The Landscape Architecture Data ModelA Case Study in GIS Data Modeling

Andrew Holguin

LDA Senior Project - Spring 2009

University of California, Davis

The Landscape Architecture Data Model:A Case Study in GIS Data Modeling

A Senior Project Presented to the faculty of the program ofLandscape Architecture at the University of California, Davis

in partial fulfillment of the requirements forthe degree of Bachelors of Science of

Landscape Architecture.

Presented by:Andrew Jason Holguin

atUniversity of California, Davis

onthe twelfth day of June, 2008

Acceptance and Approval by:

___________________________________Steve McNeil, Faculty Advisor

___________________________________Keir Keightley, Committee Member

___________________________________James Thorne, Committee Member

___________________________________Mark Francis, Senior Project Advisor

Theprimaryobjectiveofthisprojectistodevelopageodatabasethatcanbeusedbyundergraduatelandscapearchitecturestudentsinthesiteanalysisphaseofadesignorplanningproject.Aspartofthisprocess,usefuldatasetsarediscussed,andbasicGISconceptsareexplained.ThespatialextentofthedatabasecoversYoloCounty,andtherelevantmapscaleforanalysisandmapproductionis1:24,000orless.Thedatabaseconsistsentirelyofpublicallyavailabledatathatcanbeobtainedonlinefromavarietyofsources.Theorganizationofthedatabaseisalsodescribedandsamplemapproductsaredisplayed.Finally,asimpleanalysisisperformedtodemonstratehowthedatacanbeused.

Abstract

TableofContents

Introduction 1

Background 1

ProjectSummary 1

GeographicInformationSystems 2

DefinitionandGeneralConcepts 2

ProjectDescription 3

InformationProducts 3

Scope 4

Geodatabases 5

GeodatabaseDescription 6

GeneralDescriptionandOrganization 6

ThematicLayers 6

SourcesofGISData 18

OnlineSources 18

GPS 19

RemoteSensing 20

CaseStudy 21

Conclusion 23

References 24

IntroductionBackground

TheprofessionofLandscapeArchitectureaddressesthe“analysis,planning,design,

management,andstewardshipofthenaturalandbuiltenvironments”(ASLA).Projectsites

canrangefromruralrecreationareastodenseurbanplazas.Thebroadscopeoftheprofession

thereforerequiresthatawell-trainedlandscapearchitectiscapableofunderstandinglocal

siteconditions,andcanproducearesponsiveandappropriatedesign.Thisrequiresnotonly

athoroughunderstandingoftheissuesinvolved,butalsotheabilitytomapandanalyzethe

relevantvariables,tocapturetheirspatialdistributionandvariability.Thisisachallengingand

time-consumingprocess,becauseitinvolvesthecollectionofspecializeddatafromarangeof

scientificdisciplines,fromsoilscientists,towildlifebiologists,tosociologists.Asaresult,site

analysishasnotalwaysreceivedtheattentionthatitdeserves.

Inrecentyears,however,thedevelopmentofgeographicinformationsystems(GIS),

alongwiththegeneralavailabilityofspatialdata,hasmadeitpossibletoconductincreasingly

detailedandaccurateanalysis(LaGro2008).Evenstudents,workingwithinthecompressed

timeframeandlowbudgetsofanacademicproject,cannowaccessandanalyzesignificant

quantitiesofspatialdata.This,however,requiresabasicproficiencyforworkingwithspatial

datainaGeographicInformationSystem.

Project Summary

TheobjectiveofthisprojectistoexaminesomebasicGISconcepts,andtodevelop

asimpleGISdatabasewhichcanbeutilizedinthecontextofanundergraduatelandscape

architecturestudioclass.Thefirststepintheprojectwastoidentifytherequiredinformation

productsthatwouldbeusefultostudentsoflandscapearchitecture.Thenextstepwastodefine

thescopeofthesystemintermsofhowmuchdataisneededandwhatwouldberequiredto

implementthedatabase.Next,publicallyavailabledatasetswereevaluatedtodetermineifthey

couldprovideusefulinformationforthedesiredinformationproducts.Finally,relevantdatasets

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wereacquiredandorganizedwithinaGISdatabase.Thisdatabasewasimplementedasan

ESRIGeodatabase,whichallowssophisticatedspatialrelationshipstobemodeled.Thebasic

structureofthedatamodelisdescribed,includingbriefdescriptionsofthedifferentdatasetsthat

areincluded.Beforeelaboratingonthespecificsoftheproject,somebasicGISconceptswillbe

introduced.

GeographicInformationSystemsDefinition and General Concepts

Ageographicinformationsystemis“anintegratedcollectionofcomputersoftwareand

datausedtoviewandmanageinformationaboutgeographicplaces,analyzespatialrelationships,

andmodelspatialprocesses.AGISprovidesaframeworkforgatheringandorganizingspatial

dataandrelatedinformationsothatitcanbedisplayedandanalyzed”(ESRI2006).Inother

words,aGISisadatabasethatstoresspatialinformation.Itallowspeopletointeractwiththose

datathroughmapsandothertools.

ThedatainaGISisreferencedtoaspecificlocationontheplanet.Thisiswhat

allowsGISdatatobeinstantlydisplayedinthecorrectlocationandoverlaidwithotherdata.

Geographiclocationsaretypicallyspecifiedbyeitherlatitudeandlongitudevalues,orby

coordinatesinamapprojection.Mapprojectionsallowreal-worldobjectsonthesurfaceof

theearthtobeaccuratelyrepresentedonamap.Theyarenecessarybecausetheearthisa

roughlysphericalshapewithanirregularsurface,whilemapsaretypicallytwo-dimensionaland

flat.Mapprojectionsmathematicallytransformcoordinatesfromtheirlocationonthethree-

dimensionalEarth,toatwo-dimensionalmap.Thisalwaysinvolvessomesortofcompromise

intheaccuracyofrepresentingareas,shapes,distances,anddirections.Itisimpossibleto

simultaneouslypreserveallfourofthesepropertieswhenprojectingathree-dimensionalsurface

toatwo-dimensionalone(LoandYeung2007).Asaresult,thechoiceofanappropriatemap

projectionisanimportantdecisionwhenworkingwithgeographicinformation.

GISdataistypicallyrepresentedinthematiclayers.Inotherwords,featuresaregrouped2

intoalayerwithothersimilarfeatures.Allofthefeaturesinonelayermustsharethesameset

ofattributes.Theselayerscanthenbecombinedandoverlaidontopofeachotherinamap.

Commonthematiclayersincludevegetation,soils,landuse,etc.Inaddition,differenttypesof

dataareoftenbestrepresentedbyacertaintypeofdatamodel.Thethreebasicwaystomodel

datainaGISarethevectorformat,therasterformat,andthetriangulatedirregularnetwork

(TIN).Eachrepresentationhasparticularstrengthsandweaknessesinitsabilitytoaccurately

representreal-worldfeatures(Zeiler1999).

Forlandscapearchitects,GISismostusefulonlargescaleplanninganddesignprojects.

TherealstrengthofGISisitsabilitytomanagelargequantitiesofspatialdata,andtoprovidethe

toolsforqueryingandanalyzingdata.Landscapearchitects,however,canuseGISatallscales

toevaluatethesuitabilityoflocations,examinethefeasibilityofproposals,allocateuseswithin

asite,andpredicttheimpactsofdifferentdecisions.Bymakingthedataaccessible,patternsand

relationshipscanbebetterunderstood,andmoreintelligentlandusedecisionscanbemade.

ProjectDescriptionInformation Products

Thefirststepintheprojectwastodefinetherequiredinformationproductsthatthe

GISdatabaseshouldprovide.Informationproductsarethefinalproductsorservicesthatthe

intendedusersoftheGISwillneed.Theymaytaketheformofmaps,reports,graphs,lists,

oracombinationofthesethings.Understandingthedesiredoutputfromthebeginninghelps

guidethedesignofthedatabaseandimprovesthelikelihoodofsuccess.Italsodetermineswhat

datasetsareneededasinput.

Thedatabaseisintendedtomeettheneedsofundergraduatelandscapearchitecture

studentsatUCDaviswhoareinterestedinusingGISintheirdesignstudioclasses.Itsprimary

functionwouldbetosupportthesiteanalysisphaseofadesignorplanningproject.Asa

result,itshouldbeabletoproviderelevantinformationonthephysical,biological,andcultural

featuresintheareaoftheprojectsite.Preferably,experientialfeatureswouldalsobedescribed.3

Oftenthesevariableswillneedtobeevaluatedonaproject-by-projectbasis,butsome,suchas

viewsheds,areabletobederivedfromexistingGISdata.

Scope

ThespatialextentofthedatabasecoversYoloCounty,andtherelevantmapscalefor

analysisandmapproductionisgenerally1:24,000orless.Thesecriteriaweredeterminedbased

onthegoalsoftheproject,andonthelimitationsofcertaindatasets.Thisshouldbesufficient

formostcityorregionalplanningprojects.Oneofthebenefitsofthegeodatabase,however,is

thatthedesignschemacanbeeasilymodifiedandadaptedtonewsituations.Asaresult,the

geodatabasedesignproducedduringthisprojectcanbeausefulstartingpointformanyfuture

TheDesignProcessisoftenrepresenteddifferenty,asshownbyFigures1and2.

Regardlessoftherepresentation,GIStypicallyplaysitsbiggestroleinthesiteinventoryandanalysisphases.

Figure1-ReproducedfromHannaandCulpepper1998.

Figure2-ReproducedfromLaGro2008.

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applicationswithinthedomainofstudentlandscapearchitectureprojects.

Geodatabases

Ageographicdatamodelisanabstractdigitalrepresentationofreal-worldfeatures.

Itprovidestheframeworkthatallowsspatialinformationtobeaccuratelyrepresentedand

analyzed.Geographicdatamodelscanbeimplementedinavarietyofdifferentways,with

varyinglevelsofsophisticationandcomplexity.Thedatamodeldescribedinthisprojectwas

implementedontheESRIGeodatabase.

TheESRIGeodatabaseallowsfortherelativelysophisticatedrepresentationofspatial

data.Itallowsspecificrulesandrelationshipstobedefined,whichcanimprovetheinternal

consistencyofthedataandrepresentreal-worldfeaturesmoreaccurately.Italsoallows

advancedspatialrelationshipssuchastopologyandgeometricnetworkstobemodeled(Arctur

andZeiler2004).Inaddition,thegeodatabaseprovidesasingle,centralizedlocationforthe

storageofspatialdata.

Therearemanytypesofcomplexrelationshipsthatcanbemodeledinageodatabase.

Topologyrules,forexample,ensuretheintegrityofthespatialrelationshipsbetweenfeatures.

Anexampleofatopologyruleisthatstatepolygonsmustnotoverlap.Relationshipclasses

definegeneralassociationsbetweenfeatures.Forexample,theassociationbetweenaparcelof

landanditsownercouldberepresentedbyarelationshipclass.Theoriginalgoalofthisproject

wastoproduceafullydevelopeddatamodelthatdefinedtopologyrules,relationshipsbetween

associatedfeatureclasses,andspecificvalidationrules.Duetotimelimitations,manyofthese

moreadvancedfeatureswerenotdeveloped.Designingageodatabase,however,isaniterative

process,whichshouldberefinedanddevelopedovertime(Tomlinson2007).Theresultofthis

projectrepresentsthefirststepinthatprocess.Manysourcesofusefuldatawereidentifiedand

logicallyorganizedwithinageodatabase.Thelimitationsofthedatahavebeenevaluatedand

futuregoalsandimprovementshavebeenidentified.

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GeodatabaseDescriptionGeneral Description and Organization

AllofthedatacollectedforthisprojecthasbeenorganizedwithinanESRIFile

Geodatabase.TheindividualfileshavebeenclippedtotheshapeofYoloCountyandprojected

intotheCaliforniaStatePlaneCoordinateSystem,Zone2(FIPSzone0402).Thiszoneusesthe

LambertConformalConicProjectionandtheNorthAmericanDatumof1983.USSurveyfeet

arethelinearunitofmeasurement.Thiscoordinatesystemwasselectedbecauseitisusedby

thelocalcountyandmunicipalgovernments,andbecauseofthelowamountofdistortionthatit

causes.

Withinthegeodatabase,featureclassesaregroupedthematicallyintofeaturedatasets.

Thecategoriesforthefeaturedatasetsare:politicalboundaries,censusdata,farmlandandsoils,

hydrology,landuse,andtransportation.Severalstandalonerasterdatasetsarealsoincluded.

Theyare:USGSDigitalRasterGraphics,adigitalelevationmodel,aLandsatimage,andaland

coverraster.Hillshadeandslopelayerswerealsoderivedfromthedigitalelevationmodel.All

initialrasterdatasetshavebeenmergedintoasinglerasterdatasetandclippedtotheboundaries

ofYoloCounty.Thiswasdonetoimprovedisplayperformanceandremoveseamsinthedata.

Thematic Layers

Thefollowingarebriefdescriptionsofthedifferentthematiclayersthatarerepresented

inthegeodatabase,alongwithsampleimagesofsomeofthelayers:

• PoliticalBoundaries

o Cities–CitylimitsforallincorporatedcitiesinYoloCounty.Originallyfrom

CensusTIGERfiles,nowupdatedbyYoloCountyandSACOG

staff.Attributesincludecitynamesandareas(polygons)

o UCDavis–UCDavisboundary(polygon)

o YoloCounty–YoloCountyBoundary(polygon)

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• Census

o 2000CensusBlocks–Censusblocksfromtheyear2000census.Thecensus

blockisthesmallestunitofaggregationthatthecensusdepartment

releasespublicdatafor.Additionaldatasuchaspopulationcounts

havebeenappendedtothislayer(polygons)

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• FarmlandandSoils

o RegionalFarmland–CreatedbyCADepartmentofConservation,Farmland

MappingProgram.Attributesincludetypeandimportance

(polygons)

o SoilPointFeatures–Significantpointfeaturesassociatedwiththesoil.Fromthe

NRCSSoilSurveyGeographic(SSURGO)Database(points)

o Soilpolygons–SoildatafromtheNRCSSoilSurveyGeographic(SSURGO)

Database.Thereisahugeamountofdataassociatedwiththis

dataset.Onlyasmallamounthasbeenincludedwiththedatabase

forthisproject,butessentiallyalloftheinformationinthesoil

surveycanbelinkedtothesoilpolygonsandmapped(polygons)

o WilliamsonAct–ShowsthecurrentstatusofWilliamsonActcontract,including

farmlandstatus.MaintainedbytheCaliforniaDepartmentof

Conservation(polygons)

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• Hydrology

o USGSDigitalLineGraphs,lines–Detailedhydrologicfeaturesincluding

streams,anddrainagechannels.DerivedfromUSGStopographic

maps(lines)

o USGSDigitalLineGraphs,polygons–Same,butshowingpolygonfeaturessuch

aslakesandwidechannels(polygons)

o GroundwaterBasins-GroundwaterbasinsasdefinedbytheCalifornia

DepartmentofWaterResources.Designatedbasedongeological

andhydrologicalconditions.

o Watersheds–WatershedBoundaryDatasetderivedfromUSGSDRG’s

(polygons)

o Hydrologicpointfeatures–PointfeaturesfromtheUSGSDigitalLineGraphs.

(points)

o Levees–SourceisfromNRCSSoilSurveyGeographic(SSURGO)Database

(lines)

o RiversandStreams-majorhydrologicfeaturesdigitizedfrom1:24,000-scale

USGStopographicmaps(lines)

o VernalPools–Vernalpoolcomplexesmorethan40acresinsize.Attributes

includedensityrating(polygons)

o Wetlands–FromU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceNationalWetlandsInventory

–Attributesincludewetlandtypeandarea(polygons)

o YoloBypass–YoloBypassfromSACOG(polygon)

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10

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• LandUse

o Parks–ParksinYoloCounty,fromSACOG(polygons)

o TaxParcels–ParcelsfromCountyofYolo.Attributesincludestreetaddresses

(polygons)

o YoloCountyLandUse–LandUseforunincorporatedareasofYoloCounty.

City-levellanduseisalsoavailable,butisnotincludedin

thisdatabase.Attributedincludelandusesandplanningareas

(polygons)

o YoloCountyZoning–Sameaslanduse,butforzoning(polygons)

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• Transportation

o AmtrakStations–ThestationinDavisistheonlyoneinYoloCounty(point)

o BikeRoutes–BikeRoutesfromSACOG.Attributesincludestatusandclass

(lines)

o MajorHighways–MajorHighwaysinYoloCountyAttributesincludelengths

andnames(lines)

o MajorRoads–MajorroadsinYoloCounty.Attributesincluderoadclassesand

numberoflanes(lines)

o Railroads–RailroadsinYoloCounty.Attributesincludenameofowner(lines)

o RoadCenterlines–RoadcenterlinesforallofYoloCounty.Attributesinclude

streetnamesandaddressranges(lines)

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Rasters:

•USGSDigitalRasterGraphics–ScannedcopiesofUSGS7.5-minutetopographicmaps.

Acolormapisappliedtoensureaconsistentdisplay(raster)

• DigitalElevationModel(DEM)–ExtractedfromtheUSGSNationalElevationdataset.

Mergedintosingleseamlessraster.Resolutionis1arc-second

(about30meters)(continuousraster)

• Hillshade–DerivedfromtheDEM(continuousraster)

• Slope–AlsoderivedfromtheDEM(continuousraster)

• Landsatimage–Landsat5TMimageacquiredonJune8,2009(multispectralraster)

• LandCover–Landcoverandvegetationfromthefireandresourceassessmentprogram.

AttributesincludeWildlife-HabitatRelationship(WHR)typesand

lifeforms(discreteraster)

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StandAloneTables:

• Therearealsoseveralstandalonetablesthatprovideadditionalinformationforcertain

datasets.

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USGSDRG

SourcesofGISDataOnline sources

TheamountandthequalityoftheGISdatathatisavailabletothegeneralpublicis

rapidlyincreasing,andmuchofitisnowavailableonline.Inaddition,manynonspatialdatasets

canbeassociatedwithageographiclocationthroughcoordinates,oraddressinformation.The

followingarejustafewofthemanysourcesofGISData:

• CityofDavis-http://cityofdavis.org/gis/index.cfm

• CityofWestSacramento-http://www.cityofwestsacramento.org/services/gis/default.asp

• YoloCounty-http://www.yolocounty.org/Index.aspx?page=587

• SacramentoAreaCouncilofGovernments(SACOG)-http://www.sacog.org/mapping/

• CaliforniaSpatialInformationLibrary(CaSIL)-http://casil.ucdavis.edu/casil/

Manyadditionalsourcescanbeeasilyfoundonlinethroughsearchenginesorlistsmaintainedby

otherorganizations:

• UCDavisLibrary-http://www.lib.ucdavis.edu/dept/govinfo/mapcollection/gis.php

• StanfordUniversityLibrary-http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/gis/web.html

Inmanycases,however,appropriateGISdatamaynotalreadybeavailableforasite.This

canoftenoccurwithsmallsites,wheremuchmoredetaileddataisrequired.Inthesecases,it

isoftennecessarytocreateanewdatasetfromscratch.Oneeasywaysofdoingthisistotrace

featuresfromanimage,suchasanaerialphotograph.Anotheroptionistocollectfielddata

usingaGPSreceiver.

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GPS

TheuseofGPSisbecomingincreasinglyfrequentamongboththescientificcommunity

andthegeneralpublic.CollectingaccurateinformationforuseinaGIS,however,requiresa

basicunderstandingofhowthetechnologyworks,andwhatitslimitationsare.GPSstands

fortheglobalpositioningsystem,whichconsistsofatleast24operationalsatellitesatall

times,alongwithgroundcontrolandtrackingstations.Thesatellitescontinuouslytransmit

amicrowaveradiosignal,whichiscomposedoftwocarrierfrequencies,twoormoredigital

codes,andanavigationmessage.GPSreceiverscanobservethisinformationandtriangulatea

positionbasedonthecalculateddistancestoeachsatellite(El-Rabbany2006).Severaldifferent

techniqueshavebeendevelopedtoimprovetheaccuracyofthesecalculations.DifferentGPS

receiversalsohavevaryingcapabilitiesformakinguseofthedifferentGPSobservables.

OneofthemostimportanttechniquesforimprovingtheaccuracyofGPSmeasurements

iscalleddifferential(orrelative)positioning.ThistechniqueusestwoGPSreceivers,which

simultaneouslytrackthesamesatellites.Thelocationofoneofthereceivers(thebasereceiver)

isknownveryprecisely,whichallowstheamountofmeasurementerrortobedetermined.This

errorcanthenbecorrectedforintheotherreceiver,whichismeasuringunknownpositions.

Differentialpositioningallowsmeasurementstobemadeonanaccuracylevelofafewmeters

tomillimeters,dependingonthequalityofthereceiversused.Thisisgenerallytheaccuracy

requiredformostGISapplications.

Theoperationofahighlyprecisebasereceiver,however,canbeacomplicatedand

expensiveoperation.Fortunately,severaldifferentorganizationsoperatepermanentGPS

referencestationnetworkswhichprovidecorrectiondata,oftenfreeofcharge.Onewidely

availablesourceofcorrectiondataisprovidedbytheU.S.FederalAviationAdministration

(FAA).Thesystemisknownasthewideareaaugmentationsystem(WAAS).Itconsistsof25

referencestations,twomasterstations,andtwogeostationarysatellites.Measurementstakenat

thereferencestationsareusedtoestimatethedifferentialcorrections,whicharethentransmitted

toGPSreceiversacrossthecountryviathegeostationarysatellites(El-Rabbany2006).

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StudentsinthelandscapearchitectureprogramhaveaccesstoGPSreceiversfromthe

CenterforRegionalChange,whichusetheWAAStotakemeasurementsatanaccuracylevelof

about2-5meters.Thisistypicallysufficientforcollectingspatialdatathatisgoingtobeusedin

aGIS.

Remote Sensing

Remotesensingdataareanotherveryusefulsourceofspatialinformation.Remote

sensingisaverydiversefield,whichmakesitsomewhatdifficulttodefine.Ingeneral,however,

remotelysenseddataisacquiredbyasensorlocatedonanaerialorasatelliteplatform.

Bymeasuringvariablessuchasthespectrumofreflectedlight,ortheamountofenergy

backscatteredfromasurface,itispossibletodeterminecertainthingsaboutthepropertiesofthat

object.

Remotelysenseddatacanbeusedtomapbiophysicalvariablessuchasbiomass,

elevation,andsoilmoisture.Bycombiningvariousbiophysicalvariables,itisalsopossibleto

maphybridvariablessuchaslanduse,landcover,andvegetationstress.Remotesensinghas

manylimitations,butitiscapableofprovidinglargequantitiesofusefulspatialinformation

quickly,andatarelativelylowcost(Jensen2007).Satellite-basedsensors,forexample,can

monitortheearthalmostcontinuously.Thisallowsdatatobearchivedandcomparedoverlong

periodsoftime.

ThedatabasedevelopedforthisprojectincludesLandsatimagerycoveringallofYolo

County.TheLandsatProgramismanagedbyNASAandtheUSGS,andhasbeencollecting

satelliteimagerysince1972.TherearecurrentlytwoLandsatsatellitesinorbit,Landsat5and

Landsat7(Landsat6failedtoreachorbit).Mostofthedataisavailableonlineandcanbe

downloadedfreeofcharge.Thismakesitanexcellentresourceforbothcurrentandhistorical

imagery.Betweenthetwoactivesatellites,newimageryisacquiredforanareaevery8days.

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CaseStudy

Thisprojectdoesnotfocusonmethodsofdataanalysis,butthefollowingexample

demonstratesaverysimplewaythatGISdatacanbeused.Lossofprimefarmlandfrom

urbanexpansionisaseriousconcern,particularlyintheCentralValley.Bycomparingdatasets

fromdifferentperiodsoftime,itispossibletodeterminehowmuchchangehasoccurred.In

thefollowinggraphics,urbanareasfromthe2000censusarecomparedtothecurrentcity

boundaries.Areasofsignificantchangeareidentifiedandverifiedwithrecentaerialphotos.

Theseareasarethenintersectedwithsoildatatodeterminehowmuchprimefarmlandwaslost.

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TotalAreaofFarmlandLost: -Statewidesignificance-1.75acres -Notprimefarmland-1.89acres -Primeifirrigated-675.47acres

Conclusion Thisexample,whilerelativelysimple,illustratesthepowerofaGISdatabasetointegrate

spatialdatafromseveraldifferentsourcesinordertoansweraquestion.Thedatabasedeveloped

inthisprojecttakesthefirststepstowardsthedevelopmentofamoresophisticatedLandscape

ArchitectureDataModel.

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References

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Modeling.Redlands,CA:ESRIPress,2004.

ASLA.“AbouttheASLA.”AmericanSocietyofLandscapeArchitects.11Jun.2009.<http://

asla.org/AboutJoin.aspx>

Berke,Philip,DavidGodschalk,EdwardKaiser,DanielRodriguez.UrbanLandUsePlanning,

5thed.Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2006.

El-Rabbany,Ahmed.Introduction to GPS: The Global Positioning System,2nded.Boston:

ArtechHouse,2006.

ESRI.ArcGIS Desktop GIS Dictionary.Redlands,CA:ESRIPress,2004.

Hanna,Karen,andBrianCulpepper.GIS in Site Design.NewYork:Wiley,1998.

Jensen,John.Remote Sensing of the Environment: An Earth Resource Perspective,2nded.

UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonPrenticeHall,2007.

LaGro,James.SiteAnalysis:AContextualApproachtoSustainableLandPlanningandSite

Design,2nded.Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,2008.

Lo,C.,andAlbertYeung.ConceptsandTechniquesinGeographicInformationSystems,2nded.

UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonPrenticeHall,2007.24

Tomlinson,Roger.ThinkingAboutGIS:GeographicInformationSystemPlanningfor

Managers,3rded.Redlands,CA:ESRIPress,2007.

Zeiler,Michael.Modeling Our World: The ESRI Guide to Geodatabase Design.Redlands,CA:

ESRIPress,1999.

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