The LexiconThe Lexicon

Words: How We Make Them Words: How We Make Them and Use Themand Use Them

InnovationInnovation

New words must fill a New words must fill a lexical gaplexical gap– Can be filled by new word formation Can be filled by new word formation

processes, borrowing, or calquesprocesses, borrowing, or calques

New word processesNew word processes– Systematic and predictable processesSystematic and predictable processes

Combining ProcessesCombining Processes

Use existing morphological resources to make Use existing morphological resources to make new wordsnew wordsCompounding—binding of free morphemesCompounding—binding of free morphemes– Common in Germanic and other Indo-European Common in Germanic and other Indo-European

languageslanguagesServed poetic purposes in Old English (Served poetic purposes in Old English (Beowulf)Beowulf)Compounds can also be “relic forms” —cranberry—or Compounds can also be “relic forms” —cranberry—or apparently single forms can develop from compoundsapparently single forms can develop from compounds

Prefixing—attaching a bound prefix to the front Prefixing—attaching a bound prefix to the front of a free form; many are borrowedof a free form; many are borrowedSuffixing—attaching to the rearSuffixing—attaching to the rear

Shortening ProcessesShortening Processes

Create new words from existing word stock, Create new words from existing word stock, often with an accompanied change in meaningoften with an accompanied change in meaning

Alphabetism- words formed from abbreviations, Alphabetism- words formed from abbreviations, but still pronounced in letter formbut still pronounced in letter form– IOU, OK, URL, ATMIOU, OK, URL, ATM

Acronymy—shortened phrases where the letters Acronymy—shortened phrases where the letters are pronounced as words (radar, sonar, scuba)are pronounced as words (radar, sonar, scuba)

Shortening Processes, con’tShortening Processes, con’t

Clipping—shortening, often at primary Clipping—shortening, often at primary morpheme boundary (although not necessarily morpheme boundary (although not necessarily retaining the main morpheme)retaining the main morpheme)– Foreclipped (beginning clipped off): bus>omnibusForeclipped (beginning clipped off): bus>omnibus– Hindclipped (end clipped off): cell>cellularHindclipped (end clipped off): cell>cellular– Innovative clippings disregard morphemic boundaries Innovative clippings disregard morphemic boundaries

and clip instead at syllabic boundariesand clip instead at syllabic boundaries

Backformation—new words created by removing Backformation—new words created by removing an apparent or reanalyzed suffix: burgle>burglar; an apparent or reanalyzed suffix: burgle>burglar; conversate>conversationconversate>conversation

Other New Word ProcessesOther New Word Processes

Blending: attachment of a clipped Blending: attachment of a clipped morpheme to a free morpheme: smog, morpheme to a free morpheme: smog, motel (also called “portmanteau words”)motel (also called “portmanteau words”)Shifting: functional shifts allow for words to Shifting: functional shifts allow for words to change functional categories– n. email > change functional categories– n. email > v. email; n. Facebook > v. Facebookv. email; n. Facebook > v. FacebookTaboo Deformation: reversal of sounds at Taboo Deformation: reversal of sounds at morpheme initial points to avoid taboos: morpheme initial points to avoid taboos: doggone > goddamndoggone > goddamn

BorrowingBorrowing

English is a porous languageEnglish is a porous language– Borrowings reflect linguistic historyBorrowings reflect linguistic history

> 500 AD borrowings from Latin, a few from Celtic > 500 AD borrowings from Latin, a few from Celtic (street, town)(street, town)

500-1000 AD Latin, Scandinavian Languages500-1000 AD Latin, Scandinavian Languages

1000-1400 AD French, Scandinavian Languages1000-1400 AD French, Scandinavian Languages

1400-1600 French, Italian, Dutch, Greek1400-1600 French, Italian, Dutch, Greek

1600-2000 All that and more…Native American, 1600-2000 All that and more…Native American, Russian, Aboriginal Austronesian, W. AfricanRussian, Aboriginal Austronesian, W. African

Word Categories and How We Use Word Categories and How We Use ThemThem

Lexical Categories (parts of speech) are the Lexical Categories (parts of speech) are the building blocks of building blocks of syntaxsyntaxOpen Lexical Classes– Nouns, Adjectives, Open Lexical Classes– Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, AdverbsVerbs, Adverbs– All can be described All can be described semanticallysemantically (according to their (according to their

frames of meaning), frames of meaning), morphologicallymorphologically (according to (according to their patterns of combination with other morphemes), their patterns of combination with other morphemes), and and syntacticallysyntactically (how they appear in utterances) (how they appear in utterances)

– All open categories appear as the main component of All open categories appear as the main component of a phrase named after them (Noun Phrase, Adjective a phrase named after them (Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Verb Phrase, Adverbial Phrase)Phrase, Verb Phrase, Adverbial Phrase)