The Knowledge – Hazards

Subtopic The knowledge Helpful diagrams/maps Introduction to Hazards

1. Natural event is when there is no impact on people. 2. A natural hazard is when there is an impact on people. 3. Hazard types: Flooding – Water, Atmospheric –

Weather/atmosphere (Tornado, blizzards, lighting storms, droughts), Meteorological hazard – Land/rock (landslide/avalanche/Volcano/Earthquake)

4. Factors affecting hazard risk: Urbanisation – Over 50% of the world’s population live in urban areas Climate change – Global warming leads to intense storms. Climate

change may cause places to get wetter or drier (droughts/famine) Farming – Deposits silts, excellent for farming. People at risk from

flooding e.g Ganges, Bangladesh Poverty – Poorer people living on slopes (shortage of housing) more

prone to landslides

Causes of Tectonic Hazards

1. Plate tectonic theory: continental drift (convection currents), slab pull theory

2. Structure of earth: inner core, outer core, mantle, crust 3. Oceanic crust: dense, shallow (5km-10km thick) 4. Continental crust: less dense, deeper (up to 100km thick) 5. Earthquakes and volcanic hazards occur on plate boundaries 6. Plate boundaries: destructive, constructive, collision, conservative

LIC

Earthquake: Nepal

1. 25th April 2015, 7.9 Richter scale, epicentre 50km NW of Kathmandu 2. Causes: collision zone boundary: Eurasian and Indian plates 3. Primary effects: 1 million homes and, 7000 schools destroyed 4. Secondary effects: 9000 deaths, 20,000 injured 5. Immediate responses: Emergency aid arrived quickly from US and

UK, 500,000 tents provided for homeless 6. Long term responses: Roads repaired and landslides cleared, 7000

schools rebuilt

MIC Earthquake:

Chile

1. 27th February 2010, 8.8 on Richter scale, ground shook for 3 minutes 2. Causes: destructive boundary: Nazca and south American plate 3. Primary effects: 1500km roads damaged, 4500 schools destroyed 4. Secondary effects: 500 killed, 12,000 injured 5. Immediate responses: Temporary repairs to north/south highway

within 24 hours enabling aid to be transported to affected areas, Power restored to 90% of homes within 10 days

6. Long term responses: US$ 30 billion in cost, Reconstruction programme of 200,000 homes after one month

Tectonic Hazard

Management

1. Reasons why people live in at risk areas: family, employment, lack of education, fertile soils

2. Monitoring and prediction: measuring for small tremours (seismograph), unusual animal behaviour (Haichen – China)

3. Planning and protection: Earthquake proof buildings (Trans America building – pyramidal shape), emergency kits, evacuation routes, educational campaign (stop, drop cover – China and Japan)

Global Atmospheric Circulation

1. Warm air rises under low pressure at the equator 2. It cools, condenses, rains – then cold air sinks under high pressure 30

degrees north/south of equator 3. Prevailing winds in the NH spin to the right (clockwise) 4. Prevailing winds in the spin to the left (anticlockwise)

Tropical Storms

1. Tropical storms form in oceans warmer than 27 degrees celcius – usually found between 5 and 20 degrees north and south of the equator

2. Storm formation: Heat, evaporation, replace and repeat, condensation/clouds, spin/spiral, sinking eye, move, lose energy

3. Storm features: storm eye, eye wall, up to 300 miles wide, strong winds and torrential rain

4. Climate change: increases distribution, intensity & frequency

Typhoon Haiyan

1. November 2013: category 5 storm, 170mph winds 2. Primary effects: 40,000 homes damaged, 90% of Tacloban destroyed

– mostly by 5m storm surge 3. Secondary effects: 6300 killed – most drowned in storm surge,

600,000 displaced 4. Immediate responses: 1200 evacuation centres set up, US Aircraft

carrier George Washington helped with search and rescue 5. Long term responses: Cash for work programmes – people paid to

help clear debris, Oxfam – helped to replace fishing boats in order to help people work again

Tropical Storm

Management

1. Reasons why people live in at risk areas: family, employment, lack of education, fertile soils.

2. Monitoring and prediction: satellite imagery, use of previous data, Route prediction: 80% of New Orleans evacuated before Katrina hit, warning systems.

3. Protection and planning: Practice drills, Emergency kits, Evacuation routes, protecting buildings: windows, doors and roofs reinforced to strengthen buildings to withstand strong winds. Houses close to the coast built on stilts so that storm surges will pass beneath. In Bangladesh nearly 2000 cyclone shelters have been built.

Extreme Weather in

the UK

1. Extreme weather: a weather event significantly different to normal 2. Extreme weather events UK: heatwave 2003 (2045 people died),

Boscastle floods 2004, Somerset floods 2014, winter 2010 (coldest since 1962, temps below -20 degrees)

Somerset Floods

1. Causes: wettest January on record (350mm of rain compared to 100mm average, no river dredging for 20 years, storm surges

2. Social impacts: 600 lost homes 3. Environmental impacts: 14,000 hectares of farmland lost (loss of

habitat) 4. Economic impacts: estimated cost: £10 million 5. Management: 8km of rivers’ Tone and Parrett dredged, river banks

raised, roads elevated

Evidence of Climate Change

1. Global temp rise of 0.74C during last 100 years

2. 25% of global glacier ice to disappear by 2050

Causes of Climate Change

1. Natural causes: orbital change, volcanic activity, solar output 2. Human causes: fossil fuels, agriculture, deforestation

Effects of Climate Change

1. Agricultural yields reduced by 15% in Sub Saharan Africa 2. 80% of people exposed to river flooding live in developing countries. 3. 10 of the 15 largest developing cities are in low lying areas vulnerable

to rising seas. 4. 90 million people will be exposed to malaria by 2030

Management of Climate

Change

1. Mitigation: alternative energy production, carbon capture (national parks, debt relief), planting trees, international agreements (Paris COP21 2015)

2. Adaptation: change in agricultural systems, managing water supply, reducing risk from rising sea levels (building away from coasts etc)

The Knowledge – Living World

Subtopic Key knowledge/processes Useful diagrams Ecosystems Producer – makes its own energy from photosynthesis

Consumer – get their energy from producers or other consumers

Decomposer – break down plant/animal material and return nutrients to soil

Food chain – direct link between producers and consumers

Food web – all the connections between producers and consumers in an ecosystem

Pond example: producer = water lily, consumer = great diving beetle, decomposer = rat tailed maggot

Rainforests are located along the equator

Rainforests are located between 0-30 degrees north/south of equator

Rainforests are located in North East South America (Brazil)

Rainforests are located in Central Africa

Tundra: 60 degrees north/south of equator

Tundra: edges of land masses such as Antarctica and Greenland

Rainforest Characterist

ics

Hot/humid climate: between 25/30 degrees C all year round

Wet climate: over 2000mm rainfall on average per year

4 layers of rainforest: shrub, under canopy, canopy, emergent

Rainforest

Plant adaptations

The pitcher plant has sweet nectar

The pitcher plant has waxy inner walls

The pitcher plant has concave walls

Rainforest Animal

adaptations

The jaguar has spots (camouflage)

The jaguar has strong/sharp claws

The jaguar has sharp teeth/strong jaw

Causes of deforestati

on

Logging – Malaysia: biggest exporter in 1980’s

population growth: 15,000 hectares felled between 1956-1980

subsistence farming – slash and burn to clear land for crops (local tribes)

commercial farming – cattle ranching – beef worth $1bn to Brazil economy each year

road building – provide access for mines

palm oil – 62,000 miles of world rainforest now palm oil plantation

mining - drilling for oil and gas on Borneo

energy development – Bakun Dam flooded 700km of Malaysian rainforest

Impacts of deforestati

on

economic gains: increased employment, tax revenue, improved road infrastructure

Economic losses: pollution of water sources, loss of plants for medicine, increased chance of fires cause farms to burn down

Soil erosion: loss of roots that bind soils together means soil is more easily eroded away

Contribution to climate change: reduction in transpiration = drier climate. Reduction in evaporation (cools the air) causes temperatures to rise

Sustainable rainforest

management

International Agreement – Carbon Sinks: Gola Rainforest, Sierra Leone reduces global warming. Funded by Euro commission

Promoting Responsible Management: The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Rainforest Alliance are NGOs that promotes sustainable forestry

Selective Logging: Trees are only felled (cut down) when they are mature (fully grown)

National Parks: Tumucumaque National park, Brazil: largest in the world. It protects over 38,000 square Km of rainforest

Ecotourism resorts aim to introduce people to the natural world without causing any environmental damage. These resorts help by employing local people, using renewable energies, recycling water and promoting local traditions and cultures

Cold: characterist

ics

-50 degrees C in Polar

Little precipitation in Polar

-20 degrees C in Tundra

Precipitation in coastal regions of tundra

Cold Plant

adaptations Bearberry grows 5cm-15cm from ground

Bearberry has hairy stems

Bearberry has waxy leaves

Bearberry has bright red berries

Cold animal adaptations

Polar bear has white fur

Polar bear has wide paws

Polar bear has very thick fur

Polar bear is a strong swimmer

Opportunities –

Svalbard

300 employed in tourism

300 employed in mining

Geothermal from Mid Atlantic Ridge

150 species of fish in Barents Sea

Challenges – Svalbard

Extreme temps below -30 degrees C

Construction is hard during winter due to: lack of sunlight

Construction is hard due to melting permafrost in the summer

Services: over ground heated water/sewage pipes

Accessibility: only 50km road in Longyearbyen

Cold environmen

ts at risk from

Humans

Off roading – damages fragile and delicate plant species

Over fishing – depletion of krill stocks in sourthern ocean has impacted upon penguins and many whale species

Oil spills – kills wildlife, destroys fragile environments

Climate change – burning of fossil fuels leads to emission of GHG’s – global warming – melting ice = habitat loss etc

Cold environmen

ts: why protect?

Economic development has led to environmental damage: off road vehicles, overfishing, climate change, oil spills

Cold environments need protecting: indigenous people of the arctic (Inuit), scientific research (ice core analysis), rare animals (polar bears), tourism employs 300 people in Svalbard

Cold: manageme

nt strategies

Trans Alaskan pipeline: Oil is 49 degrees – pipeline raised and insulated, Can slide in the event of earthquakes, Pipeline raised to allow caribou to migrate

Antarctic Treaty: 1959 – signed by all countries with territorial claim, Controls tourism, Recognises continent as important scientific research ground

Western Arctic Reserve: 9 million hectares of protected land

WWF: Supports scientific research to protect endangered species such as polar bear, narwhal and Greenland shark

The Knowledge – Physical Landscapes – Rivers

Subtopic Key knowledge/processes Diagram

Hydrological / Water Cycle

1. Evaporation Water vapour rises. 2. Transpiration Evaporation from trees. 3. Condensation Water cools into cloud. 4. Precipitation Clouds release rain. 5. Surface run-off Water flows on ground. 6. Groundwater flow Water underground.

Drainage Basin System

(DBS)

1. Watershed Boundary between two DBS. 2. Source Point where river begins. 3. Tributary Small river than joins larger one. 4. Confluence Point where two rivers meet. 5. Mouth Point where river meets the sea.

Fluvial Processes

1. Erosion Removal of material by water (ie: hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, solution).

2. Weathering Breakdown of rock by day-to-day changes in atmosphere (ie: freeze-thaw action).

3. Transportation Material carried by the river (ie: traction, suspension, saltation, solution).

4. Deposition Material dropped by river as low energy. Heaviest to lightest.

River Characteristics

1. Long profile Shows gradient of river. 2. Cross profile Shows shape of valley.

Upper Course

1. Features Steep valley, narrow/shallow river channel, fast flowing water. 2. Erosion Vertical = v-shaped valley. 3. Erosional landforms Interlocking spurs, waterfalls, gorges.

Middle Course

1. Features Gentle gradient, shallow valley, less turbulence, less friction. 2. Erosion Lateral = wider/deeper river channel. 3. Erosional and depositional landforms Meanders, Ox-bow lakes.

Lower Course

1. Features Very gentle gradient, wider open valley floor. 2. Erosion Lateral = widest/deepest part of river. 3. Depositional landforms Estuary, floodplains, levees.

Case Study: River Severn

1. Location Longest river in UK. Source in mid Wales in Plinlimon Hills. Estuary near Bristol and Gloucester.

2. Course V-shaped valley = rapids/waterfalls in upper course. Meanders/ox-bow lakes in middle course. Estuary 2nd largest tide in world (19m) in lower course.

3. Management Urbanisation increase flood risk. Dams and reservoir have built. Monitory systems have improved.

Storm Hydrographs

1. Definition Show how a river changes after a storm and can be used to predict floods.

2. Flood Occurs when river discharge is greater than channel’s capacity. 3. Discharge Volume of water in river channel. 4. Peak discharge Highest level of discharge. 5. Peak rainfall Highest amount of rainfall. 6. Lag time Delay between peak rainfall & discharge. Short = high flood. 7. Rising limb Increasing river discharge 8. Falling limb Decreasing river discharge.

Causes of Flooding

1. Physical Rainfall intensity, geology, relief, size of DBS, soil moisture. 2. Human Land use (ie: urbanisation/tarmac reduces infiltration into soil).

Management Hard

Engineering

1. Dam & reservoir Use to regulate flow of the river. 2. Channel straightening Speeds up flow of the river. 3. Embankments Raising banks to increase capacity = man-made levees. 4. Flood relief channels Diverts water.

Management Soft

Engineering

1. Afforestation Planting trees along river. 2. Wetlands Land next to river allowed to flood. 3. Floodplain zoning Land has different uses according to risk of flooding. 4. Rive restoration Return river to original course reduces risk. 5. Planning Monitor river to assess risk of flooding.

Case Study: Boscastle

1. Location North Cornwall, UK. 2. Date August 2004, 7 inches of water fell in a few hours resulting in

discharge of 140 cumecs. 3. Causes Steep valley sides, high relief rainfall, confluence, urbanisation,

deforestation. 4. Impacts 80 homes/businesses destroyed, 50 cars into sea, sewage burst. 5. Management Channelisation, bridge widened, car park moved, banks

raises, overspill channel, gauges installed.

The Knowledge – Physical Landscapes – Coasts

Subtopic Key knowledge/processes Diagram

UK Physical Landscape

6. Upland North West Scotland, 600m+ peak and ridges, cold, misty, snow. 7. Lowland South East England (Fenns), 200m hills, warmer weather, dry.

Waves Types

1. Constructive Swash stronger than backwash. Builds coastline. 2. Destructive Backwash stronger than swash. Erodes coastline.

Coasts Processes

5. Erosion Removal of material by water (ie: hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, solution).

6. Mass movement Rockfall, Landslide/Mudflow, Rotational Slip/Slumping. 7. Weathering Mechanical (ie: freeze-thaw action), Chemical (ie:

carbonisation), Biological (ie: burrowing animals). 8. Transportation Material carried by waves (ie: traction, suspension,

saltation, solution). Longshore drift carries sediment along beach in zig-zag.

9. Deposition Material dropped by waves as they loses energy. Heaviest at the back of the beach.

Geology / Rock Type

3. Discordant coastline Alternation between bands of hard/soft rock. 4. Concordant coastline Coastline that has only one type of rock.

Erosion 4. Landforms Headlands and bays, cliffs and wave-cut platforms, caves, arches, stacks, and stumps.

Deposition 4. Landforms Beaches, sand dunes, split, bars, and tombolos.

Management Hard

Engineering

5. Groynes Wood barriers that prevent longshore drift and builds beach. 6. Sea walls Concrete walls break up the energy of waves. 7. Gabions Cages of rock/boulders that absorb the energy of waves. 8. Rock armour / rip rap Barrier of rock/boulders at the back on beach.

Management Soft

Engineering

6. Beach nourishment Build-up of sand on beach to increase protection. 7. Managed retreat Low value areas of coast is left to erode over time. 8. Sand dunes Natural barrier that protects cliffs from erosion.

Case Study: Porlock and Minehead

6. Porlock Village Groynes. No maintenance. High costs. Increase sediment further down coastline (Porlock Marsh). Lower value land.

7. Porlock Marsh Managed retreat. Salty marsh. Low value land. 8. Minehead Sea wall, rock armour, groynes. High value land.

The knowledge – The Urban World

Subtopic AO1 - Key knowledge/processes Global pattern

of urban change

Urbanisation: The proportion of the world’s population who live in cities.

Causes of Urbanisation: Natural Increase & Rural to Urban migration

Migration – Push & Pull theory

HIC’s >60% of the population live in cities.

Largest growth of urban population by 2050: China, India and Nigeria (NEE’s)

Rapid urbanisation occurs in LIC’s & NEE’s (e.g. Brazil, Rio)

Megacity: A city that has a population over 10 million people

2015, 28 Megacities by 2050 approx. 50 megacities (e.g. London)

Urban case study – Rio de Janeiro (NEE)

Rio de Janeiro

Continent: South America

Country: Brazil (East)

The coast sits alongside the Atlantic Ocean

Population: 6.5 million (12.5 million surrounding area)

Was the Capital of Brazil until 1960 (Brasilia is the new capital)

Regional, National &

International importance

International - Christ the Redeemer (One of the 7 wonders of the world)

International – 5 ports and 3 airports

National - Industrial facilities (Steel – largest in S America)

Regional - The city now provides 6% of all Brazil’s employment

Regional - Rio 2nd most important industrial centre after Sao Paulo

Land uses in Rio

Rio has mountains, a coast and large squatter settlements (Favelas)

Rio is split in to 4 zones; North Zone – City’s main industrial and port area, the city’s international airport West Zone – Main Olympic Stadium 2016, Barra da Tijuca (changed from lower class to wealthy area) Centro – Oldest part (historic buildings), CBD, HQ of Petrobas South Zone – Main tourist hotspot, Copacabana beach, overlooked by Rochina (S.America’s largest favela)

Causes of urban growth

Natural increase: When birth rates are higher than death rates

Migration: Push & Pull theory

How urban growth has created challenges.

Social Challenges in

Rio

Water – 12% have no running water

Education – 50% of 14 year olds continue education

Energy – Frequent blackouts/illegal tapping

Health – In 2013, only 55% of the city had access to a local health clinic.

Economic Challenges in

Rio

Employment – More than 20% unemployed in the favelas

Avg. income £65-75 per month

Crime – Powerful gangs control drug trafficking in many of the favelas

Environmental Challenges in

Rio

Air pollution – 5000 deaths per year

Water pollution – 200 tonnes of raw sewage pours in the day every day

Waste pollution – Poor access to the steep sided favelas, waste dumped and pollutes the water systems.

How urban growth has created opportunities.

Social opportunities

in Rio

Water – 7 new treatment plants (300+ km pipes laid)

Energy – Installing 60km of new power lines.

Health – Medical staff took health kits to people’s homes, they detected 20 different diseases and treated them.

Crime – Pacifying Police Unit (UPP’s) to reclaim the favelas from drug dealers

Economic opportunities

in Rio

Employment – The Schools of Tomorrow programme

Education – giving school grants to poor families to keep their children in school

Environmental opportunities

in Rio

Air pollution – Expansion of the Metro system

Water pollution – 12 new sewage works (2014) costing $68m

Waste pollution – Bio gas plant consumes 30 tonnes of rubbish to generate electricity for 1000 homes.

How urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor.

Challenges of the growth of

squatter settlements

Construction – Built on steep slopes, landslide killed 224 & destroyed 13’000 homes (2010)

Services – 12% have no running water

Unemployment – Unemployment rates are 20%

Crime – Drug gangs dominate the favelas – red command

Health – Waste cannot be disposed of creates diseases (e.g. Cholera)

Improving the quality of the

urban poor

Favela Bairro Project – - Installation of cable car system - 100% mortgages available - Access to a water supply - UPP set up (safer)

>>>>> The knowledge – Urban change in the UK <<<<< Population

distribution in the UK

82% of people live in urban areas.

32% live in London and South East

Sparsely populated areas in Wales and Scotland

Urban Change in the UK case study – Bristol

Location and importance of

Bristol

Bristol: South west England

M4 link to global city of London

Bristol Airport links to Europe and wider world

Avonmouth shipping to and from all over the world

High level of foreign investment in aerospace (airbus) and manufacturing (BMW, Siemens)

Bristol Uni attracts people from all over the world

Impacts of national and international

migration

Population doubled between 1851-1891 people looking for work

Now mainly come from Poland (EU expansion 2004), Somalia, Spain and Jamaica (wider Caribbean)

Pressures on housing – 220,000 new houses needed in next 20 years

Provide education for EAL children

Cultural integration

Opportunities in Bristol

Economic opportunities

Government grant of 100 million to increase internet speeds

Present focus on quaternary industry (ie: Aardman Animation) and tertiary (EE – call centres) and hi tech secondary (Aerospace, defence)

Environmental opportunities

• Bristol European Green Capital 2015. • energy efficiency: reduce energy use by 30% by 2020 • 30% of city to be covered with trees, • Over 300 parks

Social opportunities

Plans to build UWE Stadium + redevelopment of Ashton Gate to attract more events

Cabot Circus & Cribbs Causeway: cabot opened in 2008 and cost £500 million

Challenges in Bristol

Environmental challenges

• Journey time in morning 31% longer than any other time of day • Former industrial areas in inner city left derelict e.g. Stokes Croft Perry’s Carriage,

tobacco factories • City produces half a million tonne of waste per year. One of the worst cities in UK

for food waste

Social & economic challenges

Stoke Bishop

Filwood

Housing Health

Deprivation Employment

Education

81% of housing in owner occupied.

Life expectancy is 83 years.

Less than 300 crimes per year.

Less that 3% unemployment.

50% of people went to University

50% owner occupied

Life expectancy 78 years.

1,300 crimes per year.

33% unemployment.

36% of students got top grades at GCSE in English and Maths (2013

Urban Sprawl on the urban rural fringe

Rapid population growth + many houses being bombed in WW2 (3200 lost) meant building on urban fringe and greenfield sites (hartcliffe – 43 families per week)

Growth of Bradley Stoke, Harry Stoke extended city in the north (1200 homes with a further 2000 planned 16/17)

Solution: 2006-2013: only 6% of new housing on greenfield, by 2026: 30,000 new homes to be built on Brownfield instead e.g. Charlton Hayes on Filton Airfled

Bristol harbourside regeneration

Why did it go into decline:

Liverpool overtook Bristol as it was a bigger port

Boats grew too big to fit down Avon

Heavily bombed in WW1 and 2 Features of regeneration:

SS Great Britain, Arnolfini, Lloyds HQ, MShed Success:

• 1 million visitors per yr since 2000, • 3000 new jobs,

Failures: • Nothing to improve traffic congestion. • New houses are very expensive

>>>> The knowledge – Urban sustainability <<<<< Sustainable Urban Living In Freiburg

Water supply: green roofs collect water from vegetation can be reused

Energy: 400 solar panels installed, 100% renewable by 2050, biogas = most energy

Green space: 40% of city is forested, 44,000 trees planted across the city

Waste recycling: 88% packaging recycled, 350 community recycling points

Sustainable Transport In Bristol

Problem: 2nd most congested city in UK, 300 deaths from air pollution each year Solution 1: Metro Bus – 3 routes with own bus lanes = more interconnected city + reduces journey times for commuters, claims to have reduced car use by 19% --- £80 million over budget, can be unreliable/inefficient Solution 2: Yo Bikes + 1000 bikes and 1500 journeys made per day reducing car use in the city --- frequently vandalized, limited to certain parts of the city – can’t go everywhere Solution 3: diesel car ban/clean air zone + reduces air pollution and congestion from diesel cars for 8 hours a day --- penalizes lower income families with diesel cars, only for 8 hours a day

The Knowledge: Economic World

Subtopic The Knowledge Helpful diagrams/maps

Categorising countries at different levels of development

HIC – High Income Country (greater than $12,000 GDP)

LIC – Low Income Country (less than $1005 GDP)

NEE – Newly Emerging Economy Countries that have begun to experience higher rates of economic development

Brandt line – historic map based measure highlighting the disparity in wealth between HIC’s in the northern Hemisphere and LIC’s in the Southern Hemisphere

Development indicators

Social indicators:

Birth Rate – number of babies born per 1000 per year

Death Rate – number of deaths per 1000 per year

Infant Mortality Rate – number of baby deaths prior to their 1st birthday, per 1000 per year

Life expectancy – calculated per country

Literacy rate – number of people who can read and write per 1000 of the population

Access to water, people per doctor Economic indicators:

Gross National Income (GNI) – value of goods and services produced by people of a certain nationality

Gross Domestic Income (GDP) – value of goods and services produced within one country

Socioeconomic indicators:

Human Development Index: A method of measuring development in which GDP per capita, life expectancy and adult literacy are combined to give an overview. This combined measure of development uses economic and social indicators to produce an index figure that allows comparison between countries.

Demographic transition model

Shows development of a country through social indicators: birth and death rate, natural increase and decrease and total population

As a country moves from stage 1 to stage 5, birth and death rate decrease, as does natural increase

Total population increases until it declines in stage 5

Natural decrease also starts to occur in stage 5 Limitations:

Doesn’t account for economic measures of development

It’s a sweeping generalisation – it doesn’t account for individuals in a population, or countries that have taken a different path to development

Causes of uneven development

Physical – landlocked countries struggle to trade, natural hazards can destroy some LIC’s (e.g. Nepal EQ 2015) and the struggle to recover Economic – LIC’s export lower value goods and import higher value goods = trade deficit Historical (political) – colonialization in 1400’s plundered resources and enslaved people in African countries, corrupt politicians in LICs Social – poor access to education in LIC’s = low paid jobs, lack of access to clean water = disease in LIC’s

Consequences of uneven development

Disparities in wealth – 2014 – N. America holds 35% of all world’s wealth, Africa held just 1% Disparities in health – LIC: 4/10 deaths children under 15, HIC: 1/100 deaths children under 15 International migration – Syrian Refugee Crisis 2015, EU to UK economic migration

Reducing the development gap

Industrial development in Malaysia: Between 2011-2015 Manufacturing increased from 5.7% – 26.3%

Tourism: In Jamaica it accounts for 45% of the money earns from abroad, which was $2 billion in 2008.

Foreign investment in Nigeria: 2000+ Chinese companies have invested in Africa ($200 million construction of the African Union)

Fairtrade: Ugandan farmers get a fair wage and they get 100% of the profits.

Debt relief: IMF cancelled debts of 19 of the world poorest countries

Intermediate technologies: Adis Nifas (Ethiopia), Small dam built (15m x 300m) using simple machinery by locals.

Microfinance loans: Loans are less than $100 with low interest. Bank has so far lent over $11 billion

How tourism can reduce the development gap – Case Study Jamaica (LIC)

Advantages:

Tourism helping Jamaica develop (2014 24% of all money Jamaica earns - $2 billion)

Generating taxes (Gov reinvested in services, infrastructure, education etc.)

Huge source of employment (200’000) and income (GDP - $8000 per capita)

Disadvantages:

Environment - Footpath erosion/Excessive waste and harmful emissions

QoL – Large numbers of people still live in poor housing, limited food, inadequate access to fresh water, healthcare and education

Infrastructure – Some of the islands roads and airports have been forgotten about

A NEE (Nigeria) experiencing rapid economic development

Location and importance of Nigeria

Along the equator/ next to the Atlantic Ocean/ West Africa Global:

21st largest economy (Top 20 by 2050) Highest avg. GDP growth between 2010-15

2.7 % world’s oil (12th largest producer) Regional:

Fasting growing economies in Africa (2014 Highest GDP in the continent)

3rd largest manufacturing sector.

Population more than 182million Political: In 2013 Nigeria contributed the 3rd largest number of troops to UN Peacekeeping Social: Won the African cup nations 3 times (2013) Cultural: Nollywood 2nd largest film industry in the world Environmental: It gets drier as you travel north (Sahara Desert). To the south is a rainforest.

Nigeria’s changing industrial structure

Industrial structure: The relative proportion of the workforce employed in different sectors of the economy (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary). 1999: Agriculture (Primary sector) has fallen due to increasing use of machinery and better pay/conditions in other sectors. (40% of GDP) 2014: Manufacturing (Secondary sector) has increased due to industrialisation and economic growth under a stable government. (10% of GDP)

TNC Case Study – Shell (Nigeria)

The role of Transnational Companies (TNC’s) in relation to

Shell discovered oil, the Niger Delta (1958) Advantages (Host country):

65’000 jobs (direct)

250’000 jobs (indirect)

91% of contracts given to local companies Disadvantages (Host country):

Oil spills, causing water pollution and soil degradation

industrial development.

Oil theft and sabotage costing billions of £’s

Nigeria’s Changing Relationships

Became a member of the commonwealth in 1960 after independence – now a republic – still recognises Queen as head of Commonwealth

UN – contributes 5th highest amount of soldiers to peacekeeping missions

African Union – economic planning and peacekeeping group of countries

ECOWAS (economic community of West African states) – HQ in Abuja

Main exports: crude oil, cocoa, cotton

Main imports: petroleum, cars, mobile phones

International Aid

Emergency aid – Usually follows a natural disaster, war or conflict. (e.g. medical supplies, shelter) Development aid – Long term support given by charities to improve quality of life (e.g. infrastructure, electricity supplies) 2013 Nigeria received 4% of aid given to African countries. (Mainly UK & USA) Advantages:

Aid from USA educates and protects people against AIDS/HIV.

NGO NETS FOR LIFE educates and protects people from malaria. Disadvantages:

Corrupt government (loss of aid)

Money diverted for other purposes (e.g. Navy)

Environmental impacts of economic development

Industrial growth: In Lagos, many harmful pollutants go directly into open drains and water channels. Urban growth: Increased traffic congestion has led to increased exhaust emissions Mining extraction: Tin mining has led to soil erosion. Oil extraction: Oil spills in the Niger Delta has destroyed many marine ecosystems.

Quality of life • HDI - measure life expectancy, income and literacy rate • Nigeria’s has been steadily increasing since 2005 – in fact it is

one of the fastest growing HDI’s of any nation in the world • The rich-poor gap is widening

Changing economy of the UK

Causes of economic change

Industrialisation: 1800’s the UK was mainly a Primary based economy (75%) moved to a Secondary based economy (55%) in the 1900’s De-industrialisation: Cheap labour and rent in other countries (E.g. China), as a result manufacturing in the UK declined. Globalisation: Developments in transport, communications and, in particular the internet, has made it easier and cheaper to do business. Government policies: 1945-1979 Government created state run industries (e.g. British Rail and British Steel Cooperation) 1979-2010 Privatisation occurred, state run industries were sold off to private shareholders, and they bought innovation and change.

Moving towards a post-industrial economy

Development of information technology (IT): Internet allows people to work from home. 1.3 million People work in the IT sector. Service industry and finance (Tertiary sector): 10% of UK’s GDP employing over 2 million people Research (Quaternary sector): British Antarctic Survey employs 500 people and ha slinks with the University of Cambridge. University of Southampton Science Park:

Great source of graduate employees

Providing research facilities Cobalt Business Park, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne:

UK’s largest business park

Excellent transport links (A1/International airport)

Impacts of industry on the physical environment

Car manufacturing in the UK

Uses energy to manufacture = CO2 increase

Drilling for and burning of fossil fuels for petrol

Disposal of batteries leads to ground/water contamination

Solutions

Electric/hybrid cars

2003 end of life vehicle policy by Govt = safe and sustainable disposal of cars + recycling of parts

Changing rural landscapes in the UK

South Cambridgeshire (Population growth):

In 2013, migrant workers increased by 25% compared to 2012

Proportion of old people (aged 65+) is expected to 29% by 2031 The Outer Hebrides (Population decline):

The number of school children is expected to decline, resulting in school closures

More young people moving away for work

Changing transport infrastructure

Road improvements: South-west super highway (A303) £2 billion road widening project. Railway improvements: HS2 £50 billion plan for a new high-speed rail to connect London with Birmingham. Developing UK’s ports: Liverpool2 £300 million project to double the capacity to over 1.5 million containers a year. Expanding London’s airports: Constructing a new runway at Heathrow at a cost of £18.6 billion

The North-South divide

Local enterprise partnerships (LEP): Voluntary partnerships between the local council and businesses to encourage companies to invest. Enterprise zones: To encourage the establishment of new businesses and new jobs. Lancashire LEP:

£20 million of transport improvements

£62 million BT invest in superfast broadband extending across 97% of the region.

The UK in the wider world

Trade: UK’s most important trading partner links are the EU. Within the single market, trade can happen without imposing a tariff. Culture: TV media (e.g. Dr Who, Downtown Abbey) in 2013/14 it accounted for over £1.28 billion of export earnings. Transport: London’s’ Heathrow is one of the busiest airports in the world Electronic communication: Arctic Fibre connecting London with Tokyo (over 15’000 km) Operates at speeds of 100 gigabytes

The Knowledge – Resources (Water)

Subtopic Key knowledge/processes Diagram

Resource demand

and supply

1. Resource Required by humans for life. Resources such as food, energy, water are what is needed for basic human development.

2. Demand > Supply Population growth (7 billion 2019 to 9 billion 2050 = more demand), economic development (LIC/NEE require more resources to reduce development gap), changing technology/employment (secondary and tertiary require more resource in production stage).

Food UK 1. Growing demand Reduction in local production means UK imports 40% of its food, which leads to more food miles (carbon footprint).

2. Impact Imports support workers with low income in LICs who pay taxes that fund local services. However, less land left for local production in LICs.

3. Agribusiness Large scale industrial farming that maximise production / efficiency. However, low employed rate and use of chemicals / pesticides.

4. Sustainable foods Organic food = low environmental impact & healthier. Local food (ie: Buy British, Farm Shops) reduce food miles, supports local.

Energy UK 1. Growing demand Overall, consumption has declined since 1970s despite population growth. This is due to deindustrialisation.

2. Energy mix Majority of UK energy is fossil fuels. By 2020, goal is 15% of renewable energy sources in mix to help reduce risk of climate change.

3. Changing energy mix 75% of UK’s oil/gas used up. Coal consumption declined. Last working coal mine closed in 2006. UK dependent on imports.

4. Renewables Government investing in low carbon energy alternatives as we need to meet energy targets set at COP 21 (Paris 2015). Examples: solar, wind, tidal, hydro-electric. However, expensive and unreliable (wind/solar).

5. Exploitation Nuclear (Hinkley Point C) and Wind (Thanet Wind Farm). Provide jobs and cleaner energy. However, safety issues and costs are high.

Water UK 1. Growing demand Average water use increased by over 70%. 2. Causes Growing population, water-intensive appliances, shows/baths,

industrial/leisure use, and gardening. Most causes are domestic (50%). 3. Deficit/Surplus West coast UK & North West Scotland = Surplus (supply >

demand). However, South East England = Deficit (supply < demand). 4. Causes of Pollution Chemical run-off, oil spills, untreated waste, sewage. 5. Management Strict laws (hosepipe ban), better education, waste water

treatment plants to recycle water, water transfer schemes (moving water from surplus to deficit areas). However, expensive and requires energy.

Water (in)security

1. Definition Water insecurity is when people cannot sustain well-being and good health due to poor water supplies. Water stress is when areas have less than 1700m2 available per person.

Causes of water

insecurity

1. Human Pollution (waste dumped in water supply), poverty (low income cannot afford water), limited infrastructure (lack of water pipes), over-abstraction (more water is being taken than is replaced).

2. Physical Climate (drought/lack of rainfall mean lakes/rivers dry up), geology (impermeable rock allows water to run-off into collected basins).

Impacts of water

insecurity

1. Food production Lack of water for irrigation = less crops. Risk starvation. 2. Industrial output Industries depend on water so lack of water will negatively

impact development, especially in LIC/NEE. 3. Water conflict River than cross border cause conflict (ie: Syria or Darfur). 4. Diseases / Pollution Inadequate sanitation pollute sources (Cholera).

Water supply

strategies

1. Water diversion Diverting water for stored underground. 2. Dams/Reservoirs Control water flow. Stores water for emergency (droughts) 3. Water transfer Move water from areas of surplus to areas of deficit. 4. Desalination Extraction of salt from sea to produce fresh drinking water.

Case Study: Lesotho

1. Context Highland/landlocked country in South Africa. High rainfall = surplus. 2. Advantages Provides 75% of GDP and water to drought areas of South Africa. 3. Disadvantages Displaced 300k people, destroyed habitats/ecosystems, 40%

of water is lost in leakage due to poor infrastructure.

Sustainable water

strategies

1. Definition Ensures water supplies don’t’ cause damage to the environment whilst also supporting the local economy.

2. Water conservationism Aims to reduce amount of water wasted. 3. Groundwater management monitoring of extracting groundwater. Laws. 4. Recycling ‘grey’ water Taking water than has already been used and using it

again rather than returning it to the sea or river (bathrooms/washing machines).

Case Study: Wakel

River Basin

1. Context Project in India to improve water use through water harvesting. 2. How does it work Provides ‘taankas’ to store water underground, small

dams (johed) interrupt water flow to encourage infiltration, villages take turn to irrigate their land to avoid overuse, maintained by local workers, education.

Bristol Fieldwork

Key point The knowledge Useful diagrams

Title of Fieldwork Enquiry

Has the regeneration of Bristol Harbourside been a success?

Data types Primary: Data collected yourself e.g. land value survey, questionnaire, environmental quality survey

Secondary: Data collected by others e.g. newspaper and websites.

Importance of location

1. Close to school – Less than 1 hours’ drive. Data can be collected within one day.

2. Local knowledge – Bristol is one of the UK’s best examples of urban regeneration. As residents of the city, we are given a unique opportunity to assess the project’s success through our own personal experience.

3. Interleaving – Bristol is our HIC case study for the urban unit of Paper 2.

Risks 1. Coach travel – Wear a seatbelt at all times and bring a sick bag. 2. Stranger danger/getting lost – Stay in groups of no less than 3 at all

times, make sure you have an emergency phone number with you. 3. Harbour: Stay away from the water, call 999 and First Aid if emergency.

Sampling methods

1. Systematic - This is when you avoid bias by stopping every 5th person who walks past, or stopping every 10 metres to record something

2. Stratified - means ‘in layers’ and this is when you deliberately introduce bias to get a wider sample. E.g. stopping 2 people from each age bracket

3. Random - This is when you don’t think too carefully about your sample, e.g. picking 10 people at random to ask your questionnaire or stopping randomly to survey the land value

Collection methods

1. Land Value Survey (or Cost Benefit Analysis): Study and recording of the way in which land is being used in specific area.

Why did we chose it? It does not take long to do, it does not require much equipment, it is relatively easy to carry out.

Limitations: It is subjective, statistics might not always been accurate/reliable, there is not a wide range of categories to choose from.

2. Environmental Quality Survey (or Bipolar Evaluation): An observer’s judgements to assess environmental quality against a range of indicators.

Why did we chose it? It is easy to carry out and understand, it does not require much equipment, it is relatedly easy to carry out.

Limitations: It is subjective, statistics might not always been accurate or reliable, categories can be difficult to determine, sample is small.

3. Questionnaires: Face-to-face questionnaires are conducted by an interviewer to collect a respondent’s thoughts and opinions.

Why did we chose it? It is relatively straight forward to do, it provides more in-depth information on people’s opinions and beliefs.

Limitations: It takes time to carry out, poor weather conditions means fewer people around, anonymity is an issues.

Presentation methods

1. Land Value Survey – Divided Bar Graph: A bar graph with five data groups, one for each category. This is useful for us when comparing the different types of land use in the area.

Why did we chose it? It allows us to compare five data sets on one graph, summarise a large amount of data in a visual, easily interpretable form.

Limitations: Often require additional explanation, fails to expose key assumptions such as causes, impacts, and patterns.

2. Environmental Quality Survey – Radial Diagram: Are a way of comparing multiple quantitative variables.

Why did we chose it? Useful for seeing which variables have similar values or any outliers, useful for seeing which variables are scoring high/low within a dataset, making them ideal for displaying performance.

Limitations: Graph can be complicated to read with data overlapping, graphs can only show five different variables, which can create bias.

3. Questionnaire – Sphere of Influence: Shows the movement of people from one place to another. Each line joins place of origin and destination.

Why did we chose it? It clearly highlights how far people have travelled to visit Bristol, it highlights patterns of population flow.

Limitations: Fails to provide detail as a world map would ignore regional variations whilst a regional map would ignore global patterns.

Results 1. Large range of employment, leisure, tourist and residential opportunities across the Harbourside.

2. Environmental quality was consistently high across the Harbourside and the areas was well looked after.

3. Harbourside is a popular tourist destination within Bristol and the South West.

4. Harbourside is an areas with high level of investment and capital.

Statistical measures

Mode – The most common number in a data set

Median – The middle number in a data set

Mean – The average value in a data set

Range – The difference between highest and lowest value in a data set

Interquartile range (IQR) - Is a measure of statistical dispersion, being equal to the difference between 75th and 25th percentiles

Conclusion Overall – Overall, the regeneration of the Harbourside has clearly been successful. There are now clean, open spaces filled with many tourist, leisure, employment and residential opportunities. This is very different from the disused harbour the area had become prior to regeneration.There are also a wide range of tertiary employment opportunities available in restaurants, museums and banking, suggesting that the area is also a popular place to work. There are however, still some brownfield sites that remain

Evaluation WWW:

Collected a range of different primary data from a number of different locations to help reach a solid conclusion.

EBI:

Could have visited on more than one day in order to gain more data to give more reliable conclusions.

Could have visited at different times of year to gain comparable data.

Methods used were based on individual perception so meant that findings weren’t completely scientific.

Key point Minehead & Porlock fieldwork – The Knowledge Useful diagrams

Title of Fieldwork Enquiry

How effective are the coastal management strategies on the North Somerset Coastline?

Data types Primary: data collected yourself e.g. land value survey, questionnaire, environmental quality survey Secondary: data collected by others e.g. newspaper articles, old photographs

Importance of location

1. Close to school – less than 2 hours’ drive so data can be collected within one day

2. Assortment of appropriate sea defences –

hard engineering strategies in Minehead – sea walls, groyne –

Soft engineering in Porlock – managed retreat 3. Sites are close to each other – easy accessibility 4. Different types of defence good for comparison

Risks 1. Coach travel – wear a seatbelt at all times 2. Stranger danger/getting lost – stay in groups of no less than 3 at all

times 3. Falling over groynes: wear sensible footwear and ensure a first aider is

present at all times

Sampling methods

1. Systematic - This is when you avoid bias by stopping every 5th person who walks past, or stopping every 10 metres to record something

2. Stratified - means ‘in layers’ and this is when you deliberately introduce bias to get a wider sample. E.g. stopping 2 people from each age bracket

3. Random - This is when you don’t think too carefully about your sample, e.g. picking 10 people at random to ask your questionnaire or stopping randomly to survey the land value

Collection methods

1. Land Value survey: study and recording of the way in which land is being used in an area.

Why chosen: It does not take long to do, It does not require much equipment

Limitations: It is subjective, Statistics might not always been accurate/reliable

2. Environmental quality survey: an observer’s judgements to assess environmental quality against a range of indicators

Why chosen: It is easy to carry out and understand, It does not require much equipment

Limitations: It is subjective, Statistics might not always been accurate/reliable.

3. Groyne sediment height: measures height of beach material on either side of a groyne. You can compare a series of groynes along a length of beach.

Why chosen: Primary, quantitative data allows us to establish a clear comparison between updrift and downdrift to assess the effectiveness of the groynes against LSD

Limitations: relies on accurate measurement of sediment in more than one location along one groyne – sediment height changes frequently which limits reliability of measuring once.

Presentation methods

1. Land value survey – choropleth map: Maps where areas are shaded according to a prearranged key. They are really useful for showing different land uses

Why chosen: They give a good visual impression of change over space

Limitations: it can be difficult to distinguish between shades, They give a false impression of abrupt change at boundaries

2. Environmental quality – Radial Diagram: are a way of comparing multiple quantitative variables

Why chosen: useful for seeing which variables have similar values or if there are any outliers, useful for seeing which variables are scoring high or low within a dataset, making them ideal for displaying performance

Limitation: data sets overlap which can make them hard to interpret and compare

3. Sediment height – divided bar graph: A bar graph with two data groups. This is useful for us when comparing sediment height on updrift and downdrift.

Why chosen: It allows us to compare two data sets on one graph, summarize a large amount of data in a visual, easily interpretable form

Limitations: often require additional explanation, fail to expose key assumptions, causes, impacts and patterns

Results 1. land value was higher in Minehead than Porlock 2. Environmental quality scored higher in Porlock compared to Minehead 3. Sediment height measurement suggested strong longshore drift across

the North Somerset Coastline

Statistical measures

Mode – the most common number in a data set

Median – the middle number in a data set

Mean – the average value in a data set

Range – the difference between the highest and lowest value in a data set

Interquartile range (IQR) - is a measure of statistical dispersion, being equal to the difference between 75th and 25th percentiles

Conclusion Overall – sea defences are effective – land value higher in Minehead – this means Minehead is a popular place to live because people have faith in the sea defences. Not flooded since the sea wall was built in the 1980’s

Soft strategies also effective in Porlock village – Marsh formed after managed retreat acts as a natural and effective sea defence.

Evaluation www:

Collected a range of different primary data from a number of different locations to help reach a solid conclusion

Ebi:

Could have visited on more than one day in order to gain more data to give more reliable conclusions

Could have visited at different times of the year to gain more comparable data

Methods used were based on individual perception so meant that findings weren’t completely scientific