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Chapter Six – The Lithosphere and the

Hydrosphere

The Lithosphere

The lithosphere is the hard shell of the Earth, consisting of the

__________ and the topmost part of the upper mantle.

The lithosphere contains ______________________________

that have been essential to the development of human

civilization.

Minerals

Minerals are inorganic substances (they are not derived from

________________________________________).

Minerals have the following characteristics:

- They exist naturally on Earth (they cannot be __________________________)

- They have an ordered atomic structure

- Has a distinct chemical composition

Minerals have the following properties:

- Hardness (can they scratch other __________________?)

- Transparency (allows light to pass through it)

- Colour (many minerals have a characteristic colour, others may vary in colour)

- Streak (When a mineral is rubbed on porcelain, it leaves a powder trace or a streak, the

colour it leaves varies between minerals).

Can Topaz scratch Quartz?

Can Apatite scratch Quartz?

Can Diamond scratch Calcite?

Can Gypsum scratch Diamond?

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Rocks

Rocks are solids made of many minerals.

o Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks are formed when

magma cools and solidifies.

Extrusive Igneous rocks are formed above the

surface of the ground (the lava cools very rapidly and

solidifies).

Intrusive Igneous rocks are formed below the surface of the ground.

o Sedimentary Rocks : Sedimentary rocks are formed by sediments, or debris from other __________

o Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks are former igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been

transformed by ____________________________

Soil Soil comes from parent rock, over time, frost, wind and rain wear down the rock and

disintegrate it. The pieces mix with organic matter from decomposing plant and animal residue.

Three conditions must be met for soil to be fertile enough to support plant life:

- ______________________________________

- ______________________________________

- ______________________________________

Permafrost

Permafrost is ground whose temperature has ben 0oC or lower for at least _________________

In some areas, the upper layer of permafrost thaws in summer and in the winter the ground

freezes again. This top layer of permafrost that undergoes thawing and freezing is called the active layer.

When permafrost thaws it can cause problems with constructing, buildings and roads. If large

amounts of permafrost were to thaw at once, it would release an enormous amount of methane (CH4) a

powerful greenhouse gas.

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Energy from the Lithosphere

o Fossil Fuels

There are three types of fossil fuels; ___________________________________________________.

Oil comes from small marine animals and algae that lived in the seas long ago. Over time and with

pressure, they very slowly turned into oil. Oil is a liquid.

Natural gas is produced the same way as oil. Natural gas is a gas.

Coal comes from terrestrial plants and trees that once grew in swamps. Coal is a solid.

o Nuclear Energy (Uranium)

Uranium is a radioactive element that occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust. Splitting the ___________ of

uranium produces a large amount of energy called nuclear energy that can be converted into electricity.

o Geothermal Energy

Energy that comes from the internal heat of the ________________ is called geothermal energy.

The Hydrosphere

Most of Earth’s surface is covered in water. Water makes up oceans, seas, lakes and rivers. Water can

also be found underground, in the atmosphere (in the form of vapour) and in glaciers (snow and ice).

__________________________________: water found on continents (rivers, lakes, groundwater)

Watersheds

Watersheds are an area of land in which all inland waters drain into the same larger body of water.

There are many factors which affect how water flows within a watershed (they can slow down the flow

by placing obstacles in the water’s path or accelerate its course).

Factors that affect watersheds:

- Topography: the shape, slope and terrain of the area

- Geology: the type, depth and structure of rock

- Climate: rain, snow, winds and temperature

- Vegetation: trees, forests, bushes

- Agricultural Development: farm lands

- Industrial Development: factories

- Urban Development: homes, towns and cities

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The Oceans

______________________carry water oceans all over the world.

Thermohaline Circulation is responsible for major transfers of _____________ around the world.

Without it, the difference of temperatures between the equator and the poles would be much more

dramatic.

Two things influence the circulation of ocean water:

o Water Temperature

Water temperature is influenced by the _______________________ (the closer the water is to

the ocean’s surface; the warmer it is), ____________________, and _____________________

(proximity to the equator or the poles).

o Salinity

Salinity is a measure of the amount of salt in a liquid. The ocean’s salinity can be affected by

melting pack ice and glaciers which dilute the seawater and __________________ the salinity. Heat and

drought can also affect salinity levels by increasing water evaporation and _________________ the

salinity.

The Cryosphere consists of all the frozen water on Earth’s surface. Ex: _______________________

Pack Ice is composed of ice floating on the oceans near the North and South poles.

Melting pack ice can be a problem for animals (like polar bears and seals) who need

the pack ice to help them rest.

Glaciers are masses of ice on land and are formed by compressed snow. Melting

glaciers can cause sea levels to rise and can also change the salinity of the ocean

(glaciers are made of freshwater).

Energy Resources from the Hydrosphere

Hydraulic Energy

Hydraulic energy is the energy that can be derived from ________________. Dams are built in rivers to

hold back the water and when water levels rise they fill reservoirs which put pressure on the dam. When

the dam gates are open water rushes through, this turns turbines and converts mechanical energy into

an electric current.

Waves and Ocean Currents

Waves and ocean currents also contain large amounts of energy. Engineers are developing systems to

transform this energy into ____________________.

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Chapter Seven - The Atmosphere The atmosphere is the layer of _______ that envelops the Earth. It is made up of gases that are essential

to life on our planet for the following reasons:

- They act as a ___________________, blocking out rays (ex: UV rays) from the sun

- They ensure a relatively stable climate on Earth by retaining heat.

- They include _______________________(which is essential for cellular respiration) and

________________________________ (necessary for photosynthesis) in plants.

Air is a mixture of gases, made up by the following:

- 78%: ___________________ (N2)

- 21%: Oxygen (O2)

- 1%: Other gases such as Water Vapour

(H2O), Argon (Ar), Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

There are five layers of the Earth’s atmosphere

Atmospheric Pressure

Air is a gaseous mixture so it exerts pressure because it contains particles that are constantly colliding

with one another. These ______________________ of air particles determine the air pressure.

The more collisions that occur in a given area, the higher the ___________________________________.

High Pressure Areas; many particles and many collisons.

Low Pressure Areas; fewer particles

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Atmospheric Circulation

Atmospheric Circulation is the global scale movement of the layer of air surrounding the Earth.

Air masses

An air mass is a large expanse of the atmosphere with relatively uniform temperature and humidity.

The temperature and humidity of an air mass depend on where they were formed.

Where is it formed? Temperature/Humidity

Polar Cold air mass

Tropical Near the equator

Maritime Humid air mass

Continental Over land

What would be the name of the

following air masses?

A ________________________

B ________________________

C ________________________

D ________________________

What are the characteristics of air masses formed at the following locations?

A ________________________ B ________________________

C ________________________ D ________________________

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What happens when air masses meet? They do not _____________________; instead the warm air

rises above the cold air.

o A cold front occurs when a mass of cold air meets a mass of warm air.

The warm air _______________________ and then cools. Cold fronts result in puffy clouds which

produce wind and heavy rain.

o A warm front occurs when a mass of warm air meets a mass of cold air.

The warm air _________________________ creating light clouds in many layers. Warm fronts bring

cloudy weather and showers that are slow to disperse because warm fronts do not travel as fast as cold

fronts.

An anticyclone is a high pressure area which results in clear and sunny skies.

A depression is a low pressure area with cloudy weather.

A cyclone is a tropical storm characterized by violent winds revolving around an area of low pressure. These cyclones are also called hurricanes or typhoons.

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The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a _____________________________________________ that allows the Earth to retain some of the heat it receives from the Sun. Greenhouse Gases: CO2 - Carbon Dioxide CH4 - Methane

N2O - Nitrous Oxide

Intensification of the Greenhouse Effect

Due to the combustion of oil, natural gas and coal, and our increased consumption of fossil fuels, we

have caused enormous amounts of greenhouse gases to be released into the atmosphere. While CO2 is

not dangerous itself; discharging it in the billions of tonnes is having a profound effect on the climate.

This intensification means that more heat is being trapped in our atmosphere increasing the global

temperature and causing global warming.

Normal Greenhouse Effect

Intensification Greenhouse Effect

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Energy from the Atmosphere

Wind Energy The movement of gas molecules from high pressure areas to low pressure areas creates wind. How does wind occur? _______________________________________________________

Wind energy can be transformed into electrical energy. Solar Energy Energy from the sun can also be transformed into electrical energy. We can use ____________________ to convert solar energy into electrical energy Tidal Energy Energy from the flow of tides.

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Chapter Eight – The Biosphere

Biogeochemical Cycle – A set of processes by which an __________________________ passes from one environment to the next and eventually returns to its original environment. It’s a loop of recycling an element.

The Carbon Cycle A biogeochemical cycle involving carbon

Photosynthesis: Plants take carbon dioxide from the environment

Ingestion: Animals get carbon by eating animals with carbon in them

Respiration: When living organisms breathe out, we exhale carbon dioxide

Decomposition of waste: Carbon is released through the waste of living organisms

Forest Fires: Carbon is released into the atmosphere

Shells and skeletons: Carbon is part of animal shells and skeletons

Carbonate rock: The carbon in shells falls to ocean floors and forms carbonate rock

Volcanic eruptions: If carbonate rock melt upon contact with magma, carbon is released into

the atmosphere

Fossil Fuels: Carbon may be in the remains of dead animals and plants and will be emitted in the

form of carbon dioxide if burned.

Burning Fossil Fuels

Plant Respiration

Animal Respiration

Burning Forests

Photosynthesis

Mineral Carbon (Fossil Fuels)

Animal Respiration

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The Nitrogen Cycle The nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical cycle involving all the exchanges of nitrogen on Earth

Living organisms need nitrogen (N). However, we cannot use molecular nitrogen (N2).

Living organisms need bacteria to change nitrogen in the atmosphere (N2) into other forms NH3, NH4, NO2, or NO3.

Plants can take the nitrogen in other forms to help them grow. When other animals eat the plants, they get the necessary nitrogen that they need.

Some bacteria also converts NH3, NH4, NO2, or NO3 back into N2 which goes back to the atmosphere.

Biomes Biomes are large regions of the world with distinctive climates, wildlife and vegetation. Factors determining terrestrial biome distribution:

Latitude

Altitude

Temperature *

Precipitation *

Soil Type

Solar Energy

Winds

Proximity to water Factors determining aquatic biome distribution:

Salinity *

Turbidity (Water Clarity)

Temperature

Direction and strength of current

Presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Solar energy

Nutrients

Water Depth

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Energy

Energy Form From which ‘sphere’?

Advantages Disadvantages

Fossil Fuels

Nuclear Energy

Geothermal Energy

Hydraulic Energy

Solar Energy

Wind Energy

Tidal Energy