The Long Pause to Regroup - Home | York University · The period between antiquity (ancient times), marked by the fall of Rome around 500 C.E., and the beginning of the modern era

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The Long Pause to The Long Pause to RegroupRegroup

The transition from Antiquity to The transition from Antiquity to the Renaissance, with influences the Renaissance, with influences

from the Near Eastfrom the Near East


RomeRome

Italian peninsula occupied by 1000 BCE by Italian peninsula occupied by 1000 BCE by Latin speaking tribesLatin speaking tribes

800 BCE: 800 BCE: Greeks arrive in southGreeks arrive in southEtruscans in northEtruscans in north

Rome became a republic in 509 BCERome became a republic in 509 BCEPower invested in a SenatePower invested in a Senate


Roman TechnologyRoman Technology

Romans were great Romans were great engineersengineers

Roads, aqueducts, Roads, aqueducts, buildings, citiesbuildings, cities

The Rule of LawThe Rule of LawThe authority of The authority of Roman government Roman government was based upon was based upon written laws enacted written laws enacted by its senate. by its senate.

A surviving Roman aqueduct at Nîmes in France.

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Roman ScienceRoman Science

"Greek science written in Latin""Greek science written in Latin"Transmitted to Rome in the Hellenistic Transmitted to Rome in the Hellenistic period (300 BCE period (300 BCE -- 200200 CE)CE)

Mostly via the Museum in Alexandria and Mostly via the Museum in Alexandria and those trained there.those trained there.


Biological ScienceBiological Science

HerophilusHerophilus of Alexandria (250 BCE?)of Alexandria (250 BCE?)Dissection of live human bodiesDissection of live human bodies

Galen (b. 129 CE)Galen (b. 129 CE)Worked in Roman EmpireWorked in Roman EmpireSought principles of medicineSought principles of medicineWrote definitive treatise on anatomy and Wrote definitive treatise on anatomy and physiologyphysiology

Became the standard text for over 1400 yearsBecame the standard text for over 1400 years


Roman MathematicsRoman MathematicsVery difficult to find anything novel.Very difficult to find anything novel.Calculation in the Roman Empire was hampered Calculation in the Roman Empire was hampered by the system of Roman numerals:by the system of Roman numerals:

M=1000M=1000CM=900CM=900DCCC=800DCCC=800DCC=700DCC=700DC=600DC=600D=500D=500CD=400CD=400CCC=300CCC=300CC=200CC=200C=100C=100

C=100C=100XC=90XC=90LXXX=80LXXX=80LXX=70LXX=70LX=60LX=60L=50L=50XL=40XL=40XXX=30XXX=30XX=20XX=20X=10X=10

X=10X=10IX=9IX=9VIII=8VIII=8VII=7VII=7VI=6VI=6V=5V=5IV=4IV=4III=3III=3II=2II=2I=1I=1

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Imagine the difficulty of arithmetic Imagine the difficulty of arithmetic operationsoperations

Compare 3629 x 2983 Compare 3629 x 2983 To MMMDCXXIX x MMCMLXXXIIITo MMMDCXXIX x MMCMLXXXIIINote: Note:

Like the Egyptians, the Romans used a decimalLike the Egyptians, the Romans used a decimal--based based system and had separate symbols for the units, tens, system and had separate symbols for the units, tens, hundreds, thousands, millions, etc.hundreds, thousands, millions, etc.Like the Babylonians, the Romans had place value in Like the Babylonians, the Romans had place value in that the larger numerals were always to the left of that the larger numerals were always to the left of lesser numerals, with the exception of the special lesser numerals, with the exception of the special symbols for the 4 and 9 position: IV and IX, XL and symbols for the 4 and 9 position: IV and IX, XL and XC, CD and CM, etc.XC, CD and CM, etc.


Romans were practicalRomans were practical

The only interest that Romans took in The only interest that Romans took in mathematics was what was necessary for mathematics was what was necessary for commerce and engineering.commerce and engineering.They had no interest in, say, geometry for They had no interest in, say, geometry for its own sake. Theoretical knowledge was its own sake. Theoretical knowledge was little valued.little valued.


Roman engineeringRoman engineering

Roman engineering was amazing for its time. Roman engineering was amazing for its time. But it required relatively little mathematics. But it required relatively little mathematics. Roman engineers learned only what they Roman engineers learned only what they deemed necessary to know.deemed necessary to know.The famous engineerThe famous engineer--architect architect ArgippaArgippa, who , who undertook a survey of the entire Roman empire, undertook a survey of the entire Roman empire, had to call in specialists from Alexandria to carry had to call in specialists from Alexandria to carry out the measurements and calculations.out the measurements and calculations.

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The Julian CalendarThe Julian Calendar

Introduced 45 BCE, by Julius Caesar Introduced 45 BCE, by Julius Caesar 365365--day year with leap years every fourth day year with leap years every fourth yearyearMuch better than all previous calendarsMuch better than all previous calendarsRecognition that the year is not evenly Recognition that the year is not evenly divided into days.divided into days.


EncyclopaedistsEncyclopaedists

In the late Roman Empire.In the late Roman Empire.Attempted to write down Attempted to write down ““everythingeverything””they knew in they knew in ““Epitomes.Epitomes.””Often totally disorganized, but great Often totally disorganized, but great source for historians to figure out what source for historians to figure out what people knew and believed.people knew and believed.


MartianusMartianus CapellaCapella

An exception: An exception: MartianusMartianus CapellaCapella’’ssorganization of knowledge into the 7 organization of knowledge into the 7 Liberal ArtsLiberal Arts

TriviumTriviumGrammar, Dialectic, RhetoricGrammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric

QuadriviumQuadriviumGeometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, MusicGeometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, Music

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The Roman Empire at its heightThe Roman Empire at its height


ByzantiumByzantium

In 395 C. E., the Roman Empire was In 395 C. E., the Roman Empire was divided into an Eastern and a Western divided into an Eastern and a Western branch.branch.The Eastern Empire, The Eastern Empire, ““Byzantium,Byzantium,”” based based in Constantinople, thrived, lasting until in Constantinople, thrived, lasting until 1453.1453.

Largely Greek influenceLargely Greek influence


Emperor Justinian 527Emperor Justinian 527--565565

Emperor of the Eastern Roman EmpireEmperor of the Eastern Roman EmpireCalled later the "Byzantine Empire"Called later the "Byzantine Empire"

Justinian tried to reJustinian tried to re--unite the Eastern and unite the Eastern and Western empires, unsuccessfullyWestern empires, unsuccessfully

Tried to establish Latin across his empire.Tried to establish Latin across his empire.After his death, Greek became the official After his death, Greek became the official language.language.

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The Corpus The Corpus JurisJuris

Justinian Justinian commissioned a summary of commissioned a summary of Roman LawRoman Law..

Part of his effort to rePart of his effort to re--unite the empire.unite the empire.Was completed by a team of scholars in only Was completed by a team of scholars in only eight years, but was a fraction of the body of eight years, but was a fraction of the body of law.law.

Centuries later, in the west, the Centuries later, in the west, the Corpus Corpus JurisJuris was taken to be the final and perfect was taken to be the final and perfect expression of Roman Law.expression of Roman Law.


The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire

Successfully defended itself from attack Successfully defended itself from attack from North, East, and West when other from North, East, and West when other cultures fell.cultures fell.

Superior knowledge of military technologies, Superior knowledge of military technologies, notnot involving guns.involving guns.

Finally fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453Finally fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453Famous victory for guns.Famous victory for guns.One of the traditional dates for the end of the One of the traditional dates for the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era.Era.


Greek FireGreek Fire

A Byzantine terror weapon.A Byzantine terror weapon.A petroleum based liquid.A petroleum based liquid.

Caught fire when it hit the water. It was a mainstay of ByzantinCaught fire when it hit the water. It was a mainstay of Byzantine e defence from both Arabs and Slavs from as early as the 7th defence from both Arabs and Slavs from as early as the 7th century.century.

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The Decline of the (Western) The Decline of the (Western) Roman EmpireRoman Empire

The Roman Empire had spread across Europe, North Africa, and theThe Roman Empire had spread across Europe, North Africa, and theNear East during the thousand years from 500 BCE to 500 CE.Near East during the thousand years from 500 BCE to 500 CE.The western empire then collapsed, leaving a governmental void The western empire then collapsed, leaving a governmental void across much of Western civilization. across much of Western civilization.


The Fall of RomeThe Fall of RomeMany reasons Many reasons are given for the are given for the fall of the fall of the Roman Empire.Roman Empire.Possibly they Possibly they were no longer were no longer able to feed able to feed themselves by themselves by importing food importing food from their from their colonies.colonies.

Ruins of Leptis Magna (now in Libya). A great city in a region that supplied food to Rome. Overfarming made the land unproductive. It is now a desert.


Europe in the Dark AgesEurope in the Dark AgesThe period between antiquity (ancient times), The period between antiquity (ancient times), marked by the fall of Rome around 500 C.E., marked by the fall of Rome around 500 C.E., and the beginning of the modern era (around and the beginning of the modern era (around the middle of the 15the middle of the 15thth century) is called the century) is called the Medieval period, or the Middle Ages.Medieval period, or the Middle Ages.

The first 500 years of that is called the Dark Ages The first 500 years of that is called the Dark Ages (about 500(about 500--1000 C.E.).1000 C.E.).

During this time Europe was overrun by nomadic During this time Europe was overrun by nomadic tribes from the north and west.tribes from the north and west.Literacy was lost, farming techniques forgotten, Literacy was lost, farming techniques forgotten, infrastructure deteriorated.infrastructure deteriorated.Villages became isolated from each other.Villages became isolated from each other.

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CharlemagneCharlemagne

Europe began to recover Europe began to recover under Charles the Great under Charles the Great ((CharlemagneCharlemagne).).In 800 he was crowned In 800 he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor.Holy Roman Emperor.He saw illiteracy as one He saw illiteracy as one of the major problems of the major problems facing Europe.facing Europe.


SchoolsSchools

Charlemagne founded schools in Charlemagne founded schools in cathedrals all over Europe.cathedrals all over Europe.

The language of instruction was Latin.The language of instruction was Latin.The curriculum was the seven liberal arts, The curriculum was the seven liberal arts, using using MartianusMartianus CapellaCapella’’ss work.work.

When Charlemagne died many of his When Charlemagne died many of his reforms were lost, but some of the schools reforms were lost, but some of the schools remained and became the bases of later remained and became the bases of later European universities.European universities.


The Recovery of EuropeThe Recovery of Europe

By the early 1400s, Europe had pulled By the early 1400s, Europe had pulled itself out of its disorganization after the itself out of its disorganization after the fall of Rome.fall of Rome.The feudal system provided stable The feudal system provided stable government and protection from raiders.government and protection from raiders.The economy was flourishing and the The economy was flourishing and the population rising and in good health.population rising and in good health.But there was little literacy and almost no But there was little literacy and almost no knowledge of ancient science.knowledge of ancient science.

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The Rise of IslamThe Rise of Islam

Before MohammedBefore MohammedArab culture disorganizedArab culture disorganized

nomadic, polytheisticnomadic, polytheisticcenteredcentered in Meccain Mecca

MohammedMohammedborn 570 in Meccaborn 570 in Meccaat age of 40 had revelation, became prophet and fled at age of 40 had revelation, became prophet and fled Mecca in 622 (traditional date for start of Islam)Mecca in 622 (traditional date for start of Islam)

Mohammed's revelations = the Koran (Mohammed's revelations = the Koran (QuQu’’ranran))One God, one Prophet, one BookOne God, one Prophet, one Book


The The Spread of IslamSpread of Islam

In 100 years (630In 100 years (630--730) Islam spread from Arabia to 730) Islam spread from Arabia to India in the East and to Spain in the West.India in the East and to Spain in the West.


The founding of BaghdadThe founding of Baghdad

In 762, the rulers of the Islamic empire, In 762, the rulers of the Islamic empire, the caliphs (i.e., the caliphs (i.e., ““successorssuccessors””), then in ), then in Damascus, decided to found a new capital Damascus, decided to found a new capital on the Tigris river at the site of a small on the Tigris river at the site of a small town known by the Persian name, town known by the Persian name, Baghdad.Baghdad.By the ninth century, Baghdad had a By the ninth century, Baghdad had a population of 800,000, making it larger population of 800,000, making it larger than Constantinople. than Constantinople.

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The rise of ArabicThe rise of Arabic

Arabic became the language of learning.Arabic became the language of learning.All Moslems had to learn Arabic to read All Moslems had to learn Arabic to read the Koran.the Koran.Anything written in Arabic carried the Anything written in Arabic carried the prestige previously reserved for works in prestige previously reserved for works in Greek.Greek.


The House of WisdomThe House of Wisdom

Caliph alCaliph al--MaMa’’mmûûnn established a great established a great academy, the House of Wisdom, in academy, the House of Wisdom, in Baghdad, comparable to the Museum in Baghdad, comparable to the Museum in Alexandria.Alexandria.The House of Wisdom set out to acquire The House of Wisdom set out to acquire all the great Greek manuscripts and works all the great Greek manuscripts and works of other cultures.of other cultures.

An emissary was sent to Constantinople to An emissary was sent to Constantinople to obtain a copy of Euclidobtain a copy of Euclid’’s s Elements Elements from the from the Byzantine Emperor.Byzantine Emperor.


The House of Wisdom, 2The House of Wisdom, 2By the beginning of the tenth century, almost all By the beginning of the tenth century, almost all the available Greek scientific and philosophical the available Greek scientific and philosophical works had been translated into Arabic at the works had been translated into Arabic at the House of Wisdom.House of Wisdom.Copies of these and other works were then Copies of these and other works were then made and sent to Islamic libraries throughout made and sent to Islamic libraries throughout Islam.Islam.Islamic scholars then began to extend and refine Islamic scholars then began to extend and refine all these works, creating a huge body of all these works, creating a huge body of scholarship.scholarship.

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Arab mathematicsArab mathematics

One of the greatest Arab mathematicians One of the greatest Arab mathematicians whose work was preserved in these whose work was preserved in these libraries was Mohammed libraries was Mohammed ibnibn MMûûsâsâ alal--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi, who lived approximately , who lived approximately from 780 to 850. His patron was Caliph al from 780 to 850. His patron was Caliph al MaMa’’mmûûnn..He was the court astronomer to the Caliph He was the court astronomer to the Caliph and one of the early scholars at the House and one of the early scholars at the House of Wisdom.of Wisdom.


AlAl--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss worksworks

AlAl--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi wrote two works that wrote two works that became enormously influential in both the became enormously influential in both the Islamic world and later in Europe when Islamic world and later in Europe when they were translated into Latin.they were translated into Latin.One was on arithmetic, the other on One was on arithmetic, the other on algebra.algebra.


AlAl--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss ArithmeticArithmetic

AlAl--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss book on arithmetic had a book on arithmetic had a title that could be translated as title that could be translated as Book of Book of Addition and Subtraction According to the Addition and Subtraction According to the Hindu Calculation.Hindu Calculation.It explained the Hindu method of writing It explained the Hindu method of writing numerals and the decimal system.numerals and the decimal system.

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0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 00, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0

AlAl--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi mentions mentions ““nine lettersnine letters””meaning the symbols for the numerals 1 meaning the symbols for the numerals 1 to 9.to 9.He also introduces the symbol and use of He also introduces the symbol and use of the place holder, zero:the place holder, zero:

““When nothing remains [in subtraction], put When nothing remains [in subtraction], put down a small circle so that the place be not down a small circle so that the place be not empty, but the circle must occupy it.empty, but the circle must occupy it.””


The influence of The influence of alal--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ssarithmetic textarithmetic text

All copies of All copies of alal--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss original original Arabic text have been lost.Arabic text have been lost.We have only a Latin translation We have only a Latin translation AlgoritmiAlgoritmide de numeronumero IndorumIndorum by John Seville from by John Seville from the early 12the early 12thth century.century.So great was its influence that the new So great was its influence that the new numerals were misnamed numerals were misnamed ““ArabicArabic””because of albecause of al--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss book, despite book, despite being referred to there as of Indian origin.being referred to there as of Indian origin.


AlAl--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss algebra textalgebra text

Though the Though the ArithmeticaArithmetica of of DiophantusDiophantus, a Greek, , a Greek, was written long before alwas written long before al--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss and, and, despite the name, was really about algebra, despite the name, was really about algebra, Western Europe first learned about algebra from Western Europe first learned about algebra from alal--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss book.book.

DiophantusDiophantus’’ss work was not translated into Latin until work was not translated into Latin until long after allong after al--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss..

Did alDid al--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi learn algebra from learn algebra from DiophantusDiophantus’’ss Greek text?Greek text?

Unlikely, since their approaches are entirely different.Unlikely, since their approaches are entirely different.

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AlAl--jabrjabr

The title of alThe title of al--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss algebra text, algebra text, in transliterated Arabic, is in transliterated Arabic, is HisâbHisâb alal--jabrjabrww’’alal muqâbalahmuqâbalah, which means something , which means something like like ““the science of reunion and reduction.the science of reunion and reduction.

Reunion meaning transferring negative terms Reunion meaning transferring negative terms to the other side of the equation.to the other side of the equation.Reduction meaning combining like terms on Reduction meaning combining like terms on the same side into a single term, or cancelling the same side into a single term, or cancelling like terms on both sides.like terms on both sides.


AlgebraAlgebra

The title, The title, HisâbHisâb alal--jabrjabr ww’’alal muqâbalahmuqâbalah, was , was translated into Latin astranslated into Latin asLiberLiber AlgebraeAlgebrae et et AlmucabolaAlmucabola, , from which we from which we have taken have taken ““algebraalgebra”” as the mathematics of as the mathematics of solving equations for unknowns.solving equations for unknowns.Likewise our work Likewise our work ““algorithmalgorithm””, meaning a , meaning a specified procedure to follow to solve a problem specified procedure to follow to solve a problem is merely a Latinized version of alis merely a Latinized version of al--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ssname.name.


AlAl--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi the transmitter, not the transmitter, not the inventorthe inventor

Just as EuclidJust as Euclid’’s work was the means by s work was the means by which much of Greek mathematics which much of Greek mathematics became known to a wider world, became known to a wider world, alal--KhowârizimiKhowârizimi’’ss books were the vehicles for books were the vehicles for the transmission of the old Persian the transmission of the old Persian mathematical knowledge to the rest of the mathematical knowledge to the rest of the world.world.

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Algebra as divine revelationAlgebra as divine revelation

Algebraic formulae and algorithms were Algebraic formulae and algorithms were expressed as rhetorical pronouncements, expressed as rhetorical pronouncements, in verse, or as aphorisms. No symbols in verse, or as aphorisms. No symbols were used. No proofs were supplied.were used. No proofs were supplied.Any demonstrations given as justification Any demonstrations given as justification were usually in a geometric form, inspired were usually in a geometric form, inspired by Euclid.by Euclid.

Perhaps it was felt that an argument had to Perhaps it was felt that an argument had to be geometric to convince.be geometric to convince.


A geometric solutionA geometric solutionConsider a problem that we would Consider a problem that we would write aswrite as

xx22 + 10x = 39+ 10x = 39The central square is xThe central square is x22

The four rectangles equal 10xThe four rectangles equal 10xThe four small squares at the The four small squares at the edges have area 4(10/4)edges have area 4(10/4)2 2

=100/4=25=100/4=25Therefore the entire large square Therefore the entire large square is equal to xis equal to x22 + 10x + 25.+ 10x + 25.Since xSince x22 + 10x = 39, then+ 10x = 39, thenxx22 + 10x + 25 = 39 + 25 = 64+ 10x + 25 = 39 + 25 = 64

Therefore the side of the large Therefore the side of the large square is square is √√64 = 8.64 = 8.Therefore x = 8 Therefore x = 8 –– 10/2 = 3.10/2 = 3.This is the method called This is the method called completing the square.completing the square.


The CrusadesThe Crusades

The Byzantine Empire, feeling threatened The Byzantine Empire, feeling threatened by the encroaching Islamic Caliphate by the encroaching Islamic Caliphate appealed to Christian Europe for military appealed to Christian Europe for military assistance.assistance.Thus began the Crusades to free the Holy Thus began the Crusades to free the Holy Land, starting in 1092, and lasting about Land, starting in 1092, and lasting about 300 years.300 years.

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The Surprise DiscoveryThe Surprise Discovery

Much to the surprise of the invading Christians, Much to the surprise of the invading Christians, the Muslim world was much more literate and the Muslim world was much more literate and culturally advanced than Europe. culturally advanced than Europe. Europeans discovered a wealth of literature, Europeans discovered a wealth of literature, much of it originally written in Greek, that was much of it originally written in Greek, that was unknown in medieval Europe.unknown in medieval Europe.

Among these were works of Euclid, Ptolemy, and Among these were works of Euclid, Ptolemy, and much of Aristotle.much of Aristotle.


Greek texts in ArabicGreek texts in Arabic

EuclidEuclid’’s s ElementsElements was available in Arabic was available in Arabic by the year 800.by the year 800.PtolemyPtolemy’’s s MegaleMegale SyntaxisSyntaxis ((““Great Great CompositionComposition””) appeared in Arabic in 827, ) appeared in Arabic in 827, where the title was transliterated as where the title was transliterated as ““Al Al MagestMagest””

The Arabic title stuck when it was translated The Arabic title stuck when it was translated into Latin later. We know it in English as into Latin later. We know it in English as The The Almagest.Almagest.


The Great Translation ProjectThe Great Translation ProjectA huge project was undertaken to translate A huge project was undertaken to translate much of this literature from Arabic into Latin to much of this literature from Arabic into Latin to be accessible to European scholars.be accessible to European scholars.

At Toledo, Spain, over 150 years.At Toledo, Spain, over 150 years.The typical process: The typical process:

Jewish rabbis, fluent in Arabic and Spanish, translated into Jewish rabbis, fluent in Arabic and Spanish, translated into Spanish.Spanish.Christian scholars, fluent in Spanish and Latin, translated Christian scholars, fluent in Spanish and Latin, translated from Spanish to Latin.from Spanish to Latin.

The translated works were sent to Italy and The translated works were sent to Italy and became the foundation for scholarship at the became the foundation for scholarship at the new European universities.new European universities.

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ScholasticismScholasticism

The European universities tried to digest The European universities tried to digest the new learning in a Christian context.the new learning in a Christian context.AristotleAristotle’’s world view was taken as a base s world view was taken as a base for Christian dogma, and all scientific for Christian dogma, and all scientific understanding was fit to that context, understanding was fit to that context, including Ptolemyincluding Ptolemy’’s s AlmagestAlmagest, which , which therefore became theologically correct.therefore became theologically correct.


The Black DeathThe Black Death

Bubonic plague hit Bubonic plague hit Europe in 1346.Europe in 1346.The Black Death The Black Death eliminated 1/3 to 1/2 eliminated 1/3 to 1/2 of population of of population of Europe.Europe.


The Black Death as RetributionThe Black Death as Retribution

This illness was called the Black Death because sores, This illness was called the Black Death because sores, skin, blood, vomit, etc., all turned black before the skin, blood, vomit, etc., all turned black before the patient died, often within a few hours of becoming ill.patient died, often within a few hours of becoming ill.At the time it was widely thought to be divine retribution At the time it was widely thought to be divine retribution for sinful living. It was worst in port cities.for sinful living. It was worst in port cities.

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A New Beginning for EuropeA New Beginning for Europe

After the Black Death, the economy of After the Black Death, the economy of Europe took off.Europe took off.

Fewer people sharing the same resources.Fewer people sharing the same resources.Emphasis on labourEmphasis on labour--saving devices.saving devices.The Renaissance began in earnest.The Renaissance began in earnest.


The Demand for BooksThe Demand for Books

When the Renaissance got underway, When the Renaissance got underway, more and more people in Europe more and more people in Europe wanted access to the mass of written wanted access to the mass of written scholarship that was accumulating from scholarship that was accumulating from the translations of Moslem works from the translations of Moslem works from Arabic and of Byzantine works from Arabic and of Byzantine works from Greek.Greek.


The Demand for Books, 2The Demand for Books, 2

Paper from Linen was readily available.Paper from Linen was readily available.But scribes were in great demand and could not keep But scribes were in great demand and could not keep up.up.

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Printed Block BooksPrinted Block BooksA means of printing any A means of printing any written material mechanically written material mechanically would be in demand.would be in demand.Mechanical printing was Mechanical printing was known in China for at least known in China for at least 1000 years. 1000 years. But the method required But the method required making a woodcut of an making a woodcut of an entire page (in mirror entire page (in mirror image), then inking the image), then inking the woodcut, then applying it to woodcut, then applying it to a piece of paper.a piece of paper.


Printing from Movable TypePrinting from Movable Type

Some Some ““block booksblock books”” were printed in were printed in Europe in the 15Europe in the 15thth century.century.But the process was cumbersome, and But the process was cumbersome, and errorerror--prone.prone.

A single mistake on one page required that A single mistake on one page required that the entire page be rethe entire page be re--carved.carved.

A method was needed to assemble a A method was needed to assemble a page, letter by letter.page, letter by letter.


GutenbergGutenberg’’s Printing Presss Printing Press

Johann Gutenberg Johann Gutenberg (1400(1400--1468)1468)..Goldsmith from Mainz, Germany.Goldsmith from Mainz, Germany.Found a method of manufacturing Found a method of manufacturing individual letter slugs (that print the individual letter slugs (that print the letter) of a uniform height so they letter) of a uniform height so they could be lined up on a bed, inked, and could be lined up on a bed, inked, and a sheet of paper pressed against them a sheet of paper pressed against them to print a page.to print a page.

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GutenbergGutenberg’’s matrixs matrixGutenbergGutenberg’’s trick was to use the s trick was to use the same mould for all letter slugs, same mould for all letter slugs, but placing a different letter but placing a different letter impression on the end to make impression on the end to make different letters.different letters.A molten lead alloy is poured into A molten lead alloy is poured into a matrix with the letter a matrix with the letter impression on the end, held impression on the end, held together with a firm spring.together with a firm spring.The matrix adjusts to the width The matrix adjusts to the width of the letters desired.of the letters desired.

Wide for Wide for ““MM””, narrow for , narrow for ““II””, , etc.etc.


The Bed of the PressThe Bed of the PressThe desired letters for a The desired letters for a page are then arranged page are then arranged and lined up on a flat and lined up on a flat bed, secured in place and bed, secured in place and inked.inked.A sheet of paper is A sheet of paper is loaded into a frame held loaded into a frame held above the bed and then above the bed and then pressed onto the inked pressed onto the inked letters with a forceful letters with a forceful screw press.screw press.


The finished productThe finished product

The printed page can contain any text whatsoever that The printed page can contain any text whatsoever that can be written in Latin letters.can be written in Latin letters.When sufficient copies are made, the letter slugs are When sufficient copies are made, the letter slugs are removed and sorted ready for another page to be removed and sorted ready for another page to be composed.composed.

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A 16A 16thth century print shopcentury print shop

Printing was immensely successful. In the 50 years from 1450 to Printing was immensely successful. In the 50 years from 1450 to 1500 more than 10 million volumes were printed.1500 more than 10 million volumes were printed.


Printing changed the worldPrinting changed the world

The character of The character of education, general education, general knowledge, the knowledge, the dissemination of dissemination of information, and all information, and all the infrastructure of the infrastructure of civilization changed civilization changed dramatically with the dramatically with the invention of printing.invention of printing.


Influence of Printing on ScienceInfluence of Printing on Science

More texts available, to a wider audience.More texts available, to a wider audience.Publishing scientific discoveries became Publishing scientific discoveries became the norm.the norm.Interest in new knowledge (e.g., from Interest in new knowledge (e.g., from exploration).exploration).

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The woodcutThe woodcutSoon after the invention of printing Soon after the invention of printing with movable type, the woodcut with movable type, the woodcut was invented, providing a method was invented, providing a method of printing illustrations in a book.of printing illustrations in a book.This was of major benefit to This was of major benefit to biology, where illustrations of biology, where illustrations of animals and plants could be animals and plants could be compared to the real things.compared to the real things.

Especially the Especially the ““Herbals,Herbals,””pharmaceutical texts on preparing pharmaceutical texts on preparing medicines from wild growing herbs.medicines from wild growing herbs.The illustration here is from Otto The illustration here is from Otto BrunfelsBrunfels’’LivingLiving Portraits of PlantsPortraits of Plants, , 1530.1530.


ComparativComparative anatomy e anatomy diagramsdiagramsIllustrations, Illustrations, sideside--byby--side, of side, of the skeletons of the skeletons of different different animals (here a animals (here a human and a human and a bird) showed bird) showed relationships relationships that would not that would not have occurred have occurred to the ordinary to the ordinary observer.observer.


Renaissance Illustrations ofRenaissance Illustrations ofPreviously Previously ““UnknownUnknown”” AnimalsAnimals

A creature resembling a bull, but larger. And, a scaly “fish man.”

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The Revival of LearningThe Revival of Learning

Started with the 12Started with the 12thth century translation project.century translation project.Translated works formed basis of curriculum at medieval Translated works formed basis of curriculum at medieval universities.universities.

In the 15In the 15thth century Byzantine manuscripts were imported century Byzantine manuscripts were imported into Western Europe.into Western Europe.


HumanismHumanism

Replaced theology in status.Replaced theology in status.Relations of people in society.Relations of people in society.Activity: reworking Classical literature.Activity: reworking Classical literature.Rebellion against Scholasticism.Rebellion against Scholasticism.Worshipped remote past.Worshipped remote past.


Early HumanismEarly Humanism

Manuel Manuel ChrysolorasChrysolorascame to Italy in came to Italy in 1397 from 1397 from Byzantium.Byzantium.

Taught Greek in Taught Greek in Italy.Italy.

Sources dried up Sources dried up after 1453.after 1453. Ptolemy's Ptolemy's GeographyGeography not known before not known before

1406 when brought from Constantinople.1406 when brought from Constantinople.

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Printing of Ancient Scientific Printing of Ancient Scientific ClassicsClassics

Early printing was of very old texts:Early printing was of very old texts:Bible, theology, law, medicineBible, theology, law, medicineFew contemporary worksFew contemporary worksFew scientific worksFew scientific works

Need for Latin translationsNeed for Latin translationsVery few Western Europeans literate in Greek even Very few Western Europeans literate in Greek even into the 16into the 16thth and 17and 17thth centuries.centuries.Greek science had to be translated into Latin.Greek science had to be translated into Latin.Among the first to be translated:Among the first to be translated:

EuclidEuclidMedical works: Hippocrates, Medical works: Hippocrates, DioscoridesDioscorides, Galen, etc., Galen, etc.


Scientific Atmosphere in Early Scientific Atmosphere in Early RenaissanceRenaissance

Little interest in science among humanistsLittle interest in science among humanistsHad to wait for translations from GreekHad to wait for translations from GreekScholasticism gave way to EmpiricismScholasticism gave way to Empiricism

Closer study of nature became the norm.Closer study of nature became the norm.


The Founding of the The Founding of the UniversitiesUniversities

The original The original universitasuniversitas was merely a collection of was merely a collection of individuals who came together to communicate ideas.individuals who came together to communicate ideas.The original The original universitasuniversitas were located at the monastery were located at the monastery and cathedral schools founded by Charlemagne, and and cathedral schools founded by Charlemagne, and their purpose was to prepare students for the their purpose was to prepare students for the priesthood.priesthood.Their function was to preserve, not advance, knowledge.Their function was to preserve, not advance, knowledge.The reputation of a particular school depended largely The reputation of a particular school depended largely on the reputation of its teachers. Teachers were paid on the reputation of its teachers. Teachers were paid directly by the students. A famous teacher attracted directly by the students. A famous teacher attracted large numbers of students and enriched the town where large numbers of students and enriched the town where the school was located.the school was located.

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Student organizationStudent organizationStudents banded together to protect themselves Students banded together to protect themselves from extortion by local citizens and to secure from extortion by local citizens and to secure legal rights. These associations formed the legal rights. These associations formed the administrative structure of the emerging administrative structure of the emerging universities.universities.Eventually they gained legal recognition through Eventually they gained legal recognition through a charter from the king or the pope.a charter from the king or the pope.

All the early medieval universities were formed this All the early medieval universities were formed this way: Bologna (1158), Paris (1200), Padua (1222), way: Bologna (1158), Paris (1200), Padua (1222), Oxford (1214), and Cambridge (1231).Oxford (1214), and Cambridge (1231).


The Seven Liberal ArtsThe Seven Liberal ArtsAs at CharlemagneAs at Charlemagne’’s cathedral schools, the s cathedral schools, the curriculum at the new universities followed the curriculum at the new universities followed the seven liberal arts of seven liberal arts of MartianusMartianus CapellaCapella::

The The TriviumTriviumGrammar, Dialectic, RhetoricGrammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric

The The QuadriviumQuadriviumGeometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, MusicGeometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, Music

This would suggest that mathematics was given This would suggest that mathematics was given a high place of importance, but in fact little a high place of importance, but in fact little attention was given to the attention was given to the QuadriviumQuadrivium on the on the grounds that those subjects were grounds that those subjects were ““practicalpractical”” and and a university education was held to be a university education was held to be ““general.general.””


Perspective in MapsPerspective in Maps

Paolo Paolo ToscanelliToscanelli(1396(1396--1482)1482)

Brought Brought Ptolemy's Ptolemy's GeographyGeography to to ItalyItaly

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Engineering marvelsEngineering marvels

FilippoFilippo Brunelleschi (1377Brunelleschi (1377--1446)1446)Renaissance ManRenaissance ManBuilt Dome of cathedral in Florence.Built Dome of cathedral in Florence.


Perspective in ArchitecturePerspective in Architecture

Brunelleschi built Brunelleschi built churches with churches with perspective tricks to perspective tricks to make them grandermake them grander

The Church of San The Church of San Lorenzo in Florence Lorenzo in Florence looks longer than it is.looks longer than it is.Popularised Popularised perspective in art and perspective in art and architecture.architecture.


Perspective in artPerspective in art

Leone Battista Leone Battista AlbertiAlberti (1404(1404--1472)1472)Discovered mathematical laws of perspective.Discovered mathematical laws of perspective.

Albrecht Albrecht DDüürerrer of Nuremberg (1471of Nuremberg (1471--1528)1528)Used Used AlbertiAlberti’’ss analysis to portray the proportions of analysis to portray the proportions of human body accurately by age and sex.human body accurately by age and sex.

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Leonardo Leonardo dada VinciVinci14521452--15191519

Genius in some areas, Genius in some areas, barely functioning in barely functioning in othersothers

Small artistic outputSmall artistic outputIntense working style Intense working style and attention to detailand attention to detailVery secretiveVery secretive


Leonardo Leonardo dada VinciVinci

Scientific interests:Scientific interests:Flying machineFlying machineHelicopterHelicopterParachuteParachuteDesigned parabolic Designed parabolic compasscompassDesigned guns, Designed guns, other engineering other engineering apparatiapparati


Leonardo Leonardo dada VinciVinci’’s Parabolic s Parabolic CompassCompass

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Leonardo Leonardo dada VinciVinci

Perspective and realism in artPerspective and realism in artWorked out principles of perspectiveWorked out principles of perspectiveStudied physiology, embryologyStudied physiology, embryology


Practical Arts in the 16Practical Arts in the 16thth centurycentury

Greatly advanced by the printing of technical Greatly advanced by the printing of technical manuals.manuals.



Waterwheel operating mechanical bellows for a blast Waterwheel operating mechanical bellows for a blast furnace.furnace.

From From VanocchioVanocchio BiringuccioBiringuccio (1460(1460--1539), 1539), PirotechniaPirotechnia (1540).(1540).

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Agricola (1490Agricola (1490--1555)1555)

(George Bauer)(George Bauer)De re MetallicaDe re Metallica(1556)(1556)


MedicineMedicine

Medicine followed the teachings and Medicine followed the teachings and practices of the ancient authorities, practices of the ancient authorities, Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna.Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna.Renaissance physicians began to throw off Renaissance physicians began to throw off blind adherence to authority in blind adherence to authority in favourfavour of of direct observation and new theories.direct observation and new theories.


An anatomy An anatomy lessonlesson

An anatomy An anatomy demonstration from demonstration from the 15the 15thth century.century.The professor reads The professor reads from the text, while from the text, while the demonstrator the demonstrator (surgeon) displays the (surgeon) displays the appropriate organs.appropriate organs.

From Mondino’s Anathomia, 1493

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ParacelsusParacelsus14931493--15411541

Actual name: Actual name: AureolusAureolusPhilleppusPhilleppus Theophrastus Theophrastus BombastusBombastus von von HohenheimHohenheimFounded Iatrochemistry, Founded Iatrochemistry, i.e. medical chemistryi.e. medical chemistry

Curing diseases with Curing diseases with specific drugs, instead of specific drugs, instead of curing the body as a whole.curing the body as a whole.


Andreas VesaliusAndreas Vesalius15141514--15641564

Studied anatomy (i.e., Studied anatomy (i.e., Galen) in Paris, 1533Galen) in Paris, 1533--15361536

In 1537 began In 1537 began teaching surgery in teaching surgery in Padua.Padua.Vesalius emphasized Vesalius emphasized actual demonstrations actual demonstrations of anatomy in the of anatomy in the (new) anatomy theatre (new) anatomy theatre in Padua.in Padua.


De De FabricaFabricaPublishedPublished On the Fabric of On the Fabric of the Human Bodythe Human Body, in , in 1543. 1543.

Note: This is the same year as Note: This is the same year as that in which Copernicus that in which Copernicus published published On the Revolutions On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.of the Heavenly Spheres.

An illustrated anatomy text.An illustrated anatomy text.Raised biological observations Raised biological observations to new level.to new level.Artist for book probably from Artist for book probably from school of Titian.school of Titian.

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The Long Pause to Regroup - Home | York University · The period between antiquity (ancient times), marked by the fall of Rome around 500 C.E., and the beginning of the modern era