we will consider edited/adapted articles that have been submitted for publication elsewhere). We do reserve the right to edit articles or return them for modification.
Articles can be accompanied by colour or black and white photos/illustrations, tables and graphs as appropriate. Digital photos are best sent as additional files, and may also be considered for the cover photograph - so please provide credit (who took the photo, and where).
Send your articles to the editor by email:
[email protected] to: Stephen Woollard, Editor RATEL, c/o RZSS, Edinburgh Zoo, Edinburgh, EH12 6TS
MEMBERSHIP - JOIN NOWWe now accept new members at any time of year and your membership runs for 12 months.
Please contact Alaina Macri to join ABWAK:
MEMBERSHIP BENEFITSRATEL four times a year
Free membership of International Congress of Zookeeping
Discount on ABWAK Symposia & Training Discount on ANCMZA
Network with fellow keepers free/reduced entry to many UK & Irish zoos
NEW ABWAK Grants and Conservation Support
We have a small fund for supporting keepers in their work, training, enrichment, conservation activities. A set of new criteria for assessing applications has just been created - and ABWAK members score more qualifying points.
See website for more info: www.abwak.org
From the editor
Stephen P. Woollard, Editor
www.abwak.org2
ABWAK Regional WorkshopsBy the time you receive this copy of RATEL our
second regional training workshop will have taken place (this time at Chessington).
Don’t forget to check the ABWAK website for notice of meetings and events.
Contact us if you have suggestions/offers for developing our role in keeper training.
In 2010 - the International Year of Biodiversity - it is sad to note that by the end of the year we are likely to have lost more species, and have more of our diversity recognised and listed as being endangered.
Zoo staff and the general public are much more aware of enviornmental issues and endangered species than when ABWAK was founded in 1974, but it is still clear that this knowledge or awareness is relatively superficial. Getting people to adopt different lifestyles and/or to act to make a difference is a real challenge - not least in that many zoos struggle to make themselves ‘environmentally sensitive’ and in their very operation to set an example for everyone to follow.
We now know much more about the threats faced by many species in the wild, and we also have a better knowledge and understanding of the population dynamics and distribution of species. However, zoos on the whole don’t share the complexitiy of conservation management and conservation issues with our visitors. When we talk about ‘threatened species’ we use terms like ‘endangered’ and ‘threatened’, some even use the word ‘rare’ which is very confusing (given the correct use of this term is illistrated by: it is rare to see a two headed snake, but that can occur, ie its nothing to do with being threatened/endangered).
In 2009, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature [IUCN] re-launched its red list system of categorising threatened species with a new logo. It places species into different categories on a scale of risk from Least Concern to Extinct in the Wild. For zoo visitors, that often see an animal as either endangered or not, the scale offers an opportunity to clearly show the status of an animal in a visually appealing and more easily understood manner.
IUCN is encouraging zoos and aquariums to use a standardised Red List logo, scale and button on interpretation signs for exhibits. A Zoo Info Pack containing all of the necessary artwork and guidelines for its use is now available. Zoos can also receive guidance on translating the materials into other languages.
The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (which operates Edinburgh Zoo and the Highland Wildlife Park) is the current Secretariat of the IUCN-UK committee, and has adopted the new IUCN red list logo onto its new species signage (as illustrated).
If you are interested in using the Red List logos at your institution, you can obtain the Zoo Info Pack from Leigh Ann Hurt, Communications and Marketing Officer at IUCN Species Programme, Gland, Switzerland [email protected]
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Biodiversity & the Modern ZooABWAK Symposium
Flamingo Land, 6th-7th March 2010 Synopsis of presentations
Stephen P. Woollard
The 2010 ABWAK Symposium was hosted by Flamingo Land in West Yorkshire and attended by 100 delegates from across the UK. As 2010 has been declared International Year of Biodversity (see March 2010 issue of RATEL) the focus of this year’s symposium was ‘biodiversity and the modern zoo’. Presentations were made on a diveristy of taxa and subjects and from various perspectives. This article summarises all of the presentations that were made durng the weekend. A CD with the presentations on is available from ABWAK (contact Mairee Vincent at Leeds Castle Aviary).
ABWAK Council is currently planning the 2011 Symposium - which is likely to be at Port Lympne Wild Animal Park in Kent in early March - check the website www.abwak.org for updates. We hope to see you there. If you would like to present at this symposium contact a member of ABWAK Council.
Symposium 2010 DAY ONE - Saturday 6th March
Welcome to Flamingo Land – Ross SnippThe zoo was opened in 1961 by businessman Edwin Pentland Hick. He sold it to Scotia Investments in 1972 (Scotia owned a number of zoos and visitor attractions). They added small rides to the Zoo. The park was bought by the Gibb Family (current owners) in 1978 and they have developed the original 13 acre zoo into a 375 acre leisure complex, of which the zoo now occupies 100 acres. The theme park has the world’s steepest drop roller-coaster and many other rides, as well as capacity for 5,000 people to stay overnight on site. Today the park receives 1.3 to 1.5 million visitors per annum.
The zoo has geographically themed areas (Africa, South America, Australia), as well as a farm area, sealion and bird shows and parrotsphere. Flamingo Land is a member of BIAZA and EAZA and participates in a number of breeding programmes, e.g. white rhinoceros, scimitar horned oryx and Brazilian tapir.
Flamingo Land focuses upon a conservation, education and research project in Tanzania - the Udzungwa Forest Project (focused upon by Dr. Andy Marshall in his talk). More info on website: www.flamingoland.co.uk
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Udzungwa Forest Project, Research and Conservation in a Global Hotspot for Biodiversity – Dr Andy Marshall (Flamingo Land & University of York) Zoos are important supporters of conservation, for example in 2007 over £7m plus staff time and skills were committed by BIAZA zoos. Another example is that 54% of all the funds (1998-2002) for Sumatran tiger conservation have been contributed by zoos.
Udzungwa Mountains in Tanzania. This area is very important, not least for biodiversity and particularly endemic species. There are 17 known endemic vertebrates, and the most recently discovered primate (2004), the Kipunji Monkey, which has a known population of less than 100. The area is home to other primates such as Udzungwa red colobus, snaje mangabey and 6 species of galago.
The mountains are an important water source and regulator, and source of hydro power, and habitat for the primates. However, forests are being exploited, cut down and fragmented. The need for research and conservation identified.
Decided to focus specifically upon the Magombera Forest within the Udzungwa. Involving local people very important. Samuel Mtoka, around 7ft tall, is project coordinator. Setting conservation priorities and planning solutions, including local education and training, sustainable use of local resources. The Magombera has a unique mix of species, 3 near endemic plant species, stronghold of red colobus, and a new chameleon was recently discovered – in mouth of a snake.
Supporting work in Udzungwa to be long term. Flamingo Land and University of York working together on a research and education institute (CIRCLE).
Biodiversity - can zoos and aquariums help turn the tide? – Dr Miranda Stevenson (Director, BIAZA) BIAZA has 100 members and 24m visitors annually – huge potential and influence. An example of zoo influence is that recently Auckland Zoo NZ ran a petition about chocolate company using palm oil – and as a result they didn’t. BIAZA zoos also educate 1.2m school children a year, employ over 6000 people, and contribute over £9m plus staff time and resources to conservation annually. An economic impact study is currently underway.
Biodiversity – its not a brand of soap powder. Unfortunately that is what many people think. If zoos can do one thing this year it is to get people to understand the word and raise the profile of biodiversity and its importance.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is incorporated into EU law – the ex-situ part (Article 9) of this is provided by zoos and botanics (and emphasis on native species is important too) – that’s an important message for us to give to government.
However, Article 13 of the convention on public awareness and education is a big strength of zoos, not least with 24m visitors. Indeed, education is probably the most important role of zoos today.
BIAZA has enabled zoos to work together, and provide training, education, awareness and conservation support. The Association has itself directly supported campaigns and projects, and 3 years ago went into partnership with the World Land Trust to support a reserve in Brazil. This project was particularly designed to enable smaller zoos that don’t have their own larger scale projects to combine their strengths and small levels of support into something much bigger. Today 20 member collections are working on this project and have pledged £150k of support (2007-2010). The project involves land purchase (and protection), land restoration, research, reintroduction (curassow and guan) and environmental education.
What do BIAZA members do? Survey shows 87% support field conservation projects (good - but what about the other 13%?); £10.3m spent on 636 projects – 110 of which are for native species.
The focus for 2010 and beyond is to focus more on biodiversity conservation; support IUCN; highlight red list species; publicise and lobby on climate change. And of course this year to have members as partners of 2010 IYB and have events on International Biodiversity Day 22nd May.
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ABWAK AGM and Review (note, not official minutes)
Ross Snipp, proposed by Stephen Woollard, was elected as Chair and proceeded with the AGM and review of the year.
Changes to the ABWAK Constitution were agreed by vote of members present, this included change to how special council meetings can be called; the election of the Chair from within Council; publication/28 day notice of changes to constitution and voting for council on website; removal of clause 7.5 relating to renewals by April (now that people may join at any time).
Review of ABWAK 2009-2010 featured changes to Council: Jamie Graham, Amy Hulse and Brendan Walsh have now left Council. Others have changed roles Marilyn Beech (Hon Sec) Laura Gardner (Symposium Sec); Stephen Woollard (Vice Chair and continues as editor); John Ray (ambassador liaison). Julian Chapman joined Council towards the end of 2009. Danielle Smith was proposed as a new Council member and members agreed to elect her without need for 28 day notice (otherwise she would have been co-opted until the next AGM).
2009 saw ABWAK run its first keeper training workshop, hosted by Reaseheath. A second workshop will be run at Chessington on May 23rd.
Council met throughout the year, including a 2 day strategy meeting in September.
Mazuri Zoo Foods have become sponsors of RATEL; thanks to Twycross for the past 3 years.
Membership is excellent value at just £25 but we are struggling to retain and attract members. The Association needs support to grow and develop. It is good to see some zoos paying for their staff to be members (and benefiting from one free membership in 8). The potential for new members is high, we will be trying to address this during 2010.
Financially ABWAK is doing ok. Spending in 2009 rose to nearly £18k, whilst income was just over £18k. Bank reserves stand at £27k some of which may be used to further ABWAK development.
RATEL is now published in full colour 4 times a year. A ‘review’ document is also going to be produced. The website www.abwak.org is being used more and more and a facebook fan page has now been established (263 fans to date).
A range of new ABWAK branded merchandise has been developed and further items will be added in due course. The enrichment guidelines are being reviewed and replaced via a partnership with Shape. We have also provided publications to people in developing nations.
ABWAK is also a founding member of the International Congress of Zookeeping (ICZ) and all ABWAK members are automatically members of ICZ which is recognised by WAZA. The congress held in Seattle in Sept 09 was attended by 5 members and ABWAK was involved in selecting the talks. The next conference will be in Singapore in 2012 – planning already underway.
NEZS Native Species Count Me In Project – Sarah Bird (NEZS Chester Zoo)Native species are very important and have been focused upon at Chester Zoo for a long time. Originally focus was on captive breeding for natives, now it is much broader and also working in partnerships on habitat work and species monitoring and recording. Work that has been done includes involving visitors in events recording native species on site.
The Count Me In project, funded by Heritage Lottery Fund and Esmee Fairbairn Foundation, is a partnership between Chester Zoo and the Cheshire local biological record centre, RECORD.
It is designed to use the resources to support conservation by enabling more people through training workshops to get involved in record keeping for native species in Cheshire and become the record keepers of the future. These records which will also fill in gaps geographically, can then inform conservation decisions and action.
The project runs over 2 years and in year one 13 events held with nearly 1000 participants. 5% of the gaps in the geographical record have been filled.
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Flamingo Land TourDelegates were given opportunity to visit the zoo and ride on a roller-coaster.
An Inordinate Fondness for Beetles – Stephen Woollard (Royal Zoological Society of Scotland)Over 95% of all animal species are invertebrates (it may be as high as 98%). 30% of all named species are beetles! The diversity in this one group alone is amazing, from a beetle smaller than 1mm to one nearly 20cm long.
There are probably at least 5 million species of insect, 1m have been named so far. The ants are one group of insect that we know quite well, with huge numbers, indeed there are thought to be at least 1 million of them for every person on Earth and their combined weight is more than that of all the people. Leaf cutter ants are particularly remarkable; they can carry 20x their own body weight, a colony can number 8 million; they remove 20% of the forest vegetation; and in its lifetime a colony will move over 20 tons of soil.
People have different feelings and attitudes to invertebrates from loathing and disgust to love and admiration. The negative feelings seem to outweigh the positive, despite the usefulness of inverts.
The Brazil nut is just one ‘product’ of the forest that relies on the role of an invertebrate – the euglossid or orchid bee which pollinates it. For its life this bee needs other plants in the forest, and so Brazil nut trees do not grow in plantations, the nuts are collected by local people in the forest.
The love-hate relationship we have with invertebrates flavours our attitudes to these creatures. Cockroaches are amongst the “best” and most important, fulfilling a role of recycling by being detritivores. They are perfectly adapted and have been on Earth little changed for millions of years.
The Partula snail story is now a classic conservation case study. Giant African land snails (Achtina sp.) were introduced to snail farms in French Polynesia. These farms were unsuccessful and snails escaped onto the islands, damaging crops. A carnivorous snail, Euglandina rosea, was introduced with the intention of them eating the African snails. However, Euglandina predated the local endemic Partula snails instead. A number of these species are now extinct. Others were bred in captivity and some have been reintroduced.
There are various conservation projects for invertebrates now, particularly native species. There is a Terrestrial Invertebrate Taxon Working Group (and TAG in Europe). Husbandry is a specialist area and the conservation importance of inverts, in ecosystem management for example, is now being recognised.
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So why do so few zoos display them? Those that do - bar Bristol’s Bug World, London’s Bugs and the new stand alone Bug World Experience in Liverpool – usually only have a handful of show species e.g. big spider or two, some snails and cockroaches.
Attitudes to invertebrates are an issue. They are used as live food for other animals, they are even eaten alive for ‘entertainment’ on I’m A Celebrity, and of course they are stamped on, killed, poisoned deliberately. They deserve a better deal... “In the end we will conserve only what we love and respect. We will love and respect only what we understand. We will understand only
what we are taught or allowed to experience.” Baba Dioum, Senegalese conservationist.
Barberry Highways and the Battle for the Barberry Moth Ian Hughes (funded by Dudley Zoo)Some years ago UK zoos identifi ed that native species were important and an approach was made to English Nature (now Natural England) regarding what project(s) zoos could help with. The ‘little brown’ moth was what we got. The barberry carpet moth was only known from a single hedgerow in Suffolk (a few sites were later discovered in Wiltshire) and now 11 sites.
The moth depends on the barberry plant Berberis vulgaris which was once common and has certainly been found in Britain for over 2,000 years, but was largely removed by farmers over past 2 centuries in efforts to limit spread of wheat rust fungus. (Modern strains of wheat don’t suffer from this, so barberry can be re-grown).
A Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) is underway with Butterfl y Conservation as lead partner (funded mainly by Natural England). The Zoo Federation (now BIAZA) began its moth project in 1991 with ex situ breeding for reintroduction being the main focus. But just as the breeding was succeeding funding from Natural England for the releases ended (2003).
The project proposal now is to try and establish a new reintroduction ‘triangle’ in the Midlands – from Dudley Zoo to Twycross Zoo to Chester Zoo (involving Rodbaston and Reaseheath Colleges too). Over 20,000 barberry plants needed. This will not only assist barberry carpet moths but other biodiversity too.
In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation of the Pink Sea Fan – Graham Hill (The Deep)The pink sea fan is a coral that is native to the coast of parts of south west England. It is a BAP species and IUCN red listed as vulnerable. Threatened by dredging, fi shing lines, acidifi cation and temperature rise.
A project established between The Deep and ZSL, part funded by Natural England, to study and propagate the coral ex situ and so to contribute to the species conservation. This involved studying the specifi c requirements for water chemistry, feeding and quality of different food sources etc. beginning by looking at in situ and receiving a licence to take 6 colonies from the wild.
The project has successfully enabled techniques of husbandry to be learned and applied for this species and all captive colonies are thriving and growing, 5 years after being taken.
Paignton Zoo’s Amphibian Ark – Mike Bunyard (talk given by Julian Chapman)
Amphibian Ark was a response by zoos to the global call for action on amphibian conservation. The role of zoos in amphibian conservation varies between zoos and between species, its important to establish aims and objectives – and if the plan is for reintroduction, holding ‘ark’, and/or education. There are various issues, not least being biosecurity and genetic population management.
Despite the call for action, only a few zoos have established ‘Amphibian Arks’. Paignton Zoo is one of them, and has built an ‘ark’ with 3 rooms and 90m2 in total, outside there will be 3 ponds and reed bed fi ltration – for education purposes. At present 24 species and 140 individuals. Plan in future to link to in situ projects, Tanzania and Trinidad are focus, fi eld work is priority.
DEBATE: this house believes that euthanasia is a valid management tool for the management of animal collections. Douglas Richardson (for), Steve Nasir (against).The debate involved discussion from the proponents alongside discussion from and within the floor. A large number of points were raised regarding use of euthanasia for health reasons, for population management, of young animals etc (and the phrasing of the motion). A vote was conducted before and after – the number of people present/voting changed during the hour. The motion was carried.
Before Debate After Debate
FOR 38 (63%) 42 (62%)
AGAINST 13 (22%) 20 (29%)
Abstain 9 (15%) 6 (9%)
DAY TWO: Sunday March 7th Thanks to Rick Green – upon his retirement from Council, ABWAK thanked Rick Green for his long standing support and contribution to the Association – a member for 36 years and Council fo the past 15 years. Rick was presented with Honorary Life Membership (and champagne).
Venue for 2011 – suggestions for our next symposium were put to the attendees – these are Colchester, Cotswold, Port Lympne, Chessington and Paradise WP. (A decision will be taken by Council before their meeting in June). - Port Lympne is most likely - check www.abwak.org for latest news
Biodiversity and Collection Planning, Flamingo Land: A Case Study – Ross Snipp Collection planning is the process by which species are selected and the available resources (including space) prioritised. It includes what we shouldn’t be keeping or breeding as enclosure space is limited and conservation breeding is one of the factors used in collection planning today. Regional Collection Planning (RCP) is an approach by which zoos work within their regional association’s plans, eg EAZA, AZA, ARAZPA. In Europe we have EEP and ESB programmes.
Following the RCP approach may lead to homogeneous collections and do zoos have no choice but to utilise available space for the designated endangered species?
At Flamingo Land the approach has been to increase the number of IUCN red list species and conservation programme species, alongside geographical (multi taxa) zoned areas to highlight biodiversity. The zoo also wants to support and highlight biodiversity in Tanzania associated with its in situ project in Udzungwa Mountains.
It’s A Natural Vision – Lynsey Jones (Chester Zoo)Chester Zoo’s vision statement is “A diverse, thriving and sustainable natural world” and its mission statement, “To be a major force in conserving biodiversity worldwide”.
The zoo supports over 170 projects in over 50 countries. Chester Zoo is the UK’s number 1 wildlife attraction with 1.3m visitors annually. It was the first UK zoo to achieve the ISO14001 environmental management standard.
The master plan for the zoo is based upon utilsiing the land which it already owns but which surrounds the zoo. The current zoo covers 37 hectares, and the zoo owns 175 hectares, enabling expansion and creation of a new zoo.
Phase 1 of the project includes creation of a 120 bed 3 to 4 star family themed hotel to enable the zoo to be a 2 day destination. And the major new exhibit will be a unique, world class immersive exhibit the ‘Heart of Africa’ biome, focusing particularly on the Congo. This will be a 20,000 m2 covered area using ETFE material like that used by Eden Project Burgers Zoo in the Netherlands and the Masoala exhibit at Zurich Zoo. This exhibit will enable western lowland gorillas to return to Chester, alongside exhibits of colobus, chimps, okapi, and free flying birds etc. And the development will be made within the ISO14001 ethos.
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A new entrance ‘welcome and orientation hub’ will also be part of phase 1. Future phases of development will include new education facilities – the conservation college; African savannah; a focus on Cheshire/local wildlife; and evening attractions/twilight zoo.
Phase 1 is estimated to increase attendance from 1.3m to 1.7m. and will cost £80m. Funding is being sought from various sources, including the EU, grants and sponsors, Chester Zoo’s existing funds and the bank.
Planning consent is being sought this year and then work will begin in Autumn 2011 and phase one is aimed to open in Spring 2014.
Overall the aim is to create an international resort destination which champions local and global biodiversity conservation.
Veterinary Aspects of Amur Leopard Conservation – John Lewis (Wildlife Vets International)The Amur leopard is the world’s most endangered cat with a wild population of around 35, and the sex ratio and number of breeding animals is not known. The cat is now confined to approximately 20,000 km2 (approx. size of Wales) in the forest of the far east of Russia. Theoretically they can be found in north Korea and NE
China but haven’t been seen there for long time. They are threatened by habitat alteration but key threat is hunting of them and their prey.
A lot of foreign support was provided in the past for anti-poaching patrols, but these funds have all but dried up and poaching has returned. With a number of Amur leopards being held in captivity and the wild population being so precarious, a reintroduction programme is seriously considered. Health monitoring of both the wild and captive populations is essential and a full understanding of disease issues is needed for wild population disease management.
Wild Amur leopards are caught in a ‘safe’ (Aldrich) snare system so that a clinical examination and samples can be taken. This has been done for the past 4 years – in that time 4 different individuals have been trapped, one male has been caught 3 times over 3 seasons and that has been useful. It is important to note that stress levels in snared animals are high, although the leopards don’t struggle once snared (tigers do).
At the same time assessment of the health of prey species is important, and this work is also being done, and local staff trained to assist/do.
Reintroduction can be considered a failure, as we would like to save wild population without need to do it. Reintroduction is very expensive, and timescale to measure success is unknown. Zoo born animals would not be reintroduced, they would move (and rotate from EEP population) to local captive set up, and offspring released. Health screening is essential.
Release sites have been identified where prey species have returned and leopard used to live, so the plan is now to establish a breeding centre for the release of offspring, but do we release male and female in same place? There is a lot to consider.
Looking at the leopards in the EEP it has been discovered that large number have ‘heart murmur’ (not thought to be a problem, its been found in wild too). A male with a undescended testes is automatically excluded from the programme (possible genetic issue). One animal with no tail was also of concern, until it was discovered this was bitten off when a young cub.
The Russians are really keen to reintroduce genetically pure Amur leopard, but this may not be possible, given the low numbers and founding population which has other local ‘sub-species’ or varieties (eg. north Chinese leopard).
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Tigers of Kerinci-Seblat National Park – Rebecca Willers (Shepreth Wildlife Park)Shepreth began as a refuge for injured and unwanted wildlife in 1979, and has now raised over £30,000 for 8 different conservation charities. Tigers are one of the main focuses after the Park took in 2 hybrid tigers in 2001.
We know tigers are very endangered with estimated 4,000 in the wild of 5 sub-species. Yet there are over 6,000 tigers in ‘farms’ in China, and over 5,000 in private ownership in the USA.
Efforts to protect tigers include anti-poaching, habitat restoration, oil palm management, community awareness and conflict mitigation. 21st century tiger, ZSL and FFI involved in Indonesia in various projects.
Work in Kerinci-Seblat NP, Sumatra, includes conflict mitigation, where local people, their animals have come into conflict with tigers – one tiger being caught and having to be translocated out of the area and released. Unfortunately, although the translocation release went well, this particular tiger was found dead 7 days later.
Anti-poaching work and enforcement are important and yielding results. Although the fines are very small (£7), the actual conviction is significant, and its hoped those people won’t be used by dealers etc in future.
There is hope for the tiger if we can protect its habitat and stop the hunting.
Penguin Husbandry at RZSS Edinburgh Zoo – Lynda Burrill (RZSS Edinburgh Zoo)Edinburgh Zoo is world famous for its penguins – the first zoo to exhibit penguins (1914) and the first to breed them (1919). The current collection comprises three species:
King penguin: 9.2 – a chick successfully hatched in 2009 (first in five years) and was incubated and cared for by the parents. Rockhopper penguin: 13.6 – three chicks in the last 2 years, both the breeding males are relatively young at age 13 and age 6. Gentoo penguin: 80.92 – we had 117 eggs in 2009, 48 hatched and 42 fledged.
Record keeping for such a large group of penguins is important and records have been kept in various forms for many years. In recent years the keepers have a PDA to make daily records and these are then easily transferred to the database. As part of ANCMZA special study (2008) a compilation and analysis of records began, including from the EAZA TAG for gentoo penguins.
The paper and electronic records for 1979 to 2009 were amalgamated and analysed. The records that have been kept include lineage (parents), nest, identification number, flipper band and other notes such as health issues etc. This enabled an automated summary of the breeding to be made – showing number of eggs laid, hatched, fledged etc.
This analysis was also combined with an analysis of the diet of the penguins and this illustrated the impact of the change in diet from fresh whiting to frozen herring (heavily supplemented with vitamins) in 1997 until recently. The diet change is associated with a decrease in number of eggs and survivorship of chicks. Analysis of the diet showed the frozen herring diet was very high in vitamin E and fat and associated with higher mortality. Changing the diet to frozen blue whiting has reduced the mortality again and increased chick survival.
Edinburgh Zoo is also moving to feeding its penguins with Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified sustainable fish.
Breeding – artificial nest rings are used. The old ones were made of metal rings with concrete and very heavy to move about. Much lighter replacements have been made using fibreglass (which once in place are filled with water to keep them in one place). The nest rings are set up each year.
Feather plucking is also something that has been observed in chicks and of concern – however, what has been discovered is that leaving these birds alone is best as they stop doing this. It is thought that the stress of keeper intervention extends the period this behavior occurs.
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Breeding Management of Channel Billed Toucans – Mairee Vincent (Leeds Castle Aviary)Channel billed toucans are found throughout northern South America and the name comes from a grooved indentation along the upper mandible. They aren’t good fliers.
The large bill is light because it has a honeycomb structure. The bill comprises 30 to 50% of the bird’s surface area. The bill is used in thermoregulation – cooling it by blood vessels when too hot and limiting heat loss in the cold (by stopping blood flow). The heat loss system is very effective, to the extent that at rest it may loose too much and will hold the bill across the body.
Our pair were put together in 2006. A nest box was built, grandfather clock style and sound-proof (due to concerts etc at the castle), nest cams fitted, and a cork tile used over the hole for them to break into. This worked and a clutch of chicks successfully hatched.
The parents display interesting behavior for feeding, eg rubbing a locust or cricket on a branch to remove the spiky legs before feeding the chick. More research is being done on diet and in the wild. Toucans are very important seed dispersers and this helps forest regeneration.
Overview of Flamingos in the UK & Ireland – Steve Nasir (Flamingo Land) Chilean flamingos: 871 exhibited in 22 collections (254.249.368). 8 collection with less than 20.
Greater flamingo: 530 in 12 collections (120.126.284). 5 collections have under 20 birds.
Caribbean flamingo: 492 in 13 collections (150.128.214). 7 collections have under 20 birds.
Lesser flamingo: 79 in WWT & Flamingo land (16.9.54). A private collector has 0.0.80. In Europe there are 480 in 30 collections (204.87.189) – a lot of small groups.
Known hybrids: 35 in 4 collections (11.14.10)
The Flamingo Focus Group was created in 2008 under umbrella of the Bird Working Group and is co-chaired by Steve nasir (Flamingo Land) and Nigel Jarrett (WWT), and is aiming to maintain sustainable populations of flamingos in accordance with EAZA guidelines.
Best breeding results are found with a minimum flock size of 20.20 and on welfare grounds flocks should be 20 birds minimum. To help with this those collections that just have a few birds for ‘display’ have been offered hybrids to swap for known species to move them into larger flocks.
There is also concern about aging populations of birds and numbers not truly reflecting the breeding viability.
At Flamingo Land over 100 birds mixed species (greater, Chilean, Cuban/Caribbean). 2006 saw the first successful breeding for 15 years – 12 chicks. No eggs in 2007. But in 2008 there were 9 chicks of which 6 survived. In 2009 decision taken to remove hybrids from collection and the 3 greater flamingo males, and split of the others into their two species groups. So the zoo now holds two groups: 23.20 Cuban and 20.18 Chilean. The decision to undertake the split and changes to meet the requirements of the EAZA TAG was a big one given the reduction in flock size by 20% but was agreed in the interests of maintaining a sustainable population in the long term.
Research for biodiversity: what do we still need to know about duiker antelope for their conservation? – Andrew Bowkett (& Nicola Lunt) (Whitley Wildlife Conservation Trust)There is an extinction crisis, with species disappearing right now, as well as in the recent past. Some species had their last known members in zoos.
The Whitley Wildlife Conservation Trust (which owns Paignton Zoo, Living Coasts and Newquay Zoo) has a range of field projects globally, a number of which focus on research objectives. Duikers are a group of African antelope species that are focused upon in a couple of these projects. This group are often overlooked by other research and conservation programmes.
Duikers are threatened by habitat loss and the bushmeat trade, with 20 species on the IUCN red list. Some species are little known and confined to relatively small geographic areas.
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Camera traps have recorded some of the rarest, e.g. Ader’s duiker.
If you look at duiker taxonomy and phylogenetics there is a lot we don’t know about duikers, and maybe even more species or sub-species exist. . DNA sampling can be made from dung samples. We need to research more and understand the behaviour of these animals to work out population density and habitat capacity etc.
One of the things we can do with duikers in the field is use dung counts for monitoring. Males and females produce the same volume of dung, but males defecate smaller amounts more often – probably for territory marking and communication.
Long term studies are being done (Nicky Lunt – PhD thesis unpub) in the Matopos NP of Zimbabwe from the Dambari Field Station,
Bulawayo. Factors such as browser effects on woody plant growth and seed dispersal illustrate ecological importance of these small antelopes.
The Return of the Beaver, the Scottish Beaver Trial – Polly Phillpot (Royal Zoological Society of Scotland)The European beaver is semi-aquatic, nocturnal, has poor eyesight, good hearing and smell. They live for around 10-12 years are highly territorial, not venturing far from water, and live in water and woodland. They are totally herbivorous and have few natural predators.
A couple of thousand years ago beavers were widespread across all of Europe (except Ireland) but by the late 19th century were reduced to just 4 populations (totaling only around 1200) in Telemark (Norway), Elbe (Bavaria), southern Rhone (France) and Belarus. They have been extinct in the UK since about 1600 AD.
Beavers are now more widespread in northern Europe, with a population up to c.750,000 – this is largely due to reintroductions. (In Finland they did release Canadian beavers).
The decision to bring beavers back to Scotland has been a long one, and is based largely upon the environmental benefits of their role as ‘ecological engineers’ of riparian woodlands.
Their lifestyle encourages plants and associated invertebrates, which has a knock on benefits to fish, birds and other wildlife. This also helps with compliance with the EC habitats directive (Article 22). There are likely to be socio-economic benefits too, e.g. tourism.
In Europe there have been over 100 reintroductions. Plans to do so in Scotland have been on-going for some time but in 2005 after the SNP took office a licence was granted to the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland and Scottish Wildlife Trust for a trial reintroduction in Knapdale, Argyll. The licence allows for 4 families to be introduced. 3 have been released (May 2009) and the fourth will go in this Spring. The trial is until 2013 at which point a decision will be taken on the future of beavers in Scotland, by the government, after advice from the independent monitors, Scottish Natural Heritage.
Measures of success would be: survival of individuals, stable or increasing population, positive contribution to the ecosystem, habitat management, and positive impact on economy.
Measures of failure would be: high mortality, significant unsustainable damage to ecosystem, economic loss in the area resulting from the trial, costs significantly exceed expectations.
So far all is going well. Two families are well established, lodges and dams constructed and ‘coppicing’ of the area
they inhabit advantageous to other species.
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Captive Breeding of Pine Marten at Wildwood Trust – Judi Dunn (Wildwood)Pine martens are found predominantly in Scotland and Ireland and are the UKs second most endangered carnivore. Survey work is underway (Vincent Wildlife Trust) to ascertain English and Welsh populations.
Pine martens are solitary, territorial animals, during breeding season the male increases their territory size to encompass several females. Mating season is July to August and this species exhibits delayed implantation, with the developing embryo held for 6 to 7 months and then the young are not born after a gestation of 27 days in March-April.
In captivity the martens are kept separate except for breeding. When introducing males and females its important to provide escape routes and allow them to see and smell each other – the male entering the female’s territory. The beahviour of the pair can be aggressive and mating can appear brutal with neck biting. The female can be receptive for a few days several times in the two months. Once mating has completed the male and female are separated again. The female will use a nest box for birth.
Integration of female red ruffed lemurs – Chris Mitchell, Zoe Taylor, Rachel Griffiths (South Staffordshire College Rodbaston Campus)In February 2009 the College was asked by the EEP coordinator to attempt to hold a group of unrelated female red ruffed lemurs together and monitor and report on results, particularly looking at targeted aggression, food sharing and enclosure use.
The enclosure at the college is 40mx20m. The five females were a pair from Jersey, a single older female from Zurich and a pair from Chester, the oldest born in 1990 and the
youngest two in 2008. Attempts at creating these unrelated female groups have been tried before but with poor results. The arrival in the enclosure was timed so all were released at the same time (so no individual had already claimed territory). Plans were in place for removal of animals if needed. Each lemur was micro-chipped and individual markings for identification noted. Scan and focal observations were made over 100 hours worth of records collected.
The oldest individual (Ruby) was on her own and moved out of the group after a lot of targeted aggression, after removal the other four animals were much better, but Ruby’s condition, including self mutilation, deteriorated and the decision was taken to euthanase her.
The results so far show partial success in integrating the two female pairs to each other in one enclosure. Future action is to collect more quantitative data and measure cortisol levels.
Using Web Cams to Generate Publicity, coverage of birth of a black rhino – Lucy Manning (Paignton Zoo)In 2002 a pair of black rhinos arrived at Paignton Zoo and in 2006 the female was confirmed as being pregnant. The zoo was approached by the local BBC regarding setting up a web cam on the rhinos aiming to capture the birth. Cameras were installed and linked to BBC Devon website. At first in Dec 06 recorded footage was shown online, before live webcam was shown.
The uncertainty regarding when the calf was due, along with further media stories built up interest and website views. The birth occurred in early March. On March 5th there were over 53,500 views, it was the most popular online video on the BBC worldwide that day. On March 6th nearly 110,000 requests for the cam. Since the cam went live in December there were 629,000 views. There were double the number of visitors to the Zoo the weekend after the birth than the same weekend the year before, and the Easter weekend also saw more visitors. The mother worked out that the baby couldn’t be seen in one part of the enclosure and she didn’t seem to be feeding the baby whilst visitors were around, so the decision was taken to limit access to the house (so some visitors turned up and didn’t get chance to see the baby).
One of the other factors was that there was an exclusive arrangement with the BBC so other networks couldn’t show the footage. There was also a contingency plan for if the birth went wrong, the keepers had control of the cameras and could move them if needed. Overall though it was a great success and people still talk about it 3 years later. Paignton zoo has used webcams since for the birth of tigers featured on its own website and available to see in the Zoo on a screen in the tiger viewing area, additionally a montage of clips was put onto youtube.
Symposium 2011 - see www.abwak.org
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Giraffe lovers overseas: a trip to IAGCP at Phoenix Zoo 22nd-24th February 2010
Paul Rose1 & Sarah Roffe2
1) Sparsholt College Hampshire
2) East Midlands Zoological Society: Twycross Zoo
In February 2010, Sarah and I travelled to Arizona to take part in the inaugural International Association of Giraffe Care Professionals conference held at the Phoenix Zoo. The conference aimed to gather together scientists and researchers, zoo professionals and giraffe keepers from around the globe to share ideas and information regarding captive management, conservation and biology. This was a very exciting event (in spite of it raining in the desert!) as numerous ‘zoo celebrities’ were present including Dr Julian Fennessy from the Giraffe Conservation Foundation and, most impressively, Dr Anne Innis Dagg, the pioneering zoologist who first completed research on wild giraffe in South African in 1957 and author of the ‘bible’ for those that work with these animals ‘The Giraffe: its biology, ecology and behaviour.’ Both Dr Fennessy and Dr Dagg, alongside of a host of other giraffe experts gave stimulating and entertaining talks about their research.
Much debate centred on the classification of the giraffe and whether subspecies really are just that. Recent DNA evidence now suggests that the nine subspecies are so genetically and reproductively isolated that each should be treated as a species in its own right; this of course has massive implications for conservation breeding programmes. What would also be of note to those managing giraffe in the UK is that as of this summer, the IUCN is distinctly classifying Rothschild’s giraffe as ‘Endangered.’ This makes our attempts to sustainably breed and manage this (sub)species in British zoos all the more important. Currently, with a wild population of less than two hundred and fifty individuals, only the Nigerian giraffe is given its own class of
endangerment by the IUCN. To date, the viable wild Rothschild’s population could be even less than seven hundred individual animals.
As well as the formal presentations, there were workshops on designing new enrichment devices for giraffe, how to set-up a training programme (with an emphasis on the new idea of ‘microshaping’) and a hoof-trimming practical, where delegates go to practice their trimming techniques on cow legs (dead ones of course!). Trips around the facilities at the Phoenix Zoo and at Reid Park Zoo in Tuscan provided interesting points of notes on a range of issues from crush cage design, ease of access for veterinary procedures, types of fl ooring and how to instigate a public-feeding experience in a safe and stress-free environment (for both giraffe and zoo visitors).
Sarah’s and my reasons for attending this event were to showcase the research that Twycross Zoo has been conducting over the past number of years, and that was precisely the title of our presentation, ‘Five years of giraffe-centred research at the East Midlands Zoological Society; what do we know and where do we go?’. Apparently this presentation was good enough to win an award, which was heartening for us both and an excellent accolade for the work that Twycross is involved in. Our presentation touched on an array of subjects; from nutrition and the development of an ‘ideal’ diet, to evidence-based enrichment (remember, browse is no longer merely an enrichment item!), as well as visitor-effects and managing operant conditioning programmes. We hoped to provide a synopsis of the depth of research that can be done in the zoo; to highlight areas for improved management and to show how little we still know about optimum management of giraffe in captivity.
If anyone would like more information on the conference, and to hear any of the talks (as these will all be available online), as well as the work of the IAGCP, please contact Sarah ([email protected]), Nick Turk (our partner in crime from Port Lympe Zoo) ([email protected]) or me ([email protected]); alternatively, check out the IAGCP website www.giraffecare.org.
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Obituary: Devra Kleiman, Smithsonian, Washington DCLeading zoo biologist, Devra G. Kleiman died in Washington DC at the end of April 2010 aged 67. Devra was particularly well known for her groundbreaking research on giant pandas and South American monkeys (especially golden lion tamarins) and she is one of those people who we can rightly credit with pioneering the fi eld of conservation biology.
Devra was born in New York, completed her undergraduate degree in Chicago in 1964 and obtained her doctorate from University of London in 1969. In 1972 she began work as a scientist at the National Zoo, Washington DC, and became their Head of the Department of Zoological Research in 1979. She retired in 2001 but continued work on some projects.
Her arrival at the National Zoo was in the same year that two giant pandas Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing arrived from China. Devra led the team that over the years meticulously recorded the behaviour of the pandas from scent marking to vocalisation, and mating (none of which produced viable offspring, despite at least 4 pregnancies) and she then made the conclusion against conventional wisdom, that giant pandas were not as solitary as had been thought, but needed to socialise and interact.
In the early 1970s Brazilian biologist Adelmar Coimbra Filho sounded the alarm for the plight of tamarins and marmosets, especially the golden lion tamarin in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil and that the relatively small disperse captive population was important. Devra and Adelmar acted and persuaded zoos to work together to establish a breeding programme and even in these early days of zoo conservation, encouraged zoos to give up ownership of these monkeys and transfer them to each other and cede ownership to the Brazilian government.
For the golden lion tamarin breeding programme Devra Kleiman pioneered the use of genetic data to establish the best pairings for genetic diversity and viability. The survival of the golden lion tamarin, and the success of the breeding programme is largely due to Devra’s work.
However. the legacy of Devra’s devotion to her work; some of which is published in ‘Wild Mammals in Captivity’ and other books and papers; is that she helped to create the fi eld of conservation biology and encourage zoos to become effective in conservation and ultimately contribute to the conservation of many species. Stephen P. Woollard
The Tropical Butterfly House, Sheffield UK chose to support the Homerus Swallowtail Campaign following a trip to Artis Zoo in November 2009 by Head Keeper Chrissie Jackson. Chrissie had previously visited the zoo as part of a conference two years previously on a trip to visit four zoos in just two days. “Artis zoo’s Butterfly Pavilion was undoubtedly one of the best butterfly displays I’d seen, my jaw dropped to the floor when I walked through the door”. Because the trip was so hurried she vowed to return and was welcomed with open arms by Ko Veltman.
Ko who had just returned from the conference in Malaysia was keen to pass on the message about the conservation crisis of the Homerus Swallowtail. Chrissie returned to England with a wealth of information and a passion to join the cause. During February half term the Tropical Butterfly House ran a Valentines event called Love Bugs. Information about the reproductive biology of the centres inhabitants were posted on enclosures with an accompanying quiz for visitors to complete. The Homerus Swallowtail fitted in perfectly with this theme because of the reproductive constraints bauxite mining is creating.
This is the first such campaign the centre has supported and is part of a drive to promote conservation through education. The centre was recently accepted as BIAZA members and now has the stamp of approval as one of the top zoos in the UK. Fund raising was very simple; collection boxes and posters were placed next to tills in the café and shop for visitors to deposit spare change. The clear Perspex boxes were a great success and visitors were very supportive. Small change soon adds up and is just one of many simple ways of collecting money.
Visitors were educated about the Homerus Swallowtail during the exotic animal encounter in the butterfly house where people get to meet and hold some of the animals. The popular wishing well in the butterfly house continues to be a fantastic way of accumulating extra change even if it is a little tricky to remove. Chrissie spent several hours head first down the well scooping out the last penny. The Tropical Butterfly House is thought to be the only butterfly house in the UK cultivating the Homerus swallowtails food plant Hernandia catalpaefolia. In the near future it is hoped that the plant will be placed in the butterfly house along with accompanying signage and a collection box so that all visitors will go home with the message that the Homerus Swallowtail needs support.
Homerus Swallowtail CampaignTropical Butterfly House, Sheffield
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Endocrinology is the study of hormones and it is an important tool in the mission to conserve biodiversity. When animals fail to thrive or breed, clues can generally be found through hormone assessment. Hormones associated with reproduction and adrenal function are easily measured non-invasively in urine and faeces.
In 2007 the Reproduction & Welfare Research Unit was launched which included the appointment of a full time wildlife endocrinologist and the establishment of an on-site endocrinology or hormone assessment laboratory within the animal health centre at Chester Zoo (www.chesterzoo.org/endocrinology).
The role of the Unit is to enhance the well-being and reproductive success of threatened species, both in zoos and in the wild. To achieve this, the Unit supports national and international wildlife breeding programmes through routine endocrine diagnostic services, training and the coordination of research, both at Chester and in collaboration with key conservation partners. The Unit is also involved in the development and management of a European database on wildlife contraception use and effectiveness (www.egzac.org).
Chester Zoo now routinely monitors the reproductive cycles of some of it’s own animals, such as the black rhino (Diceros bicornis), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and the okapi (Okapia johnstoni), as well as several other species from other UK and continental European collections (Table 1). The laboratory also collaborates with researchers working in situ, helping to answer important questions relating to conservation management in the wild.
What kind of questions will hormone assessment help to answer in relation to captive animal management?
Has my animal reached puberty?It can be useful to know exactly when an animal becomes reproductively active either to make them available for breeding or to help avoid unwanted mating or aggression; the latter is especially relevant for species which are housed in family groups. In some species there is a visual signal of puberty, such as a change in plumage or coat colour. However, the timing of when an animal may be able to reproduce could occur before, during or after this change. An example of this can be seen in the white cheeked gibbon (Nomascus leucogenys) where routine endocrine monitoring revealed that a female had reached puberty and begun cycling before the visual change in coat colour was complete. In situations such as this endocrinology can be a very useful indication of sexual maturity; thereby minimizing any risk of unwanted pregnancies.
Are my animals seasonal breeders?Animals can breed once (monoestrus) or many (polyestrus) times during the year. By monitoring changes in hormone concentrations we can determine the timing of the breeding season. An example of this is shown in the Red Wolf (Canis rufus) for which both faecal and plasma analysis was able to establish the reproductive season of males and females. Results from the analysis demonstrated that the initial increase in faecal androgen precedes the monoestrus female breeding season and peaks coincide with maximal sperm production in the male and oestrus in the female. This information was used to enhance breeding success by
playing a key role in the planning of artificial insemination for captive management of this species.
Endocrinology: How can it help wildlife management?
Rebecca Watson1,2, Thijs Van de Houten1,3 and Katie Edwards1,4
1 North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo, Chester, UK2 University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
3 Van Hall Larenstein, Leeuwarden, Netherlands4 University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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Is my animal cycling on a regular basis or is she acyclic?Hormone assessment can allow us to look at the reproductive health of an individual. For example, routine faecal progesterone metabolite monitoring of a female Okapi was able to help to explain why the female was not showing any interest in a particular male; she was not cycling and therefore unable to express oestrus. Following the introduction of a new male to the collection the female began cycling on a regular basis, expressing oestrus behaviours and accepting the advances of the new male (Figure 1).
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When would be the optimal time for introduction of the male to the females? By routinely monitoring the progesterone concentrations of a cycling female hormone assessment can assist in predicting when the next drop in progesterone will occur. This ‘drop’ will identify when the animal is in season and when she will be most receptive to the male. This can be a vital tool for animal management, especially for situations which require the males and female to be kept separately unless they are required to mate. For example in the elephant, where blood sampling is not done routinely, faecal progesterone metabolite analysis aids in the prediction of oestrus, maximising the chance of a successful mating and minimising any complications which may occur (Figure 2). Alternatively, this information can also be used for individuals where it might be necessary to separate the males and females during oestrus to prevent unwanted pregnancies.
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Is my animal pregnant? When an animal becomes pregnant, hormones stop behaving cyclically and begin to operate in different ways. Typically progesterone concentrations become continuously elevated which can be used as an indication to diagnose a pregnancy. This is true in the Black Rhino which has a dramatic increase in faecal progesterone metabolite concentrations during pregnancy (Figure 3). Using endocrinology as a tool to diagnose and monitor pregnancy enables the necessary management requirements to be carried out; such as exhibit modifications, animal moves or nutritional adjustments.
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Figure 1. This graph highlights the progesterone cycles of a female Okapi, which began only after a new male was introduced to the collection.
Figure 2. This graph illustrates the use of faecal progesterone metabolite assessment to predict when the female will next be in oestrous, resulting in a successful mating and pregnancy in the Asian Elephant.
Figure 3. This graph demonstrates the increase in faecal progesterone metabolites during pregnancy and the ‘drop’ in faecal progesterone metabolites used to predict parturition in the Black Rhino.
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And when is she going to give birth? By monitoring changes in hormone concentrations we can also predict the time of the birth, for example, the Black Rhino demonstrates a steep drop in faecal progesterone metabolite concentrations a few days before parturition (Figure 3). This can be vital information in ensuring the safety of both the mother and her young.
Has the chosen contraception method been effective?
In situations where animals are housed together, but are not suitable to breed with each other, contraceptive products can be used to temporarily suppress reproductive activity. Hormone assessment can be used to determine the effectiveness of a contraceptive method by monitoring faecal progesterone metabolite concentrations to determine cyclicity. The absence of cycles indicates that the female can be housed with males without risk of pregnancy. We can also determine when the contraceptive method is no longer effective as faecal progesterone metabolite concentrations indicate that she is cycling again.
Adrenal ActivityAs well as producing hormones for reproduction the body also releases adrenal hormones, glucocorticoids, as a way of coping with challenging situations. Although the production of adrenal hormones can benefit an animal by enabling it to handle difficult situations, persistently high concentrations of glucocorticoids as a result of continuous strain on the animal can result in undesirable behaviours, poor health and poor reproductive output. Endocrinology can provide answers to husbandry and welfare issues so that informed solutions can be applied. For example, faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations have been used to address a wide range of issues about how animals respond to their environment. This information can inform management practices and improve long-term population health. To understand the relationship between potential challenges in the environment and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations, it is necessary to understand normal individual variation, as elevated glucocorticoid concentration does not necessarily indicate distress or compromised welfare. The Reproduction & Welfare Research Unit, together with collaborators from other collections, have used adrenal hormone assessment, together with behavioural data, to enable beneficial changes to the housing and management of primates. Pioneering research to develop housing guidelines for amphibians is also currently in progress. Moreover, a project supported by ABWAK and made possible by many keepers in the UK and in continental EU, is underway to understand the relationship between adrenal activity and reproductive success in the Black Rhino.
How can you get involved? To begin sample collection please contact us, and we can help you to determine the frequency of collection, as sampling depends on both the species and the question you are trying to answer. For example, regular and frequent collections of samples are needed to determine oestrus cycles and allow accurate oestrus predictions to be made.
To illustrate the necessity of regular sample collections Figure 4 demonstrates the different interpretations of cyclicity resulting from regular sample collections (showing clear cycles) compared to irregular and infrequent sample collection (showing inconclusive and questionable results).
The frequency per week of collection is species dependant. For example, the cycle of an Asian elephant (E. maximus) is approximately 15 weeks, so in order to determine cyclicity you only need to collect twice a week.
However an oestrous cycle in an okapi (O. johnstoni) is on average 14 days therefore samples need to be collected every other day. 20
Figure 4. This graph shows the difference between regular, frequent sample collection (top) and irregular, infrequent sample collection (bottom). The blue dots indicate samples which were collected and the yellow dots indicate samples which were not collected.
Currently the endocrine laboratory is able to monitor a range of hormones in a variety of Taxon (Table 1); however, this list is constantly growing as we validate techniques for more species. If the species you are interested in is not listed and/or you are interested in using hormone assessment for a research project or for diagnostic purposes, please contact the laboratory by phone (+44 (0)1244 389 483) or email (Dr. Sue Walker; [email protected]) and we would be happy to assist you.
Table 1. Table demonstrating the range of species which have been validated to date at the Chester Zoo endocrinology lab.
Mammals
Perissodactyla Rhinocerotidae white and black rhinoceros Equidae onager, Przewalski’s horse, domestic horse, zebra Tapiridae Malayan tapir
Artiodactyla Bovidae domestic cattle, eland Cervidae Philippine spotted deer Suidae babirusa, red river hogs, Visayan warty pig Giraffidae okapi, giraffe
Hippopotamidae pygmy hippoCarnivora lion, banded mongoose, meerkatProboscidea Asian and African elephantPrimates white cheeked gibbon, Barbary macaque, gorilla
Birds blue headed macaw
Amphibians red eyed tree frog
Photo of a female Black Rhino (Diceros bicornis) taken by Helen Massey, Chester Zoo
Photo of an Okapi (O. johnstoni) taken by Thijs Van den Houten, Chester Zoo
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Avian Rearing Resource WebsiteFor generations people have been hand-rearing birds, over the years protocols have been refined and improved; this information is not always easily accessible and sometimes it is an art (all be it a time consuming one) tracking down the most up to date information.
Limited work has been done to measure the success rate of protocols or the long term affects of said protocols to health and breeding success of species; and at a time when it is vitally important to work together towards achieving sustainability of captive populations it is more important than ever to ensure that if the decision is made to intervene and hand-rear it is done with the knowledge that the resulting individuals will be healthy & valuable additions to the captive populations.
A new website has been created to compile protocols, measure success rates, highlight problems and potentially research into improving protocols, look into long term survival/breeding success of hand reared species.
The Avian Rearing Resource can be found at www.avianrearingresource.co.uk Aims of the site.
To compile all current hand rearing protocols for all avian species.
Highlight any problems with rearing individual species.
The site is accessible to all and is simple to navigate.
Over time it is hoped that by sharing information we can work towards minimizing mortality rates and improving the quality of hand-reared individuals.
Using a rating system the success rate of each protocol is measured; stars are awarded for;• Success rate• If the protocol has been used successfully by two or more institutions/individuals.• Points on minimizing imprinting.• If the birds go on to produce fertile eggs.• If the birds go on to successfully parent rear.
Site content.
Each species can have as many as 4-5 protocols, giving people a better idea as to which may be the best option for them.
A protocol template can be found on the home page along with a contact e-mail for any feedback. (All are welcome to submit protocols).
A hand-rearing decision tree is included on the homepage to encourage aviculturists to take the decision to hand-rear responsibly.
Addition information is also included, such as general species information, hand-rearing articles & husbandry guidelines.
The site is still in its infancy and will continue to evolve with your help and input, please feel free to e-mail any protocols or comments to: [email protected]
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IntroductionTigers (Panthera tigris) are usually regarded as being solitary but they may not be as solitary as previously thought (Kitchener, 2000; De Rouck et al., 2005). In captivity, tigers can be housed in a variety of group situations and there is debate surrounding the issue of social housing as possible enrichment (Kitchener, 2000; Young, 2003; De Rouck et al., 2005; Miller et al., 2008). This research was undertaken to determine the effect of housing (individual, pair and group) on tiger welfare. Urinary cortisol analysis and behavioural observations were conducted on 15 animals across three forms of housing in four collections from the UK and Republic of Ireland.
The assumption that tigers are solitary may not be entirely correct as instances of non-reproductive social interaction have been observed (Green, 1991; Kitchener, 2000; Karanth, 2001). Tigers have also been known to feed together; occasions where up to eight individuals have been seen feeding on, or close to, the same carcass are documented (Green, 1991; Kitchener, 2000; Karanth, 2001). During these sightings the tigers were seen to take turns feeding, which may be the result of a social hierarchy among the animals (Green, 1991). It is most likely that tigers have evolved a primarily solitary life as group hunting would appear to impede the success of obtaining prey from limited population densities in dense forest environments (Kitchener, 2000; Karanth, 2001; Macdonald, 2002; Nowak, 2005). That said, wild tigers still maintain an elaborate social structure between individuals in neighbouring territories (Green, 1991; Karanth, 2001). The term ‘solitary’, therefore, seems to be incorrect as social interaction appears to occur in wild tigers when the ecology of the environment is suitable, indicating that tigers may be directed more towards a social nature (Kitchener, 2000).
MethodsThe sample population consisted of seven male and eight female tigers of different ages and across three subspecies; Amur (Panthera tigris altaica), Bengal (P. t. tigris) and Sumatran (P. t. sumatrae). Of the 15 animals, four were individually housed, eight housed in pairs and three housed as one group. The four collections sampled were the Wildlife Heritage Foundation, Isle of Wight Zoo, Marwell Wildlife, and Dublin Zoo.
BehaviourInstantaneous focal sampling was used to record the behaviour of each animal every two minutes using one-hour time blocks. To allow for the most diverse behavioural repertoire to be recorded, each animal was observed for five hours a day over a two-day period; two consecutive hours in the morning (between 8am and 11am), one hour in the afternoon (between 12pm and 2pm) and two consecutive hours in the evening (between 3pm and 6pm). Recorded behaviours were grouped together into seven categories: Active, Communicative, Investigative, Maintenance, Marking, Resting, and Pacing. Behavioural frequencies were manipulated (by relating to time spent out of sight) to allow for direct comparison between activity budgets.
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Are Tigers Really Solitary?Assessing the social nature and welfare of captive tigers.
Ian Hickey1(2,3)* & Paul Rose1
1 Animal Management Academy, Sparsholt College Hampshire, *current address:
2 Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
3 Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London NW1 OTU, UK
Urinary CortisolUrine samples were collected non-invasively (using foam swabs onto the floor of indoor housing) to allow analysis for urinary cortisol concentration as a physiological indication of stress. To minimise the risk of anomalous results, samples were taken for every animal observed on both days of observations. Samples were frozen on collection until the time of analysis to reduce degradation and variability between samples. An ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) kit was then used to quantitatively measure cortisol in the urine samples.
ResultsThe specific behavioural categories investigated were Pacing, Active, and Resting as, of all behaviours recorded, these showed the highest level of variation between sample groups. Time spent on elevated platforms was also investigated further as this appeared to have large variation between individual animals,
particularly the group-housed tigers.
It was found that the individually-housed tigers paced for more than double the amount of time than the socially-housed tigers (26.4% and 12.3%, respectively), with the group-housed tigers showing no occurrence of this behaviour (see Figure 1). This difference was not statistically significant, however (P>0.05), most likely due to the large behavioural
variation between the individually-housed tigers (one of the animals paced for 47.2% of the time whereas another paced for only 2.1% of the time).
Collectively, the tigers housed socially showed more occurrences of both active and resting behaviours than the individually-housed animals. The pair housed tigers performed active behaviours for significantly more time than the group-housed tigers (P<0.001) while the group-housed tigers spent significantly more time resting than the pair-housed tigers (P<0.001). The individually-housed tigers had both the median levels for each of these behaviours (see Figure 1) but showed no significant differences, again due to the large variation within this sample population.
In addition, time spent on elevated platforms appeared to increase with increasing group size although the analysis showed no significant differences most likely due to the large variation within the group-housed tigers; one animal spent 65.5% of the time on a platform while another spent only 0.4% of the time carrying out this behaviour).
Due to time restrictions and differing management practices, three of the pair-housed tigers and the three group-housed tigers were omitted from the urinary cortisol analysis. As can be seen from Figure 2, the cortisol concentrations for each type of housing were generally lower for the socially-housed tigers although this difference was minimal and not significant (P>0.05). Unfortunately, this inconclusive result was due largely to the method of urine collection being inaccurate leading to results with a high percentage error. This inaccuracy
resulted from the exact urine volume on each of the swabs being unknown.
Figure 1: Graph showing the mean percentage of time each group performed each behaviour (± standard deviation from the mean)
Figure 2: Graph showing the mean cortisol concentration (ng cortisol/ml urine) for each tiger (± % error)
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DiscussionQualitative AssessmentPair-housed tigers performed the most active behaviours and it has been proposed that the performance of biologically-important and appetitive behaviours such as climbing and stalking are a sign of increased welfare (De Rouck at al., 2005). It should be acknowledged, however, that a large proportion of this category consisted of standing and walking behaviours which do not indicate any known direct relevance to welfare. Group-housed tigers spent the most time resting, which may indicate increased welfare as animals usually rest when they are in a state of satiation and do not need to perform coping behaviours such as pacing. Maple and Perkins (1996) also suggest that some animals may relax and rest more when less stressed. This measurement of resting behaviour is subjective, however, as literature review has not revealed any evidence that tigers (or animals in general) rest because they are less stressed.
If using pacing as an indicator of decreased welfare, it could be assumed from the pacing trend (decreasing with increasing group size) that welfare is highest for tigers housed socially, particularly in groups (see Figure 1). This conclusion was also reached by De Rouck et al. (2005). The use of pacing as an indicator of decreased welfare cannot be fully accurate but the theories for the occurrence of pacing by Carlstead (1996) and Jenny and Schmid (2002) both indicate that the animal was living in a suboptimal environment not meeting its species-specific behavioural needs. Therefore, as stereotypic pacing was reduced in the social environment, it may mean that this environment is the most optimal for captive tigers as it meets more of their species-specific needs (namely a desire for social interaction).
Socially-housed tigers spent more time on elevated platforms than the individually-housed tigers. A theory for the use of elevated platforms by big cats is that they provide high ground for monitoring the surrounding area and consequently support alert behaviours, which are thought to be a sign of increased welfare for animals in captivity (Wemelsfelder, 1991; Hosey et al., 2009). It could be theorised, however, that the use of elevated platforms may be an attempt to avoid or put distance between each other (which would be an indication of stress). This is unlikely the case, though, as more than one animal was often seen on the same platform and casual observation showed no aggression between the animals.
Quantitative Assessment Although minimal and not significant, the cortisol concentrations were generally lower for the socially-housed tigers. This may indicate a lower level of stress for these animals (Graham and Brown, 1996; Dembiec et al., 2004; Young et al., 2004) but it should be noted that cortisol concentrations may also elevate in response to activity or arousal (Dawkins, 2003). Should cortisol be used in any further study, however, it is recommended that a different method be employed as the urine collection method was found to be difficult and, ultimately, partly inaccurate. It may be possible to use urine sampling again by using syringes to collect known quantities, although faecal sampling seems the most appropriate option; it is a more reliable method for monitoring adrenal activity in felids because the majority of cortisol metabolites are excreted in faeces whereas only a small percentage are extracted in urine (Graham and Brown, 1996) and it is easier to collect in measured amounts (Graham and Brown, 1996; Dembiec et al., 2004; Young et al., 2004).
It may also be beneficial to use other physiological measurements alongside the measurement of cortisol as individuals’ experiences of stress may be more affected by other factors. Clubb and Mason (2007) found reproductive success to be a reliable method when measuring carnivore welfare (correlation occurred when compared with time spent pacing) so the additional use of this method may be beneficial in future.
Plate 1: Two study subjects (non-breeding male and female) using an elevated platform (Mendham, 2009)
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It should be noted, however, that stress is most likely not directly caused by the type of housing which the animal is in. Each tiger had been housed in that situation (solitary or social) from an early age and therefore may have become habituated to living in that environment, regardless of whether the species tends towards a particular social preference. This suggested habituation would also be probably true as wild tigers are known to tolerate both individual and social environments (Green, 1991; Kitchener, 2000; Karanth, 2001).
Therefore, when referring to captive-caused stressors, the question is whether or not the animal is more prone to stress in the specific housing environment, rather than which environment causes more stress. The provision of choice and control of the environment is considered to substantially improve the welfare of any captive animal (Ross, 2006) and by providing tigers with the option to perform social behaviours (by housing them together) stress through the inhibition of performing these behaviours should be reduced and their welfare may therefore be improved (De Rouck et al., 2005).
When referring to the social housing of cats in particular, one has to consider the challenges and possible risks in introducing new animals. Should social enrichment be used for captive tigers, it is recommended that animals be housed together from a young age where possible as the introduction of sexually mature tigers is difficult. That said, Gaultier et al. (2005) did document how a female adult tiger was successfully introduced to new conspecifics. This shows that the introduction of new animals is possible for this species. Its application should be situation dependent, however, and its implications should be carefully considered by the professionals involved with the management of these animals.
ConclusionTigers appear to adopt ‘solitary’ lives as a result of ecological conditions but appear, ultimately, to be directed towards social experiences and socially-influenced behaviours. The evidence suggests that housing tigers with conspecifics may improve welfare as it promotes the occurrence of more desirable behaviours and less occurrence of stereotypic behaviour. It is suggested that social housing should be considered where possible because an obligation exists to promote a biologically-relevant environment for all animals in captivity and, when considering the evidence surrounding zoo-housed tigers, this environment appears to be a social one.
ReferencesCarlstead, K. (1996) Effects of Captivity on the Behaviour of Wild Mammals . In: Kleiman, D. G., Allen, M. E., Thompson, K. V. and Lumpkin, S. (1996) Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques. The University of Chicago Press: London, U.K.
Clubb, R. and Mason, G. (2007) Natural behavioural biology as a risk factor in carnivore welfare: How analysing species differences could help zoos improve enclosures, Applied Animal Behaviour Science 102: 303-328.
Dawkins, M. S. (2003) Behaviour as a tool in the assessment of animal welfare, Zoology 106: 383-387.
De Rouck, M., Kitchener A. C., Law, G. and Nelissen, M. (2005) A comparative study of the influence of social housing conditions on the behaviour of captive tigers (Panthera tigris), Animal Welfare 14: 229-238.
Dembiec, D. P., Snider, R. J. and Zanella, A. J. (2004) The effects of transport stress on tiger physiology and behaviour, Zoo Biology 23 (4): 335-346.
Gaultier, E., Falawee, C., Bougrat, L. and Pageat, P. (2005) The Introduction of a Female Tiger (Panthera tigris) in a Pre-established Group of Two Neutered Males: A Case Study. In: 5th
International Veterinary Behavioural Meeting (2005) Current Issues and Research in Veterinary Behavioural Medicine. Perdue University Press: Indiana, U.S.A.
Graham, L. H. and Brown, J. L. (1996) Cortisol metabolism in the domestic cat and implications for non-invasive monitoring of adrenocortical function in endangered felids, Zoo Biology 15: 71-82.
Green, R. (1991) Wild Cat Species of the World. Basset Publications: Plymouth, U.K.
Hosey, G., Melfi, V. and Pankhurst, S. (2009) Zoo Animals: behaviour, management, and welfare. Oxford University Press: Oxford, U.K.
Jenny, S. and Schmid H. (2002) Effect of Feeding Boxes on the Behavior of Stereotyping Amur Tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in the Zurich Zoo, Zurich, Switzerland, Zoo Biology 21: 573-584.
Karanth, K. U. (2001) Tigers. Colin Baxter Photography Ltd: Grantown-on-Spey, U.K.
Kitchener, A. C. (2000) Are Cats Really Solitary?, LUTRA 43 (1): 1-10.
Macdonald, D. (2002) The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford University Press: Oxford, U.K.26
Maple, T. L. and Perkins L. A. (1996) Enclosure Furnishings and Structural Environmental Enrichment. In: Kleiman, D. G., Allen, M. E., Thompson, K. V. and Lumpkin, S. (1996) Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques. The University of Chicago Press: London, U.K.
Miller, A. and Kuhar C. W. (2008) Long term monitoring of social behaviour in a grouping of six female tigers (Panthera tigris), Zoo Biology 27 (2): 89-99.
Nowak, R. M. (2005) Walker’s Carnivores of the World. The Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, U.S.A.
Ross, S. R. (2006) Issues of choice and control in the behaviour of a pair of captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus), Behavioural Processes 73: 117-120.
Wemelsfelder, F. (1991) Animal boredom: do animals miss being alert and active?. In: Society for Veterinary Ethology (1991) Applied Animal Behaviour: Past, Present and Future. Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW): Wheathampstead, U.K.
Young, R. J. (2003) Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals. Blackwell Science Ltd: Oxford, U.K.
Young, K. M., Walker, S. L., Lanthier, C., Waddell, W. T., Monfort, S. L. and Brown, J. L. (2004) Noninvasive monitoring of adrenocortical activity in carnivores by fecal glucocorticoid analysis, General and Comparative Endocrinology 137: 148-165.
AcknowledgementsThanks to Dr. B. Coulson for her assistance while carrying out the research and to Mr. R. Coffin for his invaluable assistance with the data analysis. Also thanks to Mrs. C. Warwick and Mr. R. Niblett for their help with the laboratory analysis. Most of all, we would like to thank the managers and keepers at each of the animal collections for their kind assistance while collecting the data; Mr. M. Edgerly and the Wildlife Heritage Foundation; Mr. P. Bailie and the Isle of Wight Zoo; Mr. G. Creighton Jr. and Dublin Zoo; and Miss H. Mitchell and Marwell Wildlife.
The hazel dormouse (Muscardinus avellenarius) is an attractive creature with golden fur, large black eyes and a furry tail. Native to Britain and historically widespread throughout England and Wales, it is now rare and vulnerable to extinction in the UK. It is essentially a woodland creature, living in the canopy and finding food mainly in the undergrowth in summer and hibernating on the forest floor in winter. In summer, dormice make distinctive grapefruit-sized nests from woven strips of honeysuckle in which to rear their young.
Dormice rely on a wide range of foods that vary seasonally according to availability. In early spring after waking from hibernation, they feed on flowers such as hawthorn and willow and later on honeysuckle or bramble flowers. In summer, after flowering finishes and before the fruit and nuts ripen, dormice feed on invertebrates such as caterpillars and aphids. Oak and sycamore can be useful trees for dormice as they support large quantities of insects. Bramble is valuable in autumn when dormice feed on the abundant blackberries. They also eat a range of fruits and seeds, ash keys, yew berries, sweet chestnuts and hazel nuts.
Dormice are nocturnal, alternating bursts of activity with periods of rest. Breeding males live alone, whilst females and non-breeding males are often found nesting together outside the breeding season. Sometimes the same male and female will live together in successive years. Dormice weave spherical summer nests from shredded plant material (often honeysuckle bark) and will regularly use green leaves as an outer layer. Nests are often sited in tree holes and dormice will also make use of the existing nests of other mammals or birds. Later in the season nests may be found in bramble and in the tops of hedges. Dormice are mainly arboreal in the summer, preferring not to cross open ground.
The old English name for the dormouse is 'sleeper'. They usually go into hibernation when the first frosts arrive in October or November and are not active again until April or May. Unlike summer nests, the hibernation nest is built near or on the ground and the animal curls up into a ball and goes to sleep. Hibernating dormice let their body temperature drop to that of their surroundings and their heart and breathing rate are often reduced by 90% or more.
Over the last century their distribution has shrunk due to loss of their woodland habitats, a decline in the use of traditional coppicing methods and the fact that unlike other small mammals they find it harder to recover their numbers quickly as they are slow to breed, tending to only have one litter a year. There has also been a 64% decline of dormouse occurrence in hedgerows since the late 1970s, equating to a red alert
HAZEL DORMOUSE CONSERVATION Nida Al Fulaij, Development Manager & Ian White, Dormouse O�cer
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decline of 70% over 25 years. The dormouse became extinct in at least seven counties where it was reported to be present a century ago and, even where it survives today, populations have declined as woodland and hedgerows have been lost to arable production. The reduction in traditional woodland management such as coppicing affects food availability and the poor management and removal of hedgerows leads to the isolation and fragmentation of populations. The long, historic, decline of the dormouse continues today but encouragingly our annual monitoring shows that the decline is slowing.
The dormouse is a high-profile flagship species for conservation - its demanding habitat requirements make it an excellent indicator of woodland biodiversity. Managing habitat for dormice improves the general species richness of an area, benefiting plants, birds and invertebrates. Dormice thrive in coppiced hazel woodland, a type of woodland management that has been in decline over the last few decades due to lack of demand for coppice products. Coppicing the trees allows light to the woodland floor promoting wildflower growth which in turn attracts butterflies, bees and birds.
In addition to monitoring existing dormouse populations, over the past 20 years there has been an effort to return the dormouse to some of the counties from which it has been lost. The first reintroduction took place in 1993 in a woodland in Cambridgeshire. This population has been continually monitored since the release and has now spread throughout the wood. The dormice that are released are bred by members of the Common Dormouse Captive Breeders Group which consists of both individuals and larger organisations such as Paignton Zoo in Devon and Wildwood in Kent. Female dormice can be used as breeding stock for at least two seasons and new dormice are regularly brought into the programme to maintain genetic diversity. These are obtained either from animal sanctuaries, where members of the public have rescued dormice, or from the monitoring programme, where young, underweight dormice that would not survive a winter, are removed from the wild into captivity, to give them a chance of survival. In spring young dormice are sent to London and Paignton Zoo to begin a period of quarantine to ensure that when the animals are released into the wild they are not carrying any pathogens that could affect their survival or infect other species.
One of the hardest part of the reintroduction programme is to find suitable woodlands in which to release the dormice. A wood needs to be at least 20 hectares in size, with dense shrubby habitat and good hedgerow connections to nearby woodlands. It needs to be in a county in which dormice are either extinct or exist in very few locations and it needs to be surveyed to ensure that it does not have an existing dormouse population. In addition the woodland manager and owner need to be enthusiastic about the release of dormice in their wood and prepared to undertake woodland management to ensure the long term survival of the released population.
In June, large cages are secured to trees in the selected wood and dormice are released into these cages in nest boxes usually one male and one female, though sometimes a male is paired with two females. A team of volunteers regularly check the cages and provide food and water for the dormice whilst they get use to the sounds and smells of their new wood from the security of the release cages. After two weeks small openings are made in the cages and the dormice are free to leave and explore their new home. The volunteers continue to visit the cages to provide food until such time that it is no longer required. Usually young dormice will be born at the new site early in the first season and will be able to put on enough fat to enable them to survive their winter hibernation.
Since the first reintroduction was undertaken in 1993, 16 further reintroductions have taken place in 11 counties. Unfortunately the releases at three of these sites have not been successful, probably due to inappropriate or insufficient woodland management. Dormice have survived at eight of the sites and have dispersed throughout the woodland in which they were released. At six sites however the dormice have not only dispersed throughout the wood but they are now starting to move out of the woodland into the wider countryside. These are the current successes of a programme that was set up to restore dormice to their former native range in Britain.
• PTES is a UK conservation charity created in 1977 to ensure a future for endangered species throughout the world. Working to protect some of our most threatened wildlife species and habitats, it provides practical conservation support through research, grant-aid and educational programmes, including wildlife surveys, publications and public events.
• PTES has been involved in dormouse conservation work over the last two decades, in particular monitoring many known dormouse populations through the National Dormouse Monitoring Programme, releasing captive-bred populations into woodlands where they once occurred to try and re-establish this species back in its former range, and encouraging sympathetic hedgerow management. The charity also initiated and continues to coordinate some of the key elements in the hazel dormouse Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP).
To find out more please visit www.ptes.org or contact 020 7498 453328
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which seeks to achieve the highest standards of excellence in animal care through communication, cooperation, training and
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© Copyright 2010 Association of British and Irish Wild Animal Keepers
cover photo: Hamadryas baboon enclosure, Flamingo Land 2010,Stephen Woollard
