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8/3/2019 The 'Llamas' from Choquequirao: A 15th-Century Cusco Imperial Rock Art
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ROCK ART RESEARCHThe Journal of the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA)
and of the International Federation of Rock Art Organizations (IFRAO)
ISSN 0813~0426
Volume 26, Number 2
Melbourne, Australia
November 2009
The Board of Editorial Advisers:
Professor John B. Campbell (Australia), Professor Chen Zhao Fu (China),
John Clegg (Australia), Mario Cousens (Uruguay), Dr Bruno David (Australia),
Professor Paul Faulstich (U.S.A.), Dr Josephine Flood (AustraIia/U.K.), R. G. Gunn
(Australia), Professor Mike J . Marwood (Australia), Dr Yann-Pierre Montelle
(New Zealand), Professor Roy Querejazu Lewis (Bolivia), Pamela M. Russell (New
Zealand), Professor Daria Seglie (Italy), Dr Claire Smith (Australia), Professor B.K.
Swartz, [r (U.S.A.), Dr Graeme K.Ward (Australia).
Founding Editor: Robert G. Bednarik
The princi palobjectives of the Australian Rock Art Research Association are to provide
a forum for the dissemination of research findings; to promote Aboriginal custodianship
of sites externalising traditional Australian culture; to co-ordinate studies concerning
the significance, distribution and conservation of rock art, both nationally and with
individuals and organisations abroad; and to generally promote awareness and
appreciation of Australia's pre-Historic cultural heritage.
Archaeological Publications, Melbourne
8/3/2019 The 'Llamas' from Choquequirao: A 15th-Century Cusco Imperial Rock Art
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RockArt Re.searc" 2009 - Volume 26, Number 2, / 'P. 213-223. C. 1:.ECHEVARRiA L. oud Z. VALENCIA G. 213
KEYWORDS: Llama - Rock art - Architecture - CUSCO empire- Tahuantinsuyu - Peru
THE iLLAMAS' FROM CHOQUEQUIRAO:
A 15TH-CENTURY CUSCO IMPERIAL ROCK ART
Gori Tumi EchevarrIa L6pez and Zenobia Valencia Garda
Abstract. Asystematic exploration of the archaeological site Choquequirao, Cusco, Peru, has
in 2004resulted inthe finding ofa group of semi-naturalistic and geometric motifs that were
created with natural stones in a series of terraces at this important site, a settlement located
next to the Apurimac river in the Amazonian - Andean limit of the mountain range of the
Andes. This finding opened the possibility of developing a comprehensive and controlled
investigation of these archaeological materials, which was developed in2005. Part of the
analyses carried out included technical approaches of these features as well as historical
correlations. This paper presents an analysis of the semi-naturalistic figures, stressing the
proposition of the artistic nature, and the cultural and chronological association of these
motifs.
Introduction
In 2004, thanks to the project 'Cadastre and
Delimitation of the Choquequirao Archaeological
Park', financed by the institution COPESCO National,
one of the most notable finds of Peruvian archaeology
took place. A series of figures of camelids elaborated
in white stones were found in a group of terraces in
one sector of the archaeological site Choquequirao,
which is a 15th and 16th century settlement associated
with the Andean, empire called Tahuantinsuyu. These
findings were officially reported to the National Cui ture
Institute (INC) of Peru in 2004 (Valencia 2005; Karp
2005), and in2005 the 'Archaeological and Historical
Research Project of Choquequirao's Sector VIII
- Las Llamas' was planned and executed. Both the
discovery and the investigation were dir-ected by the
archaeologist Zenohio Valencia from the University
San Antonio Abad of Cusco,
During the' project's fieldwork the archaeologist
Gori Tumi Echevarria L6pez from San Marcos Uni-
versity joined the research to design the specialised
strategy for the study of the discovered images. Si-
multaneously with the rock art analysis the project
developed diverse investigations, including thestudy of the twelve architectural sectors of the site, the
study of the sector VIII terrace structure, the study of
the system of channels related to the terraces, among
The authors dedica te this paper to the m em ory of
C us co a rc ha eo lo gis t P ro fe ss or L uis B ar re da M u rillo .
others. Different data obtained by these works are
reported in this article to propose the archaeological
context of this important and new evidence of
Andean palaeoart.
About rock art terminology
As it will be seen below, this is a new type of
cultural expression made of natural rock, whose physi-
cal nature differs from the classical definition ofrock
art' (Bednarik 2007: 7,209). Although the terminology
recognises variations inthe typological divisions of
rock art (petroglyphs, paintings, portable palaeoart and
two types of geoglyphs) by two principal processes,
addi tive and reductive, there is no reason not to accept
the kind of rock imagery described here as 'rock art'
s ens u la io, especially in consideration of the additive
process involved in the fabric, and this is consistent
with the consideration of geoglyphs as rock art in the
same sense. The architectonical support is not a new
feature for palaeoart, as we can see in archaeological
sites such as Tzintzuntzan inMichoacan, Mexico, or
even in Cusco (Echevarria 2009), but it is the first time
it is recorded and studied in a structural frame. In
the region's native language this phenomenon can becalled quilcapirca (which could be translated as 'rock
art on wall').
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2.14 Rock Ar t Research 2009 - Vol""," 26 , NHm/,,.,. 2. 1 ' 1 ' . 213-223. G . T EO tt:V AR Rf A L " , , < I Z. VALENCIA G .
• Andahoayla.
o 40Km... Archaeoloqical site _ Actual town
. .Cusco
Figure 1. M a p o f lo ca tio n o f C ho qu eq uira o in th e C usc o re gio na l a re a.
Location
Choquequirao is located in the lower half of the
Apurimac river basin, on its right margin, appro~
ximately 1500 m above the riverbed level and 3100 m
above sea level.111ezone inwhich the site islocated
corresponds tothe 'Amazonia quechua' (Pulgar 1946)
or 'Andean Amazonia' (Morales 1993: 621) natural
region, characterised by a mountainous topography
covered by flora and fauna ofAmazonian type. TIlls
location constitutes theecologicalboundary between
the birth oftheAmazon in the mountain ranges ofthe
eastern slope oftheAndes, and the high mountainous
semi-desert region of the Andes (Fig. 1).
The archaeological site is on an elevated spur of
a mountain range that borders the Apurimac river
directly. The central area of the site was levelled
artificially to place the principal infrastructure of
the settlement (Fig.2), and the surrounding hillsides
were terraced in great extensions to incorporate new
cultivation land and small residential areas. Sector
vrn of Choquequirao, where the rock art is located,
is a zone of terraces of cultivation on a mountain
slope whose terrace walls served as support for
the realisation of the naturalistic images and other
Figure 2. C en tr al a re a o f C ho qu eq uim o w ith e xp os ed m on um en ta l a rc hite ctu re .
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Rock Art Research 2009 - Volllme 26, Number 1, pp . 213-223. C. T. ECHEVARRiA L. l ind Z. VALENCIA G .
Figure 3. P an ora mic view o f th e se cto r VIII of
Choquequ i r ao .
associated motifs (Fig. 3).
Methodology and research
Most of the discovered figures presented an
excellent state of preservation and the images or their
physical structures were almost unaffected, and it
was not necessary to manipulate any of the material.
This fact limited intervention to a study by simple
observation forwhich someofthe common parameters
applied to the archaeological analysis ofartefacts were
used, emphasising the selectionofmeasurable physical
variables for controlled comparisons. These variables
included well-known categories such as the f o rm , the
technique or the scale of the images. This approach
allowed the proposition of a hypothesis, by logical
argument, about some basic questions on the cultural
association or the contemporaneity of the motifs. Some
other questions, such as the chronological situation of
this rock art inPeruvian history, were solved bymeans
ofcross-studies that included archaeological analyses
and complementary historica 1references.
Following these premises we documented twenty-
five semi-naturalistic figures on the walls of the
terraces that are part of the half section of the sector
VITIof Choquequirao. The analysis exposes relevantresults for the establishment of a cultural articulation
context, as detailed below.
215
Figure 4. Mot i fS. (All s c al es in 10-011 units .)
Analysis and results
T e ch n iq u e o f p r od u cti on
The twenty-five figures were found on a uniformphysical support: retaining walls made of dry-laid
stones. These figures constituted part of the structure
of the walls, forming images by the contrast between
the type of rock used to delineate the image and the
type o f rock used to constitute the regular structure
of the same wall. This particularity is crucial in the
configuration ofall the structures in that the rocks that
form the images share the load ofthe edification that
serves as their support; therefore these are structural
image s . The type ofrock used in the wall isa dark schist
while the images are exclusively ofwhite calcocuarci ia ,
a sandstone of quartz and carbonate (Fig. 4).AJthough the figures are incorporated in the wall
structures, the stones used in these images do not
present the same phvsica Iqualities of the other stones
of the walls. Thus the contrast creating the imagery
isbasically provided by the variation in the colour of
the rock. No motif repeats the technicaJ design, in the
. number of blocks used to achieve the image or in the
particular arrangement of the blocks that configure
the image of the motif (Fig. 5, compare with Fig. 4).
This type of treatment individualises the figures in
a structure that does not repeat mechanically the
disposition ofits constituent elements, and this is one
ofthe technical reasons that allowed the production of
the motifs in the facades of these terraces. All the raw
material used in the construction ofthewallsand motifs
islocal and was obtained from quarries existing in the
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216 Rock Art Besearch ZOO9 - Volume 26, Number 2, pp . 213-223. C. 1: ECHEVARRiA L and z. VALENCIA G.
Figure 5.. Mo tif 4 .
rocky outcrops of the sector VIII mountain
slope and in near hillsides (Echevarria
and Valencia 2008: 72). This indicates
evidently that the technical question of the
manufacture of the structures and figures
was solved locally and has depended on
the availability of the lithic material in
the zone.
TIle support a nd t he s c al e
In all the cases the motif support
is a simple retaining wall. The whole
archaeological area of sector VIII is
characterised exclusively by terraces for
cultivation. Although there are some
structural differences, in the building
design of the terrace walls or inthe use of
the construction material (Echevarria andValencia op. cit.), all the terraces that were
used to support figures constitute singular
construction units.
The wall structure presents an adjust-
ment of schist rocks of irregular fracture
placed vertica lly in a wedge fashion,
with the widest part towards the facade
of the wall (Fig. 6). Being irregular, these
stone blocks were adjusted mutually
while they were introduced in the wall
against the earthen filling of the terrace.
The same happened with the rocks that
form the figures. This kind of structure
covers the whole extent of the terraces,
of varied dimensions, with some sections
Figure 6 . W all with a structure o f sc his t r oc ks o f ir re gu la r form s,
sec tor VIlI.
and with all the comers built inmore uniform schist rocks placed
horizontally.
Although the figures occupy only a small part of the walls,
their scale depends dearly on their support, which is why there
are no figures of natural size. The came lid motifs vary between
a maximum height of 1.94 m and one minimum of 1.25 m, being
located ina central section of the wall. In some cases the figures'
size is limited by margins of the wall or by the surface floor of the
lower terrace (Fig. 7, compare with Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). The referential
location of the figures indicates a representative convention in
respect to its support and scale, a convention broken by the only
anthropomorphous figuration, of 1.20 m height, that does not
keep a proportion to its support, being located in the middle of
the wall.
Figure 7. G ene ra l loc ation o f the im age in its s upport, m otif 20 .
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Rock Art Researd, 2009 - Volume 26,. Number 2, pp . 213-22.3. G. T: ECHEVARR iA L. an d Z. VALENCIA G.
Figure 8. A nih ro pom or ph ou s figu re , m otif 25.
Fo rma l v a ri a ti on
There are only two forms among all the figures
present onthese terraces,semi-naturalistic zoomorphic
figures (seeFigs4,5 and 7) and one anthropomorphous
figure (Fig. 8); for twenty-five motifs this distinction
implies a low representative formal variation. All
twenty-four zoomorphic figures belong to the same
type, indicating !:hatthisgroup was based on apremise
of uniform representation. The basic zoomorphic
figure is a simple composition achieved by three
straigh t lines: the lineof the neck and front leg,the line
oftheback, and the lineoftheback leg (Fig.9),and this
is the key concept ofthe form. Fora casual observer the
figures would constitute schematic repetitions, if the
main details associated to this outline that complement
the figures are not considered; these details are the
heads, the hooves and the tails.
Although the basic form is repeated as a scheme,
all the figures present independent compositions, in
their dimensions, in the number ofrocks used in theirmanufacture, or in the regular disposition of their
lines - which individualises the images according
to their production. Some elements of this formal
variation, like the difference in the position of the
legs (Table 1), have been diagnostic for a distinction
ofthe kind ofrepresentation implied by these variants
that indicate naturalistic attitudes. In the case of the
anthropomorphous figure (Fig. 8), it is evident that
the form is a pure geometric outline, since it does not
include any additional details to the depiction of the
human body, which differentiates this motif from the
zoomorphic ones.
S ty li st ic v a ri a ti on
Though the outlined shape ofthe animal constitutes
217
Figure 9. M otif 17 .
the base of the figuration, the details incorporated
into the images individualise the basic depiction,
endowing it with a notable naturalism. These details
appear asstylistic variations of the representation and
include the incorporation offacial details ofthe head,
with or without ears (Fig.10),the tail (Fig.II) and the
hooves (Fig.12).Additionalto these corporal elements,
objects resembling headdresses (Fig.13),necklaces or
MotifPosition of the hind legs
High Low Even
1 - X -2
- X -3 - X -4 - X -5 - X -6 X - -7 - X -8 - X -9 - X -
10 - X -11 X - -12 - X -13 - X -
14 - X -15 _ . X -
16 - - X
17 X - -
18 - X -
19 - X -20 - X -21 - X -22 - X -23 - X -24 - X -
Total 3 19 1
Table 1. Va ria tion in the position of the h ind le gs in . the
z oomor ph ic m o ti fs .
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218 Rock Art Research. 20()9 - Volume 26, Number 2, r ' P - 213-223_ G_ T_ ECHEVARRiA L. and Z. VALENCIA C.
F ig ur e 1 0. H ea d w ith fa ci.a lfe atu re s
a n d e a rs , m o tif2 1.
Figure 11. Ta i l, mo t i fS . Figure 12. Hoof , m o ti f 4.
Figure 13. Head with 'h ea dd re ss ' a n d e a rs ,
mot i f 22.
scarves, and loads can also be recognised.
These details are adequately explicit as to Figure 14. 'A du lt lla m a ' with 'y o un .g ll am a ', m o tif s 8 a nd 9.
be able to establish the zoological nature of
the representations as llamas (L am a g lam a ), allowing
in addition to define the deliberate intention of the
authors to represent the animal in an individual and
unique manner, even in an. adult or youthful state
(Fig. 14).
The naturalistic figuration, in its details, describes
the particular variations of some cuitura[ attributes
of the llamas, using not only characteristics such as
presumed loads or headdresses. It is the depiction of
physical corporal variation of the animal (Table2)that
stands out, exposing with accuracy certain aspects ofthe behaviour of llamas. These aspects are especially
evident in the compared variation of these physical
details: in the dimensions and shapes of the llama
heads; in the presence and location of the ears; in the
position of the taiIs;or in the particular position ofthe
hooves, which may imply the graphic description of
movement.
The animal's movement, like a figurative attribute,
stands out especially in the graphical description
of the hooves' position (Fig. 15). They are oriented,
relative to its horizontal projection, downwards or
upwards, being different between the legsin the same'llama' and in every single 'llama'. This appears to be
a stylisticvariant complementary to the formal variant
qualifying the position of the legs (seeTable1),made
MotifsFeatures
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 81 X - ? X X - - -2 X - ? X , X _ . - -3 X X X X X - X X
4 X _ . ? X X - - X?
5 X X - X X - - -
6 X X X X X - - -7 X - X X X - X X?
8 X X? ? X X - - -9 X X X X X - - -
10 - - - X X - - -11 X X X X X - - -12 X X? X X X - X -13 X - X X - - X X
14 X X? X X X - X -
15 X - X X X - X -
16 X - X X X X? - -17 X - X X X - - -18 X X X X X - - X
19 X - X X X - - -
20 X X? X X X - - -21 X X X X X - - -22 X X X X X X - -23 X X X X X - - -24 X - - - X - - -25 - - - - - - - -
Table 2. Va ri at io n a n d d is tr ib u tio n o f s ty lis tic f ea tu r es :
1 - head , 2 - facia! f ea tures , 3 - ea r s , 4 - tai l , S - hoo],
6 - 'headdress', 7 - 'necklace', 8 - ' load' ,
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R ock Ar t R e se a rc h 2009 - VO /"" l<126, Numbe r 2, pp . 213-223. G_ T. r;CHEVARRiA Land Z_ VALENCIA C.
deliberately to describe movement and
specifically to indicate marching animals.
The llamas' express, by means of their
technical production and in particular
by means of the incorporation of careful
stylistic details, a 'dynamic attitude'
(Echevarria 2008: 37).
O rg an is atio n a nd vis ua l p er sp ec tive
According to certain representative
parameters, explained below, the 'llamas'
have been graphically elaborated in
individual form or in groups of two,
three and even four motifs. The largest
motif percentage, fourteen 'llamas',
constitutes isolated figures on single
terrace walls (72% of the total), while
two terraces each show two spatially
associated llamas', presumed to be adult
with young (see Fig. 14) (11% of the total).
All the other figures, found in groups of
three and four 'Ilamas', inaddition to the
anthropomorphous figure, are located on
single terrace walls.
Ina group view the figures present an
ascending diagonal and linear placing,
following the progression of the terraces
tha t serve them as support, being located
almost at the edge of the mountainous
spur that emphasises the topography of
this sector. This location allows the group
of images to stand out within the entirearchitectural structure, implying that the
location was a deliberate choice (Fig. 16).
A remarkable detail of this arrangement
is that the figures are aligned in the
direction of the magnetic east, forming
two continuous parallel columns. The
column on the left, with ten 'llamas',
one on each successive terrace in linear
formation: and the co1umn on the right
where the fifteen remaining 'llamas' form
a more compact troop and where the
groups of two, three and four 'llamas' arelocated (Fig. 17). An individual 'llama'
was placed at the top of the group, and
at the base the anthropomorphous figure
follows the departure of the indi vidua 1
line of 'llamas'.
The relative placement of the figures
suggests that a group is naturalistically
represented on this scale. In addition
to the stylistic and formal details, the
individual motifs were produced in
two physical planes, apparently with
the intention to integrate them into a
major composition in order to describe a
complex scene that can be interpreted as
a pack of llamas on the march. This scene
219
Figure 15. MOhf18, i llu st ra ti ng h oo ve s p os it io n.
Figure 16. P an or am ic vie w o f the 'lla ma s', s ec to r V lll o f C ha ou eq uir ao .
Se e b ac k pa ge fo r c olou r ve rs ion .
Figure 17. P anor am ic vie w of the uppe r group of lla ma s.
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220 Rock Art Research 2009 - Voillme26, Number 2, "".213·223.. G.T. ECHEVJtRRtA Land Z. VALENCIA C.
Figure 19. Wa ll w ith a s tr uc tu re o f s ch ist r oc ks o f r eg ula r jo rms,sec tor VITI.igure 18. Kero, va se o f wo od
w ith s ch em atic . figu re s of l l amas ,
a pp ro xim ate ly 2 0 e m height. Taken
from the co ve r of th e Journal of
the Museum and Archaeological
Institute of Cusco, No. 21,1967.
can be seen and recognised from the close mountain
slopes to the north of the terraces, suggesting that the
representation is a uniform design for an orientated
observation, and this should be considered as a
deliberate attribute of the design.
Discussion
The artist ic nature o f th e 's c en e '
The variables used in this analysis indicate that
the figurative elements in this terrace sector of
Choquequirao have been designed to constitute. an
integrated naturalistic scene whose vision implies
a perspective of depth - a feature not before docu-
mented for any sample of Andean art, of any period.
Additionally the naturalism imposed on the individual
motifs and on the whole group constitutes a novel
aspect in the history of-the art of Cusco, especially in
its imperial phase, that had not been recognised before.
It is clear then thatthe 'scene of marching llamas' is a
s ui g en e ris sample of Andean graphic expression.
The individual and scenic naturalism of the
Choquequirao's llamas reflects visual. reality. The
organisational relation implied by the apparent scene
can be seen today, because llamas (domesticated.
approximately 6000 years RC.E.; Altamirano 1993)
when marching in formation form compact packs
commanded by a dominant llama, followed by
grouped llamas, Barnas with young and individual
llamas; which is about the same arrangement as the
representation described (see Fig 16). Additionally theentire group is 'directed' by an anthropomorphous
figure that can be interpreted as a shepherd (namero)
driving the llamas (see Fig. 8).
The value of this apparent scene has implications
in considering the representational parameters
for the imperial Cusco art that are based on more
schematic forms derived from recognition on other
supports, like textiles, ceramics, stone or wood (Fig
18). Nevertheless, it is clear that this example exceeds
the flat manifestations of such other representative
art, indicating an explicit naturalism and a visual
perspective in three dimensions. This discovery opens
a new view for the understanding of the more classicalCusco art, as one of its more extended icons.
The structural concept for the construction of
the "llama' motif is also a remarkable aspect of these
images, especially because it does not compare with
the schema ticvalue of the rigorously structural figures
documented, for example, inthe Andean textiles (Fung
2004: 226). They depend, like the images that we are
studying, on their support to be able to achieve the
figurative effect of the image. The type of structure
that supports and constitutes the Choquequirao
'llama' figures does not depend on rigid geometric
tendencies, but on the flexibility of accommodating
the mosaic components in a non-linear stonewall.
This characteristic differen hates the structure of these
walls from any other wall formed by more uniform
materials, and with structures not achieved by forced
adjustment (Fig. 19).
No graphic representations exist in the archaeologi-
cal record of Peru that have used parameters of
technical elaboration similar to this work. This is
interesting because Andean mural art, using stone,
mud or painting, is common and extends to all Peru-
vian territory and in all its cultural periods tha t include
architecture, at least from 3000 years B.C.E. onwards.
Examples of decorated facades can be found inbuildings of cultures like those of La Galgada of 3000
years B.C.E. (Grieder and Bueno 1988: 48); Sechin of
1500 years B.C.E. (Bueno 1970-1971: 208; Samaniego
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Rock Art Research 2009 - Volume 26, NumberZ, pp.213-223. G. T_ECHEVARRiA L and Z. VALENOA C. 221
(e ) COPESCO NACIONAl2005o 500m
F ig ur e 2 0. Map of the a rc ha eo logic al se ttle me nt o f C hoque quir ao showing the m ain se ctors m entione d in the te xt.
et a1. 1985: 168); Chavin of 1000 years B.C.E. (Tello
1929); Meche of 200 C.E. (Shaedel 1951); and later
in Pachacamac (Bueno 1983: 6), Chincha (Kauffman1973: 457) and Chachapoyas (Bonavia 1968: 90, Photo
6); and even in Tahuantinsuyu sites such as Tambo
Colorado or Paramonga (Kauffman op. cit.), among
others. All these examples of figurative art, excepting
the building of La Galgada, are not structural and there
are no parameters for a controlled comparison with
the art of Choquequirao, even with its pure geometric
samples that are not considered here.
The c u lt ur a l a s so c ia ti on
At the present time the main premise for the
establishment of a cultural association between archae-
ological sites and the Tahuantinsuyu empire is the
presence of formalised architecture similar to that of
the city of Cusco, of-the imperial period (approximately
from 1438 to 1533 CE.). Inthis sense Choquequirao is a
very well recognised Cusco-type establishment (llacta)
of the 15th century with an explicit cultural association.
Nevertheless, beyond the area where the most typical
architecture of the settlement is exposed (see Fig. 2),
several archaeological sectors with architecture do not
show a clear cultural association, especially as they
consist basically of extended terraces in zones with
few culturally diagnostic elements.
Although the complex of terraces lacks the cha-
racteristics of the Cusco classic architecture, these can
be inferred using other variables. For example sector
VIII (the llamas) is related, at the level of architectural
design , with two of the most representative sectors
of the settlement: sector XI (Pacchayoq), and the site
of Pinchaunuyoq (Fig. 20); these are big edifices ofterraces with remarkable similarities in the location
and in the general disposition of the structures. Though
the design indicates a parameter of formalised cultural
relation, the construction varies, separating sector vrnand the site of Pinchaunuyoq, which used the same
type of structure, from sector Xl whose construction is
similar to that used inthe central zone of the settlement
with the classical Cusco-type architecture.
The construct ion variable differentiating sector VIII
and the site of Pinchaunuyoq from sector Xl.is crucial
for the establishmen t of a cultural association infavour
of the Cusco state, since this type of construction is
unique and has not been reported in the archaeological
record for any other Andean structure of its time (see
Fig. 6). No significant known wall sample provides a
formal link between the sector VlIl construction and
any other, similar feature corresponding to a local.pre-
Tahuantinsuyu culture, or to any other in the Andes
. or the Amazonia. Establishment of a particular mode
of construction suggests that the structural aspect was
solved locally to serve the architectural needs of the
imperial Cusco occupation.
The occupation of these extensive terrace areas,
with this design and construction, does not have any
precedents in the zone where the local settlements
consist of clusters of circular edifices, like those of
Pajonal (Valencia 2005), located near Pinchaunuyoq.
This implies that the Cusco people occupied those
8/3/2019 The 'Llamas' from Choquequirao: A 15th-Century Cusco Imperial Rock Art
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222 Rock Art Ri!searc i l 2009 - Volume26, Number Z, pp . 213-22.3. G. T ECHEVAlmtA Land Z. VALENC1A G.
areas for their OW!l aims using a massive workforce.
It appears that, independent of the manual labour
and/or the origin of the workers, the design and the
construction indicates a unilineal cultural association
directly related to the imperial Cusco state ofthe 15th
century.
An additional relation can be argued at a purelyfigurative level, taking into account the value of the
scenic aspect of the motifs, that appear oriented to
the east-towards the main plaza of the archaeological
settlement. The orientation to the main area of the
liacia is probably not an accidental feature of the
figurative description of the llamas, whose naturalism
has already been mentioned. They explicitly link to
the plaza, which in this context suggests a significant
cultural association, symbolic, functional or both, also
in favour of the Cusco state.
TIle chronology
Although the documentary information about the
Tahuantinsuyu empire illustrates many aspects of its
development (Rowe 1946; Espinoza 1997), until now
clear documentation had been lacking of different
stages in imperial settlements that generally are
considered of a Single occupation with an ambiguous
'Inca' chronology (Samanez and Zapata 1989; Lecoq
and Duffait 2004; Lumbreras 2005).
The identification of a sequence of architecture in
Choquequirao (Valencia 2006; Echevarria 2008: 47-48;
Echevarria and Valencia 2008: 76-79) has allowed the
identification ofat Ieasttwo stages inthe development
of this llacta, which places the terraces with the'llamas' within the second phase of the settlement.
The horizontal development of Choquequirao,
an an extraordinary scale, is corroborated by the
examination of the twelve. sectors with architecture
of the l lacta and has already been used as the base
for historical correlation, Such historical correlations
suggest that the 'Barnas scene' corresponds to the most
important remodelling of the settlement through the
establishment of new architectural infrastructure,
erected approximately between 1471 and 1493 C.E.,
during the government of the Inca Tupaq Yupanqui.
This remodelling postdates the more formalisedarchi tecture of the central sector that was built during
the development of the early Tahuantinsuyu empire, in
the government of the fuca Pachacuti, approximately
between 1438 and 1471 C. E. In this sense the big
terrace edifices (sectors VIII and X I, and the site of
Pinchaunuyoq) correspond to. a substantial increase
of the area af the settlement, perhaps related to. new .
needs of infrastructure as the ! lacta had to canfront
different political conditions to those at its foundation
(Echevarria 2007). In the 17th-century Choquequirao
was probably completely abandoned.
This relative chronology is sustained, in addition to
the archaeological investigation, by pertinent historical
information (Rowe 1944), which is coherent with the
fact that the Spanish invasion occurred about sixty
years after the proposed date for the construction of
the extended terraces that correspond to the times
of Inca Tu pac Yu panqui. The fast development of
the Tahuanfinsuyu empire, whose impact in the
Andes is extensively documented (Tello 1936; Rowe
1944; Chavez 1992; Morales 1993; Espinoza 1997),
leaves a small margi.nta reach a detailed chranology.Choquequiraomay be one ofthe keys settlements for
the establishment of contexts of cultural correlatian for
the Cuscaculture, and to understand the-chronological
and cultural development of the Tahuantinsuyu
empire from its earlier phases.
Conclusions
The analysis of the Choquequirao rock art has been
an oppartunity without precedent to document and
to study a unique sample of Cusco arlin a complex
architectural context, a context of material components
able to set parameters of cultural and chronological
association. The results of these studies have revealed
not only aspects related to the 'llama' motifs, but related
to the whole archaeological settlement, exposing a
context of cultural correlation of one of the earliest
and most remarkable sites of the history of the Cusco
cultural development.
Given the available evidence it is dear that the
production of the motifs is culturaIIy related to Cusco
society. The figurative nature of the motifs, even in
their singularity, shows a uniform association with
the Cusco culture of the 15th century, corresponding
to the second remodelling of the llacta during the
government of the Inca Tupac Yupanqui. So far there is
no evidence that would sustain an alternative cultural
orchronological relation.
Finally itis consistentto consider that the meaning
of this figurative 'scene' is related to a dominant
imperial state that apparently gave an extraordinary
value to llamas. Given its unique manufacture it is
probable that this' scene' implies a strong situational
relation in a natural region appropriated for gold
productian(Ramero 1909; Bueno 1951;Huertas 1972),
or for cultivation of products like coca, com or beans,
as the historical documentation for the zone suggests
(Huertas op. cit.; Pulgar 1946), and which our pollenanalyses inthe terraces proved to be have been grown
there (Pumaccahua 2005) ..A t least the last activities can
be associated to the terraces' construction and, if we
think in terms of transportation, to the 'llamas scene',
although we still lack the evidence to establish the
specific nature of this relation. However, what these
llamas meant for the imperial Cusco state, or for the
Cusco genera l. society; or even for the foreign observer,
has a varied contextual value that must. be reserved
for future studies.
A ck nowle dgm en isThe authors thank three RA R referees for their review of
this paper. Any remaining errors are the authors'.
8/3/2019 The 'Llamas' from Choquequirao: A 15th-Century Cusco Imperial Rock Art
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Rock Art Research 2009 - Volllme 26, Number 2, pr. 213-223. G. 1: ECHEVARRiA L. "nd Z. VALENCJA C.
God Tumi Echevarria Lopez
San Marcos University
Peruvian Rock Art Association (APAR)
Plaza Julio C. Tello 274 No 303. Torres de San Borja.
Lima 41
Peru
E-mail: [email protected]
Zenobio Valencia Garcia
San Antonio Abad del Cusco University
Peruvian Rock Art Association (APAR)o
E-mail;zvaJenciagarcia@gmail .com
Final M5 received 23June 2009.
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