The Linguistics of Color Blind Racism: How to Talk Nasty ... · The Linguistics of Color Blind Racism: How to Talk Nasty about Blacks without Sounding “Racist” EDUARDO BONILLA-SILVA

The Linguistics ofColor Blind Racism

How to Talk Nasty about Blackswithout Sounding ldquoRacistrdquo

EDUARDO BONILLA-SILVA

(Department of Sociology Texas AampM University)

ABSTRACT

In this paper I argue that color blind racism the centralracial ideology of the post-civil rights era has a peculiarstyle characterized by slipperiness apparent nonracialism andambivalence This style ts quite well the normative climate ofthe country as well as the central frames of color blind racism Idocument in the paper ve stylistic components of this ideologynamely (1) whitesrsquo avoidance of direct racial language (2) thecentral rhetorical strategies or ldquosemantic movesrdquo used by whitesto safely express their racial views (3) the role of projection (4)the role of diminutives and (5) how incursions into forbiddenissues produce almost total incoherence among many whites Iconclude the paper with a discussion on how this style enhancesthe ideological menace of color blind racism

ldquoI am a little bit for af rmative action but rdquo ldquoYes and no I mean rdquo ldquoIam not prejudiced but rdquo ldquoSome of my best friends are blackrdquo ldquoI sort ofagree and disagreerdquo All these phrases have become standard linguistic fareof whitesrsquo contemporary racetalk But what do these phrases mean Forsome analysts they are expressions of whitesrsquo racial ambivalence (Hass etal 1992 Katz and Haas 1988) For others they are expressions of progress

Send all correspondence to Eduardo Bonilla-Silva Texas AampM University Departmentof Sociology 311 Academic Building College Station Texas 77843-4357

Critical Sociology Volume 28 issue 1-2Oacute 2002 Koninklijke Brill NV Leiden

at PACIFIC UNIV on March 20 2015crssagepubcomDownloaded from

42 sup2 Bonilla-Silva

and resistance in racial matters (Schuman et al 1997) Yet for a smallergroup of analysts 1 they represent whitesrsquo careful consideration of all sideson racial matters (Lipset 1996 Sniderman and Carmines 1997 Snidermanand Piazza 1993)

In contrast to these mainstream explanations I contend that thesephrases as well as the ideas expressed after these phrases are interjectedare part of the style 2 of color blind racism the dominant racial ideologyof the post-civil rights era This ideology emerged as part of the greatracial transformation that occurred in the late sixties and early seventiesin the United States As the Jim Crow overt style of maintaining whitesupremacy was replaced with ldquonow you see it now you donrsquotrdquo practicesthat were subtle apparently non-racial and institutionalized an ideology tting to this era emerged (Brooks 1990 1996 Smith 1995 Bonilla-Silva and Lewis 1999) In contrast with Jim Crow color blind racismmajor themes are (1) the extension of the principles of liberalism toracial matters in an abstract manner (2) cultural rather than biologicalexplanation of minoritiesrsquo inferior standing and performance in laborand educational markets (3) naturalization of racial phenomena such asresidential and school segregation and (4) the claim that discrimination hasall but disappeared (Bonilla-Silva 2001 Bonilla-Silva and Forman 2000cf Jackman (1994) Essed (1996) and Bobo Kluegel and Smith (1997))

At the core of my analysis is the idea that because the normativeclimate of what can be said in public changed dramatically from theJim Crow to the post-civil rights era the language of color blindness isslippery apparently contradictory and often subtle Thus analysts mustexcavate the rhetorical maze of confusing apparently ambivalent answersto straight questions of answers speckled with disclaimers such as ldquoI donrsquotknow but rdquo or ldquoYes and nordquo of answers almost unintelligible becauseof their higher than usual level of incoherence (ldquoI mean I mean I donrsquotknow I mean yes but I donrsquot knowrdquo) This is not an easy task and analystscan mistake honest ldquoI donrsquot knowsrdquo for rhetorical moves to save faceor nervousness for thematically-induced incoherence Cognizant of this

1 See the new consensus among survey researchers on racial attitudes in David OSears Jim Sidanius and Lawrence Bobo Racialized Boundaries (2000) See specially MichaelDawsonrsquos piece ldquoSlowly Coming to Grips with the Effects of the American Racial Orderon American Policy Preferencesrdquo in the same volume

2 The style of an ideology refers to its peculiar linguistic manners and rhetorical strategies (orracetalk) to the technical tools that allow users to articulate its frames and storylines For afull elaboration of the racial ideology paradigm see Chapter 3 in Eduardo Bonilla-SilvaWhite Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era (Boulder Lynne Rienner Publishers2001)


The Linguistics of Color Blind Racism sup2 43

possibility I offer as much data on each case I cite in an effort to clarifythe muddy waters of color blindness

The data for the analysis comes from interviews gathered as part oftwo projects the 1997 Survey of College Studentsrsquo Social Attitudes andthe 1998 Detroit Area Study (DAS henceforth) The former study wasconducted among 600 students (451 whites) taking social science coursesin three Universities (Southern University or SU Midwestern Universityor MU and Western University or WU) The latter was conducted among400 black and white respondents (323 whites and 67 blacks) in the Detroitmetropolitan area The interviews for the former were gathered froma random sample of the 90 percent (406) of the white students whoincluded information on how to contact them while the latter were selectedrandomly among the 400 participants Altogether there are 41 interviewswith college students (10 percent sub-sample) and 83 with Detroit arearesidents (21 percent sub-sample)

Since a full discursive analysis of the stylistic components of colorblindness is beyond the scope of this article I focus instead on showcasing ve things First I document how whites avoid direct racial languagewhile expressing their racial views Second I analyze the central rhetoricalstrategies or ldquosemantic movesrdquo 3 used by whites Third I examine the roleof projection Fourth I show the role of diminutives in color blind talkLastly I examine how incursions into forbidden issues produce almost totalincoherence among many whites

Racism without Racial Epithets Color Blindness andthe Avoidance of Racial Terminology

Today using words such as ldquoNiggerrdquo and ldquoSpicrdquo is seen as an immoralact More signi cantly saying things that sound or can be perceived asracist is disallowed And because the dominant racial ideology portendsto be color blind there is little space for socially sanctioned speech aboutrace-related matters Does this mean that whites do not talk in public 4

about nonwhites As many researchers have shown they do but they doso but in a very careful indirect hesitant manner and occasionally eventhrough code language (Edsall and Edsall 1992) Not surprisingly very fewwhite respondents in these studies used traditional Jim Crow terminologyto refer to blacks Only one college student and six DAS respondents used

3 For a full description of semantic moves see Teun van Dijk Prejudice in Discourse(Amsterdam PJ Benjamins Publishing Co 1984)

4 Many analysts have observed that private racetalk by whites about non-whites is moredirect and clearly racist For example Lawrence Otis-Graham in Member of the Club (1995)shows how when whites feel free to talk about race they do and in the nastiest fashion



terms such as ldquocoloredrdquo or ldquoNegroesrdquo to refer to blacks and not a singleone used the term ldquoniggerrdquo as a legitimate term The student who used theterm ldquocoloredrdquo was Rachel a MU student with very conservative racialviews However it is not clear if she used the term as part of her normalrepertoire or if it was a slip of her tongue She used the term in her answerto a question about her college friends

Um I wouldnrsquot say mostly white Irsquod say itrsquos probably a mix Um lsquocauseI have like a lot of Asian friends I have a lot of um colored friendsyarsquo know but yarsquo know it wasnrsquot maybe not even the same likebackground either I donrsquot know Itrsquos hard to tell yarsquo know From looking atsomebody so 5

All DAS respondents who used the term ldquocoloredrdquo were 60 years of ageor older An example of these respondents is Lucy a part-time commissaryfor a vending business in her sixties who described the racial makeup ofher place of work as follows ldquoOh we used to have um about threecolored girls that uh had worked with us but since then they have quitrdquoPauline a retired woman in her late seventies described the racial makeupof the schools she attended while growing up in the following way ldquoTheywere mixed you know [ Interviewer Mixed of what] Well we hadah mostly um colored and the whiterdquo

Although none of these ve older respondents were racial progressivesit would be a mistake to regard them as ldquoArchie Bunkersrdquo either justbecause they used the racial language of the past In truth all theserespondents were whites who have not fully absorbed the racial languageand style of the post-civil rights era And based of what they said some ofthese respondents seemed more open minded than many of the youngerrespondents For instance Pauline a retired worker when asked if shehad black friends while growing up said ldquoI always had black friends Aheven when I worked I had black friends In fact I had a couple of mybest friendsrdquo Notwithstanding that many whitesrsquo self-reports on friendshipwith blacks are suspect (Jackman Jackman and Crane 1986 Smith 1999Bonilla-Silva 2001) based on her own narrative Pauline seems to havehad real associations with blacks For example she played with blackkids while growing up and remembered fondly her black coworker Moresigni cantly Pauline has a niece who is dating a black ldquogentlemanrdquo Whenasked ldquoHow do you feel about this relationshiprdquo she answered

I feel like itrsquos none of my business Shersquos had trouble with ah shersquos divorcedShersquos had a lot of trouble with her Ex and hersquos very very abusive This fellow

5 The following are the basic conventions I used in the transcriptions Respondentrsquosemphasis (italics) comments on respondentrsquos demeanor ndash tone etc ndash or by the interviewer(bold print) and pauses ( )



shersquos going with is very kind The kids like him so there you go So maybe itrsquosgonna be good for her and the kids And for him too who knows

It is important to point out that the fact that young whites do not use racialslurs as legitimate terms in public discussions does not mean that they donot use these terms or derogate blacks in other forms in private discussionsFor example most college students acknowledged listening or telling racistjokes with friends and six even told the jokes in the interviews 6 Below Iprovide two examples of these jokes

Lynn a MU student told the following crude racist joke she heard backhome

Lynn Okay [laughing] It was itrsquos terrible but um what doyou call a car full of niggers driving off a cliff

Interviewer WhatLynn A good beginning

Eric another MU student told the following joke

It was uh what do you call a black man a black man in a in a coat anda tie And it was uh the defendant or something Yeah it was the defendantAnd that was that was probably a couple of weeks ago or something that Iheard that

In addition racist terminology is current in the life of students asillustrated by the fact that over half of them acknowledged having friendsor close relatives who are ldquoracistrdquo For example John an older studentat WU revealed that his father used to use racist terminology to refer toblacks When asked about his familyrsquos involvement in politics John saidthe following

Well Irsquod say not real involvement but uh I did notice that my fatherreferred to black people as niggers Hersquod also call them colored people Uh but uh that was mainly just the environment that he grew up in and Idonrsquot think he really wanted to hurt anyonersquos feelings

John also confessed that his father had in uenced his views and that hestruggled over this fact His confession came in the middle of a discussionabout how often he talks about racial issues now After pointing out that ldquoacousin of mine married a blackrdquo and that he attends ldquochurch regularlyand I have friends that are interracially marriedrdquo John stated the following

6 A survey conducted by Zogby International at the request of Philip Klinkner Directorof Arthur Levitt Public Affairs Center at Hamilton College of randomly selected peopleages 18 to 29 in 1999 found that 90 percent of the respondents had heard racist jokesoccasionally Grier Peter and James N Thurman ldquoYouthsrsquo Shifting Attitudes on RacerdquoChristian Science Monitor August 18 1999



You got to admit it you know this is prejudiced country I mean uh Ireally got to bury a lot of uh stinkinrsquo thinking uh I was taught as I wasgrowing up uh I have to really look at things because sometimes unconsciouslyI may discriminate against somebody and I try not to

Another example is Lee another WU student After describing theneighborhood where he grew up he acknowledged that ldquomy father ispretty racist so I got the the um heard everything just about everyracial slur you could possibly think of I heard it from him and I think thathad an effect on me earlyrdquo For example while his family was watchingblack TV shows such as Sanford and Son or the Jeffersons his father wouldsay things such as ldquoAre we gonna watch the nigger showsrdquo Lee and hisbrothers would say ldquoYeahrdquo because it was ldquojust kind of second naturerdquoAlthough Lee believes that he has been able to successfully repel his fatherrsquosracist in uence as an adult he admits that he had some Nazi leanings whilegrowing up and that although ldquoI wasnrsquot a skin head or anything but youknow every now and again I would draw a swastika on my notebook orsomething rdquo

Reading through the Rhetorical Maze of Color Blindness

Because post-civil rights racial norms disallow the open expression of directracial views and positions whites have developed a concealed way ofvoicing them In this section I examine the most common verbal strategiesused by whites in post-civil rightsrsquo racetalk

A) ldquoI am not prejudiced but rdquo and ldquoSome of my best friends arerdquo

Among the interviewees I found four college students and ten DASrespondents who used the phrase ldquoIrsquom not prejudiced butrdquo in theiranswers I cite one example from the students and two from the DASsample to illustrate how respondents used this semantic move Lee aWU student inserted a version of the move to soften his opposition toaf rmative action In a back-and-forth between Lee and the interviewerthe interviewer asked him point blank ldquoSo so are you saying now thatyou would you oppose it more so or rdquo

Yeah I would say I donrsquot know if thatrsquos racist or what but I donrsquot know Idonrsquot really talk about that much with people you know So I really havenrsquotdeveloped such a strong a really strong opinion about it but I guess I dooppose it now

Rhonda a part-time employee in a jewelry store in her sixties used themove to safely express her highly racialized views on why she thinks blackshave a worse overall status than whites



Well Irsquom gonna be Irsquom gonna be you understand Irsquom Irsquom (not) prejudiceor racial or whatever Ah theyrsquove always given the ah slut smut jobs

because they would do it Then they stopped they stopped doing Ah welfaresystem got to be very very easy And Irsquom not saying all therersquos many manywhite people on welfare that shouldnrsquot be But if you take the percentage inthe tri-city country area you will nd that the majority are white but all yousee is the black people on welfare but itrsquos a graduation up Thirty yearsago they started it and they continued it and they continued it and theycontinued it And it was easier to collect we ah ah you now welfare fromthe state rather than go out and get a job Why work if if they gonna if thegovernmentrsquos gonna take care of you

Interestingly Rhonda stated her very negative views about blacks althoughthroughout the interview she had positioned herself as a ldquominorityrdquo (she isa Jewish woman who reported that she struggled against anti-Semitism allher life)

Rita a woman in her early twenties working one day a week at a cookieshop inserted an iteration of the phrase in her answer to the interracialmarriage question

Um I think itrsquos hard enough in the world to nd love When you nd itgo for it I mean like I said it doesnrsquot matter about race because therersquos onlyone race the human race That shows I canrsquot be prejudiced about that Irsquovegot a mixed nephew

Rita has a ldquomixed nephewrdquo which she believes ldquoshows I canrsquot beprejudicedrdquo but proceeded to state a number of highly racist thingsabout blacks For instance she believed that blacks are naturally moreldquoaggressive and high temperedrdquo than whites ldquoexaggeraterdquo the signi cancediscrimination and are worse off than whites because ldquoa lot of times

they donrsquot want to work hard to get somethingrdquoThe ldquoSome of my best friends are rdquo phrase was used by eight students

and twelve DAS respondents to signify that they could not possibly beldquoracistrdquo For example Carol a student at SU described the racial makeupof her school as follows

We of course had white and black Hispanic Oriental um one of my bestfriends was considered Paci c Islander so um it was a very good mix I meanvery I didnrsquot there were no distinct um lines between white people andthe minorities as far as the people I hung out with and the classes I was in

Later on when asked to specify the proportion minority in her class Carolsaid

Um it was pretty good half and half I mean there were there was a goodhalf of my gifted friends in my class was minority [Interviewer OK And



thatrsquos like what kind] Um all We had um black Spanish um my twobest friends in high school were Oriental well one was half Vietnamese andone was Japanese

Carol went on to repeat two more times that these two Asians were herldquobest friendsrdquo Elsewhere (Bonilla-Silva 2001) I examine in some detail thenature of these interracial friendships I just point out for now the strategicnature of some of these claims For instance because Carol said four timesthat some of her best friends were ldquoOrientalrdquo it was easier for her to stateall sorts of anti-minority positions that included even her preference forwhite mates

Jill a salesperson in her thirties used the ldquoSome of my best friends areblackrdquo move in a rather odd way Jillrsquos response to the question ldquoHaveyou ever dated racial minoritiesrdquo was ldquoNo but I think one of my bestfriends is blackrdquo The interviewer then asked Jill ldquoOK can you talk a littlebit about that relationshiprdquo and Jill answered as follows

Yeah we worked together at Automotive Company and what happened isthis man was very bright He graduated rst in his class in economics fromIndiana University and he got a fellowship through Automotive Companywhich probably helped because he was black And I also know he got intoHarvard because he had terrible GMAT scores but he did get in He didnrsquothave terrible he had in the high ves He did get in and graduated fromHarvard and now hersquos an investment banker But you know what He is anice guy What he lacks in intellect he makes up for in he works so hardand hersquos always trying to improve himself He should be there because heworks harder than anybody I know

Jillrsquos ldquobest friendrdquo according to her own narrative was ldquovery brightrdquo buthad ldquoterrible GMAT scoresrdquo but ldquodid get in [Harvard]rdquo which he deservesbecause ldquoHe is a nice guyrdquo who makes up ldquowhat he lacks in intellectrdquo withhard work

Sue a homemaker in her early thirties used a version of this phrasein her answer to a question about whether or not minorities are hardto approach or are not welcomed by whites in jobs schools andneighborhoods

There wasnrsquot a whole lot of opportunity for me to answer that question inthis area because there wasnrsquot that much But when I was at Wayne Statewhen I went to college we were it was an intermingling thing I mean therersquosa itrsquos a very high minority at Wayne State and so everybody got along greatOne of my uh one of my dearest friends was a black fella and uh he wentto California to pursue a music career and he married a white girl And uhtheyrsquore good friends

Since Sue failed to answer the question the interviewer asked the questionagain This time Sue used the phrase again in connection to her husband



I didnrsquot see that at Wayne State and as far as around here goes I honestlydonrsquot know lsquoCause itrsquos never been something thatrsquos been an issue to me Noone has approached me along those lines But I canrsquot answer other than thatIrsquove never had any problems with it My husband the with him one of hisgood friends at work is black and hersquos the only black guy that works for thecompany my husband works for And thatrsquos my husbandrsquos favorite person[laughs] ldquoCause they get along so well and they have you know they thinkalike they talk alike same thingrdquo

B) ldquoI am not black so I donrsquot knowrdquo

Since these two moves have become clicheacute (and hence less effective) whiteshave developed other moves to accomplish the same goal One such moveis stating that ldquoI am not black so I donrsquot knowrdquo After this phrase isinserted respondents usually proceed with statements betraying a strongstance on the matter in question About one quarter of the white collegestudents but few DAS respondents (366) used the phrase ldquoI am notblack so I donrsquot knowrdquo For example Brian a student at SU insertedthe statement in response to the direct question on discrimination

Uh I donrsquot know I believe them I donrsquot know Irsquom not a black person livingso I donrsquot hang out with a lot of black people so I donrsquot see it happen ButI do watch TV and we were watching the stupid talk shows therersquos nothingelse on and therersquos people out there And uh I donrsquot know just that and justhearing the news and stuff Irsquom sure itrsquos less than it used to be at least thatrsquoswhat everybody keeps saying so But uh I think itrsquos less But uh I canrsquotsay But I canrsquot speak for like a black person who says theyrsquore being harassedor being uh prejudice or uh discriminated against

Brianrsquos carefully worded statement allows him to safely state his belief thatdiscrimination ldquoitrsquos less than it used to berdquo Later on in the interview Brianstated that although discrimination happens in ldquocorporations like Texacordquothat he assumes ldquotherersquos also corporations where it doesnrsquot happen thatway so therersquos really both sides to the coinrdquo

The second example is Liz a student at MU She also used the phrasein her answer to the direct question on discrimination

Um just because Irsquom not black Irsquom not Hispanic I donrsquot really donrsquotunderstand I donrsquot go through it I guess But then again Irsquove seen like racismon you know towards whites scholarships and as far as school goes which Imean which bothers me too So I guess I can kind of understand

In a speci c question on whether or not blacks experience discriminationin jobs and promotions Liz answered by avoiding the issue by making astatement of her belief in abstract liberalism

Um I just think that the best quali ed should probably get the job and that you know like I wouldnrsquot see why someone black wouldnrsquot get a job oversomeone white who was more quali ed or better suited for the job



Since Liz hinted that blacks lie when they make claims of discriminationthe interviewer asked her the following question ldquoMmhm So when theysay that that happens to them do you think theyrsquore lying or rdquo Lizthen proceeded to make a quick reversal to restore her image of neutrality

I mean I donrsquot think theyrsquore lying but I wouldnrsquot I mean I guess in my littleworld that everything is perfect I wouldnrsquot see why that would happen ButI guess that there are people who are you know racist who do you knowwould not promote someone black just because theyrsquore black which I donrsquotreally understand you know

C) ldquoYes and no but rdquo

A common way of stating racial views without opening yourself to thecharge of racism is apparently taking all sides on an issue The followingtwo examples illustrate how college students used this stylistic tool First isMark a MU student expressed his view on af rmative action as follows

Yes and no This is probably the toughest thing I have deciding I really

lsquocause Irsquove thought about this a lot but I can make a pro-con list and Istill wouldnrsquot like Irsquove heard most of the issues on this subject and I honestlycouldnrsquot give a de nite answer

Mark who was taking a sociology course at the time of the interviewrecognized that minorities ldquodonrsquot have the same starting points and if youare starting from so much lower they should de nitely be granted someadditional opportunities to at least have an equal playing groundrdquoHowever Mark added ldquoIrsquom gonna be going out for a job next year andIrsquoll be honest Irsquod be upset if Irsquom just as quali ed as someone else andindividually Irsquod be upset if a company takes you know like an AfricanAmerican over me just because he is an African Americanrdquo Mark repeatedthis point when discussing three af rmative action-based hiring scenariosWhen asked if he would personally support the hypothetical companyrsquosdecisions Mark said ldquoI I If Irsquom that person Irsquom not gonna support it IfIrsquom that majority getting rejected just because Irsquom a different racerdquo Markalso used a similar argument to explain what he thinks happens in collegeadmissions Thus Markrsquos support for af rmative action is theoretical ratherthan practical

Emily a student at SU answer to a question on providing minoritiesspecial opportunities to be admitted into universities was

Unique opportunities um I donrsquot know There might be I guesssome minorities do get uh schools arenrsquot as well-funded as others So I wouldhave to say yes and no I think they should get an opportunity to come butI also donrsquot thin they should allow other people to come lsquoCause thatrsquos sortof like a double-edged sword maybe because you are discriminating against



one group any way any way you do it uh and I donrsquot believe in that and Idonrsquot think you should discriminate against one group to give another a betterchance And I donrsquot believe thatrsquos fair at all But I also donrsquot believe that itrsquosfair they have to (attend a) school thatrsquos not uh canrsquot teach as well or donrsquothave the facilities to teach them like they should Um I donrsquot know Irsquom kindawishy-washy on that

In Emilyrsquos answer to the direct question on discrimination her positionon af rmative action became clearer

I just have a problem with the discrimination yoursquore gonna discriminateagainst a group umm and what happened in the past is horrible and it shouldnever happen again but I also think that to move forward you have to let goof the past and let go of what happened Um you know and it should reallystart equaling out um lsquocause I feel that some of some of it will go too farand it will swing the other way Umm one group is going to be discriminatedagainst I donrsquot I donrsquot believe in that I donrsquot think one group should havean advantage over another um regardless of what happened in the past

Thus Emily opposes af rmative action as it is practiced because shebelieves it is reverse discrimination and hence favors programs that arenot in place (expanding educational opportunities for minorities beforecollege) or that would not change minoritiesrsquo status at all (perfect equalopportunity without changing the group-level inequalities)

Although DAS respondents also used the ldquoYes and nordquo strategythey did so less frequently than college students The following exampleillustrates how they used this phrase Sandra a retail person in her fortiesused this rhetorical strategy to voice her opposition to af rmative action ina manner that allowed her to save face Sandrarsquos answer to the questionldquoAre you for or against af rmative actionrdquo was as follows

Yes and no I feel [clears throat] someone should be able to

have something education job whatever ah because theyrsquove earned itthey deserve it they have the ability to do it You donrsquot want to put a six yearold as a rocket scientist They donrsquot have the ability It doesnrsquot matter if the kidrsquosblack or white Ah as far as letting one have the job over another one justbecause of their race or their gender I donrsquot believe in that

Sandrarsquos ldquoyes and nordquo answer on af rmative action is truly a strong ldquonordquosince she does not nd any reason why af rmative action programs mustbe in place

Other respondents did not use the phrase ldquoYes and no but rdquo butinserted similar statements to safely express their reservations objectionsand at times opposition to a policy For example Lee the WU studentpreviously cited answered the af rmative action question in the followingmanner



Um well um well I guess Irsquom for it I would oppose it because Ithink that I think itrsquos treating them as if theyrsquore different you know Totreat someone as if they are different is kind of oppressive I think butI I support it in in another way But you know a lot of minorities do needextra cash to get to college and stuff because it is it is imbalanced

After this convoluted answer the interviewer searched for clari cation andasked ldquoSo overall if you had to choose whether or not you support itwhat would you sayrdquo Leersquos response was ldquoWhy do I have to choose(Laughs)rdquo

As with college students DAS respondents used other rhetorical buffersthat amounted to the to the ldquoYes and no butrdquo semantic move Lynna human resource manager in her early fties explained her view oninterracial marriage as follows

I have mixed emotions on it I feel that two people can fall in love and it youknow you can build a strong bond with one another but also you knowthere are consequences to that unfortunately in this world and so it wouldbe a very dif cult relationship If my daughter or son were to date somebodyof another ethnic background black especially Irsquod be uncomfortable But notany more so than if they were dating like I said an Indian or a ah ahMexican or a non-Caucasian even an Italian

Lynn went on to ponder aloud her own views on this matter in a very oddfashion

I donrsquot know why I mean it lsquocause Irsquom not in fact I I you know I thinkthe black race is one of the most gentle races of all of them I think that theyare violent out of emotion not out of indecisiveness or evilness They are notthat spicy But I donrsquot know

D) Anything but race

Another rhetorical move typical of color blind racism is the ldquoAnything butracerdquo strategy 7 This strategy involves interjecting comments such as ldquoIsnot a prejudiced thingrdquo to dismiss the fact that race affects an aspect ofthe respondentrsquos life Hence this tool allows whites to smooth out racialfractures in their otherwise color blind story This strategy was used by overhalf of the students and DAS respondents Sonny a student at MU usedthis tool to explain why she did not have minority friends while growing upSonny revealed in the interview that she had Italian friends but suggestedthat ldquorace never came into playrdquo and that ldquomost of my friends were

7 Melvin Thomas has found that this perspective affects deeply social science researchon racial matters Melvin Thomas ldquoAnything But Race The Social Science Retreat fromRacismrdquo African American Research Perspectives Winter 7996 (2000)



just normal kidsrdquo After revealing that ldquoone of my best friends is Indian(Asian Indian)rdquo she pondered why she and her friends did not have blacksin their crowd

I mean there was so many kids I donrsquot think we had any black friends Idonrsquot know why It kid of stuck together and I donrsquot know it wasnrsquot thatwe it wasnrsquot that we wouldnrsquot be like allowing to black people Itrsquos just that there was never like an opportunity Therersquos no population like thataround where we lived

Rick a Mormon student at WU who opposed af rmative action arguedthat blacks read ldquotoo muchrdquo when they do not get jobs Rickrsquos answered thequestion ldquoHow would you counter those who believe that this company(a company described as 97 white in the process of making a hiringdecision between a black and a white applicant) has a serious diversitycompanyrdquo

Um I would probably say to them um Irsquod say ldquoDo you know for sureDo you know the manager the person that hires them Do you know themto be racist Do you know that they are that wayrdquo Um Irsquod probably sayldquoIf I knew the guy Irsquod say he just got hired based on how well his scoreis Or maybe is just whites in that neighborhood or mostly whites or not asmany blacks percentage wise And I would claim that I think that theyare looking too much into the situation reading too much reading toomuch racism into the situation while there probably isnrsquot any at all

Rick as most of the students who were asked to explain why thecompany was 97 white could not concede that discrimination hadanything to do with this situation Thus Rickrsquos position and way of statingit clearly amount to ldquoanything but racerdquo

As with college students many DAS respondents used the ldquoAnythingbut racerdquo rhetorical strategy For instance Marge an unemployed womanin her early fties used this rhetorical strategy in response to the interracialmarriage question

Very different than what I used to think I think it doesnrsquot have anything todo with racism It has to do with um how you will all be treated Now if itrsquosjust a matter of um uh of you and the other person and therersquos no familiesinvolved no kids involved and if you are living in an area (where people have)open minds I think itrsquos ne But when you start dragging kids in no matterhow much you love or whether you are a racist or not thatrsquos not thequestion itrsquos how those kids are going to be treated And so uh my answer isum uh if there are kids you know families in uh and all that involved andyoursquore living in a racially you know racist kind of area no I donrsquot believe inuh you know marrying somebody of a different race But if itrsquos you twotogether and therersquos nobody else involved then I say itrsquos ne But you knowwhen you are dragging other people in you have to think of them too



Obviously the phrase ldquoI think it doesnrsquot have anything to do with racismrdquoand the very carefully and long-winded statement afterwards allowedMarge to oppose almost all kinds of interracial unions

Finally Don a machinist in his late thirties used this strategy in hisanswer to a question dealing with residential segregation His answer tothe question ldquoAmerica has a lot of all-white and all-black neighborhoodsWhat do you think about this situationrdquo was the following

I wouldnrsquot write any kind of theme on it because it really doesnrsquot matter to meum if therersquos blacks or whites there lsquoCause not really the color or the peoplethatrsquos going to make me like an area Well to be honest with you the reasonIrsquom in this area is because of the price I got in this house And I needed aplace so I bought this but when I buy my next house it doesnrsquot matter if thepeople are um the kind of people that I would like or get along with Um Iwould move in that area whether it was all-white all-black or whatever So itreally doesnrsquot matter to me

Social scientists have documented the variety of ways in which racialfactors affect Americansrsquo housing decisions (Massey and Denton 1993Yinger 1995) For example when whites were asked in the DAS ldquoIfyou could nd the housing that you would want and like would yourather live in a neighborhood that is all white mostly white half and halfor mostly blackrdquo 531 percent selected the ldquoall whiterdquo and ldquomostlywhiterdquo alternatives (622 percent of blacks selected the ldquohalf and halfrsquo rdquochoice) And based on the fact that Don had very negative views aboutblacks his profession of color blindness on housing matters seems suspectFor example Don believes that blacks are naturally (more athletic thanwhites) and culturally different from whites and that reverse discriminationis rampant Don also opposes interracial marriage because ldquothe kids suffermore than the people that are in the two adults in the relationshiprdquo

ldquoThey are the Racist Ones rdquo Projection as a Rhetorical Tool

Projection is part of our normal equipment to defend our selves It isalso an essential tool in the creation of a corporate identity (Us versusThem) (Bartra 1994) More pertinent to this section paranoid projectionhelps us ldquoescape from guilt and responsibility and af x blame elsewhererdquo(Keen 1986 21) College students projected racial motivations onto blacksas a way of avoiding responsibility and feeling good about themselvesTheir projections appeared on a variety of issues (eg af rmative actionschool and residential segregation interracial friendship and marriage andblacksrsquo work ethic) but most often on the hot issue of so-called black self-segregation For example Janet a student at SU answered a question onwhether or not blacks self-segregate as follows



I think they segregate themselves Or I mean I donrsquot know how everybodyelse is but I would have no problem with talking with or being friends with ablack person or any other type of minority I think theyrsquove just got into theirheads that they are different and as a result theyrsquore pulling themselves away

The interviewer followed-up Janetrsquos answer with a question trying toascertain if Janet had tried to mingle with blacks but Janet cut her offquickly with the following statement ldquoTheyrsquore off to their own kind oflittle own worldrdquo

Janet projected once more in her answer to the interracial marriagequestion onto people who marry across the color line

I would feel that in most situations theyrsquore not really thinking of the the childI mean they might not really think anything of it but in reality I think most ofthe time when the child is growing up hersquos going to be picked on because hehas parents from different races and itrsquos gonna ultimately affect the child andand the end result is theyrsquore only thinking of them of their own happinessnot the happiness of of the kid

By projecting sel shness onto people who intermarry Janet was ablevoice safely her otherwise racially problematic stance on intermarriageNevertheless she admitted that if she or a member of her family everbecame involved wit someone from a different race her family ldquowould notlike it at all [laughs]

Kim another SU student projected segregationist attitudes onto blacks

Um mainly I think they segregate themselves I think that you know theyhave um you know I guess they probably feel they donrsquot t in but I donrsquotknow if they really try I donrsquot know you know like they have their ownUnions and I donrsquot know how hard they try to t into you know like oursand we canrsquot really t into theirs lsquocause we are not really allowed I meanI donrsquot think all of them like a lot of them are I have several you knowpeople that are in my classes that are minorities and theyrsquore just ne I meanfor me itrsquos not like they donrsquot want to talk to me lsquocause Irsquom white or anything[laughs] they just I donrsquot know

Although all projections are exculpatory (Memmi 2000) most accomplishthis task implicitly However Kim not only projects racial motivationsonto blacks but openly exonerates whites (and herself) for not mingling withblacks

DAS respondents as college students projected racial motivations ontoblacks but at a slightly higher rate Twenty two of the 66 white respondentsprojected racism or racial motivations onto blacks on a variety of issuesFor example Ann an unemployed woman in her twenties answered thequestion on whether blacks are hard to approach or are not welcomed bywhites as follows



I think that I donrsquot know They live too much on the past if you ask meSome of lsquoem do You know I think blacks are more prejudiced against whitesthan whites are against blacks

Francine a homemaker in her late twenties answered a question onwhy blacks and whites see the police and the criminal court system verydifferently in the following way

Um black people are just prejudiced They just think that theyrsquore out toget them or something

Pat an orderly in a psychiatric hospital in her early thirties balked at theidea of the government establishing programs on blacksrsquo behalf to dealwith the effects of discrimination

On behalf of blacks Ah no I think itrsquos equaling out ah I mean if if you wantto go to school you can Ah I donrsquot think there should be Years back (thegovernment) came out with a Negro College Fund [clears throat] We donrsquothave any United Caucasian Fund I mean I donrsquot know why they separatethemselves because they are allowed to go to the same schools and collegesand everything as white people It should be all together I donrsquot think thereshould be specials you know what I am saying [giggles and snorts] NoI ah donrsquot It should all be the same for everybody Everybody wants equalrights equal this and equal this and that will equal everything out

Beverly a small business owner and homemaker woman in her fortiesprojected the idea that blacks who are hired through af rmative actionfeel terrible She stated that he believes that af rmative action is ldquounfairto black and whiterdquo The interviewer asked her to explain what she meantand Beverly then stated the following

Because a lot of companies they know that theyrsquore hired (because they areblack) I mean itrsquos got to be in their mind it would be in (their) mind thatrsquoswhy Irsquom saying this ldquoWas I hired because I was good or because I was blackrdquo

The last example of projection is Scott a drafter for a mechanicalengineering company in his early twenties In response to the question onwhether blacks are hard to approach or are not welcomed by whites Scottsaid that it depends on how they were raised because ldquoI have approached acouple (of) black people and theyrsquoll just have their ghetto attitude that umthe white people own everything so then you have to prove yourself yadayada yadardquo Scott added immediately that the same thing can happen towhite people Therefore the interviewers asked him ldquoSo in general doyou think that blacks it just depends on the background or that therersquosnothing to go about about blacks on the wholerdquo Scott answer was thefollowing



No I mean I would say that maybe they have a tendency to uh be a littlemore prejudice than the average uh What do you say other race butthatrsquos because if the lifestyle that America brought them up with you know

Here Scott projected in somewhat softer way by adding the diminutive(ldquoa little more prejudice than the averagerdquo) as well as by blaming theirprejudice on ldquothe lifestyle that America brought them up withrdquo) In thenext section I examine the role of diminutives in color blind racetalk

ldquoIt Makes Me a Little Angry rdquo The Role of Diminutives inColor Blind Racetalk

Because maintaining a non-racial color blind stance is key whitesuse diminutives to soften their racial blows Hence when they opposeaf rmative action few say ldquoI against af rmative actionrdquo Instead theysay something such as ldquoI am just a little bit against af rmative actionrdquoSimilarly few whites who oppose interracial marriage atly state ldquoI amagainst interracial marriagerdquo Instead they say something such as ldquoI amjust a bit concerned about the welfare of the childrenrdquo About half of thecollege students used diminutives to cushion their views on issues suchas interracial marriage and af rmative action DAS respondents also useddiminutives to maintain a nonracial image however and consistent withwhat I have documented for other rhetorical tools less than a quarter ofDAS respondents did so

For instance Andy a student at WU answered the question oninterracial marriage as follows

I would say I have a little bit of the same concern about the children justbecause itrsquos more I mean would be more dif cult on them But I meanI de nitely [nervous laugh] have no problem with any form of interracialmarriage Um thatrsquos just just an extra hurdle that they would have to overovercome with the children but but I it wouldnrsquot be a detriment to the kidsI donrsquot think That just makes it a little more dif cult for them

Mickey a student at MU used diminutives to make the claim thatpeople at MU were oversensitive about matters regarding race or sexualorientation Andy made his comments in response to a question aboutwhether on not he participated in political activities in campus Afterstating in no uncertain terms that he did not the interviewer curiousby the tone of his answer commented ldquoYou sounded pretty staunch inyour nordquo Andy replied

Yeah I just I donrsquot know I think everybody everybody here just seemslike really uptight about that kind of stuff and I mean maybe itrsquos just becauseI never had to deal with that kind of stuff at home but yarsquo know it seems



like you have to watch everything you say because if you slip a little bit andyou never know therersquos a protest the next day

When asked to explain what kind of ldquoslipsrdquo he was referring to Andy said

Like I mean if you hear a professor say something like a racial slur orsomething just like a little bit yarsquo know a little bit outta hand yarsquo know Imean I mean I would just see it as like yarsquo know he was just youtook it out of context or something but yarsquo know is just little things like thatItrsquos just itrsquos so touchy Everything is so touchy it seems like around here AndI donrsquot like I donrsquot like to get into debates about stuff and yarsquo knowabout cultures and stuff like that lsquoCause Irsquove seen it Irsquove seen it around hereyarsquo know plenty ya know about like with religious stuff and gay stuff andminority stuff And itrsquos just nothinrsquo of that I just donrsquot like to get into thatstuff

Thus Mickey uses the diminutives to state that people at MU arehypersensitive because they protest when a professor does ldquolittle thingsrdquolike saying ldquoa racial slurrdquo in class Brian the SU student cited above afterstating in a half-hearted way that he supported government interventionto increase the level of school integration in the country commented thefollowing on busing

That works as long as ndash I think itrsquos stupid like Irsquom no sure the way thingsare going but I heard things like people taking three hour bus rides just tobe integrated into school I mean thatrsquos ridiculous If therersquos a school closerby you know that just seems like you know going a little bit extreme on thisintegration thing you know

The following two examples illustrate how DAS respondents useddiminutives First is Rita the underemployed woman in her twentiespreviously cited stated her belief that blacks are naturally different thanwhites as follows

Well [clears throat] I canrsquot say that generally they all are but a lot ofthe ones Irsquove encountered are a little more aggressive a little bit more hightempered or whatever

The second case is Judy the college professor cited above softened heropposition to af rmative action by using a diminutive

Irsquom for it a little bit not real dramatically I think itrsquos ah I think is a temporarysolution Ah I think itrsquos bad when if you have like itrsquos used for quotas

ldquoI I I I Donrsquot Mean You Know but rdquo RhetoricalIncoherence and Color Blindness

Rhetorical incoherence (eg grammatical mistakes lengthy pauses repe-tition etc) is part of all natural speech Nevertheless the degree of inco-herence increases noticeably when people discuss sensitive subjects And



because the new racial climate in America forbids the open expressionof racially-based feelings views and positions when whites discuss issuesthat make them feel uncomfortable they become almost incomprehensibleAlmost all the college students and many DAS respondents became inco-herent when discussing various racial issues particularly when discussingtheir personal relationships with blacks For example Ray a MU who wasvery articulate throughout the interview became almost incomprehensiblewhen answering the question about whether he had been involved withminorities while in college

Um well shersquos really my rst girlfriend to be quite honest with you [laughs]Um uh so to answer that question no Um but I would not I meanI would not ever preclude ub a black woman from being my girlfriendon the basis that she was black Yarsquo know I mean yarsquo know what I meanIf yoursquore looking about it from yarsquo know the standpoint of just attractionI mean I think that yarsquo know I think yarsquo know I think yarsquo know allwomen are I mean all women have a sort of different type of beauty if youwill And I think that yarsquo know for black women itrsquos somewhat different thanwhite women Um but I donrsquot think itrsquos ya know I mean itrsquos itrsquos itrsquosnothing that would ever stop me from like uh I mean I donrsquot know Imean I donrsquot if thatrsquos I mean thatrsquos just sort of been my impression Imean itrsquos not like would ever say ldquoNo Irsquoll never have a black girlfriendrdquobut it just seems to me like Irsquom not as attracted to black women as I am towhite women for whatever reason Itrsquos not about prejudice itrsquos just sort oflike yarsquo know whatever Just sort of the way way like I see white womenas compared to black women yarsquo know

The interviewer followed-up Rayrsquos answer with the question ldquoDo you haveany idea why that would berdquo to which he replied the following ldquoI I I[sighs] donrsquot really know Itrsquos just sort of hard to describe Itrsquos just likeyarsquo know who yoursquore more drawn to yarsquo know for whatever reason yarsquoknowrdquo

Another issue that made some students feel seemingly uncomfortablewas the matter of self-segregation For example Ann a WU studentbecame very hesitant in her answer to the question of whether blacksself-segregate or are not made to feel welcome

Um no I donrsquot think they segregate themselves they just probably just um Iguess probably theyrsquore I donrsquot know Letrsquos see letrsquos uh try to Like umwe were trying Like um mutual friends I suppose maybe and probablymaybe itrsquos just your peers that you know or maybe that they they have moreum more like activities or classes and clubs I donrsquot really know but I donrsquotthink itrsquos necessarily conscious un I donrsquot I wouldnrsquot say that uh I wouldfeel uh uncomfortable going and talking to a whole group

DAS respondents were signi cantly less likely to become incoherentthan the students but when they became it was around the same issues



For example Dorothy a retired worker from an automobile company inher seventies became almost incomprehensible when she answered thequestion on intermarriage

Eh well I donno but I I I feel that uh I donno I just feel like that uh youshould (low voice) stick to your own race for marriage [Interviewer Umand why is that] Uh because I feel that therersquos uh proble there wouldbe problems on both sides A girl would feel hurt if uh if his parents youknow were [End of Tape 1 Interviewer asked her to continue heranswer] Yeah I really do Well I donno they have different culture thatwe do really and I think that his family would be would probably be justas upset I watch this on TV everyday and see how you know how theyuh they have a different I donno I hear the men I know I hear that theblack men on TV say that the black women are so you know so wild andmad you know tempers you know what I mean And I just feel thatrsquos thelimit I donno I my dau if one of my daughters would ah married oneI would have accepted it because itrsquos my daughter and I would I wo andI would have never be I would never be nasty to them Because I feel theyrsquorejust as human as we are If they treat me decent Irsquom gonna treat them decentThatrsquos my feelings

Dorothyrsquos incoherence ldquomakes senserdquo in light of her openly expressedopposition to interracial marriages ([low voice] ldquoyou should stick to yourown race for marriagerdquo) Because opposing interracial marriage in an openfashions violates the notion of color blindness white respondents who tookthis stance felt forced to ldquosoftenrdquo the blow That is why Dorothy addedall the quali cations about what she would have done if one of her owndaughters had ldquomarried onerdquo and why she felt compelled to insert theprofoundly awkwardly stated statement about the equality of the races(ldquotheyrsquore just as human as we arerdquo)

Lynn a human resource manager in her early fties expressed herreservations about dating black men in her response to a question ondating

I donrsquot know Just well [high pitched voice] I think I would havebeen very uncomfortable okay I really do I mean it would just be I [raisesvoice] wouldnrsquot want to go out with a ah ah really dark MiddleEastern man or Indian or Oriental I mean I I just would be uncomfortableIf theyrsquore closer to me in looks okay Thatrsquos just always the way I felt Notthat I didnrsquot like men of ethnic diversity but I just you have a certain tasteyou know I think I do

Since Lynn had stated something that could be interpreted as ldquoracistrdquoshe had to do lots of rhetorical work to explain her position on interracialmarriage

I have mixed emotions on it I feel that two people can fall in love and it youknow can build a strong bond with one another but also you know there



are consequences to that unfortunately in this world and so it would be a verydif cult relationship If my daughter or son were to date somebody of anotherethnic background black especially Irsquod be uncomfortable But not anymoreso than if they were dating like I said an Indian or a ah ah Mexican or anon Caucasian I just would be [ Interviewer Umhum] Even an Italian Idonrsquot know why I mean it lsquocause Irsquom not in fact I I you know I thinkthe black race is one of the most gentle races of all of them I think that theyare violent out of emotion not out of indecisiveness or evilness They are notthat spicy but I donrsquot know

As in Dorothyrsquos case Lynn felt obliged to clarify that she is not a racist(ldquocause Irsquom not (a racistrdquo) and to insert a truly odd statement about thegentleness of blacks at the same time that she claims that blacks are violentby nature (ldquoI think that they are violent out of emotionrdquo))

DAS respondents similar to college students became nervous whendiscussing matters other than interracial marriage For example Erican auditor for an automotive company became anxious when discussingwhether or not he associates with his black co-workers

Sure sure you can ah itrsquos if you work in that environment thethe race is there obviously I donrsquot think it will ever go away but ah

I donrsquot practice it and I see a lot of people who donrsquot practice it The theyyou know but itrsquos existing and I know that and I donrsquot Yeah I I I I go outwith the black guys I donrsquot even care It donrsquot matter to me

Conclusion

If the myth of color blind racism is going to stick whites need to havetools to repair mistakes (or the appearance of mistakes) rhetorically In thisarticle I documented the numerous tools available to whites to restore acolor blind image when whiteness seeps through discursive cracks Colorblind racismrsquos racetalk avoids racist terminology and preserves its myththrough semantic moves such as ldquoI am not a racist butrdquo ldquoSome of mybest friends are rdquo ldquoI am not black butrdquo and ldquoYes and nordquo Additionallywhen something could be interpreted as racially motivated whites can usethe ldquoAnything but racerdquo strategy Thus if a school or neighborhood iscompletely white they can say ldquoItrsquos not a racial thingrdquo or ldquoItrsquos economicsnot racerdquo They can also project the matter onto blacks by saying thingssuch as ldquoThey donrsquot want to live with usrdquo or ldquoBlacks are the reallyprejudiced onesrdquo

But how can whites protect themselves against the charge of racismwhen they state positions that may be interpreted as racist They can usediminutives as racial shock absorbers and utter statements such as ldquoI ama little bit against af rmative action because it is terribly unfair to whitesrdquoor ldquoI am a bit concerned about interracial marriage because the children



suffer so muchrdquo And these tools can be mixed-up as the interlocutorsees t (Wetherell and Potter 1992) Hence respondents could use adiminutive (ldquoI am a little bit upset with blacks rdquo) followed by a projection(ldquo because they cry racism for everything even though they are the oneswho are racist rdquo) and balanced out their statement with semantic movesat the end to land safely (ldquo and I am not being racial about this is justthat I donrsquot knowrdquo)

These interviews also revealed that talking about race in America isa highly emotional matter Almost all the respondents exhibited a degreeof incoherence at some point or other in the interview Digressions longpauses repetition and self corrections were the order of the day Thisincoherent talk is the result of talking about race in a world that insistsrace does not matter rather than a tool of color blindness However sinceit is so preeminent it must be included as part of the linguistic modalitiesof color blind racism

An important point to make is that college students were more likelythan DAS respondents to use semantic moves such as ldquoI am not a racistbutrdquo ldquoSome of my best friends are rdquo ldquoYes and nordquo and ldquoI am notblack butrdquo The students were also more likely to use diminutives to softentheir racial views and to become incoherent when discussing sensitive racialmatters DAS respondents however were more likely to project than thestudents and used the ldquoAnything but racerdquo strategy at a similar rate thanstudents These ndings match my ndings from previous research showingthat DAS respondents were more likely to use the frames of color blindracism in a crude and direct fashion as compared with the college students(Bonilla-Silva and Forman 2000 Bonilla-Silva 2001)

Why is this the case Preliminary analysis of survey and interview datafrom these two data sets suggest that younger educated middle classpeople are more likely than older less educated working class peopleto make full use of the resources of color blind racism This does not meanthey are less ldquoracistrdquo It just means that they are more adept at navigatingthe dangerous waters of Americarsquos contemporary racial landscape andto know all the stylistic tools available to save face This should not besurprising since they are the cohort that has been ingrained from day onewith the ideology of color blindness

However it is worth noting that young educated middle class DASrespondents are not too far off from their older less educated workingclass counterparts in their crudeness and lack of rhetorical sophisticationThis may well mean that as whites enter the labor market they feel entitledto vent their resentment in a relative straightforward manner No need tosweeten the pill when you feel morally entitled to get a job or promotionover all blacks since you believe they are ldquonot quali edrdquo when you believe



the taxes you pay are being largely wasted on ldquowelfare-dependent blacksrdquowhen you are convinced that blacks use discrimination as an excuse tocover up for their own inadequacies

Finally I end with a methodological observation that has policyimplications If there is a new racial ideology that has an arsenal ofrhetorical tools to avoid the appearance of racism analysts must be fullyaware of its existence and develop the analytical and interpretive know-howto dissect color blind nonsense Analysts unaware of these developments(or unwilling to accept them) will continue producing research suggestingthat racial matters in the United States have improved dramatically andlike color blinders urge for race-neutral social policies It is the task ofprogressive social scientists to expose color blindness show the continuingsigni cance of race and wake-up color blind researchers to the color ofthe facts of race in contemporary United States

References

BARTRA ROGER

1994 Wild Men in the Looking Glass The Mythic Origins of European Otherness Ann ArborMI The University of Michigan Press

BOBO LAWRENCE JAMES KLUEGEL AND RYAN SMITH

1997 ldquoLaissez faire Racism The Crystallization of a Kinder Gentler AntiblackIdeologyrdquo in Steven A Tuch and Jack Martin (eds) Racial Attitudes in the 1990spp 15-42 Westport CT Praeger

BONILLA-SILVA EDUARDO

2001 White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era Boulder CO Lynne RiennerPublishers

BONILLA-SILVA EDUARDO AND TYRONE A FORMAN

2000 ldquoIrsquom not a racist but Mapping white college studentsrsquo racial ideology in theUSArdquo (with Bonilla-Silva) in Discourse amp Society 11(1) 50-85

BONILLA-SILVA EDUARDO AND AMANDA E LEWIS

1999 ldquoThe New Racism Racial Structure in the United States 1960s-1990srdquo RaceNation and Citizenship pp 55-100 edited by Paul Wong Boulder ColoradoWestview Press

BROOKS ROY L1990 Rethinking the American Race Problem Berkeley University of California PressBROOKS ROY L1996 Integration or Separation A Strategy for Racial Equality Cambridge MA and London

Harvard University PressDAWSON MICHAEL

2000 ldquoSlowly Coming to Grips with the Effects of the American Racial Order onAmerican Policy Preferencesrdquo In Racialized Politics edited by David O Sears etal pp 344-358 Chicago The University of Chicago Press

ESSED PHILOMENA

1996 Diversity Gender Color and Culture Amherst MA University of MassachusettsPress



EDSALL THOMAS B AND MD EDSALL

1992 Chain Reaction New York WW NortonGRIER PETER AND JAMES N THURMAN

1999 ldquoYouthsrsquo Shifting Attitudes on Racerdquo Christian Science Monitor August 18HASS R GLEN I KATZ N RIZZO J BAILEY AND L MOORE

1992 ldquoWhen racial ambivalence evokes negative affect using a disguised measure ofmoodrdquo Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18 786-797

HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER

1995 Facing Up to the American Dream Princeton NJ Princeton University PressJACKMAN MARY

1994 The Velvet Glove Berkeley University of California PressJACKMAN MARY R JACKMAN AND MARY CRANE

1986 ldquo lsquoSome of my best friends are Black rsquo Interracial Friendship and Whitesrsquo RacialAttitudesrdquo Publica Opinion Quarterly 50 459-486

KATZ IRWIN AND RG HASS

1988 ldquoRacial ambivalence and American value con ict Correlational and primingstudies of dual cognitive structuresrdquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55893-905

KEEN SAM

1986 Faces of the Enemy Reections of the Hostile Imagination New York Harper and RowLIPSET SEYMOUR MARTIN

1996 American Exceptionalism New York and London WW NortonMEMMI ALBERT

2000 Racism Minneapolis and London University of Minnesota PressOTIS-GRAHAM LAWRENCE

1995 Member of the Club New York Harper CollinsSEARS DAVID JIM SIDANIUS AND LAWRENCE BOBO

2000 Racialized Politics Chicago and London The University of Chicago PressSCHUMAN HOWARD ET AL 1997 Racial Attitudes in America Cambridge MA Harvard University PressSMITH ROBERT C1995 Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era Now You See It Now You Donrsquot New York State

University of New York PressSMITH TOM W1999 ldquoMeasuring Inter-Racial Friendships Experimental Comparisonsrdquo GSS Method-

ological Report No 91SNIDERMAN PAUL M AND EDWARD G CARMINES

1997 Reaching Beyond Race Cambdige MA and London Harvard University PressSNIDERMAN PAUL AND THOMAS PIAZZA

1993 The Scar of Race Cambridge MA Harvard University PressTHOMAS MELVIN

2000 ldquoAnything But Race The Social Science Retreat from Racismrdquo African AmericanResearch Perspectives Winter 79 96

WETHERELL MARGARET AND JONATHAN POTTER

1992 Mapping the Language of Racism New York Columbia University PressVAN DIJK TEUN

1984 Prejudice in Discourse Amsterdam PJ Benjamins Publishing Co



and resistance in racial matters (Schuman et al 1997) Yet for a smallergroup of analysts 1 they represent whitesrsquo careful consideration of all sideson racial matters (Lipset 1996 Sniderman and Carmines 1997 Snidermanand Piazza 1993)

In contrast to these mainstream explanations I contend that thesephrases as well as the ideas expressed after these phrases are interjectedare part of the style 2 of color blind racism the dominant racial ideologyof the post-civil rights era This ideology emerged as part of the greatracial transformation that occurred in the late sixties and early seventiesin the United States As the Jim Crow overt style of maintaining whitesupremacy was replaced with ldquonow you see it now you donrsquotrdquo practicesthat were subtle apparently non-racial and institutionalized an ideology tting to this era emerged (Brooks 1990 1996 Smith 1995 Bonilla-Silva and Lewis 1999) In contrast with Jim Crow color blind racismmajor themes are (1) the extension of the principles of liberalism toracial matters in an abstract manner (2) cultural rather than biologicalexplanation of minoritiesrsquo inferior standing and performance in laborand educational markets (3) naturalization of racial phenomena such asresidential and school segregation and (4) the claim that discrimination hasall but disappeared (Bonilla-Silva 2001 Bonilla-Silva and Forman 2000cf Jackman (1994) Essed (1996) and Bobo Kluegel and Smith (1997))

At the core of my analysis is the idea that because the normativeclimate of what can be said in public changed dramatically from theJim Crow to the post-civil rights era the language of color blindness isslippery apparently contradictory and often subtle Thus analysts mustexcavate the rhetorical maze of confusing apparently ambivalent answersto straight questions of answers speckled with disclaimers such as ldquoI donrsquotknow but rdquo or ldquoYes and nordquo of answers almost unintelligible becauseof their higher than usual level of incoherence (ldquoI mean I mean I donrsquotknow I mean yes but I donrsquot knowrdquo) This is not an easy task and analystscan mistake honest ldquoI donrsquot knowsrdquo for rhetorical moves to save faceor nervousness for thematically-induced incoherence Cognizant of this

1 See the new consensus among survey researchers on racial attitudes in David OSears Jim Sidanius and Lawrence Bobo Racialized Boundaries (2000) See specially MichaelDawsonrsquos piece ldquoSlowly Coming to Grips with the Effects of the American Racial Orderon American Policy Preferencesrdquo in the same volume

2 The style of an ideology refers to its peculiar linguistic manners and rhetorical strategies (orracetalk) to the technical tools that allow users to articulate its frames and storylines For afull elaboration of the racial ideology paradigm see Chapter 3 in Eduardo Bonilla-SilvaWhite Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era (Boulder Lynne Rienner Publishers2001)


































































































































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM















































































































































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM





































































































































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM





























































































































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM
















































































































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM






































































































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM

























































































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM















































































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM




































































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM

























































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM














































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM



































































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM


























































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM


















































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM







































































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM





























































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM



















































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM






































Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM






























Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM





















Conclusion














References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM

























References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM


















References

BARTRA ROGER













ESSED PHILOMENA








HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM




















HOCHSCHILD JENNIFER






KEEN SAM















Documents

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