THELOSTCIVILIZATIONENIGMA

THELOSTCIVILIZATION

ENIGMAANEWINQUIRYINTOTHE

EXISTENCEOFANCIENTCITIES,CULTURES,

ANDPEOPLESWHOPRE-DATE

RECORDEDHISTORY

PHILIPCOPPENSbest-sellingauthorof

TheAncientAlienQuestion

Copyright©2013byPhilipCoppens

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THELOSTCIVILIZATIONENIGMAEDITEDBYJODIBRANDON

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Coppens,Philip.Thelostcivilizationenigma:anewinquiryintotheexistenceofancientcities,cultures,and

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

WhenIwas10yearsold,myhistoryprofessortoldustodoasmallprojectonanEgyptianmonumentofourchoice.IchosetheGreatPyramid.IdonotrememberthegradeIgot—thoughitwasgood.IenjoyedEgyptsomuchthat,formyownentertainment,ImadethesamereportontheothertwopyramidsoftheGizaPlateau.Morethanadecadelater,IwasaskedtopromoteMarcelMestdagh’sstudiesontheMegalithicCivilizationandmakeitavailabletoaforeign—thatis,non-Dutch—audience.Idon’tknowwhenthisseedwasplanted,butitwasgrowingbytheageof10and,in1994,hadreachedmaturity.Eversince,Ihavewalkedthispathwiththehelpofothers,whomIhavetothank.

Earlyon,inBelgium,thelikesofPatrickBernauwandespeciallyArnoldEloywereinstrumentalonmyvoyageofdiscovery.Since1995,IhavebeenhelpedbyHermanHegge,whentogetherwecreatedFrontierSciencesFoundation.

Inmycircleoffriends,Iwouldliketospecificallythank:TheresaByrne;MaryParent;PatrickRuffino;PaigeTucker;JasonGossman;SarahSymons;MarcBorms;ChrisNorman;DuncanRoads;CrisWinter;GerardLohan;Eileen,Cathy,andJanethHall;DebbieNicastro;DawnMolkenbur;StanZaidinski;FaustoCallegarini;TobiandGerdaDobler;MarianneWilson;CynthiaJamesandCarlStudna;JoAnnParksandMAX;PetervanDeursenandAnnekeKoremans;IsobelDenham;DuncanandLindaLunan;LauraMarini;KellyCole;WendyVincentandPeterShoesmith;andSusanMarek.Apartfrombeingthebestfriendsanyonecoulddesire,youmakelifebeautiful.Bydefault,Iwillhaveforgottensome,andIsincerelyapologizeforthat!

Ithanktheresearchanddevotionofthefollowingauthorsandoftenfriends:RobertBauval;GrahamHancock;GregTaylor;WimZitmanandHendrine;HughNewman;SamOsmanagicandSabina;FlorenceandKennethWood;RobertandOliviaTemple;HowardCrowhurst;HughNewman;AndyCollins;DavidHatcherChildressandJennifer;MichaelCremo;GaryEvans;RalphEllis;JohnRitchie;GavinMenziens;AliceGerard;andMarcusAllen.

ThisbookwouldnothavecomeaboutwithoutthevisionofMichaelPyeatNewPageBooks.YouandtheteamatNewPagedoformidablework,mostlybehindthescenes,indeliveringnewandexcitinginformationtotheworld.

IwouldliketothankthethousandsofFacebookfriendsandfollowers,whoallowmetohaveagreatvirtualbanteronadailybasis!IwouldliketothankNespresso,forallowingmetomakedelightfulcoffeeinthemorning,whichisatruemiraclewhenwriting.

EachandeverymemberoftheCoppens,Sonck,Harkey,andSmithfamily,thoughIneedtospecificallymentionmyparents,mybrother,Tom,andhiswife,Kathleen,andmynephews,DaanandArne,PapaandMama,aswellasPatrick,Conor,andShane.

Finally,IthankKathleen.Withouther,Iamnoone.Withher,Icandoeverything.Afewweeksago,wecreatedaspecialdrink—blanquette,atypeofsparklingwinefromtheSouthofFrance,towhichweaddedacaramelliqueur—andnow,Itoastthisverydrinktoyou,celebratingthecompletionofthisbook.Semper.

NorthBerwick,April12,2012

CONTENTS

Introduction

Chapter1:TheNewInquisition

Chapter2:LostCivilizationsoftheOldWorld

Chapter3:LostCivilizationsoftheNewWorld

Chapter4:TheBigA:Atlantis

Chapter5:PrehistoricGenius

Chapter6:Earth,SeveralTensofThousandsYearsBC

Chapter7:CreatingHeavenonEarth

Conclusion

Appendix:AWorldofLostCivilizations

ChapterNotes

Bibliography

Index

AbouttheAuthor

INTRODUCTION

Ishistoryasthehistorybooksteachus?Oriscivilization—whenhumanitybegantocultivateplants,workmetals,buildmonuments,andliveinorganizedsettlements—farmorecomplexandolderthanweassume?Asa10-year-oldchildinschool,myteachertaughtthatGreecewasthecradleofcivilization,eventhoughin1981,itwasobviousthatthiswasnolongerthecase:EgyptandSumerwereknowntobefaroldercivilizations,butsomehowthetextbooksusedinBelgianschoolshadnotcaughtupwith“facts.”

Thirtyyearslater,thesituationhassomewhatchanged,butthecriticismleveledat“textbookhistorians”remains:TherereignsaparadigmthateventhoughwenolongerbelievethatGodcreatedtheworldin4004BC,westillassumethatcivilizationcouldnotpossiblyhaveexistedpreviously.Before4000BC,itiswidelyassumed,ourancestorswereprettymuchsavages.Thatissimplynotthecase.

Thelatestarchaeologicalfindingshavepushedtheboundariesofcivilizationmuchfurtherback,to10,000BC,withsitessuchasJerichoand,mostrecently,GöbekliTepeinTurkey.TheexistenceofJerichoandÇatalHöyükhasbeenknownfordecades,andhasbeendatedto8,000BC,butIchallengeyoutoopenyourchild’sschoolbooks,oranypopularbookonarchaeology,andfindareferencetothesecitiesinthere.Thefewarchaeologicalpublicationsthatdo,treatthesesitesasstand-alonepocketsofcivilization,eventhoughtheyareallsituatedwithinhundredsofmilesofeachother.Theobviousanswerseemstobethattheywerepartofoneculture,butnosuchargumentisexploredbyscientists.

Whenitcomestotruly“lost”civilizations,suchasthelostcivilizationofAtlantis,historiansevenridiculeanyoneconsideringmakingascientificstudyofit.TheyarguethatPlatocreatedanidealizedsociety,ratherthanreportahistoricalaccount,forthehistorians“know”therewasnosuchcivilizationinexistencein10,000BC.Itsimplycannotbe.WhattheyfailtoreportisthatPlatowroteaboutAtlantisinabooksolelydevotedtohistory,andthatwhenskepticsinhisowntimewenttoEgypttodiscredithim,theyinsteadreturnedwithverificationthatEgyptiancolumnsindeedcontainedthestoryofAtlantis,asPlatohadreported.Itshows,attheveryleast,thattheancientEgyptiansbelievedinalostcivilizationofAtlantis.Inshort,itshowsthatthetheorycherishedbyhistoriansissimplywrong.

Thereisevenevidencethatsignsofcivilization—tools,objects,andlegends—aretensofthousands—evenmillions—ofyearsold.AmericanauthorMichaelCremocatalogedhundredsofexamplesinabookhetitledForbiddenArchaeology;itwashisconclusionthatsuchobjectsweredeemedtobea“nogo”zonebyarchaeologists,asitwouldupseteverythingwehaveassumedtobetrueaboutourhistory.Butthatlegendswerefactualwasproveninthe19thcentury,whenHeinrichSchliemannshowedthatTroywasnotjustafableinventedbytheancientGreeks,butaveritablecity.Themythshadproventobetrue!

Infact,thereisgoodevidencethatmanyofthereportsoflostcivilizationshavealwayshadafoundationintruthandreality.Formanycenturies,chroniclersdoubtedtheexistenceofcivilizationsinthedepthsoftheAmazonRainforest.Buttoday,Scienceisadmittingitserrorsandacknowledgessatelliteimageryhasrevealedthetracesofthislostcivilization.Otherclaimsoflostcivilizations,suchasMu,remainoutsideofthereachofbotharchaeologistsandexplorers,butthatdoesn’tmeantheydidn’texist!Asthesayinggoes:Theabsenceofavailableevidencedoesn’tmeanitisevidenceofitsabsence!

Apartfromslowlyrediscoveringlostcivilizations,newdimensionsofknowncivilizationsarediscoveredonanalmostdailybasis.Yeteachtimetheboundariesofcivilizationarepushedbackorexpanded,themessengersofthisnewinformationareattacked.WhentheenigmaticAntikytheradevicewasdiscoveredoffthecoastsofGreecein1900,ittookmanydecadesbeforeitwasrecognizedasanastronomicalclock—adevicethatwasabletographicallyshowthepositionofthesun,moon,planets,andcertainstars.DatingtoAncientGreece,itisnowheralded

astheworld’sfirstcomputer,butmostoftheresearchintothedevicehasbeendoneby“rebel”archaeologists,whowereoftenferociouslyattackedbytheircolleaguesforevenconsideringthismightbewhatiteventuallyturnedouttobe.

Mostrecently,thisantagonismtoexpandingthescopeofancientcivilizationshasbeenmostapparentinthecontroversysurroundingtheso-calledBosnianPyramids.ThepyramidcomplexoutsidethetownofVisoko,neartheBosniancapitalofSarajevo,would“merely”showthatacivilizationknownasOldEurope,whichblossomedbetweenc.5500and3000BC,builtpyramids.AsOldEuropewasinanyotherwayonparwiththeSumerianandEgyptiancivilizations,whyitwouldthereforenotbeabletobuildpyramids,isstrange.Butsincethediscoveryofthesepyramidsin2005,Scienceferociouslytriestomaintaintheexistingparadigm,eventhreateningarchaeologistsnottopartakeintheexcavations(otherwisetheywillneverworkatotherarchaeologicalsiteseveragain!).Thehistoricaltimeline,itseems,cannotbeanswered;historiansseemtocherishthedawndateof4000BCfardearerthantheChurcheverdid!

ThereisalsoevidencethatatleastinBronzeAgeEurope(c.3000BC)therewascontactbetweenAmericaandEurope.Whereasweliketobelievethatittookthedawnofthe21stcenturyforthefirstglobalcivilizationandeconomy,atleastthesetwocontinentswereverymuchworkingeconomicallytogether5,000yearsago.

Ourancestorsknewmorethanwegivethemcreditfor,andtheAntikytheradeviceisbutoneexampleofthis.FlorenceandKennethWoodhaveidentifiedasecretcodethatresideswithinHomer’sIliadandOdyssey.TheGreekmythscontaindetailedstellarinformation,showingthatthestoryhasalayerthatconveysquiteadvancedastronomicalknowledge,includinganunderstandingoftheprecessionoftheequinoxes,adiscoveryScienceisnotwillingtocreditourancestorswiththatfarback.Mostrecently,analysisoftheconstructionofGöbekliTepehasshownthatitincorporatesastronomicalconcepts(forexample,depictionsofsomeconstellations).Thisshowsthatourancestors,12,000yearsago,hadalreadymappedthestarsandwereawareofatleastthemostbasicconceptsofastronomy—butlikelymuchmore.ThislatterconclusioncanbereachedwhenwerealizethatthecavepaintingsinLascaux,France,dateback20,000yearsandalsoincorporateastronomicalknowledge.Lascauxisnotacavewhereourancestorsdrewsomescenesoftheirdailyhuntinglifestyle,butwasareligioussanctuary,containingthesacredknowledgeofourtimes.Thecavepaintingshavesurvived,buteveryotheraspectofthiscivilizationhasdisappeared—becomelosttous.

Ourhistoryisfarmoreinteresting,farolder,andmoreimpressivethanthestandardtextbooksandhistorybookspresentus.ANeolithictombatButhiers-Boulancourt,nearParis,containsthebodyofamanwhosearmhadbeensurgicallyandexpertlyamputated—5,900yearsago.Knowncivilizations,suchastheGreeks,hadobjectsthatwereabletovisualizetheorbitsofthesun,themoon,andtheplanets.Knownarchaeologicaldiscoveries,likeJerichoandGöbekliTepe,showcivilizationismanythousandsofyearsolderthanfirstthought.AddinglostcivilizationssuchasAtlantistothisnewimage,ismerelyanotherchapterinthestoryofcivilization.IntheNewWorld,too,whattheSpanishConquistadorsfoundisfarmorecomplexandfarmoredevelopedthanwegivetheearlyinhabitantsofAmericacreditfor.

Theresultingpictureisthatcivilizationasweknowitisnot6,000yearsold,butatleast12,000yearsold,andthatourancestors,tensofthousandsofyearsago,werealreadycraftingtoolsandobjects.Itisdefinitelyobviousthatourcivilizationisnotthefirst!Whatwastherebefore?Whathasbeenlostandiswaitingtoberediscovered?

Chapter1THENEWINQUISITION

ManyofuslivewiththeideathatScienceisaboutexpandingthehorizonsofourknowledge—boldlythinkingwherenoonehasthoughtbefore.However,intruth,thatisrarelythecase.ThereareveryfewIndianaJonesesoutthere.SciencehasexpressednointerestatallintheArkoftheCovenantorcrystalskulls,eventhoughthefirstobjectwasthecenteroftheJewishreligionandthelatterattheheartoftheMayanreligion.Instead,scientistshavelabeledcrystalskullsmodernfabrications,whiletheyshownointerestatallinrecoveringlostobjectsliketheArk.

Whenitcomestolostcivilizations,alltheevidenceshowsthatScienceisdogmaticandisunwillingtoevenlistentotheargumentspresentedinfavoroftheirexistence.Thosewhoclaimtohavefoundevidenceareaccusedofbeing“unscientific”—whethertheyareamateurorprofessionalscientists—andaretoldthediscoverysimplycannotbe,asScience“knows”itisimpossible.Thesedays,Sciencehasnoproblemproclaimingtheyareall-knowingwhenitcomestothesesubjects.

Inthe1999BBCdocumentaryAtlantisUncovered,Dr.KennethL.Feder,aprofessorofarchaeologyatCentralConnecticutStateUniversity,stated:

WhenwecometosomethinglikethelostcontinentofAtlantiswearebetteroffknowingthatcivilizationsdevelopedmoreorlessindependentlyjustsonobodycansaysomepeoplearebetterthanothers,somearesmarterthanothersbecauseweknowwhathappensdownthelinewhenwebelievethat,soI’mnotgoingtotellyouthatbeliefinAtlantisisnecessarilythefirststeptowardsgenocide,orHolocaust,butwhatI’mtellingyouisweareonaveryslipperyslopeifwebelieveinfantasiesandthatthosefantasiesleadusdowntoplaceswereallydon’twanttogo.

Feder,inessence,arguesthatdiscussionsaboutAtlantis,aswellasdiscussionsthatcivilizationstradedandhelpedeachotherintheirdevelopmentisa“veryslipperyslope”anda“fantasy,”andthoughhetellsusnottoimmediatelydrawacomparisonwithgenocide,hedoesdrawthatcomparison.Seriously,Dr.Feder?

Science,itseems,isalwaysmoreaboutpreservingthestatusquoofwhatwealreadyknowthantrulyaboutexpandingourboundariesofknowledge.Indeed,theevidenceshowsthatthehallsofacademiaareverymuchliketheNewInquisition.Theyhavenotyetburnedpeopleatthestake,buttheyhavethrownpeopleinjailanddestroyedthecareersofthosewhotriedtochallengethescientificdogma.The“heretics”areespeciallythosewhohavetriedtoarguethecasefortheexistenceoflostcivilizationsoraccidentallystumbleduponevidencethatwouldupsetthereigningparadigm.Suchaccidentsoftenhavehaddisastrousresultsfortheinnocentpartiesinvolved.

ARCHAEOLOGICALTRENCHWARFARE

TheexcavationsneartheFrenchvillageofGlozel,ahamletlocated10milesfromtheFrenchspatownofVichy,areamongthemostcontroversialofarchaeologicalendeavorseverrecorded.Theseexcavationslastedbetween1924and1938,butthevastmajorityoffinds—morethan3,000artifacts—wereunearthedinthefirsttwoyears.TheartifactswerevariouslydatedtoNeolithic,IronAge,andmedievaltimes.Thatinitselfwasnotcontroversial.Itishowoneeventuallyarrivedatthesedatesthatrevealsasagaofarchaeologicalfeudingandfraudversustruth.

Glozelhasbeendescribedasthe“Dreyfusaffair”ofFrencharchaeology,andtheDreyfusequivalentwasEmileFradin,a17-year-oldwho,togetherwithhisgrandfatherClaudeFradin,steppedintohistoryonMarch1,1924.WorkinginafarmingfieldknownasDuranthon,Emile

washoldingthehandlesofaplowwhenoneofthecowspullingitstuckitsfootinacavity.Freeingthecow,theFradinsuncoveredacavitycontaininghumanbonesandceramicfragments.Sofar,thiscouldhavebeenjustanyusualarchaeologicaldiscovery,ofwhichsomearemadeeveryweek.Thatsoonchanged.

Itissaidthatthefirsttoarrivethefollowingdaytoseewhatthefarmershadunearthedweretheneighbors.Theynotonlyfoundbutalsotooksomeoftheobjects.Fromthere,thenewsspreadaroundthevillage.Thatsamemonth,AdriennePicandet,alocalteacher,visitedtheFradins’farmanddecidedtoinformtheMinisterofEducation.OnJuly9,BenoitClément,anotherteacher,thistimefromtheneighboringvillageandrepresentingLaSociétéd’EmulationduBourbonnais,visitedthesiteandlaterreturnedwithamancalledViple.ClémentandVipleusedpickaxestobreakdowntheremainingwalls,whichtheytookawaywiththem.Someweekslater,EmileFradinreceivedaletterfromViple,inwhichthelatteridentifiedthesiteasdatingfromGallo-Romantimes—firsttofourthcenturiesAD.Headdedthathefeltthatthesitewasoflittleinterest.Hisadvicewastorecommencecultivationofthefield—whichispreciselywhattheFradinfamilydid.Thismight,therefore,havebeentheendofthesaga,butnotso.

FarmerEmileFradinmadeanaccidentaldiscoverywhenplowinghisfieldinGlozel.Theartifactshefoundweredeemedtorewritehistoryandbecamethecenterofanarchaeologicalcircusthatwouldseefraud,libel,andarrests.Today,manyarchaeologistscontinuetoproclaimFradinfakedthestones,whereasthefindisnotknowntobegenuine.ImagecopyrightAgenceMeurisse.MadeavailableaspartofCreativeCommons

LicenseonWikimedia.

TheJanuary1925BulletindelaSociétéd’EmulationduBourbonnaisreportedonthefindings.ItbroughtthestorytotheattentionofAntoninMorlet,aVichyphysicianandamateurarchaeologist.MorletvisitedClémentandwasintriguedbythefindings.Morletwasan“amateurspecialist”intheGallo-RomanperiodandbelievedthattheobjectsfromGlozelwereolder.HethoughtthatsomemightevendatefromtheMagdalenianperiod(12,000–9500BC),whichwouldmakethemextraordinarilyoldandoneofthemostimportantarchaeologicalfindseverinFrance.

BothMorletandClémentvisitedthefarmandthefieldonApril26,1925,andMorletofferedtheFradins200francsperyeartobeallowedtocompletetheexcavation.Thefamilyaccepted.

MorletbeganhisexcavationsonMay24,1925,discoveringtablets,idols,boneandflinttools,andengravedstones.ThismaterialallowedhimtoidentifythesiteasNeolithic.Hepublishedhis“NouvelleStationNéolithique”inSeptember1925,listingEmileFradinascoauthor.Hearguedthatthesitewas,asthetitleofthearticlestates,Neolithicinnature.ThoughMorletdateditasNeolithic,hewasnotblindtoseethatthesitecontainedobjectsfromvariousepochs.Hestillupheldhisbeliefthatsomeartifactsappearedtobeolder,belongingtotheMagdalenianperiod,butaddedthatthetechniquesthathadbeenusedappearedtobeNeolithic.Assuch,heidentifiedGlozelasatransitionsitebetweenbotheras,eventhoughitwasknownthatthetwoeraswereseparatedbyseveralmillennia.

Certainobjectswereindeedanachronistic:Onestoneshowedareindeer,accompaniedbylettersthatappearedtobeanalphabet.Thereindeervanishedfromthatregionaround10,000BC,yettheearliestknownformofwritingatthattimewasbelievedtohavebeenestablishedaround3300BC,andthatwasintheMiddleEast.Thegeneralconsensuswasthat,fortheGlozelregion,onewouldhavetowaitafurtherthreemillenniabeforewritingwasintroduced.Worse,thescriptappearedtobecomparablewiththePhoenicianalphabet,datedtoc.1000BC,ortotheIberianscript,whichwasderivedfromit.But,ofcourse,itwas“known”thatnoPhoeniciancolonycouldhavebeenlocatedinGlozel,soratherthanexplainthesite,itmadethesiteevenhardertounderstand.ButwhatMorlethadshownwasthatratherthanasitethatseemedtohavelittleornoimportance,Glozelwasasitethatcouldupsettheworldofarchaeology.Whereashemighthavethoughthewasgoingtorewritehistoryandthestoryofhowcivilizationevolved,itwas,intruth,atimebomb,whichwouldsoonexplode.

Whennewsofthediscoveryreachedthem,itshouldnotcomeasawonderthatFrencharchaeologicalacademicsweredismissiveofDr.Morlet’sreport.Afterall,itwaspublishedbyanamateur(amedicaldoctor)andapeasantboy(whoperhapscouldnotevenwriteproperly).Intheiropinion,theamateurismdrippedofftheirconclusion,foritchallengedtheircarefullyestablishedandvociferouslydefendeddogmaonseverallevels.Prehistoricwriting?AcrossoverbetweenaPalaeolithicandaNeolithiccivilization?Nonsense!Andhence,thehallsofacademiabegantoattacktheconclusionsMorlethadreached,astheyweresimplyimpossible.

Onepersonclaimedthattheartifactshadtobefakes,assomeofthetabletswerediscoveredatadepthof5inches.Indeed,ifthatwerethecasetheywouldindeedbefakes,buttheproblemisthatallthetabletswerefoundatsubstantialdepths.Itisevidenceofhowtheacademicsmanipulatedthefacts,asthefactsdidn’tfitthedogma.TheyweretryingtoexplainGlozelaway,ratherthanexplainGlozel.Itshouldbenotedthatthe“5inches”argumentcontinuestobeusedbyseveralskepticstothisday,whofalselycontinuetoassumeitistrue.

UnfortunatelyforFrenchacademiccircles,Morletwasnotonetoliedowneasily,andtodayhisghostcontinuestohang—ifnotwatch—overGlozel.Morletinvitedanumberofarchaeologiststovisitthesiteduring1926;theyincludedSalomonReinach,curatoroftheMuséed’ArchéologieNationaledeSaint-Germain-en-Laye,whospentthreedaysexcavating.ReinachconfirmedtheauthenticityofthesiteinacommunicationtotheAcadémiedesInscriptionsetBelles-Lettres.Evenhigheracademiccirclesdescendedonthesite:ThefamousarchaeologistAbbéBreuilexcavatedwithMorletandwasimpressedwiththesite.Inlate1926,hewrotetwoarticles,inwhichBreuilstatedthattheauthenticityoftheGlozelsitewasincontestable.Breuilhadalsoworkedtogetherwithpre-historianAndréVaysondePradenne,whohadvisitedthesiteunderanassumednameandattemptedtobuytheartifactsfromFradin.WhenFradinrefused,VaysondePradennebecameangryandthreatenedtodestroythesite.Underhisownname,heobtainedpermissiontoexcavatefromDr.Morlet,butthenclaimedtohavedetectedFradinspreadingsaltintheexcavationtrench.WasVaysondePradennekeepinghispromisethathewoulddestroythesite?Morletchosetoattack,andhechallengedVaysondePradennetoduplicatewhatFradinhadallegedlydone.Whenhewasunabletodoso,orfindwhereFradinhadsupposedlysaltedthetrench,Morletfelthehadsuccessfullydealtwiththatimposter.Hewas

wrong:VaysondePradenne’sallegationmadeitintoprintandtheheatoftheGlozelaffairintensified,despiteseveralleadingscientistsfoundinfavorofitsauthenticity.

Atfirst,Breuiltriedtoremainneutral,butitwouldbeareindeerthatsouredtherelationshipbetweenBreuilandMorlet,asBreuilhadidentifiedanengravedanimalonatabletasacervid,neitherreindeernorelk.Morlet,however,hadreceivedconfirmationfromProfessorAugustBrinkmann,directoroftheZoologyDepartmentatBergenMuseum,Norway,andinformedBreuilofhismistake.ItwasthemomentwhenBreuilchangedhisattitudeintheGlozeldebate.

Butratherthantalk,whichiswhathisattackersweredoing,Morletdug,unearthingthroughoutaperiodoftwoyears,3,000objects,allofvariedformsandshape,including100tabletscarryingsignsandapproximately15tabletscarryingtheimprintsofhumanhands.Otherdiscoveriesincludedtwotombs,sexualidols,polishedstones,dressedstones,ceramics,glass,bones,andsoon.Surelythesecouldnotbefakes,asarchaeologistsweresaying?Whowouldmakethousandsofartifacts?Hisattackerswerestraightforwardinnamingtheirsuspect:Fradin.

Breuilwasmoreopen-mindedthanhiscolleagues,butitisapparentthathedidnotliketobeprovenwronginthecaseofhiscervid.Soratherthanadmithismistake,insteadhedriftedfurtherandfurtherintheranksofthoseintentondiscreditingGlozel,fornootherreasonthanifMorlet’sfindingsweretrue,thesitewouldbethousandsofyearsolderthantheythoughtitcouldbeand—moreimportantly—thantheyhadsaidinprint.OnAugust2,1927,Breuilreiteratedthathewantedtostayawayfromthesite.OnOctober2,hewrotethat“everythingisfalseexceptthestonewarepottery.”1Justbeforethat,atthemeetingoftheInternationalInstituteofAnthropologyinAmsterdam,heldinSeptember1927,theGlozelsitewasthesubjectofheatedcontroversy,somuchsothatacommissionwasappointedtoconductfurtherinvestigation.ItsmembershipwaslargelycomprisedofpeoplewhohadalreadydecidedtheGlozelfindswerefraudulent.AmongthegroupwasBritisharchaeologistDorothyGarrod,whohadstudiedwithBreuil.

ThecommissionersarrivedatGlozelonNovember5,1927.Duringtheirexcavations,severalmembersfoundartifacts.Butonthethirdday,MorletsawcommissionmembersDorothyGarrod,AbbéFavret,andMr.Hamil-Nandrinslipunderthebarbedwireandsetofftowardtheopentrenchbeforehehadopenedthegateoftheexcavationsite.MorletfollowedGarrodandsawthatshestuckoneofherfingersintotheplasterpatternonthesideofthetrench,makingahole.Heshoutedout,reprimandingherforwhatshehadjustdone.Caughtintheact,sheatfirstdeniedit,butinthepresenceofhertwocolleaguesaswellastheattorney,Mallat,andascientificjournalist,Tricot-Royer,shehadtoadmitthatshehadmadethehole.

Thiswasclearlyasmokinggun:Aleadingarchaeologisthadbeencaughttryingtofalsifyanarchaeologicalexcavation.Butwhathappened?Itwasagreedtheywouldnotspeakabouttheincident,showingthegraciousnatureofallmeninvolvedtowardMissGarrod!

DuringtheexcavationsofGlozelin1927,Dr.MorletcaughtProfessorDorothyGarrodred-handedassheandcolleagueshadenteredtheexcavationsiteillegally,inwhatheconsideredtobecleareffortstocontaminatethesite,toclaimtherewasnothingtotheGlozelfacts.ImagecopyrightDr.Morlet(1927).FromthepersonalcollectionofAliceGerard.

However,Morletdidspeakaboutitafterthecommissionhadpublisheditsunfavorablereport.Thismightbeseenasmudslinging,tryingtogetbackatthecommission,but,unfortunatelyforthosewillingtoadheretothistheory,aphotographexiststhatatteststotheincidenthavingoccurred.Init,Garrodishidingbehindthefourmen,whoareinheateddiscussionaboutwhatshehadjustdone.Mostimportantly,Tricot-RoyerandMallatalsogavewrittentestimonyconfirmingMorlet’saccount.

WhatwasGarrodtryingtodo?Somehaveclaimeditwasmerelyanaccident,butitisremarkablethatshewaspartofapossethatenteredthesite—inessence,theybrokein—beforethe“officialstart”ofthedayandhad“anaccident”thatcouldhavebeeninterpretedasevidenceofsomeoneinterferingwiththeexcavation.Ifothershadfoundthattheexcavationhadbeentamperedwith,fingerswouldnothavebeenpointedatGarrodbutinsteadatFradin—whomthearchaeologistssuspectedofbeingtheforger,buryingartifactsinthegroundonlytohaveamateurarchaeologistslikeMorlet,whodidnotknowbetter,discoverthem.IfthissuggestionthatFradinhadenteredthesiteatnighthadbeenmade,itwouldhaveresultedina“caseclosed,”andtheGlozelartifactswouldhavebeenqualifiedasfraudulent.Fortunately,Garrodandcompanywerecaughtintheact.

However,theincidentdidnotcauseanyharmtoDorothyGarrod’scareer;shewentontoteachagenerationofBritisharchaeologistsatCambridge.Perhapsunremarkably,shemadesuretotellallofthemthattheGlozelartifactswerefakes.Andseveralofherstudentsechoedher“informed”opinion;thelistincludedGlynDanielandColinRenfrew,bothferventcriticsoftheGlozelfinds.Wecanonlywonderwhetherthe“fingerincident”isknowntothesemodernpillarsofarchaeology.

Decadeslater,whentheskepticalarchaeologistswerechallengedwithevidencethatthermoluminescenceandcarbondatinghadshownthattheGlozelartifactscouldnotbeforgeriescreatedbyFradin,Renfrewwrotein1975:“Thethreepapers,takentogether,suggeststronglythatthepotteryandterracottaobjectsfromGlozel,includingtheinscribedtablets,shouldberegardedasgenuine,andwiththem,presumably,theremainderofthematerial....IstillfinditbeyondmypowersofimaginationtotakeGlozelentirelyseriously.”2So,letusgetthisright:

Thoughallthearchaeologicalevidencesuggestedthesitewasgenuine,Renfrew’semotionsandespeciallyhis“powersofimagination”preventedhimfromtakingitseriously!Thatis,ofcourse,notscience,butsimplyevidenceofthefactthatRenfrewisabadscientist;hecannotaccepthard,scientificfacts!Itispreciselythisattitudethathaspreventedarchaeologistsfromaddressingtheissueoflostcivilizations.

Butbacktothepast.MorletsentalettertoMercuredeFrance(publishedonNovember15,1927),stillupsetwithBreuil’squalificationofthesiteasafakeandhavingspottedoneofhisstudentsstickinganunwantedfingerintoanarchaeologicaltrench:

FromthetimeyourarticleappearedIdeclaredtoanyonewhowantedtolisten,especiallytoyourfriendssothatyouwouldhearaboutit,thatIwouldnotallowyoutopresentasitealreadystudiedatlengthasadiscoverywhichhadnotbeendescribedbeforeyouwroteaboutit.Iknowthatinanoteyouquotedthetitlesofourarticles;thatyouthankmeforhavingledyoutoGlozel;andthatfinallyyougivethankstoour“kindness”inhavingallowedyoutoexamineourcollections.YouacknowledgethatIamagoodchauffeur.Ihaveperceived,alittle,thatIhavealsobeenadupe.YourreportonGlozelisconceivedasifyouwerethefirsttostudythesite,somuchsothatseveralforeignscholarsaremisinformedaboutit.Yourfirstmaster,DrCapitan,suggestedtomeforthrightlythatwerepublishourleafletwiththeengravingsattheendandhisnamebeforemine.Withyou,thesystemhasevolved:youtakenomorethantheideas.3

Morletwashighlightingoneofthemaingoalsofthearchaeologists:tohavetheirnameontopofareportandbeidentifiedasthediscovererofGlozel.ItisstandardpracticeinScience,inwhichamateursspecificallyaresupposedtostandasideandletthe“professionals”dealwithit—andthustakethecreditforthediscovery.Again,Morletdidnotwanttohaveanyofit.

Thearchaeologicalcommission’sreportofDecember1927declaredthateverythingfoundattheGlozelsite,withtheexceptionofafewpiecesofflintaxesandstoneware,wasfake.Itmeantthattheacceptedviewofhistoryremainedstanding,fornothingatGlozelwasgenuine.

Still,membersofthecommission,suchasProfessorMendesCorra,arguedthattheconclusionswereincorrectandmisrepresentative.Infact,hearguedthattheresultsofhisanalyses,whencompleted,wouldbetheoppositeofwhathadbeenclaimedbyCountBégouen,theprincipalauthorofthereport.Indeed,BégouenlaterhadtoconfessthathehadmadeupanallegeddispatchfromMendesCorra!SothefirstevidenceoffraudcamefromthelikesofGarrodandBégouen,notFradin!ItshowsthepowerofScienceandhowitisabletomoldopinions,foracenturylater,thestandardlineisthatGarrodandBégouenarepillarsofScienceandFradinafraud!

TheneedtocondemnGlozelisfurtherillustratedbyRenéDussaud,curatorattheLouvreandafamousepigrapher.DussaudhadwrittenadissertationthatarguedthatouralphabetisofPhoenicianorigin.IfMorletwascorrect,Dussaud’slife’sworkwouldbediscredited.Dussaudmadesurethatwouldnothappen,andthushetoldeveryonethatFradinwasaforgerandevensentananonymousletteraboutFradintooneoftheParisiannewspapers.WhensimilarfindstothoseatGlozelwereunearthedinAlvoinPortugal,Dussaudstatedthatthey,too,hadtobefraudulent—eventhoughtheartifactswerediscoveredbeneathadolmen,leavinglittledoubttheywereofNeolithicorigin.WhensimilarartifactswerefoundintheimmediatevicinityofGlozel,attwositesatChezGuerrierandPuyravel,Dussaudwrote:“If,astheyclaim,thestonesdiscoveredintheMercierfieldandinthecaveofPuyravelbearthewritingofGlozel,therecanbenodoubttheengravingsonthestonesarefalse.”4Deny,deny,deny,forotherwise,itwouldshowDussaud’sthesiswaswrong.

Facedwithsuchattacks,whatcouldalittle-educatedfarmerlikeFradindo?Inamovethatseemstohavebeenafewdecadesaheadofhistime,onJanuary10,1928,Fradinfiledsuitfor

defamationagainstDussaud.Indeed:Apeasantboyof20wassuingthecuratoroftheLouvrefordefamation!

Dussaudhadnointentionofappearingincourtandmusthaverealizedthat,ifhedid,hecouldlosethecase.Heneededhelp,fast,forthefirsthearingwassetforFebruary28,1928,andFradinhadalreadyreceivedthefreeassistanceofalawyerwhowasgreatlyintriguedbyacaseof“peasantboyversusLouvrecurator.”DussaudthereforeengineeredthehelpofthepresidentoftheSociétéPréhistoriqueFrancaise,Dr.FélixRégnault,whovisitedGlozelonFebruary24,1928,and,afterthebriefestofvisitstothesmallmuseum,filedacomplaintagainst“X,”asifRégnaultdidnotknowwhowasoperatingthemuseum.Thattheentireincidentwasengineeredisobvious,asRégnaulthadcomewithhisattorney,MauriceGarcon,whoimmediatelytraveledfromGlozeltoMoulinstofilethecomplaint.Theaccusationwasthattheadmissionchargeoffourfrancswasexcessivetoseeobjectswhich,inhisopinion,werefakes.Thepolice,ofcourse,quicklyidentifiedXasEmileFradin.Thenextday,thepolicesearchedthemuseum,destroyedglassdisplaycases,andconfiscatedthreecasesofartifacts.Emilewasbeatenwhenheprotestedagainstthetakingofhislittlebrother’sschoolbooksasevidence.Saucepansfilledwithdirtbyhislittlebrotherwereassumedtobeartifactsinthemaking.Butdespiteallofthis,theraidproducednoevidencewhatsoeverofforgery.

However,Dussaudhadplayedthiscardtoperfection:Fradin’ssuitfordefamationcouldnotproceedbecauseacriminalinvestigationwasunderway.ItmeantthatthedefamationhearingsetforFebruary28,1928,wouldnothappenforaslongasthecriminalinvestigationcontinued.Dussaud,itseemed,hadwon.Meanwhile,anewgroupofneutralarchaeologists,theCommitteeofStudies,wasappointedbyscholarswho,sincetheNovemberconferenceinAmsterdamandspecificallysincethereport’spublicationinDecember,wereuncomfortablewithhowthearchaeologicalworldwashandlingGlozel.TheyexcavatedfromApril12to14,1928,andcontinuedtofindmoreartifacts.Theirreportspokeoutfortheauthenticityofthesite,whichtheyidentifiedasNeolithic.ItseemedthatMorlethadbeenvindicated.

Meanwhile,theexcavationsandcontroversysurroundingGlozelmadeitadestinationfortourists.Thissoenragedthearchaeologiststhattheyorganizedaraidonthemuseum,destroyingmostofthedisplaycabinetsandinjuringsomeofFradin’sfamilymembers.AnyvindicationwassoonoutdonewhenGaston-EdmondBayle,chiefoftheCriminalRecordsOfficeinParis,analyzedtheartifactsseizedintheraidandinMay1929identifiedthemasrecentforgeries.Originally,Baylehadsaidthatitwouldtakeonlyeightorninedaystoprepareareport,butayearpassedwithoutanythingbeingsetdownonpaper.This,ofcourse,wasexcellentnewsforDussaud,asitdelayedhisdefamationhearing.Topavethewayforthereport’srelease,onOctober5,1928,informationwasleakedtothepapers,whoplayedtheirpartbyfaithfullystatingthatthereportwouldconcludethattheGlozelartifactswereforgeries.InMay1929,Baylecompleteda500-pagereport,justintimetopostponeonceagaintheDussaudcase,whichwasscheduledforhearingonJune5,1929.

BaylearguedthathecoulddetectfragmentsofwhatmighthavebeengrassandanapplesteminsomeoftheGlozelclaytablets.Asgrassobviouslycouldnothavebeenpreservedforthousandsofyears,itwasobviouslyarecentforgery,hereasoned.Theargumentisveryunconvincing,fortheexcavationswereobviouslynothandledasaforensiccrimescenewouldbetreated.Mostlikely,thevastmajorityoftheseartifactswereplacedongrassorelsewhereaftertheyweredugupfromthepit—apracticethatcontinuesonmostoftoday’sarchaeologicalexcavations;archaeology,atthislevel,wasandisnotaforensicscience.Later,itwouldevenemergethatsomeoftheobjectshadalsobeenplacedinanoventodrythem—whichwouldlaterinterferewithcarbon-datingeffortsontheartifacts.Butthatheatingupanartifactinanovenwouldonedayinterferewithdatingtheartifactwasunknowninthe1920s,whencarbondatingdidn’tevenexist.

Bizarrely,inSeptember1930,Baylewasassassinatedinanunrelatedevent—butnotunfamiliarcharges:Hisassassinaccusedhimofhavingmadeafraudulentreportthathadplacedhiminjail!Afterhisdeath,itwasfoundthatBaylehadlivedanextravagantlifestylethatwas

inconsistentwithhissalary.Mostdamagingly,BaylewasclosetoVaysondePradennes,whowastheson-in-lawofhisformersuperiorattheCriminalRecordsOffice.ItseemstheBreuil–VaysondePradennes–Dussaudaxiswasnotonlypowerfulinarchaeologicalcircles;itcouldalsodictatetothewheelsofthelaw.ThecourtacceptedBayle’sfindings,andonJune4,1929,Fradinwasformallyindictedforfraud.Forthefollowingfewmonths,FradinwasinterrogatedeveryweekinMoulins.Eventually,theverdictwasoverturnedbyanappealcourtinApril1931.

Forthreeyears,DussaudhadbeenabletoterrorizeFradinforhis“insolence”infilingasuitagainsthim.Unfortunately,thoughthewheelsofthelawhadlargelyplayedtotheadvantageofthe“axisofarchaeology,”inthefinalanalysis,righteousnesshadwon.ThedefamationchargeagainstDussaudcametotrialinMarch1932,andDussaudwasfoundguiltyofdefamation,withallcostsofthetrialtobepaidbyhim.Buteightyearsafterthefirstdiscovery,theleadingarchaeologistscontinuedtoclaimthattheGlozelartifactswerefraudulent,thoughalltheevidence—includingalengthylegalcause—hadshownthatwasabsolutelynotthecase.Butwhybotherwithfactswhentherearepettheoriesandreputationstobedefended?

Morletendedhisexcavationsin1938,andafter1942anewlawoutlawedprivateexcavations—aperfectlaw,ofcourse,forarchaeologists,whoeversincehavebeensolelyinchargeofexcavationssitesandcanthereforeconcludewhatevertheywantwithoutanyoversightorexternalverification.Indeed,thelawhasgivenarchaeologistsfreereign,inthe—clearlywrong—assumptionthatalltheyareafteristhetruth!

Meanwhile,theGlozelsiteremaineduntoucheduntiltheMinistryofCulturere-openedexcavationsin1983.Afullreportwasneverpublished,buta13-pagesummarydidappearin1995.This“officialreport”infuriatedmany,fortheauthorssuggestedthatthesitewasmedieval,possiblycontainingsomeIronAgeobjects,butwaslikelytohavebeenenrichedbyforgeries.ItthereforereinforcedtheearlierpositionoftheleadingFrencharchaeologists.ButonJune16,1990,EmileFradinreceivedtheOrdredesPalmesAcadémiques,suggestingthattheFrenchacademiccircleshadacceptedhimformakingalegitimatediscovery—andthathewasnotaforger.TheGlozelexcavationsite,however,continuestobeseenasagianthoax.EmileFradinwasequallyhonoredthattheBritishMuseumrequestedsomeofhisartifactstogoondisplayin1990inthis“holyofholies”ofarchaeology.Whathedidnotknow(becauseofalanguagebarrier)wasthattheexhibitwashighlightingsomeofthegreatestarchaeologicalhoaxesandforgeriesinhistory.

WhatGlozelteachesusisthatwhenamateurarchaeologistsmakeextraordinarydiscoveries,theybetterwettheirchests,forthehallsofacademiawilldoeverythingtotakeoverand,ifunsuccessful,tomockthefindings,goingtoanylengthsnecessarytoprotecttheirreputation.Andthefinalverdictisthatdespitenoevidencewhatsoeveroffraud,butwithevidencethatthearchaeologistswerecommittingfraudanddefamation,SciencecontinuestoseeGlozelasahoax.Inthefinalanalysis,Glozelisunlikelytohavebeenevidenceofalostcivilization.Butwhenitwasdiscovered,itwasbelievedtohavebeenevidencethatwouldcompletelyrewritethehistorybooksandpushbackthediscoveryofwritingmanythousandsofyears.Itcouldstillbe,ifonlyarchaeologistswouldrevisitthecasewithopenmindsandretesttheartifactsinvolved.

CONFIRMINGCHINESEPYRAMIDS

Thoughpyramidsarelarge,andtheGreatPyramidjustoutsideofEgypt’scapitalCairoisverylarge,theydwarfincomparisontotheGreatWallofChina,humanity’slargestbuildingprojectsofar.TheWallstretchesoveraformidable6,352kilometers(3,948miles);ifitwerereassembledattheequator,itwouldgirdletheglobewithawall8feethighand3feetthick.DespitethecontroversywhetherornotwecanseetheGreatWallfromspace(apparently,youcan’t),in1920,inTheTravelsofMarcoPolo,historianHenriCordierwrote:“China’sancientpastisdeniedbothtousanditspopulation.Itsgrandpastisslowlyunveiled,similartohowEgypt’swasrevealed.Lateron,onelearnedofbuildings,standingstonesandothermonumentsthatwerenotmentionedbytheChinesehistorians(aspartoftheirhistory).”5Thelargestcountryintheworldwas,andisstill,largelytheretobediscovered.Andforaperiodoftime,thepeople

ofChinawerepresentedahistoryoftheircountrythatwasknownnottobetrue.China,ofcourse,isnotuniqueinthis,butitwillbetheexampleweuse.

Thoughacceptedasagreatcivilization,itsancienttreasureswerebarelyknowntotheWesternworldacenturyago,andinthevastruralareasofChina,muchremainstobeexplored.Turnbacktheclockafewdecades,andwewereconfrontedwithrumorsofpyramidsinChina.Twentyyearsago,therewasnorealproof—outsideofChina—thatthesepyramidswerereal;now,lessthantwodecadeslater,everyonecanvisitthem,showinghowquicklyparadigmscanchange,ifweallowthemtochange!

TheChinesepyramidswerelargelyonlyknownthroughtravelers’accountsoftheirvoyagesthroughthatcountry.In1912,FredMeyerSchroderandOscarMamantraveledtoShensi(orShaanxi,asitisnowmorecommonlywritten),intheprovinceofXi’an.Theydealtintobaccoandcandles,butalsosuppliedtheMongolianswithweapons.TheirguidealongtheChinese–Mongolianborderwasamonk,Bogdo(“theholyone”),whotoldthemtheywouldsoonstumbleuponsomeancientpyramids.Thoughhehimselfhadneverseenthem,heknewsomecouldbefoundaroundtheoldtownofSian-Fu(Xi’an).Bogdoknewthatsevenpyramidshadbeendiscovered.

Whenhefinallysawthem,Schroderestimatedthatthetalleststructuremeasured300metershighanditssides500meterslong.Thiswouldmeanthatthispyramidwasthelargestintheworld,twiceaslargeastheGreatPyramidofEgypt;thevolumewas20timesaslargeastheGreatPyramid!ThoughweshouldexpectthatthepeoplewhobuilttheGreatWallwouldbeabletobuildthegreatestpyramid,historywasabouttoberewritten.Schrodernotedthatitwasalignednorth-south/west-east,liketheGreatPyramid,continuingthat“inthepast,theywereapparentlypartlycoveredwithstones,butthosehavedisappeared.Afewstoneslieatthebottom.Itisanearthenpyramid,withgiantgulliesonitssides.Theywerethereasonwhythestonesloosenedandfelldown.Itssidesarenowpartiallycoveredwithtreesandshrubs.Italmostlookslikeanaturalhill.Werodearoundthepyramid,butdidnotdiscoveranystairwaysordoors.”6Whenquestionedaboutitsage,Bogdobelievedthatitwasatleast5,000yearsold—andthereforeasoldorolderthantheGreatPyramid.HestatedthatChineseancientrecordsclaimedthateventhenthepyramidsweredeemedtobe“old”—andthusseemedtopredateanythingthatweknewaboutChinesehistory.Evidenceofalostcivilization?

Schroder’saccountofthepyramidsisdetailed,butwasnotthefirst.In1908,ArthurdeCarleSowerbyandRobertSterlingClarksawthepyramidsduringtheirexpeditionandwroteaboutthemintheir1912account,ThroughShên-Kan:

ThevisitortoHsi-an[Xi’an],ashetravelsovertherollingplainfromnomatterwhatdirection,cannotfailtonoticenumerousmoundsofunusualshapedottedabouteverywherelikeimmensemolehills,oftenattainingaheightofatleast100feet,andstandingonbasesofveryconsiderablearea.Soremarkablearetheythathewillinstinctivelyseekinformationconcerningthem,andwilllearnthattheyarethetombsofkingsandemperors,andtheirwives,andofscholarsandsagesnotableintheirday.Butfewindeedhaveanythinginthewayoftombstoneorepitaphtotellwhosleepsbeneaththetonesofyellowearth;though,concerningsome,fantasticlegendsstilllingerinthemindsofthepeople.7

AthirdearlyreportoriginatedfromtheSegalenmission,atourofChinathatFrenchdoctor,ethnographer,archaeologist,writer,andpoetVictorSegalenmadein1909–1914and1917.In1913,hemeasuredthepyramid’sheightat48meters,encompassingfiveterraces.Onesidemeasured350metersinlength,astunning120meterslongerthanthesideofGreatPyramidatGiza.TheSegalenmissionalsorevealedtheexistenceofmorepyramidsandtombsalongtheRiverWei,thelargesttributaryoftheYellowRiverthatflowspastXi’an.HealsodatedthestructurestotheHanperiod,followingthatofEmperorQinShiHuang(259–210BC),themanwhohadbuiltthefirstGreatWall,bringingtheentirestoryintothefoldsofknownChinese

history.Butthoughthepyramidswerenolongerevidenceofalostcivilization,theywereclearlyaddingagreatdimensiontoaknowncivilization.

TheColdWarlargelyplacedChinaoff-limitstoWesternvisitors.Throughouttheseturbulentdecades,thestoriesoftheearlyexplorersandtheirreportsofpyramidsinChinafedtheimaginationofWesternpyramidophiles.NewZealandauthorBruceCathiebecameinterestedintheChinesepyramidsandwroteonthesubjectinTheBridgetoInfinity,publishedin1983.CathiereportedthatamemberoftheChineseEmbassyhadofficiallyinformedhimtherewerenosuchthingsaspyramidsintheShensiprovince:“Thereareafewtumuli(burialhills),butnopyramids.”8CathiesawthisasastraightforwarddenialoftheChinesethatnosuchstructuresexisted;theChinesequicklyclarifiedtheirstatement:aletterfromChineseauthorities,datedNovember1,1978,addressedtoCathie,statedthatthescientistshadlearnedthattheso-called“pyramids”wereburialtombsofemperorsoftheWesternHandynasty:“Recordsgiveadifferentversionoftheemperors’lives.Asthegraveshavenotbeenscientificallyanalyzedandnomarkingswereseenontheground,itisdifficulttoformulateconclusions.”9Sotherewerepyramids,buttheseweretombs,notpyramids—thoughtheywerepyramidalinshape!Confused?

RulesandregulationsfortravelersweresomewhateasedfollowingthedeathofChairmanMaoZedongin1976,butrealchangewasslow.AmericanhistoricaltravelwriterDavidHatcher-ChildresswroteaboutChinesepyramidsin1985,butwasunabletovisitthem.Themajorbreakthroughcameonlyin1994,afterthecollapseoftheIronCurtain,whenGermantouroperatorHartwigHausdorfwasallowedtoenterformer“nogo”areasandcameawaywithfreshknowledgeoftheChinesepyramids.So,in1994,HartwigHausdorfandhiscompanyoffellowtravelerslandedatthenewXi’anairport,neartheneighboringtownofXianyang,and,drivingtothecityandtheirhotel,sawonepyramidthatstoodalongtheroad.Ithadbeen“discovered”afewyearsearlier,whenXi’an’sairportwasrelocatedandaroadtothecitywasbuilt.In1995,hetoldme:

It’sasmallmiracleIreceivedthego-aheadtoentersome“nogo”areas.Iwas,infact,theonlyonewhowasgrantedsuchfavors.Iassumetherearetworeasonsforthis.IregularlyvisitChinawithagroupoftourists.In1993,IbecameacquaintedwithChenJianli,anavidresearcherofhiscountry’spast.HeassuredmethathewouldtryandopenafewdoorsinsidetheChineseMinistryofTourism.Infact,inMarch1994,Iwasabletovisitsomeformer“nogo”areasintheShaanxiprovince.IpassedaroundsomecopiesofmyGermanbook,DieWeissePyramide(TheWhitePyramid),totherightpeople.Italkedtoarchaeologistswhoatfirstdeniedanypyramidsexisted,butfinallyrecognizedthattheydidexist.Iwasmostpleasedwhenthesamepeoplegavemefurtherpermissiontoenterother“nogo”zoneswhenIreturnedinOctober1994.Ineverexpectedanyofthiswouldhappentome.Butitseemsithadtohappeneventually.Followingdecadesofrumor,someonehadtoclearthepicture.10

Andthusitwasatouroperatorandamateurarchaeologist,notaprofessionalarchaeologist,whoconfirmedtheexistenceofChinesepyramids.

InMarch1994,Hausdorfclimbedapyramidandsawafewmorefromitstop.InOctober1994,heclimbedthesamepyramidagainandwasabletocount20morepyramids,allintheimmediatevicinity.ItconfirmedwhathadbeenseenfromaU.S.AirForcemapoftheareaaroundthecityofXi’an,madewiththeuseofsatellitephotographs,whichshowedatleast16pyramids.ButoldChinese—oristhatscientific?—habitsdiedhard,itseemed.InMarch1994,HausdorfalsometProfessorFengHaozhang,aprominentmemberofBeijing’sacademiccircle,hisassistant,XieDuanYu,andthreecolleagues.Atfirst,theydeniedtheexistenceofthepyramids.ButwhenHausdorfshowedthemthreephotosofthreedifferentpyramids,theycaved.Hausdorfdescribedthisencounter:“ItwasasifIhadenteredahive.ThephotographsItookinbothMarchandOctober1994aretheproofthatsquelchedfivedecadesofrumor.MostscientistsdeniedtheexistenceofpyramidsinChina.Ifanyscientiststillclingstothat,showhimmy

photographs.”11

Lessthantwodecadeslater,anyonetravelingtoXi’anwillcomefacetofacewiththepyramidsandisfreetoexplorethem.Whatwasoncedenied,thesubjectofrumorandspeculation,isnowinplainviewandacceptedbyall.

In1945,thisenigmaticphotographtakenoverChinarevealedtheexistenceofpyramidsinChina.Butuntiltheearly1990s,theirexistenceremainedunconfirmedandoftendeniedbyChineseauthorities.Todayweknowtheyarereal.ImagecopyrightHartwigHausdorf.Usedwithpermission.

Buteventhoughweknowofthepyramids’existence,weknowlittleelseaboutthem.TheyhavestillnotbeenexcavatedbyChinesearchaeologists.Oneofthepyramids—burialmounds—isthatofEmperorQinShiHuanghimself,themanwhobuiltthefirstGreatWall,thefirstEmperor,butalsothemanofthefamousso-calledTerracottaArmy,whichisoneofthemaintouristattractionsinXi’an.His“pyramid”sitsjust1milefromwherethearmywasburied.ItisbelievedthatQinShiHuang’smausoleumoncestoodalmost330feetinheight,thoughtodayitmeasurestojust150feet.Itssidesmeasurebetween1,600and1,700feet,givingthestructureavolumethatalsoexceedsthatoftheGreatPyramid.Onestorygoesthatautomaticcrossbowsandarrowsdesignedtofireareinstalledinsideifthetombisentered.Itmayseematallclaim,butcouldbetrue!InRecordsoftheHistorian:BiographyofQinShiHuang,HanhistorianSimaQiandescribestheautomaticcrossbowsandaburialchambercontainingminiaturepalacesandpavilionswithflowingriversandsurgingoceansofmercurylyingbeneathaceilingdecoratedinjewelsdepictingthesun,moon,andstars.Therecouldbetruthinthelatterstatement,astheceilingsinsomeoftheexcavatedsatellitetombsdidindeedcontaindepictionsofstars.RecentscientificworkatthesitehasalsoshownhighlevelsofmercuryinthesoilofMountLi,tentativelyindicatingthatSimaQianmayhaveprovidedanaccuratedescriptionofthecontentsofthepyramids.Amagneticscanofthesitehasalsorevealedthatalargenumberofcoinsarelyingintheunopenedtomb.Apreliminary,month-longexcavationwasdonein1986andrevealedextensivedamage,probablybyTangandSongrobbers,whichhasledsomearchaeologiststoconcludethattheinteriorstructure,despiteSimaQian’swonderfuldescription,

maybefoundlargelyvoid.Asitturnsout,EmperorQinShiHuangwasgreatlyintriguedbymythologyandlost

civilizations.HediedwhileonatourtoEasternChina,searchingforthelegendaryIslandsoftheImmortals(offthecoastofEasternChina)andforthesecretofeternallife,whichhedidnotfind.Reportedly,hediedofswallowingmercurypills,whichweremadebyhiscourtscientistsanddoctors,butwhicherroneouslycontainedtoomuchmercury.Equallyironicwasthatthesepillswerethoughttomakehimimmortal.QinShiHuangwasburiedinhismausoleum,togetherwiththefamousTerracottaArmynearby.

ThatfamousTerracottaArmyofChinaisoneofthegreatestarchaeologicalfindingsinrecenthistory.ItwasmadeinMarch1974bylocalfarmersdrillingawelltotheeastofQinShiHuang’spyramid.Thefigureswerefoundinthreeseparatepits,withanemptyfourthpitalsohavingbeendiscovered.Inall,8,099figureshavethusfarbeenunearthedatthesite;theyincludeinfantry,archers,andofficers,andaremanufacturedinacrouchingorstandingpose.Eachfigurewasgivenarealweapon,suchasbronzespears,halberdsorswords,orwoodencrossbowswithbronzefittings.Itisbelievedthattheseweaponsdatetoasearlyas228BCandmayhavebeenusedinactualwarfare—perhapstheunificationofChina.Thiswasonlydiscoveredbecauseofanaccidentaldiscoveryin1974.Itisimpossibletoestimatehowmuchofourhistoryisstillwaitingtobediscovered,butbothGlozelandtheTerracottaArmymakeitclearthatgreatdiscoveriesareoftencompletelyaccidental.

ButwhatthestoryoftheChinesepyramidsalsorevealsisthattherumorsweretrueandthatoncetherewassomeformofopen-mindednessonthedebate,majordiscoveriesandconfirmationsweremade.ThemainreasonwhyarchaeologistsembracedtheChinesepyramidsandtheTerracottaArmyisbecausetheywereprincipallyinchargeoftheexcavationsandrevelations,and—mostimportantly—thatthediscoveriesweresubstantiationofwhatarchaeologyalready“knew”:Theyweremajordiscoveries,butnotcontroversialordestroyingthereigningparadigm.Thesamefate,however,didnotbefalltheBosnianPyramids!

DISCOVERINGBOSNIANPYRAMIDS

Bosniamaysoonlayclaimtohavingtheworld’soldestpyramids—whichshouldn’tcomeasasurprise,seeingtheareahastheoldestEuropeancivilizationaswell,whicharchaeologistshaveunimaginativelynamed“OldEurope,”thoughitisalsoreferredtoastheVincaculture,namedafteraprominentarchaeologicalsitethatrevealedevidenceofthiscivilization.Thetermwascoinedinthe1980sbyarchaeologistMarijaGimbutastodescribearelativelyhomogeneouspre-Indo-EuropeanNeolithiccultureintheBalkans.ThoughGimbutas’sworkisacceptedwithinthefieldofarchaeology,thatfieldhasdonelittletoincorporateherfindingsintextbooks.Forexample,statuesfoundinOldEuropeareidenticaltostatuesoftheso-calledUbaidPeriodofSumer,suggestingthatthecivilizationofOldEuropeinfluencedtheancientSumeriancivilization.Thatisapossibilityrarelydiscussed.NorisitwildlyknownthattherewasthiscivilizationintheBalkan,asearlyas6500BCandthereforethousandsofyearsolderthantheEgyptianorSumeriancivilization.AsrecentlyasNovember2007,archaeologistsexcavatingasettlementinsouthernSerbia,believedtobeatleast7,000yearsold,announcedthatthiscivilizationhadgreatexpertiseincreatingbronzeartifacts—adiscoverythatrequiredaradicalre-datingoftheBronzeAge!

ThoughGimbutasputOldEuropeonthemap,littlehasbeendoneonthesubjectsinceherdeathin1994.Thereareseveralreasonswhy.First,OldEuropeisaninconvenientcivilizationthatforcespeopletorewritethetraditionaltextbookperspective,whichsaysthatcivilizationbegantoflourishinEgyptandSumerinthefourthmillenniumBC.Wrong:OldEuropeshowscivilizationflourishedintheBalkanintheseventhmillenniumBC.Equally,Gimbutas’sperspectiveonOldEuropewasthatthiswasamatriarchalsociety,inwhichbothgenderswereequal,andthatthiswassupplantedwithapatriarchalsocietyintheBronzeAge.Thisinterpretationhasresultedinendlessseriesofattacks,for,asawhole,Sciencedoesnotlikeitwhenevidenceisinterpretedfromamatriarchalratherthanapatriarchalsociety.Finally,itwas

thepersonalcrusadeofAustralian-bornarchaeologistVereGordonChilde(1892–1957),whowasresponsibleforthefactthatOldEuropeisnotrecognizedforwhatitwas:theoldestcivilizationinEurope.GordonChildeinsteadforcedtheVincaculturetobeseenasanoutlyingculturalentityinfluencedbymore“civilized”forces.Childe’sdogmaticstanceandcloutmeantthattheVincaculturereceivedonlyscantattentionandtodayremainslargelyunknown.

Howevermuchthesedebatescontinuetoreigninthehallsofacademia,today,theBalkanisonarchaeologicalfirebecauseofsomethingfarmoreimaginative:thepotentialdiscoveryofthelargestandoldestpyramid!

Inthepastdecade,theoldparadigmthatpyramidscouldonlybefoundinEgyptandCentralAmericahasbeensubstitutedbyanewperspective,whichisthatpyramidsareaglobalphenomenonandhavebeenbuiltbynumerouscivilizationsinseveralages.ThePyramidofCholulainMexicoisnowregardedasthelargest,thoughnotthetallest,andthepyramidcomplexatCaralinPeruistheoldest,conservativelydatedto3100BC.Mostofthesefindingshavereceivedlittletonomediaattention,andevenmanyhistoriansareunawareofthesenewfacts.WhenIspoketoagatheringof20-plusleadingEgyptologistsinAugust2008,includingthedeansofarchaeologyofEin-ShamsandCairoUniversity,oneofwhomwouldgoontobecometheEgyptianMinisterofAntiquities,theyexpresseduttersurprisetolearnthattherewerepyramidsinPeruandthattheseweresoold!

Ifallindicationsarecorrect,allofthesepyramidsfailincomparison,bothinageandsize,withthelargestpyramidsintheworld,locatedjustoutsideoftheBosniancapitalofSarajevo,inanormallyquiet,ruraltownofVisoko,theveryheartlandofOldEurope.

ThestoryoftheBosnianpyramidsbeganin2005,whenBosnian-bornentrepreneurSemir“Sam”OsmanagicwasshowntheenigmaticVisocicahillthatrisesaboveVisoko.Couldthisbeapyramid,alocalamateurarchaeologistaskedhim.Itcouldbe.

Osmanagicdecidedtoinvestinapreliminarygeologicalsurvey,whichconcludedthatfurtherexplorationofthestructurewasrecommended.Furthermore,whenhisownbookontheMayanpyramidsfellopenonapageshowingaphotographofthePyramidoftheSuninTeotihuacán,Mexico,OsmanagicthoughttheresemblancetobesosimilarthathedecidedtocallthehillofVisocica“PyramidoftheSun”—thenamehasstuck.Withthis,theotherwise-tranquilVisokohasbecomeoneofthemostcontroversialarchaeologicalsitesintheworld—controversialbecausejustabouteveryoneinvolvedinpyramidresearchhasgivenanopiniononthesubject.

Dr.ZahiHawass,thenSecretaryGeneraloftheEgyptianSupremeCouncilofAntiquitiesandseenasoneoftheleadingscholarsonpyramids,felthehadtogivehisopiniononthestructure,committinganumberoffauxpasalongtheway.Forexample,whenDr.HawasswasaskedbyOsmanagictoprovidethenameofanexpert,heofferedDr.AliBarakat.Ageologist,Dr.Barakatmeticulouslyinvestigatedthestructuresfor42daysin2006andconcludedthattheywereman-made.However,Dr.Hawasspretendedafterwardthathe’dhadnothingtodowiththeBosniansaga,eventhoughhehad!

Since,Dr.Barakatisnotaloneinspeakinginfavoroftheman-madenatureofVisocicaandotherapparentpyramidsnearby.ArchaeologistDr.NabilMohamedSwelim,holderofthreePhDsandthediscovereroffourpyramidsinEgypt,visitedthestructuresinSeptember2007,andhe,too,concludedthattheyareman-made“pyramidhills,”distinctfrompyramids.(Apyramidhillisanaturalhillthatisartificiallyenhancedtoconformtothepyramidstructure,whereasapyramidisbuiltfromthebottomup.)

Fortunately,thereisagrowingandimpressivelistofscientists—mostlyfromEgypt,EasternEurope,andRussia—whoconcludethatthesestructuresareman-made.Buttheirvoices,specificallyintheWesternmedia,havegoneunheard.Indeed,theFirstInternationalScientificConference,BosnianValleyofthePyramids(ICBP),heldAugust25–30,2008,receivedminimalexposureintheWesternpress,despitetheparticipationofthelikesofDr.AlaaShaheen,archaeologistanddeanofthefacultyofarchaeologyatCairoUniversity;Dr.HassanEl-Saady,historianandvicedeanofthefacultyofartsatAlexandriaUniversity;Dr.MostafaEl-Abbadi,

founderofthemodernlibraryinAlexandria(theBibliothecaAlexandrina);andDr.MohamedIbrahimAly,EgyptologistandarchaeologistinthefacultyofartsatEin-ShamsUniversity,Cairo,andfutureMinisterofAntiquities;andmanyothers.Instead,thefewreportsinthewesternmediafocusedonthecritics,wholabeledtheconferencepseudo-scientific.WhatequallywentunreportedisthatinvitationsfromDr.Swelimtothecriticstoattendwereignoredbythosecritics.

ThemostavowedcriticoftheBosnianpyramidsintheWesternworldisarchaeologyprofessorAnthonyHarding,oftheUniversityofExeter,UK,whoatthetimewasalsopresidentoftheEuropeanAssociationofArchaeologists.HevoicedhisopiniononthematterasearlyasApril2006,anddrovearoundthetownofVisokoforafewminutesinJunethatyear,afterwardlabelingtheVisocicapyramidanaturalformation.Hepracticed“sciencebytaxiride.”

ImmediatelyaftertheICBPinAugust2008,ProfessorHardingapproachedsomeofthosewhomadetheofficialconclusion/recommendation(whichisthatthesiterequiresandwarrantscontinuedexcavation),statingthatthearchaeologicalestablishmenthadcondemnedtheBosnianpyramidsasafraud.Hardinghasneverputanyhard,scientificfactsonanytabletosupportsuchaseriousallegation.IntheprogramfortheEuropeanAssociationofArchaeologistsSeptember2008Maltaconference,hesummedupthediscoveryasthe“Bosnianpyramidfiasco,”which“hasdrawnattentiontothewayinwhichthecreationoffictitiouspastscanbeusedforpoliticalandnationalistends.”12Onanumberofoccasions,IcontactedProfessorHardingforcomments,butheneverreplied.Inotherinterviews,however,hemadeitclearthathehadanopinionaboutthesepyramidsbeforegoingtoVisoko,andthatopinionwasthattheywerenotman-madestructures.

Harding,asthepresidentoftheEuropeanAssociationofArchaeologists,seeshimselfastheleaderofascientificcrusadeagainstso-called“pseudo-archaeology”—theBosnianpyramidsprojectbeingoneofthefewcrusadesheisabletowage,withOsmanagicasthesinnerwhogoesagainstGod’scommands.Indeed,thereareunconfirmedreportsthatHardingthreatenedarchaeologistswhoadheredtohisorganizationthatiftheyworkedontheBosnianPyramidproject,hewouldmakesuretheyneverworkedagainanywhereelse!

Sowhyallofthiscontroversy?Aswithanydiscovery,andespeciallytheresultantpublicity,exaggeratedclaimsaremade—orfabricated—bythemedia.Indeed,inthiscase,earlymediareportsclaimedthatthestructureswere12,000yearsold,whereupontheskepticsimmediatelytriedtoarguethatthisclaimhadbeenmadebyOsmanagichimself.Someobserversevenarguedthatthepyramidsareextraterrestrialinorigin.SuchstatementsseemtohaveshockedProfessorHardingthemost,andheholdsOsmanagicresponsibleforthemall.AswithFradin,themessengerisalwaysthefirstandeasiesttarget.

InablogofApril23,2008,titled“AlienstoScience,”AmericanhistorianMerimaBojicwroteespeciallyinregardtotheWesternscientificmedia’shandlingofthepyramidsissue:

[Colin]WoodardreferredtoVisokoasanationalisticenclaveoftheBosnianMuslimsandseeminglytriedtoconnectMrOsmanagictosuchanationalisticmovementaswell.HefalselyclaimedthatDrBarakatandDrSchochmeasuredthepyramidsandconcludedthattheyfailtoperfectlyalignwiththecardinalpoints….[John]Bohannon,whowritesfortheprominentSciencemagazine,wasalsoanauthoroffalsearticlesthatweresobizarretheydonotevenmeritmention.13

BojicrefersheretoVucBacanovic,who,intheBosniangossipmagazineDani,calledDr.Swelim“senile”and“afool”—termsthatareseldomusedinscientificdebates,butthatwereusedinthecaseoftheBosnianpyramidcontroversy—andwhichwerelaterusedbyBohannonforhisarticleinScience!

Inshort,onegroupofpeoplehasdecidedtoquicklyruleoutthepossibilitythatthesestructuresareman-made.Thesepeoplethenwenttoextremesintryingtopreservetheirnames,

reputations,andbeliefs,whenevidencefloodedinthatthesepyramidsareindeedman-made.Dr.SwelimdiscoveredpyramidsinEgyptandhisopinionontheBosnianpyramidsshouldnotbeputaside.Buttheydojustthat.Theypretendthisisnothappeningandtheyhopeitwillgoaway.

Amidallofthiscontroversy,Osmanagichascontinuedtofindarchaeologistswhoarewillingtoleadtheexcavation.Infact,in2010,theBosnianpyramidsitewasthelargestarchaeologicalsiteintheworld—anindicationhopefullythattimesarechanging!

Afterseveralyearsofarchaeologicalresearch,amostinterestingpictureisemergingthatshowsthattheseBosnianpyramidsmightnotbeevidenceofalostcivilization,assomeinitiallythought,butevidenceofalostdimensionofaknowncivilization(thatis,OldEurope).

ANEWDIMENSIONTOAFORGOTTENCIVILIZATION

VisokoiswithinthecatchmentareaofOldEurope.VincaartifactshavebeenfoundinthetownofVisoko,showingOldEuropewaspresenthere.TheevidenceunearthedaspartoftheBosnianpyramidprojectstronglysuggestthatOldEuropemayhavebeenapyramid-buildingculture.Thisconclusionmightseemsurprisingandnovel,butinessenceitshouldn’tbetoocontroversial,thoughitis.

So,whatistheBosnianValleyofthePyramids?Whatisattheheartofthiscontroversy?ThePyramidoftheSun,whichdominatestheskylineoverVisoko,hasbeenthemainfocusofinvestigations.Thestructuredoesnotmerelylookman-made,butwithaheightof720feet,itismuchhigherthantheGreatPyramidofGiza(480feet),andthuswouldbethetallestpyramidintheworld.AsisthecasewiththeGreatPyramid,eachsideoftheVisocicaPyramidoftheSunisperfectlyalignedwiththecardinalpoints.Indeed,asoneapproachesVisoko,itishardtobelievethatittookuntil2005beforesomeoneseriouslyponderedthenotionthatthehillcouldbeapyramid.Infact,ithassincebeendiscoveredthat,in1984,onelocalauthor,PavaoAndelic,referredtoVisocicaasa“townpyramid,”butnothingfurtherwasdonetoinvestigatetheclaim.

ThebottomoftheVisocicaPyramidhasbeenbuiltupon,andthestreetsofVisokoareextremelysteep,astheyareontheslopeofapyramid.Mostinterestingly,OsmanagicwastoldearlyoninhisresearchthatseveralhomeownersintheseareasofVisokohadwantedtobuildcellars,butcouldnotbecauseofacement-likelayerhiddenapproximately1meterbelowthesurface.Duringthecivilwarofthe1990s,itwasreportedthatthehillresonatedwhenhitbyartilleryfire.Whereasartilleryimpactnormallyproducedasoundthatlastedonetotwoseconds,whenithitthehillitcreatedatypeofechothatlastedfivetosixseconds.Itwasclearthatthehillhadsomethingunusualaboutit.

ThemostvisitedexcavationsiteonthePyramidoftheSun,aboutone-thirdofthewayupthehill,hasrevealedthepresenceoflargeblocksofconglomeratebetween50and100centimetersbelowthesurface.Similarexcavationshavebeenconductedontheothersidesofthepyramid;ineachcase,alayerofthisconglomeratehasbeenfoundjustbelowthesurface.Ithasbeensuggestedthattheentirehilloncehada6-meter-thickcoveringofconglomerate.Justnexttothemain“tourist”site,however,thesurfacelayer,comprisingapproximately40–80cmofsand,hasbeenremovedoveramuchbiggerareatorevealauniform,cement-like(conglomerate)coating.Thiscoatingleaveslittledoubtintheeyesofthevisitorthatitisindeedman-made.However,noneoftheskepticshaveeverreferredtothissection;instead,they’vefocusedonthemuchsmallerandlessinterestingsitenearby.

ThesidesofthePyramidoftheSunarecoatedwithalayerofconglomerate,whichresearchhasshownwasatypeofprehistoriccement.Forthetruesurfaceofthepyramidtoberevealed,thearchaeologistsmerelyhavetoremoveathinlayeroftopsoil.Imagecopyrighttheauthor.

Asmentioned,EgyptiangeologistDr.AliBarakat,too,hasconcludedthattheseblocksareman-made.Moreover,laboratoryanalysisresultsfromtheCivilEngineeringInstituteofTuzla,madepublicbygeophysicistDr.EnesRamovicinSeptember2006,havedeterminedthatthecementcomprisingtheseblockshadbeenpouredinsitu.Inaddition,abiologyexperthasmaintainedthattheexperimentofplantingtreesonthehill40yearsagoshouldbedeemedafailure,asthetreerootshavenotbeenabletopenetratetheconglomeratelayer.Hearguedthatthissuggeststhelayerisman-made,astreerootsnormallyhavenoproblempenetratinganaturalsurface.InNovember2008,OsmanagicgavesamplesofthisconglomeratetoJosephDavidovits.Davidovitsisanexpertingeopolymers,rocksthathavebeencreatedinlaboratoryconditions.Heconfirmedthattherocksofthepyramidwerenotnatural,butindeedman-made,furtherevidencethatthePyramidoftheSunhadanartificialcoating.

Inmyopinion,thebestvisualevidencefortheartificialityofthepyramidcanbefoundonthewesternsideofthepyramid,whichwaspartiallyexcavatedbythePyramidFoundationin2006.Here,too,theteamfoundlargerectangularslabsjustunderthesurface,aswellasman-madestonestructuresontheslopeoftheplateau.Theoverallimpressionisofapavedaccessplateautothepyramid—aplateauthatmeasuresnolessthan420metersinlength.

WorkofadifferentnatureonVisocicahasbeencarriedoutbyRussianscientistOlegKhavroshkin,oftheSchmidtInstituteofEarthPhysicsattheRussianAcademyofSciencesinMoscow.HeperformedageophysicalanalysisbetweenJuly20andAugust4,2007.Thesescanssuggested“theexistenceofhollowcavitiesbelowtheground.TheseinhomogeneitieswereregisteredatVratnice,Pljesivica[PyramidoftheMoon]andthetunnels.Inthevicinityofthe

wellshaftatthePyramidoftheMoon,clustersoffrequencieswereobserved,resultingprobablyfromsuchnonhomogenouscavities.”14Inshort,potentialchambers.Dr.MurisOsmanagic,oneofBosnia’smosteminentminingengineersandprofessors(aswellasthefatherofSamOsmanagic),hasconcludedinhisbook,AbouttheCulturalLayeroftheBosnianPyramidBuilders,that

theonlypossibleandrationalsolutionisthatthegreatPyramidoftheSunwasanaturalhill(composedofclaymarl),modifiedintoapyramid.Insuchacase,thecoatinglayerofconcreteblocksmake[s]up6.28percentofthebodyofthepyramid,composedofclaymarl,or2,6mlnm3[2.6millioncubicmeters],[onaparwith]thevolumeoftheKhufuPyramidstoneblocks.Thiswasalreadywithintherealmofthepossibleforthisthenhighlydevelopedcivilization.15

Butallofthesescientificreportshavenotstoppedtheskepticsfromclaimingthereisnothingtothesestructures.Onceascientisthasmadeuphismindandhasgoneonrecord,whatevertheamountofevidencetothecontrary,hecannotbeswayedtochangehisopinion.HistorianDubravkoLovrenovic,whoheadstheBosnia–HerzegovinaCommissionforthePreservationofNationalMonuments,statedonBosnianfederalpublictelevisionthathewouldburnhimselfaliveontopofVisocicaifitturnedouttobeapyramid!Later,hedeniedhe’deversaidthis,butwiththehelpofGavriloGrahovac,theFederalMinisterofCultureandSports,hestoppedallexcavationonthePyramidoftheSun.

Despitesuchopposition(thoughOsmanagicalsohassupporterswithinthevariouslevelsofBosniangovernment),since2005,atotalofsevenpotentialpyramidshavebeenidentified,thoughonlytwohavebeenarchaeologicallyexploredsofar.“Only”190metershigh—whichwouldstillmakeithigherthantheGreatPyramid—andsituatedlowerinthevalleyisthePyramidoftheMoon,thefootofthispyramidhasbecomeasecondshowcaseofthePyramidFoundation’swork.Here,excavationsshowatypeoffloorlyingonsandstone,followedbyasecondlayerinapproximately1-meter-highsteps.Nearby,theteamprobedthelocationwheretwofacesofthepyramidmeetandfoundafreestandingstonestructure.Itisbutonefortuitousdiscoveryinaseriesofenigmaticfindings.ExtensiveexcavationsonthetopofthePyramidoftheMoonhaverevealedthesametypeof“flooring.”Archaeologistsuncoveredalayeroftopsoilwithnaturallayersofsandstonebelow,butseparatingbothisathinlayerofrectangularstoneblocksthatlooksimilarinsizetomodernpavingslabs.Insubstance,theylookasiftheywerepouredandlaidsidebyside.Interestingly,somearebroken,butthesefracturesarealwaysrandom;theiroriginalshapeisalwaysrectangular.Whethertheyarenaturalorman-maderemainsasubjectofintensedebate,but,ifnatural,thisisoneoftheoddestgeologicalformationsonEarth,sayleadinggeologists.

ThePyramidFoundationteamhasidentifiedotherpotentialsitesofinterestinthevalley.OneisthePyramidoftheDragon,whichtogetherwiththepyramidsoftheMoonandtheSunmakesaperfectequilateraltrianglewhenlinesaredrawnconnectingtheapexesofeachpyramid,eachsidehavingalengthof2,173meters.Noworkhasbeencarriedoutonthisthirdpotentialpyramidduetothepresenceoflandminesonitsslopes,butnaturerarelycreatessuchperfecttriangles—especiallynotwhenthestructuresconsistofthree-dimensionaltriangles:pyramids,eachofwhichorientatedtowardthecardinalpoints.

Furthermore,observationsbyengineerGoranCakichaverevealedthatthereisalsoasolarshowoccurringbetweenthepyramidsoftheSunandtheMoon.OnJune21,2008,thesummersolstice,heobservedthattheshadowofthePyramidoftheSunatnoonformeda“parallelpyramid”ofthesameheightnexttothePyramidoftheMoon.EvenmoreinterestingisthatonAugust20,2008,between6:30and7:30p.m.,thePyramidoftheSun’sshadowtouchedtheentirePyramidoftheMoon.Coincidence,perhaps,butmorelikelydesign—perhapspartofasacredlightshowthattypifiesmanyancientcultures.AsimilarphenomenoncanbeseenontheslopeofthemainpyramidintheMayancomplexofChichenItza,whereontheequinoxes,the

suncreatesalightandshadoweffectalongtheslopesofthepyramid,whichmakesitappearasifthestoneserpentbecomesalive.

Theso-calledBosniaKTKtunnels—afterthenameofthefactoryonwhosegroundstheywerefound—arepartoftheundergroundcomplexoftunnelsthatleadsfromvariouspartsofVIsokotowardthePyramidiftheSun.Thetunnelcomplexfellindecayinc.1200BC.Imagecopyrighttheauthor.

Thebestevidencefortheartificialityofthesestructures,however,isthenearbytunnels.ThetownelderstelleveryonewhowantstohearthattheyusedtoentervarioustunnelsinandaroundVisokoaskids,walkingthroughthemfromonesideofthetowntotheother.Whenafactorywasconstructedneartheriver,largecavitieshadtobefilledinwithcementsothatthepremisescouldbebuilt.AnotherknowntunnelistheTopuzovoPoljetunnel,whichstartsneartheRiverBosna,buthasbeenfilledinwithdebris.But,accordingtohistoricalaccounts,thistunnelonceledtothePyramidoftheSun.Sofar,twotunnelcomplexeshavebeenproperlyexplored.About2kilometersfromthePyramidoftheSunisRavne,atunnelsystemwherethemaintunnelhasvariousoffshoots,runningat45-or90-degreeangles.Inthepast,thesesidetunnelswereblockedoffwithcarefullypositioneddrystonewalls.Alongthemainpassageway,severallarge,enigmaticstoneshavebeendiscovered;theirpurposeremainsamystery.Thesestonescontainanumberofinscriptionssuggestiveofalanguage.Whenstalagmiteswerediscoveredinonesidetunnel,ItaliangeologistsDr.DarioAndrettiandDr.LucianoLeoniwereabletoconcludethatthesewouldhavetaken2,600to2,900yearstoform,whichmeansthetunnelcanbedatedtoatleast1000BC—andmostlikelyisolder.Thisdateisofinterest,forDr.Barakat’sresearch

indicatesthatapproximately3,000yearsago—thatis,inc.1000BC—anearthquakedamagedatleastonefaceofthePyramidoftheSun.FurtherevidenceofsuchanearthquakeisvisibleonthePyramidoftheMoon,wherethestone“pavement”onthetopshowsobvioussignsoffolding.Circa1000BC,somethinghappenedthatpartiallydestroyedthesestructures,andthismayexplainwhytheRavnetunnelcomplexhasbeenfilledinwithsandandwhyothertunnelshavecollapsed.

EvenBosnianpyramidskepticKatherineReecehasarguedontheInternetthatthesetunnelsareman-made:“ancientminingtunnelsdatingfromaslongagoas3500BCwhentheareawasbeingminedforcopper.”16Itunderlinesthatsheacceptsthattherewashumanactivityhereatthattime,thoughsheistotallyunwillingtoentertainthenotionthatthereisapyramidnearby.However,miningexpertsfromZenica,Banovici,andKakanjhaveshownthattherearenotracesofmineralsinthesetunnelsandthat,hence,thetunnelscouldneverhavebeencoppermines.

AnotheropponentwhohascomearoundonthetunnelsissueishistorianandarchaeologyprofessorDr.EnverImamovic,fromtheUniversityofSarajevo,whoatfirstclaimedthatthetunnelswerenaturalcaves,evendenyingthattherearesidetunnelsat45degrees—whichhesaidwasalieperpetratedbyOsmanagic—buthealsostatedthathehadnotvisitedthematthetimehemadetheclaim.Inshort,hewasaccusingsomeoneoflying,thoughhehadnotverifiedanythingwhatsoever!Since,hehasacceptedthatthesetunnelsarenotnaturalcaves.Instead,itissuggestedbythepyramidproponentsthatthesetunnelswereusedtoentertheinteriorofthePyramidoftheSun,where,itisspeculated,kingsofOldEuropemayoncehavebeenburied.Thoughnoevidencehasbeenfoundforthisconclusion,itiscompletelylogical.

Meanwhile,inSeptember2007,ateamfromtheNationalMuseumofBosniaandHerzegovinaexcavatedthenearbysiteofOkolisteandconcludedthat,c.4700–4500BC,around3,000peoplelivedinthesettlement—oneofthelargesteverfoundinBosnia.Thisshouldn’tbesurprising,seeingthatVisokoisknowntohavebeenoneofBosnia’smostfertilelandsandhenceacherishedlocationforsettlers.Fromthedevelopmentofcivilizationselsewhere,weknowthatsuchsettlementsoftenhadasurplusworkforce,which,likeelsewhere,mighteasilyhavebeenusedtostartabuildingproject—theBosnianpyramids,perhaps?

Furthermore,pyramid-likeobjectshavebeenfoundwithinOldEurope.Dr.GimbutaswroteinTheGoddessesandGodsofOldEurope(1974)abouthowthe

richlyinciseddecorationontheTiszaaltarfromKökénydomd[insoutheasternHungary]mayrelatetocosmogonicalmyths.Itstriangularfrontiscoveredbymeandersanddividedintotwolevelsbyahorizontalbandofmeanderinglines.Inthecenterofthelowerregistertwoeyesandanosearesetinatriangle....Groupsofparallellines,arrangedinthree,formpanelsalongeachsideofthealtar.Thedecorativeorganizationsuggestsseverallevelsofcosmicwaters.17

InEgypt,theGizaPlateauhasbeenportrayedsymbolicallyastheprimevalhill,whichrosefromtheWatersofChaos.ConsideringthattheTiszaaltardisplaystriangles(thetwo-dimensionalrenderingofthethree-dimensionalpyramid),thisattheveryleastshowsthatOldEuropeworkedwiththesamecosmogonicalmaterialinitsmythsastheotherpyramid-buildingcultures.

Thereisthereforeasubstantialbodyofevidencefromwhichonecanconcludethatthesehillshavebeenartificiallyenhanced,andthattherewere“civilizedpeople”presentattherighttime,intherightplace,tohavecreatedthesepyramids.However,itisequallyclearthatasmokinggun,whichwouldconvinceanyone,remainstobefound—but,equally,itmightbejustaspade’sturnaway.Allfalseperceptionsandegotripsaside,theBosnianValleyofthePyramidshasmuchvalidityandwillrocktheoldpyramidparadigminyearstocome.Buttheresearchprojectwillcontinuetobecontroversialforsometimelonger.Intime,theBosnianpyramidswillnotonlybeaddedtothenewparadigmofpyramidstructuresthatappearacrosstheworld,buttheywillalsorevealanewdimensiontotheVincacultureandshowthatthepyramidsare,asanidea,farolder,

thantheancientEgyptians.Eitherway,anewpageisbeingaddedinthedevelopmentofcivilization,andScienceisslowlycomingaroundtotheideathattheremightbesomethingtothesepyramids.

OnAugust29,2008,thefirstInternationalConferenceontheBosnianPyramids,attendedbyleadingEgyptologistsandarchaeologistsfrommanycountries,includingDr.NabilSwelim,Egyptologistandarchaeologist;Dr.OlegKhavroshkin;Dr.AlaaShaheen,archaeologist,deanofthefacultyofarchaeologyattheCairoUniversity;Dr.HassanEl-Saady,historian,vicedeanofthefacultyofartsattheAlexandriaUniversity;Dr.AnnaPazdur,physician,RadiocarbonLaboratory,SilesianUniversity,Gliwice,Poland;Dr.MonaHaggag,archaeologist,secretaryoftheArchaeologicalSocietyofAlexandria,Egypt;Dr.MostafaEl-Abbadi,historian,founderofthemodernlibraryinAlexandria(BibliothecaAlexandrina),Egypt;andDr.MohamedIbrahimAly,Egyptologistandarchaeologist,facultyofartattheUniversityEin-Shams,Cairo.Dr.MohamedIbrahimAlyconcluded:

Workatthearchaeologicallocation“BosnianValleyofthePyramids”inVisoko,BosniaandHerzegovina,isanimportantgeo-archaeologicalandepigraphicalresearchthatrequiresfurthermultidisciplinaryscientificresearchwhichshouldanswertheoriginoftheBosnianpyramidalhillsandtheextensiveundergroundtunnelnetworkaswellasotherarchaeologicalsitesinthevicinity.18

Whenthesefindingswereannouncedatthesubsequentpressconference—IwasdraftedtomaketheaboveannouncementinEnglish—itwasclearthatthiswasahard—ifnotdevastating—blowfortheardentskeptics,whoseethisasnothingmorethanadelusion,ifnota“folieàun,”namelySamOsmanagic’s.Buttheskepticswerenotgoingtogiveupeasily.DuringthatpressconferencetabloidjournalistVukBacanovic,theavowedcriticoftheproject,madehispresencefeltbyholdinga10-minutemonologue.Bacanovichadnotattendedasingleminuteoftheconference,yetspewedoutcertainoldandnewallegations,noneofwhichmadeanysensetobeginwith.(Forexample,heseemedtowanttohaveanindividualroll-callofallconferenceattendeesthattheysupportedthefindings,thoughitwasmadeveryclearthatallparticipantssupportedtheconclusionsandeveryonewaspresentinthatauditorium.IfBacanovichadbeenpresentduringtheconference,hewouldhaverealizedthis,butofcourse,hedidnotwanttoknow.)

Beforetheconference,Swelimhadinvitedsomeofthemostvociferouscriticsoftheproject,includingAnthonyHarding,MarkRose,andsomeselectedothers,toattend.Ofallcritics,onlyDr.BlagojeGovedaricaresponded,thoughinaless-than-straightforwardmanner.He,however,refusedtoattend.Theconferenceshowedthetremendousdivisionswithinarchaeology,inwhichentiresectionssimplywantnothingtodowiththisproject,foranumberofreasons,noneofthemtodowithscience,butalltodowithegoandpreconceivednotionsordogma.Indeed,Hardingwentasfarastoannouncethatmembersofhisorganizationwere“forbidden”—andhence,onecouldargue,theBosnianpyramidsarepartofafieldofstudythatonemanhaslabeled“forbiddenarchaeology”:archaeologicaldiscoveriesscientistsrefusetolookat,howeverscientificallysoundtheyare.

FORBIDDENARCHAEOLOGY

In1993,MichaelCremoandRichardL.ThompsonwroteForbiddenArchaeology:TheHiddenHistoryoftheHumanRace.At914pages,itisthethickestbookinmylibrary.Itssizeforebodesthattherearemanytopicstobecoveredthatarchaeologistsconsidertobe“nogo”zones.ThebooktacklesbonesandartifactsthatshowthatpeoplelikeusexistedonEarthmillionsofyearsago.However,theyshowthatforthepasttwocenturies,thescientificestablishmenthasignoredtheseremarkablefactsbecausetheycontradictedthedominantviewsofhumanoriginsandantiquity.Indeed,ItalianscientistG.Sergiin1884wrote:“Bymeansofadespoticscientificprejudice,callitwhatyouwill,everydiscoveryofhumanremainsinthe

Pliocenehasbeendiscredited.”19ThePliocenestretchedfromc.fivetotwomillionyearsago.CremoandThompsonlistdozensofexamplesofevidencethathavebeenremovedfromthe

archaeologicalrecordbecauseitdidnotfit—andhenceitbecameforbiddenarchaeology.Theirendconclusionisthatthetotalevidence“includingfossilbonesandartifacts,ismostconsistentwiththeviewthatanatomicallymodernhumanshavecoexistedwithotherprimatesfortensofmillionsofyears.”20

Whenthebookcameout,theworldofarchaeology—unsurprisingly—didnotlikeit,andastherewaslittletotakeawayfromtheevidencepresentedbytheauthors,wentaftertheauthors.Andthecolorofthedustjacket!CyprianBroodbankdescribeditinAntiquity’sbooksectionlikethis:“Allthereasonsandevidencewhymodernhumansarenotratherrecentbutmostancient,averylarge,veryoddcompilationofeveryanomalyinaverypinkjacket.”21

Byandlargely,ForbiddenArchaeologywastreatedasnon-existent,forCremoandThompsonwerenotoneof“them,”butoutsiders.TheChurchofSciencecaneasilypretendthesehereticsdonotexistandiftheydosomehowattainnotorietyormediaattention,theyarequicklyidentifiedandridiculedashereticsandburnedatthescientificstake,whetherthatisthepopularpressorscientificpublications.If,aswithFradin,theystillrefusetogoaway,thenforecastsoffinancialruinorlegalcasesareemployedinattackingtheheretic.

However,inJune2011,AntiquityeditorSimonStoddardanddeputyeditorCarolineMalonefinallydidheraldamajorproblemwitharchaeology,namelythenon-publicationoffieldwork.Therecanbeseveralyears,evendecades,beforethefindingsofarchaeologicalexcavationsarepublished,andinthemeantimetheartifactsthatweredugupdon’texist.In2001,itwasreportedthat89percentofallItalianarchaeologicalmaterialhadnotbeenpublished.ButStoddardandMalonewentontospeakof“anotherdimensionofarcheologicalicon-oclasm…thatoffalsification.[…]Wepersonallyremembermeetingabrilliantcolleaguewhoover-extendedthedistributionofMycenaeansherdsinTuscanybycreativere-useofsherdsfromamuseumstore.”22Theyarguedthatthischeatingwouldnothavebeendetectedbystudyinghispublishedwork.

InOctober2000,JapanesearchaeologistShinichiFujimarawasvideotapedplantingartifactsatasiteinJapan,andphotographsfromthetapewerepublishedonthefrontpageofaleadingnationalnewspaper,ManichiShimbun.Fujimara,deputydirectoroftheTohokuPalaeolithicInstitute,admittedplanting61of65artifactsfoundattheKamitakamorisiteandall29artifactsfoundattheSoshinfudozakasite.ArchaeologistPaulBahnexpandedonthis,writinginAntiquity:

Inarchaeologyasawholetheabovetypesofdishonestyhaveflourishedforthesimplereasonthatnobodyiswillingorabletoexposetheculpritspublicly,althoughtherearefrequentmutteringsinconferencecorridorsorbehindcloseddoors.Evenhere,Iamunabletonamenames,sinceitwouldexposebothmeandthisjournaltolitigation[…]noone,leastofallthemedia,checksthefacts;orsimplybecausemostpeoplefindithardtobelievethatscholarscouldlieandcheatsobrazenly.”23

Butitisobviousthatwhenitcomestooutsiders—amateurarchaeologists—archaeologistsandtheirpublicationshavenoproblemwhatsoeveringoingaftersomeone.Theyjustdon’tgoaftertheirown.

Cremohimselfhasexperienceofhowscientistshavetriedtoboycotttelevisionprogramsinwhichhisbookwasgoingtobediscussed:

WhenworkingwithproducerBillCoteontheNBCtelevisionspecialTheMysteriousOriginsofMan,IfoundwewereblockedfromseeingtheanomalousartifactsfromtheCaliforniagoldmines,whichwerebeingkeptoutofsightinthestorageroomsofamuseumcontrolledbytheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.Wealsofoundthatorthodoxscientists,ledbyUCBerkeleypaleontologistJereLipps,engagedinan

organizedefforttostopNBCfrombroadcastingtheprogram.Whenthatfailed,anotherpaleontologist,AllisonR.PalmeroftheInstituteforCambrianStudies,triedtogettheFederalCommunicationsCommissiontopunishNBCforhavingshownthisprogram,whichdirectlycontradictedthesacrosanctDarwinianaccountofhumanorigins.”24

Cremoisnotpreachingagainstevolution,butisarguingthatDarwinistarchaeologistshaveshoehornedthearchaeologicalevidenceinatoo-narrowtimeframe.

In1973,VirginiaSteen-McIntyrewaspartoftheinvestigateteamofthesiteofHueyatlacoinMexico,wherestonetoolsofatypemadeonlybyanatomicallymodernhumanswereuncoveredbyarchaeologistshadbeenfoundandweredatedtoabout250,000years.However,thereigningparadigmstatesthatmodernmanisonly100,000yearsoldandthatwereachedtheAmericasonly25,000yearsago,sothearchaeologicalestablishmentrejectedthesefindingsasthey“knew”they“had”tobewrong.Thoughhercolleagueswerewarytopublishtheseresults,Steen-McIntyrewasn’t.Indeed,theinitialteamleader,CynthiaIrwin-Williams,neverpublishedafinalreportonthesite,confirmingthecriticismidentifiedbyMichaelCremo,aswellasStoddardandMalone.

Cremoarguesthatthebasicproblemofarchaeologyisknowledgefiltration,theprocesswherebyevidencethatsupportsthepreconceptionsandtheoriesisaccepted,whereasotherevidencethatdoesnot,isrejected.Ifthediscoverieshappenedinthepast,modernarchaeologistswillonlybeawareoftheattitudeoftheircolleagues,butnotoftheoriginalsourcematerial.Renfrew’spointofviewonGlozelwasshapedbyGarrod,andothermodernarchaeologistshavetakentheirleadfromhim.Few,ifany,willeverhavestudiedthecontroversyofGlozelbasedonoriginalsourcematerial.Itispreciselythismindsetthathasstoppedarchaeologistsfromexpandingourviewofhistory.ItiswhytheyrebelledabouttheBosnianpyramids.ItiswhytheydonotwanttotouchthetopicofAtlantisatall.

Onemightbelenienttowardarchaeologistsandsaythattheydonotknowanybetter—thattheyaremerelymisinformedbygenerationsofarchaeologists.Butthisisatoo-lenientapproach.Thevitriolandextenttowhichtheygoto,asshowninthecasesofGlozelandtheBosnianpyramids,revealsthattheyactasamodernInquisition,intentonhuntingdownanddestroyingthenewhereticsthatdaretospeakoutandsaythathistoryisnotasweknowit,andthatthereisevidenceforlostcivilizations.Quiteliterally,archaeologycondemnsthosetoburn;inthecaseofEmileFradin,theyliterallythrewhiminjailandchargedhimwithfraud.Andiftheycouldhavehadhimburnedatthestake,theywouldhave.

Chapter2LOSTCIVILIZATIONSOFTHEOLDWORLD

INSEARCHOFTROY

TheIliad,recountingthefinal51daysofthe10thandfinalyearoftheTrojanWar,andtheOdyssey,detailingUlysses’voyagehome,aretheoldest,andperhapsstillthegrandest,epicpoemsofWesternliterature.WhenHomerwrotetheseaccountsremainsthesubjectofspeculation.Herodotusclaimedhelived400yearsbeforehim,whichwouldplacehimc.850BC,thoughothersarguehelivedin1200BC.Eversince,formillennia,thestoryofthelegendarybattleandvoyagehasbeentoldtomillionsofchildrenandadults.Throughtime,feweradultsbelievedthatthesebattlesandvoyageshadtrulytakenplaceandmorestartedtobelievethatTroywas“just”amyth.

HeinrichSchliemannwasbornin1822.ForChristmasin1829,hisfathergavehimacopyofLudwigJerrer’sIllustratedHistoryoftheWorld.Hewouldlatersayhewas8yearsoldwhenheclaimedthathewouldexcavatethecityofTroy.Inhismemoirsandbooks,Schliemannwrotethatwhenhewas8,hisfathertookhimonhiskneeandtoldhimthestoryoftheIliad,theforbiddenlovebetweenHelen,thewifeofthekingofSparta,andParis,sonofPriamofTroy,andhowtheirelopementresultedinawarthatdestroyedacivilization.Thatstory,saidSchliemann,awokeinhimahungertosearchforthearchaeologicalproofoftheexistenceofTroyandTirynsandMycenae.Infact,hewassohungrythathewentintobusinesstomakehisfortunesohecouldaffordthesearch.

Inthe19thcentury,HeinrichSchliemannwasconvincedthatTroywasnotamythicalcity,butcouldbefound.ExcavationsofthetownofHissarlikinTurkeywere,forSchliemann,evidencethatitwasthesiteofTroy.TodaytherealnatureofTroyisnolongerdisputedbyarchaeologists,thoughothersarenotatallconvincedthatHissarlikisthecorrectlocationofTroy.

SchliemannsearchedforTroyinmanyplaces.WhenSchliemannbeganhisquest,theconsensuswasthattherehadneverbeenarealTroy.Ofthefewwhodidacceptitshistoricalnature,mostpointedtoahillnamedBunarbashi,inTurkey.Schliemannvisitedthelocation,but

astheIliadmentionedthatMountIdawasvisiblefromthewallsofTroyandnomountaincouldbeseenfromBunarbashi,heruledthelocationout.

UsinggeographiccluesfromtheIliad,SchliemannlocatedanotherhillnearthevillageofHissarlikthatseemedtofitHomer’sdescriptions.Furthermore,in1822,CharlesMaclarenhadpublishedabookclaimingHissarlikwasTroy.In1868,FrankCalvertpublishedIthaka,derPeloponnesusundTroja,inwhichheclaimedthatHissarlik,Turkey,wasTroy.Apparently,Schliemannwasatfirstskeptical,butCalvertpersuadedhim.Ashisfamilyownedtheeasternhalfofthesite,heinvitedSchliemanntojointheexcavations,whichbeganin1871.

HomericTroywasthoughttobeinthelowestlevelsofthesite,soeveryonedugthroughtheupperlevels,reachingfortificationsthatwereidentifiedastheverywallsofthemythicalTroy.In1872,however,Calvertpublishedanarticle,statingthattheTrojanWarperiodwasmissingfromHissarlik,whichinfuriatedSchliemann.InMay1873,acacheofgoldwasfoundandwasquicklylabeled“Priam’sTreasure.”Inthefollowingyears,hebegandiggingattheGreekarchaeologicalsiteofMycenae,aswellassitesinIthaca,whichhebelievedwerelinkedwiththeOdyssey.By1878,hewasbackatHissarlik.

Laterarchaeologistscondemnedhismethodology,withKennethW.Harlinthe“TeachingCompany’sGreatAncientCivilizationsofAsiaMinor”lectureseries,evenclaimingthatSchliemanndidtoTroywhattheGreekscouldn’tdointheirtimes,whichwasdestroyingandlevelingdowntheentirecitywallstotheground.ButSchliemanndidsomethingandisrememberedforsomething,whichisconvincingtheworldthatTroywasreal.BeforeSchliemann,Troywaslargelyseenasmythical—aninventionbyHomer.ButwhenHeinrichSchliemanndiscoveredTroy,hemadeapowerfulstatementthatcivilizationsthatweredeemedtobefictional,wereactuallyhistoricalfact.

AfterSchliemann’sdeathin1890,excavationinHissarlikcontinued.Morethanacenturylater,thereisever-growingdissentthatHissarlikisTroy,withvariousauthoritiesvociferouslyarguingHissarlikcannotbeTroy.ToquoteSirMosesFinley:“themoreweknowtheworseoffweare”1—somuchsothatitisnow,despitewhatmostpeoplebelieve,deemedunlikelythatHissarlikisTroy.Weshouldhaveknown,foreventheRomangeographerStrabohadthistosaywhenhewasshownHissarlik:“thisisnotthesiteoftheancientIlium.”2Henceforth,thequestforTroyisbackon.Thequestionis:Whereisit?

Thereisawell-knownstatementthat“Homerisnotageographer.”Thisisbecauseofonesimpleproblem:WhenHomerdescribesalocation,thisoftendoesnotconformtoreality.Forexample,StrabowonderedwhyintheOdysseytheislandofPharos,situatedjustoutsideoftheEgyptiancityofAlexandria,wassaidtobeaday’ssailfromEgypt.Inreality,itwouldn’ttakefiveminutes.PlaceslikeRhodeswereneverdescribedasanislandbyHomer,thoughyouwouldthinkhewould.ThelocationofHomer’sIthacadoesnotconformtoreality,either.Dulichium,thelongisland,hasneverbeenidentified,forwhereitissupposedtobe,thereisnothing.ProfessorJohnChadwickthusconcluded:“[T]hereisacompletelackofcontactbetweenMycenaeangeographyasnowknownfromthetabletsandfromarchaeologyontheonehand,andHomer’saccountsontheother.”3

MostobservershavehenceclaimedthatHomernevervisitedthelocations,madethelandscapeup,andsoforth.ButsomerecognizethatifTroywasnotHissarlik,Homer’sPharosmaynothavebeennearAlexandria—andthatwouldmeanthattheentireIliadandOdysseymaynothaveoccurredinthoselocationsinandaroundtheMediterraneanSeathathavebecomeassociatedwiththem.Hence,weneedtoaskthequestionofwhetherthesetwoancientheroicaccountsareindeedfabricatedafterall.

OneimportantcluecomesfromPlutarch,whowrotethattheislandofOgygia,mentionedintheOdyssey,wassituated“fivedayssailfromBritain,towardsthewest.”4Indeed,suchalocationwouldmakesenseofHomer’sdescriptionofthesite:AlargenumberofseabirdsissaidtoflyaroundCalypso’sCaveonOgygiaandtheNorthSea,anditsislandsarefarbetterknownfor

theirlargenumberofseabirdsthantherathertranquilcoastsoftheMediterraneanSea.Elsewhere,Homerreferstothewildorsingingswan,whichisfoundinSiberiaandScandinavia,whereasMediterraneancountriesonlyknowthesilentswan,whichonlymakeasoundwhentheyareabouttodie.Furthermore,themovementofthetidesisoftenevokedbythebard,inbothliteralandfigurativesenses.Thetidesarenotoriouslyun-dramaticintheMediterraneanSea,butallthemoreimpressivealongtheshoresoftheNorthSea.

ThiswouldplaceHomer’sepicinnorthernEurope,whichmayseemstartlingatfirst,butnottosuchwell-respectedauthoritiesasStuartPiggott:“Thenobilityofthe[Homeric]hexametersshouldnotdeceiveusintothinkingthattheIliadandtheOdysseyareotherthanthepoemsofalargelybarbarianBronzeAgeorEarlyIronAgeEurope.”5

SoEurope,ratherthantheMediterranean,butwhereinEurope?ForFeliceVinciinTheBalticOriginsofHomer’sEpicTales,theansweristheBalticStates,alongthecoastlinesofDenmark,Sweden,Norway,Finland,Poland,andsoforth.AstothelocationofOgygia,forVinciitshouldbeidentifiedwiththeFaroeIslands,specificallytheislandKalsoy.

VinciisnotthefirsttoargueforaScandinaviansetting.ItwasalsoofferedbySwedishhistorianMartinP.Nilsson.Others,suchasBritishphilosopherandhistorianBertrandRussell,statedthattheMycenaeancivilizationoriginatedwithfair-hairedNortherninvadersofGreece.OneobviousquestioniswhyanorthernEuropeanstorywouldbecomethebackboneoftheMycenaean—Greek—civilizationinsouthernEurope.ForVinci,theanswerissimple:WhentheclimateofNorthernEuropebecamecolder,thesepeoplewereforcedtomigratesouth.Onetribe,theAchaeans,reachedthePeloponneseandfoundedtheMycenaeancivilization.Themigrantshadbroughttheirlegendswiththem,butthegeographyofthenorthdidnottransposeonthesouth—hencethediscrepancy.

ThatOgygiaisnotsituatedintheMediterraneanSeaseemsclear.ItsvegetationdoesnotconformtotheMediterraneanclimate.AndinHomer’sepics,therearefrequentreferencestofogandevensnow,andtohowthesundoesnotseemtosetbutinsteadlingersjustbeyondthehorizon,aphenomenonthatistypicalforsummerinthenorthernregions.IntheOdyssey,weread:“Herewecanperceiveneitherwheredarknessisnorwheredawnis/norwheretheSunshiningonmengoesdownunderground/norwhereitrises.”6

Furthermore,theseaisneverdescribedasbeingbright,butgrayandmisty.Thecharactersweartunicsandthick,heavycloaks,whichtheyneverremove,notevenduringbanquets.Thesunanditswarmthareseldommentionedinthebook,yetarewhatwouldimmediatelycometomindinaMediterraneansetting.Indeed,thereisnothinginthisgeographicaldescriptionthathintsataMediterraneansetting;evenifHomerwasnotageographer,heshouldatleasthaveknownwhatatypicalMediterraneanlandscapelookedlike,asheisbelievedtohavelivedthere.Instead,itseemshelivedelsewhere.

SowherepreciselydoesVincilocatethesebattles?TheIliadisplacedalongtheGulfofFinland,andtheOdysseyinandaroundDenmark.TroyitselfisToijainFinland;ThebesisTäbyinSweden;thePeloponnesewasZeeland,inDenmark.Vinci’sargumentationislinguistic,showingsimilaritiesinplace-names,buthencesuffersfromapotentiallyfatalflaw,asmostofthesenamescannotbetracedbacktobeforec.AD800.Thismeansthatagapoftwotothreemillenniaexists;asmentionedbyVincihimself,thesepeoplelefttheirhomelandin1000BC,sohowcanwebecertainwherewhatwas,astherewasnocontinuoustraditionpresent?

EventhoughwecanthereforenotfullyidentifytheBalticStatesasthehomeofTroy,Vinci’sresearchhasunderlinedanotherproblemthathistoriansdonotliketodealwith:thefactthatvariouscivilizationsactivelyexchangedinformationandmaterials.Vinci’sresearchshowsthatthereissomeconnectionbetweennorthernandsouthernEurope,fortherewasanactivetradebetweentheseBalticStatesandMycenea,asrevealedbythelargequantityofBalticamberthatwasfoundinthemostancientMycenaeantombsinGreece.

ThoughVincimayberight,Piggottismostdefinitelyright:TheAchaeanwarriorsused

chariotstomoveacrossthebattlefield,amethodoffightingthatwasunknowninGreece.ButsimilarchariotfightingwasdescribedbyJuliusCaesarwhenheinvadedBritain;whatourRomanwarlordwitnessedseemedtobetakenword-for-wordfromHomer’saccounts.Furthermore,the“greatwalls”ofTroy(neversaidtobemadeoutofstone)couldbeidenticalwiththepalisadesaroundvariousmegalithictumuliandCelticsettings.ThesweetwinethewarriorsdrinkmayseemtypicallyMediterraneanatfirst,butwenowknowthatwinewasgrowninnorthernEuropebutthathoneywasaddedtoit,makingthewinesweet.SuchanadditionwasnotrequiredforMediterraneanwines,andonceagain,itseemsHomer’sheroeswerethusfightingelsewhere.Finally,inHomer’saccount,everyonedrinksfrombronzechalices,whichistypicalofCelticcustoms—andlargelyabsentfromMediterraneancultures.

ACelticsettingthereforeworks,butthequestiondoesremain:WhereinnorthernEurope?InWhereTroyOnceStood,Dutch-bornauthorImanWilkensarguesthattheTrojanWarwasamajorconflictbetweentheEuropeancontinentandtheBritishIslesforfreeaccesstoarawmaterialthatwasfoundnearlyexclusivelyinCornwallandthatwasessentialintheBronzeAgeascrudeoilisatpresent.Thisrawmaterialwastinfortheproductionofbronze.

TheCornishtinmineswereexhaustedin1200BC.Withouttin,therewasnobronzeand,asaconsequence,Europereturnedtomoreprimitivelivingconditions.UntiltheemergenceoftheGreekandRomancivilizations,Europehadarecessionthatlastedfourcenturies.Inc.1400BC,BronzeAgeEuropeknewtinwasadiminishingresourceandthatexporttocontinentalEuropemightendsoon,infavorofkeepingthetininBritain.HowcouldcontinentalEuropeattaintin?Therewereonlytwopossibilities:tradeorwar.

Thetradeoptionwasunrealistic,asthecontinenthadnothingtoofferinreturn.Hence,warwastheonlyoption.That,forWilkens,isthetruestageoftheTrojanWar:thestruggleoftheEuropeancontinenttocontinueitswayoflife,resultinginanattackonBritain.

Interestingly,intheMiddleAges,therewasawidespreadbeliefintheTrojanoriginsofmanywesternEuropeanpeople.TheRomansclaimedtheydescendedfromAeneas;theBritishandtheFranksclaimedTrojanstock.TheBritishwereneverprecise,claimingthatBrutustheTrojanhadfounded“NewTroy,”whichtheyidentifiedwithLondon.In1879,inthewakeofSchliemann’sdiscovery,French-bornBelgianlawyerThéophileCaillieuxarguedthatTroywassituatedinEngland’sEastAnglia,wherehediscoveredtwohugewar-dikes(ditches)betweenCambridgeandtheWash.

WilkenswastoofocusedonthefrequentmentionofdikesinHomer’saccount,suggestingthatthewarinvolvedlow-lyinglands—whichisperhapsoneofthefewuncontestedissuesofHomer’sgeography.TheFleamDykeandtheDevil’sDykeofEastAngliaareindeedenigmas.TheDevil’sDykeisthelargestmonumentofitskindinBritain.TheFleamDykeisaditchandrampart85feetwideandupto11feethigh,runningfor3milesfromFulbournacrossthedrychalk-landstoBalsham.

TheFleamDykenearCambridgeis,togetherwiththeDevil’sDyke,alongdikewhosepurposesareofficiallyunknown.AccordingtoImanWilkens,CambridgewasthesiteoftheoriginalTroyandthedikesfeaturedintheWarofTroy,whichwasnotfoughtinTurkey,butinEngland.Imagecopyrighttheauthor.

Theyobviouslyservedamilitarypurposeandformedabarrier.Itisknownthatthewideplainhadalreadybeenclearedaround1500BCandthatthebarrierswerelikelyerectedtostophorse-drawnwarchariots.Officially,though,theyaresaidtobeonly1,200yearsold(thatis,datedtoAD800)andconstructedbytheSaxons.Still,theproblemisthatnooneknowswhatbattleswerefoughthere.CaillieuxandWilkenshenceputtwoproblemstogether,concludingthatthebarriersweretheretostoptheAchaeansintheirpathtoattackTroy.Forthem,TroywaslocatedontheheightsjustaboveCambridge,theGogMagoghills;theacropolisofTroy(knownasPergamus)wasidentifiedwiththeWandleburyRing.Thishillfortoncehadconcentricditchesandearthenwalls,whichwerekeptinplacebywoodenpalisades.Allthatremainsofthisstructureistheditch—theRing—whichisstill16feetdeepinplaces.

WilkensidentifiesArgoswithFranceandMyceneawiththemodernFrenchtownofTroyes,whosenameisindeedtakenfromTroy.IthacaisplacedinCadiz,insouthernSpain,makingthebattlestagefortheIliadatrulyEurope-widewar.AlloftheselocationshavestrongCeltic,megalithicconnections,andawarbetweenBritainandthecontinentovertinislogical,giventheknowledgethatthemetalwasextremelyprecious.TheworkofBarryCunliffe,aformerprofessorofEuropeanarchaeologyattheUniversityofOxford,alsounderlinesthatthisocean-facingmegalithiccivilizationhadexperiencedsailors,conformingtothestrongsailingtraditionthatrunsthroughHomer’sepics.

AsfortheOdyssey,Wilkenstransformsthisintoatransoceanicvoyage,withourheroreachingtheNewWorld,aswellasplaceslikeSenegal,theCapeVerdeIslands,theDutchAntilles,andCuba,beforearrivingbackhomeinIthaca(Cadiz).AsforOgygia,toWilkensthisistheislandofSt.Miguel,intheAzores.

Forthepastcentury,Homer’sepicpoemshavelargelybeendecodedineffortstofindthephysicalstageofitsevents.Before,epicpoemswereallaboutasymbolicnature,andthishaslargelybeenpushedsinceSchliemannputTroyonamap.Butitwouldbefoolhardytoforgetthesymbolismofthistale.Ulysses’voyageintheOdysseyisoftenseenasbeingadescriptionofaman’sinitiationintoamysterycult;someofthebattleshaveanarchetypalnature.ForEdna

Leigh,asrecountedinHomer’sSecretIliadbyFlorenceandKennethWood,theIliadwasindeednotahistorical,butanastronomicaltext.Infact,shefeltitwastheworld’soldestsubstantialastronomicaltext.ShebelievedthattheIliadwascreatedtopreservetheancientknowledgeoftheheavens.ThebattleswerenottobefoundonplanetEarth,butinthestars—notanalienstarwars,butastronomicaleventsandinformationpresentedasastory.

ThereareseveralstarnameslistedintheIliad,soattheveryleast,thetextdefinitelyhassomeastronomicalconnection.Furthermore,sailinginstructionsintheOdysseyaregivenwithsuchconfidencethattheymustreflectthelearningofamanwhocouldusethenight’sskiesforpracticalpurposes.ButLeighwentmuchfurtherthanthesebasicastronomicalobservations.Eventually,shewouldidentifynolessthan650starsand45constellationsintheIliad.

HerstrongestpointistheCatalogueofShips,whichisbelievedtohavebeentheoldestpartoftheIliad.Equally,itisthemostboring;itisliterallyacatalogofshipsthatparticipateintheattackonTroy—averyboringpartofanotherwise-greatepic—soboringthatitmightbeanindex,orcatalog,ofstars?

Leighdetectedanunderlyingthemeintheepic.SherealizedthatthemainwarriorsoftheIliadwerestars;thebrighterthestar,themorepowerfulthewarriorwas.Theirvictimswerealwaysthelessbrightstars.Whenseenassuch,theGreekandTrojanregimentsrepresented45constellations;thecommandersandleaderswerethe73brighteststarsintheconstellations,suchasAeneas(Spica),Agamemnon(Regulus),Menelaus(Antares),Aias(Canopus),Patroclus(Procyon),Paris(Betelgeuse),andofcourseOdysseus(Arcturus).

ForLeigh,Troyistheuniverse,asweseeit:thenight’ssky.Theschemingandbattleswerethefutileeffortstohalttheprecessionoftheequinoxes,specificallythedeclineofThubaninDracoasthepolestar,andthereturnofSirius,thebrighteststar,totheskiesofGreece—forthatisindeedthelocationwheresheplacesit.SiriuswasidentifiedwiththeheroAchilles,thegreatestwarrioratTroy.HencealsowhyAchillesisknowntochaseHector—Orion.

Thisbattleintheskybetweenthesevariousstarswasvisiblefromroughly2800BCtoc.1800BC.Still,asthereturnofSiriustoourskiesoccurredintheninthmillenniumBC,shearguesthattheentirestorybeganthen,withthereturnofAchillestothefieldofbattle(c.8900BC),thestoryendinginc.2200BC,shortlybeforethearrivalofthenewpolestar.

Achilles’returntothebattlefield,towhichHomerdevotesseveralbooks,isindeedamomentofastronomicalimportance.Itisoneofthemostelaboratedescriptions,withthesmith-godHephaestuscreatinganewshieldforAchilles:“HewroughttheEarth,theheavens,andthesea,theMoonalsoatherfullandtheuntiringSun,withallthesignsthatglorifythefaceofHeaven—thePleiades,theHyades,hugeOrion,andtheBear,whichmanalsocalltheWainandwhichturnsroundforeverinoneplace,facingOrionandaloneneverdipsintothestreamOceanus.”7TheseparticularconstellationsmarktheareaofthenightskyinwhichSiriusanditsconstellation,CanisMajor,reappeared.AndforLeigh,thatistheimportanceofHomer’smessage.

Intheend,wearelefttowonderwhoisright.Schliemann?Vinci?Wilkens?Leigh?TheonlyconclusionwecandrawisthatthequestforTroyisstillopen.Leigh’s“starcode”doesnotneedtobeexclusivetothepossibilitythatTroywasarealcity.Arealbattlecouldhavebeentheinspirationtoaddanextralayerofstarloretoit.Inmoderntimes,certainhistoricaldetailsareoftenchangedtotellabetterstory;whywouldHomerbeanydifferent?WhatthequestforTroyhastaughtusisthatwhatwasoncethoughttobefictionalisdefinitelynotwithouttruevalue,creatinginsightintoourforefathers.AndwhattheresearchofVinciandWilkenshasshownisthatEuropeanhistoryisfarmorecomplexandinterestingthancommonlyknown.

SAILINGTOHYPERBOREA

2000BC.Theedgeoftheworld.ThatdescribestheOuterHebrides,offthewesterncoastofthenorthernmostpartofScotland.Theseislandsareremotetimestwo,evenbymodernstandards.Still,thereissomethingherethatattracted,thousandsofyearsago,alargeenoughpopulationtobuildtheCallanishStones,oneofthemostspectacularandgrandestmegalithic

monumentsanywhere.Infact,ithasearnedthenickname“StonehengeoftheNorth.”Foramegalithicsite,Callanishisalsoquiteunique,forunlikethetriedandtestedsettingsof

mostmegalithicmonuments,Callanishislaidoutasacircleconsistingof13stones,is13metersindiameter,andtowardtheoutsidehasfurthermegalithicstonesintheshapeofaCelticcross.Itisthereforenotgrandinsize,butinappearance.Theaverageheightofthestonesisneverthelessanimpressive4meters,thoughtherangevariesfrom1to5meters;allstonesarelocalLewisiangneiss,which,atthreebillionyearsold,istheoldesttypeofstoneofBritain.Itmakesonewonderwhetherourancestorsknewhowspecialthisstonewasandwhetheritwasforthisqualitythattheyuseditinthiscircle.ThestonesmighthavecomefromacliffatNaDromannan,amileinlandfromCallanish,wheretherearesomevisibleremainsofadestroyedstonecircle.

CallanishsitsonthemainIsleofLewis,diagonallyacrossfromStornoway,thepresent“capital”oftheislands—thoughitonlyhasapopulationof6,000.Callanish(inGaelic,Calanais)sitsnearLochRoag,onapeninsula,onaridge,whichmeanstherearegoodviewsoverthesurroundingarea,thoughtheverytopofthenaturaloutcropcalledCnocanTursa,uponwhichthestonecirclesits,obscuresviewstowardthesouth.Indeed,therearesome“platformrocks”justnexttotheentrancegatethatallowsonetolookdownupontheconstruction.It’saninterestingquestiontoaskwhetheritwasonceusedassuchinancienttimes,too.Somearchaeologistsspeculatethatthenaturaloutcropwasindeedpartandparcelofthestructure,andnotethatthesouthernavenueisactuallyalignedtowardit.

Archaeologistsstatethatconstructiononthesitebeganc.2900BC,withthestonecircleitselfcreatedc.2200BC.GeraldandMargaretPontingthinkthatthecentral,4.7-meter-high,7-tonstonewasputupfirst.Ifso,thesitewouldhavebegunasonegiganticstandingstone.Itmightthushavebeenonparwithanothergiganticstandingstone—biggerthantheCallanishone—onthenorthernshoreoftheisland.TheClachanTrushalatBalanthrushalis6meterstalland2meterswide;itisthelargestsinglemonolithinScotlandandremainsveryimpressive,despitetodaybeingcrampedinbymodernstructures.

Otherstonecircles,suchasStonehenge,alsohaveavenuesleadinguptoit.ButCallanishisquiteuniqueaslinesofstonesleadtowarditfromallcardinalpoints,thoughthenorthernavenueisbyfarthelongestandtheonlyonethatisadoublerow.Thisavenueis83.2meterslongandoncecounted39stones,ofwhichnowonly19remain.Theterminalstonesaresethighandatrightangles,asiftheyareblockingstones.Thewidthoftheavenuegoesfrom6.7to6meters.

Thesouthernavenueispreciselyorientatednorth-southandmeasures27.2meters.Theeasternavenuehasonlyfivestonesleft,andis23.3meterslong.Thewesternoneis13meterslong,andhasamerefourstones.Theboundarystoneofthiswesternavenuehasasubliminalimageinit:ahead,withadefinedeyeandnose,whichlooksinward,towardthestonecircle.Doesittellusthiswasavantagepoint,anddoesitinviteustolooktowardthecenterofthecircle?

WhatwasCallanish’spurpose?AswithStonehenge,peoplehavetriedtodecodeCallanish’sastronomicalclock.TheadventurebeganwithSirNormanLockyer,whoarguedthatthenorthernavenuewasalignedtoCapella,butthiswouldhaveoccurredonlyc.1800–1790BC,afullhalfmillennium,ifnotmore,afterCallanishwassupposedlycreated.Morerecently,AubreyBurlhasproposedthattheeasternrowwasalignedtotherisingofthePleiades,buthenotedthiswouldonlyworkc.1550BC,againverylateinthesite’sexistence.Inhisturn,ProfessorAlexanderThomsuggestedthatthealignmentofthenorthernavenue(whenlookingsouthward)pointedtothesettingofthemidsummerfullmoonbehindMt.Clisham,ahillthatdelineatesthehorizon.ThereisanotheralignmentatCallanishthatisseldommentioned:Lookingfromthemainsitetotheeast,anothersite,CallanishXIV,whichisasinglestandingstone,becomesagoodmarkerfortheequinoctialsunrise.

ButCallanish’simportanceisnotsomuchtothesunandthestars,buttothemoon.Itisprimarilylinkedwiththeextremesouthernsettingpositionofthemajorstandstillofthemoon.Infact,threestonecirclesnearCallanisharealsoorientatedtothisevent,andothermonumentsontheislandsuggestthesameorientation.

Thislunarphenomenonoccursevery18.5years,and,whenseenfromCallanish,themoonwouldalternatebetweenskirtingthetopandbottomoftheundulatinghorizonofMt.Clisham,ortheso-calledSleepingBeauty.SheisoutlinedintheshapeofthehillssouthofCallanish.ThelocalsrefertoitasCailleachnaMointeach,the“OldWomanoftheMoors.”However,theCailleachwasalsothecreatordeity,andoftensaidtohavemarriedthesungod.Anassociationwiththemoonwouldthereforehaveneatlyfittedinwiththeastronomicalmythology.

Themoonrisesatthelevelofherbreasts—twinpeaks.ThemoonthenpassesthroughtheCallanishstonestwotofivehourslater.Asthishappens,ifapersonstandsonthehillockatthehighersouthendofthesite—thenaturaloutcrop—themoonis“reborn”withapersonsilhouettedwithinit.Itsuggeststhatthehillockwasdefinitelypartofthecomplex,eventhoughitnowstandsoutsideofthesite’sboundarywall.

ApartfromtheSleepingBeauty,theoutlineofthehillshasalsogivenherapillowtorestherheadon:aconicalhill,Roineval,281metershigh.Conicalhillswereveryimportanttoourancestors—somesuchasSilburyHillwereman-madeadditionstoasacredmegalithiclandscape.Thehill’sincorporationinthissacredlandscapemightsuggestitwasheldsacredbythebuildersofCallanishandmighthavebeenseenasahillofcreation,oraplaceofemergence—ifnottheresidenceoftheCailleachherself.

Callanishwaspartofanintricatecomplex,carefullyplannedandworkedoutbyourancestors—ancestors,however,aboutwhomweknowverylittle.Itwasonlyin1857thatSirJamesMatheson,whoownedLewis,toldhischamberlain,DonaldMunro,tohavethestonesclearedofpeat.Theaveragedepthofthemosswasrecordedas5feet,anditmeantthatthecirclewasburiedinpeatfornearly3,000years.LikesomanyotherstonecirclesinEurope,itwasthereforeabandonedintheperiodofc.1000BC,whenthe“megalithicera”alloverEuropeended.Thereisthereforea3,000-yeargapseparatingusfromthelastuser.Couldlegendsandfolklorethereforerevealsomehistoricaltruth?

Inthe17thcentury,thesestoneswerecalled“FirBhrèige”—falsemen—andaround1680,JohnMorisonewrotethat“ItisleftbytraditionthatthesewereasortofmenconvertedintostonebyaneInchanter:othersaffirmethattheyweresettupinplacesfordevotione.”8AnotherlegendisthatwhenthegiantsthatlivedontheislandrefusedtoconverttoChristianity,St.Kieranturnedthemtostone—andvoila,theCallanishStoneswereborn.Thelatterlegendcanbefoundatvariousmegalithicsites,butisunlikelytocontainanyinterestingclues.

MartinMartinvisitedin1695andobservedthat“itwasaPlaceappointedforWorshipinthetimeofHeathenism,andthattheChiefDruidorPrieststoodnearthebigStoneinthecentre,fromwhenheaddress’dhimselftothePeoplethatsurroundedhim.”9Anotherlocalbeliefsaysthatatsunriseonmidsummermorning,the“shiningone”walkedalongthestoneavenue,“hisarrivalheraldedbythecuckoo’scall.”10

ThemostinterestingexplanationforCallanishwasneverthelessaninsightarrivedatbyAubreyBurl,whowouldbeabletomarryhardscientificobservationsofthestonecirclewithGreeklegends.HerememberedtheGreeklegendofHyperborea,whichdescribesatempleonafaraway,northernisland:

Theysayalsothatthemoon,asviewedfromthisisland,appearstobebutalittledistancefromtheearthandtohaveuponitprominences,likethoseoftheearth,whicharevisibletotheeye.Theaccountisalsogiventhatthegodvisitstheislandeverynineteenyears,theperiodinwhichthereturnofthestarstothesameplaceintheheavensisaccomplished,andforthisreasonthenineteen-yearperiodiscalledbytheGreeksthe“yearofMeton.”11

ThereferencecomesfromthefirstcenturyBCGreekwriterDiodorusSiculus,whostatedthatatthistemple,therewasa“sphericaltemple”whereApollo“skimmedtheearthataverylowheight.”12Mostcommentatorsassumethat,ifanything,thiscouldbeareferencetoStonehenge

andthatHyperboreaassuchwasBritain.However,BurlrealizedthatStonehengeis500milestoofarsouthtohavethecorrectlunarlatitudetoprovideforadisplayasdescribedbyDiodorus.ThecorrectlatitudeforthisphenomenonisaroundtheIsleofLewis.AndnotingthatatCallanish,theobservationofalunarphenomenonthatoccursevery19yearswasindeedakeyincorporationintothesite’slayout,CallanishisdefinitelythebestcandidatefortheHyperboreantemple.Itis,infact,atthismomentintime,theonlycandidate.

Interestingly,theaccountofHyperboreastatesthattheislandwasthebirthplaceofLeto,themotherofApollo.CouldthisbeareferencetotheSleepingBeauty,theCailleach?The“OldWomanoftheMoors”?EvenmoreinterestingistheobservationthatthismeansthattheGreekssawthebirthplaceoftheirdeitiesinplacesthatwerealmost2,000milesfromtheirhomeland.

DiodorusSiculusfurtherrelatesthattheisland’sinhabitantswerelookeduponaspriestsofApollo.Apartfromthetemple,therewasalsoacitythatwassacredtothisgod,andthemajorityofitsinhabitantswereplayersonthecithara,atypeoflyre.Coincidentallyornot,historianshaveidentifiedthatScotlandknewthistypeofinstrument.

Therearemore“coincidences.”TheCelticdeityMacnOgistheequivalentoftheGreekApollo.HewasthesonofBu-vinda,ortheWhiteCow,whogavehernametotheIrishBoyneValley,thesiteofthatotherimpressivemegalithiccomplex,Newgrange.Interestingly,thereisalegendofaGaelic-speakingwhitecow,whichemergedfromtheseaduringafamine.ThecowtoldthepeopletocometotheCallanishstonesandshewouldgivethemeachabucketofmilk.Aresuchlegendsfurtherevidencethatperhapssomeofthemoreobscurelegends,suchashowthelocalsstillcallthehillsontheSouthernhorizon“SleepingBeauty,”didsurvivethemillennia,handingdownknowledgeaboutthesite’soriginaluse?

SiculussaidthatHyperboreawasanislandwhosesizewascomparabletoSicily;thisfitstheHebrides.Equally,hestatesthat“attherisingofthePleiades,thesunisseentosetattheequinox,”13aphenomenonthatalsoappliestoCallanish,though,asmentioned,itdidnotoccuratthetimeofitsconstruction—butdidoccurlater,whenthetemplewasstillinuse.Furthermore,thewesternrowpointstotheequinoctialsunset,soDiodorus’sdescriptionnotonlyfitsindividualelementsofCallanish,butfitsitasawhole.Infact,Burlhadpreviouslyspeculatedwhethershortstonerows,suchastheeastern-westernrowsatCallanish,wereerectedabout1800–1500BC,whichisthetimeframewhenthePleiadesarerisingatCallanishandwhentheserowsmightthereforehavebeenaddedtothestructure.

ThatCallanishwasrecordedinGreekstoriesshouldnotcomeasamajorsurprise.DiodorustookhisinformationfromHecateaeusofAbdera,whointurnreliedonthelostwritingsoffourth-centuryBCGreekexplorerPytheasofMassilia(modernMarseilles).PytheassailedtonorthwesternEuropeinc.325BC.HetraveledaroundandvisitedaconsiderablepartofGreatBritain,andiscreditedasthefirstpersontodescribetheMidnightSunandpolarice,though,ofcourse,wehaveseenthatHomerequallyspokeofthisMidnightSun.

Thequestionis:WasPytheasthefirstforeignvisitortoarriveatCallanish?AnotherlegendlinkedwithCallanishstatesthatthestoneswerebroughtinshipsundertheleadershipofahighpriestanderectedbyblackmen.Somehavespeculatedwhethertheseweredark-hairedIrishmenfromthesouth(andporcellaniteaxesfromCountyAntrimhaveshownlinksbetweenthenorthofIrelandandtheOuterHebrides),but“blackmen”could—morelikely?—refertoskincolor,ratherthanthecoloroftheirhair.AndwehavethatotherlegendofPrincessScota,arefugeeofPharaonicEgypt,comingtoIrelandandScotland.Infact,sheissaidtohavegivenhernametoScotland—thelandofScota.

Still,weknowthatthestonesforthiscirclecamefromLewisthemselves,andhenceaspartofthisparticularlegendisunlikelytobetrue,weshouldnotputtoomuchemphasisonthe“blackmen”justyet.Still,nothingshouldbeexcluded.Thestonesontheeastsideoftheavenueareconsistentlyaboutthree-quartersashighasthestonesonwestside.Asuninterestingasthisobservationmightappeartobeatfirst,itisafeaturethatisneverthelesscharacteristicofnorthernIrishavenuesanddoublerows,andofthoseontheCrozonpeninsulainwesternBrittany.It

highlightsthatwhoeverbuiltCallanish,wasperfectlyawareofsimilardevelopmentselsewhereinEurope,andfollowedthesamearchitectural“trends.”ThatotherregionsofEuropewerethereforeawareofCallanishandcametovisit,shouldnotsurpriseanyone.

THEFIRSTEUROPEANUNION

Sincethe14thcentury,EnglishmonarchshavebeencrownedontheStoneofScone,alsoknownastheStoneofDestiny,whichwasplacedunderneaththeCoronationChair.TheStoneendedupinWestminsterAbbey(thoughsince1996,thestoneresidesinEdinburghCastle)afterEdwardItookitfromScone.FromthetimeofKennethMacAlpin,whocreatedtheKingdomofSconeintheninthcentury,allthekingsofScotshadbeencrownedupontheMootHill,seatedupontheStoneofScone.ButevenaftertheStone’sremovalbyKingEdwardIin1296,theMootHillcontinuedtobethecrowningplaceoftheScottishKings.

TheMootHillinfrontofSconePalaceinScotlandwasthesiteofthecoronationofScottishkings.JustinfrontofthechapelwastheStoneofDestiny—nowareplicastone—which,accordingtotradition,camefromEgyptandwasbroughttoScotlandbyScota,theEgyptianprincess.Imagecopyrighttheauthor.

ThoughtheStoneisseenastypicallyScottish,itsorigins—andespeciallyitsmythicalorigins—donotseemtobeScottishatall.AroundthetimetheStonewastakentoEngland,RobertofGloucester(1240–1300)wrotethatthefirstIrishimmigrantsbroughtthestonewiththemintoScotland,statingitwasa“whytemarbleston.”14Soratherthansandstone,orblackbasalt,thestoneisthensaidtobewhitemarble.AsRobertofGloucesterwroteatatimewhenanofficialstonewasstillinresidenceinScone,hisaccountofthenatureofthestonecarriesmuchweight—andwouldindeedindicatethatthestonecurrentlyondisplayisafake.

TheStoneofDestiny,onwhichScottishkingswerecrownedandwhichwasoncesaidtohavebeenJacob’sPillar,beforebeingbroughttoScotlandbyEgyptianPrincessScota,originallyrestedinScone,untilitwastakenfromtheretoWestminsterinthelate13thcentury.Imagecopyrighttheauthor.

ThehistoryoftheStonegoesfurtherbackintimethanIreland,though.HectorBoecewroteinScotorumHistoriae,in1537,thatGaythelus,aGreek,thesoneitheroftheAthenianCecropsortheArgiveNeolus,wenttoEgyptatthetimeoftheExodus,wherehemarriedScota,thedaughterofPharaoh,andafterthedestructionoftheEgyptianarmyintheRedSea,fledwithherbytheMediterraneanuntilhearrivedinPortingall,wherehelandedandfoundedakingdomatBrigantium,nowSantiagodeCompostella,onthenorthwesterncoastofSpain.Herehereignedinthemarblechair,whichwasthelapisfataliscathedraeinstar,or“fatalstone-likechair,”andwhereveritwaslocated,portendedkingdomtotheScots—thosewhohadfollowedScotainexile.

SimonBreck,adescendantofGaythelus,broughtthechairfromSpaintoIreland,andwascrownedinitasKingofIreland.Later,Fergus,sonofFerchard,wasthefirstkingoftheScotsinScotland.HebroughtthechairfromIrelandtoArgyll,andwascrownedinit.HebuiltatowninArgyllcalledBeregonium,inwhichheplacedtheStone.The12thking,Evenus,builtatownnearBeregonium,calledafterhisnameEvonium,nowcalledDunstaffnage,towhichthestonewastaken.DunstaffnageisnearOban,onthewesterncoastofScotland,andthesamelegendstatesthatFergusMacErcbuiltachurchontheislandofIonaandcommandedittobethesepulcherofthefuturekings.Ionawasindeedasacredisland,intheWest,ofpaganreligiousimportance,foritbecameoneofthekeyobjectivesofearlyChristianitytohaveasapowerbase.Asfuneralsofkingsandcoronationceremoniesgohandinhand,thestone’slocationinDunstaffnagewouldmakegreatsense,becauseofitsproximitytoIona.

Thereareseveralancientaccountsthatspeakoftheforeignoriginsofthisstone.Thoughnotallaccountsareidentical,theylargelydooverlap.TheScalacronica,compiledin1355,statesthatSimonBreck,theyoungestsonofthekingofSpain,broughtthestonefromSpain,whereitwasusedforcoronations.Breck“placeditinthemostsovereignbeautifulplaceinIreland,calledto

thisdaytheRoyalPlace(Tara),andFergus,sonofFerchar,broughttheroyalstonebeforereceived,andplaceditwhereisnowtheAbbeyofScone.”15Inthisaccount,thereisnostopoverinDunstaffnage,butthestorydoesidentifytheStoneofSconewiththeLiaFail,“thespeakingstone,”whichnamedthekingwhowouldbechosentorule.ItsresidencewasthecoronationplaceofIreland,Tara,nearmodernDublin.

AsimilaraccountcanbefoundintheScotichronicon,compiledin1386,whichrepeatsthatGaythelusmarriedScotaandledthosethatsurvivedthedisastertoSpain.SimonBreckthenwenttoIreland,settingupthestoneinTara,beforeFergustookittoScotland.

TheStoneofDestinyatTarawasthecoronationsiteforIrishkings.ItwasalsotheverycenterofIreland,adivisionthathadbeencarefullycreatedandthatrevealsthatthepeopleofancientIrelandhadmappedtheirislandwithextremeprecision.Imagecopyrighttheauthor.

Legendoramemoryofarealodyssey?DonaldWatt,thetranslatorofScotichronicon,wrotethat“Itscarcelyneedssayingthatnoneofthisishistoryinthepropersense.”16Ifreal,weseehowEuropewasfarlessisolatedinthosedistanttimesthanhistorypretends.HistoriansarequicktoarguethereisnovaliditytotheselegendsoftheStoneofScone,butperhapsweshouldnotbesoquick.HerodotusstatedthattheenigmaticEtruscansthatlivednearRomeoriginallymigratedinItalyfromtheNearEast,an“opinion”archaeologistslargelydisregardedanddenigratedatthetime.HerodotusstatedthattheyemigratedfromLydia,aregionontheeasterncoastofancientTurkey.Afteran18-year-longfamineinLydia,Herodotusreports,thekingdispatchedhalfofthepopulationtolookforabetterlifeelsewhere.TheemigratingLydiansbuiltships,loadedallthethingstheyneeded,andsailedfromSmyrna(Izmir)untiltheyreachedUmbria,Italy.Formillennia,themythicaloriginsoftheEtruscanswereseenasmostunlikely.Butrecently,geneticistshaveshownthattheEtruscans—andtheircattle—didmigratetoItalyfromtheNearEast,vindicatingHerodotus.AsthereisalogicalreasonwhytheseEgyptianswouldhavefledtheircountry,dismissingthepossibilitythatthelegendoftheStoneofDestinyisafactualaccountmaycometohauntthosewhodosotoovociferously.

WhatstorieslikeScota’shighlightisthat,whereasmostaretoldthatEuropeanhistorystilllargelybeginswiththeGreekandRomancivilizations,intheeighthcenturyBC,Europewasfarmoreinterestingthanthat.Therewasanactive,cross-continentaltradeofgoods—includingtin—thousandsofyearsbeforeJuliusCaesarwroteabouttheCeltictribes.OnearchaeologistwhohasnotshunnedawayfromthisisBarryCunliffe,whoarguesthattheso-calledAtlanticZone—whichincorporatesIceland,Britain,theAtlanticshoresofFrance,Spain,andMorocco—inmegalithictimesoncehadanintensetradingculture.Infact,heandothersarguethatthemegalithiccivilization(Stonehenge,thestonerowsofCarnac,Callanish,andsomanyotherthousandsofsites)wereallconstructedbythisocean-facingcivilization.

OnemanwhosailedinthefootstepsofthesemegalithicsailorsisPeterMarshall,whorecountshisvoyageinEurope’sLostCivilization:UncoveringtheMysteriesoftheMegaliths.HisboatwasCelticGold,“a7-metresloopthattraveledatabout4knots—thesamelengthandspeedoftheancienthide-sewnboatswhichprobablyoncepliedthewatersalongtheWesternAtlanticseaboardandintotheMediterranean.”17Thiswasnotaholiday:“MyintentionwastofollowinthewakeofancientmarinersfromScotlandtoMalta[…]Bytravellinginaboatsimilartotheirsinsizeandspeed,Ihopedtodemonstratethatthemegalithicbuilderswerecapableofsuchlong-distancenavigation.”18Marshalldemonstratedjustthat.

WhereasI’velabeledthissectionofthebook“TheFirstEuropeanUnion,”Marshall’sfinalchapteristitled“TheGoldenAge,”ashedemonstratesthattheMegalithicEra,whichlastedforseveralthousandsofyearsinEurope,istrulyalostcivilization—aGoldenAgeofthiscontinent.ThoughthousandsofmegalithsdotthelandscapeofFrance,Britain,andotherwesternEuropeancountries,thereisageneralreluctancetoseetheseasevidenceofalost,pan-Europeancivilizationthatonceflourishedhere.Anditmakesfortheinterestingobservationthatmegalithstrulyareeverywhere,butarchaeologyhashardlydoneanythingwiththem.Wecallthecivilizationthe“megalithiccivilization”—literallythecivilizationofbigstones.Forapartfromthefactthatthiscivilizationerected“bigstones”—sometimesfreestanding,sometimesinspecificconfigurations(suchasatStonehenge,Avebury,Carnac,orCallanish)—weknowlittleaboutthiscivilization.Ittrulyisalostcivilization,yetisvisibleunderneathournoseswheneverwetravelthroughWesternEurope.

Cunliffepushesthestartofthiscivilizationbackto8000BC,whenBritainwasstillpartoftheEuropeanmainland.ThelastIceAgeendedinc.10,500BCand,whereasmanymightthinkthattheicedisappearedquickly,ittookthousandsofyearsbeforethesealevelsreachedtheirpresentlevels.Unsurprisingly,therefore,alongtheshoresofWesternEurope,therearerumorsoflostcivilizations,likeLyonesseoffthecoastofEnglishCornwall,Hy-BrasilofftheCoastofIreland,andthelostcivilizationoftheDoggerBank,anareaoftheNorthSeacurrentlysubmerged,butthatoncewasabovesealevel.

TheDoggerBankisalargesandbankinashallowareaoftheNorthSeaabout60milesofftheeastcoastofEngland.Depthsrangefrom50to120feet.TheDoggerBankisavastareaof6,800squaremiles,about160mileslongandupto60mileswide.“Doggerland”surviveduntilc.6200BC.Doggerlandwasmoreofanarchaeologicaldiscoverythanalegendarycivilization—thoughsomehave,ofcourse,linkeditwithAtlantissince.Interestbeganin1931,whenacommercialtrawlerdraggedupanantlerpoint.Latervesselsbroughtbackmammothandlionremains,aswellsmallnumbersofprehistorictoolsandweapons,showingthatthelandwasinhabited.WhenDoggerlandfinallysubmergedinc.6200BC,onlytwoscenarioscouldhavehappened:Itsinhabitantsdrowned,ortheyescapedandresettled.Onescenariocouldthereforeleadtoancientlegendsofavastislanddisappearingintothesea,killingitsinhabitants,orstoriesof“foreigners”comingfromelsewhere,settlinginwhatinthisscenariowouldbemostlikelyGreatBritainormaybetheNetherlands.

DoggerlandisnottheonlyislandthatdisappearedaroundtheBritishcoast.FarmorefamousisLyonesse,locatedbetweenCornwallandtheScillyIsles.Lyonesse’sfamecamefromitsinclusionintheArthurianlegends,inthestoryofTristanandIsolde,asthehomeofTristan,

whosefatherwaskingofLyonesse.ThereistheislandofYs,amythicalcityonthecoastofBrittanythatwasswallowedbythesea.YsisoftenplacedintheDouarnenezBay,abayinFinistère,thefarwesterntipofFrance’sBrittanypeninsula.Finally,thereisHy-Brasil,offthewesterncoastofIreland.Theislandappearedonseveralmaps;thelastsightingoftheislandoccurredasrecentas1872.SomehavesuggestedthisisnoneotherthanthePorcupineBank,anareaoftheIrishshelf120mileswestofIreland.Thisraisedareamayoncehaverisenabovethewatersoftheocean,becomingthelegendaryHy-Brasil.

WhatallofthesestoriesshowarethatthereisgoodarchaeologicalevidencethatpartsofwhatisnowtheNorthSeaandtheAtlanticwereonce—thousandsofyearsago—abovewater,andthatsomeofthisland,andlaterislands,wereinhabited.Hencestoriesofsunkencivilizationsshouldnotbetreatedassuspect,butaccountsoftheselostlands.Whereasthefameofthesecivilizationshasbecomeembellishedthroughtime,theirveryexistenceshouldnotbedoubted.

ThelegendsoftheselostcivilizationsalsoshowthattherewasfarmoremobilityacrossEuropethanmosthistorianswouldliketosee.Indeed,ifanything,modernhistoryistypifiedbyitsisolationiststance,whichisthatmostifnotallcivilizationsdevelopedindependentlyfromeachother.Thefactofthematteristhatmostcivilizationsdevelopedtogetherandthelinesdrawnbetweenvariouscivilizationsbyhistoriansarelargelyillusionary.

ThebiggestdivisionremainsbetweentheEuropeancivilizationsandthoseoftheMediterraneanSea.StorieslikeScota’sshowthattherewasafarmorehomogenousexchangeofgoodsandpeopleacrossthiscontinentthancurrentlyaccepted.WehavealreadyseenhowthecivilizationofOldEuropeexchangedwiththeearliesteraoftheSumeriancivilization.Buttheoriginsofonecivilizationarethesubjectofintensedebatesbetweenhistoriansand“pseudo-scientists”:AncientEgypt.HistoriansclaimAncientEgyptdevelopedlocally,whereasotherssaythatthecultureofAncientEgyptcamefromelsewhere—oftenidentifiedasAtlantis.Whoisright?

INTOEGYPT,FROMWHERE?

InJanuary2003,ImadeinquiriestovisittheHoggarMountainsandtheTassilin’Ajjer,oneofthemostenchantingmountainrangesonthisplanet.ThetwogeographicallyclosebutneverthelessquiteseparatelandscapesarelocatedintheSaharaDesertinsoutheastAlgeria.IwastoldthatifIcouldpackmybagsimmediately(literally),Icouldjointhethreeweeks’trip.Unfortunately,Icouldnot,butplannedtogoontheJanuary2004trek.

Afewweekslater,DutchandGermantouristswerekidnappedinthearea(thoughtheEnglishgroupIwouldhavejoinedexperiencednosuchproblems).SomeofthetouristswereheldcaptiveforseveralmonthsbeforeGermanandDutchtroopsweresentintofreethehostagesfromtheirrebelcaptors.ThekidnappingshavesincestoppedmostifnotalltouristsfromtravelingtowardthemagicalrockpaintingsoftheTassili,asinsurancebrokersareunwillingtoprovidecoverage.AtatimewhentheworldwasbeginningtowakeuptothemagicalrealityoftheTassilipaintings,internationalpoliticaltensionhasplacedtheprehistoricrockpaintingsoff-limits.

DespitethefactthattherockpaintingsoftheTassilicanbevisited,thefewpeoplewhohavewrittenabouttheserockpaintingsinpopularaccountshavelargelyreliedonthepioneeringworkofHenriLhoteandhisteam.LhotestatedthattheTassilliwasthericheststorehouseofprehistoricartinthewholeworld.Hewroteaseriesofbooks,thebestknownofwhichisTheSearchfortheTassiliFrescoes:TheRockpaintingsoftheSaharapublishedin1959.ItisapopularaccountofthehardshipsheencounteredintryingtodiscoverandmakedrawingsoftherockpaintingsthatwerescatteredontherockfacesinthevariouscornersoftheTassili.

LhotebuiltontheworkofLieutenantBrenans,whowasoneofthefirsttoventuredeepintothecanyonsoftheTassiliduringapoliceoperationinthe1930s.AsthefirstEuropeantoenterthatarea,henoticedstrangefiguresthatweredrawnonthecliffs.Hesawelephantswalkingalongwiththeirtrunksraised,rhinoceroswithugly-lookinghornsontheirsnouts,giraffeswithnecksstretchedoutasiftheywereeatingatthetopsofthebushes.Today,theareaisadesolate

desert.Whatthesepaintingsdepictedwasaneralonggone,whentheSaharawasafertilesavannah,teemingwithwildlifeandhumans—inshort,alostcivilization.

TheconditionsoftheTassiliareveryotherworldly.Onecouldargueitisanotherworldlylandscape.Somehaveactuallydescribeditasalunarlandscape.Otherworldlyisalsoafittingdescriptionofthepaintings.Lhotedescribedsomeofthemas“Martianfaces”inTheSearchfortheTassiliFrescoes:TheRockpaintingsoftheSahara;heusedthetermastheyresembledthealienfacesthathehadseenontelevisionsci-fidocumentaries.ThetermwouldlaterbeusedbythelikesofErichvonDänikentospeculatewhethersomeofthefigureswereindeeddepictionsofextraterrestrialvisitors.TheMartianswerewhatLhotemorescientificallywouldlabelround-headedpeople,thoughtheydoindeedlookotherworldly.

Otherresearchers,notablyDutchauthorWillemZitman,haveidentifiedanastronomicconnotationtothevariousfigures.Hespecificallyfocuseshisattentionontheso-calledswimmer,depictedatTi-n-Tazarift,andarguesthatthisisinfactthedepictionofaconstellation.HealsoarguesforaconnectionbetweentherockpaintingsoftheTassiliandtheoriginoftheEgyptiancivilization,wonderingwhethertheshamansoftheTassilimightnothavebeentheFollowersofHorus,thegroupofdemigodsthattheAncientEgyptianscreditedwiththedawnoftheircivilizationandwhoweresaidtohavecomefromtheWest—theverydirectioninwhichtheTassiliislocated.LhoteidentifiedanEgyptiandimension,thoughhewasatpainstodrawaclearoutlineofhowEgyptwouldslotintotheTassilirockpaintings.

Inhisbook,heshowedtwopaintingsthathadanunmistakableancientEgyptiancharacter.Furthermore,theywereout-of-placeartanddidnotfitinwiththeotherpaintingsthathehadfound.Hisdiscoverycausedcommotioninscholarlycircles,asitseemedirrefutableproofofcontactbetweentheTassiliandAncientEgypt.Thequestionwashow.Eventually,itemergedthatthepaintingsweredonebyonememberofLhote’steam,whoplayedasuccessfulprankonLhote.Thepictureswerereproduceduptotheearly1970sineditionsofhisbookbeforebeingremovedfromsuccessivereprints.Today,thepaintingshavebeendiscretelyerasedfromJabbarenandAurenghet,andtheTouaregguidesshaketheirheadifthephotosareshown,havingneverseenthem.Asaresult,archaeologistswillspeakdownonthepossibilityofaconnectionbetweentheTassiliandAncientEgypt.Others,ofcourse,mightarguethatthisispartofanarchaeologicalcover-up,wherebyonememberofhisteamwasforcedtolie,wherebytheestablishmentlaterremovedthepaintingsfromthecliffstoremovethisEgyptianconnection.

“IfatonestageEgyptian(andmaybealsoMycenaean)influencecanbeobserved,themostarchaicoftheTassilipicturesbelongtoaschoolunknownuptonowandonethatapparentlywasoflocalorigin”19Lhoteconcluded.Lhote’steamfoundseveralurbansettlements,wheretheartistsresponsibleforthepaintingslived.HefoundsmallconcentrationsofhumanactivityaroundTan-ZoumiatakintheTinAbouTekamassif.Itwasalittlerockycitadelthatdominatedthegorgebelow.Thecitadelwascutthroughwithanumberofnarrowalleys.Lhotedescribedthearthefoundhere:“Therewerelife-sizefigurespaintedinredochre,archerswithmusculararmsandlegs,enormous‘cats,’manysceneswithcattle,war-chariotsandsoforth.UptothistimeIhadneverseenfiguresofthissortintheTassiliandthemassofpaintingsthatImanagedtoviewthatdayquiteputintotheshadeallthoseIhadseenuptothen.”20

Itwasahighlightsofar,butmoreimpressivesitesweretofollow.AtJabbaren,hefoundacitywithalleys,crossroads,andsquares.Thewallswerecoveredwithhundredsofpaintings.JabbarenisaTuaregwordmeaning“giants”andthenamereferstothepaintingsfoundinsidethecity,someofwhichdepicthumanfiguresthatareindeedgiganticinsize.Oneofthemmeasuredupto18feethigh.SeveralofthesepaintingsdepictedMartians,andforLhote,itwasthefirsttimehediscoveredpaintingsofhundredsofoxen.JabbarenwassoonlabeledoneoftheoldestsitesoftheTassili,withsomeoftherockpaintingsnowdatedto9000BC.

Ti-n-Tazariftwasanothercity.Itscenterwasmarkedbyahugeamphitheaterwithadiameterofmorethan500yards.Ithadanimmensepublicsquarewithhousesgroupedaroundit.Givenofffromitwereavenues,streets,passages,andevenblindalleys.Thecitystretchedforamile

andaquarter.ThetruemarvelinthecrownoftheTassili,however,wasSefar.Littleiswrittenaboutthecity.Lhotedoesnotprovidemanydetails,exceptamap,showingitsextent,aswellasthepresenceofseveralstreetsandavenues,tumuli,tombs,andsomethingthathecallsthe“esplanadeoftheGreatFishingGod.”21Lhotenamedthecharacterassuchasheseemedtobecarryingfish.Butacloserinspectionofthephotographthatsuccessiveexpeditionshavetaken,suggestswhatZitmanhadalwaysfeltcouldbethetruth:Ratherthanafishinggod,wasthischaracternotdepictedinaposethattheancientEgyptiansknewassmitingtheenemy?ItwasaposethatwasusedbythePharaohstodisplaytheirmasteryovertheforcesofchaos—theso-called“StrikingtheEnemy”pose?Inthisscenario,thelinksbetweentheTassiliandAncientEgyptbecomeveryinterestingandonceagainsuggestthattheancientlegends’,ratherthanmodernacademic,opinioniscorrect.

TheGreatFishingGodofSefaristhuspotentialevidencethatthereisindeedalinkbetweenEgyptandtheTassili.Someoftherockpaintingsalsoshowboats,suchasatSefarandAouanrhet.ThesedepictionsareverysimilarifnotidenticaltowhatwasdiscoveredbythelikesofarchaeologistTobyWilkinsoninsimilarsitesandsimilarrockpaintingsintheregionbetweentheNileandtheRedSea.HedatedthesepaintingstothefifthmillenniumBC,whichoverlapswithseveralofthepaintingsoftheTassili.LiketheTassili,thedesertareawhereWilkinsonuncoveredthesepaintingswasthenverdantgrassland.LiketheTassili,theseEgyptianpaintingsareacomplexmixtureofmotifs,depictingcrocodiles,hippos,andboatsfromtheNilealongsideostrichesandgiraffesfromthesavannah,andsuffusedwithcattleimageryandthereligioussymbolismthatwouldcharacterizeclassicalEgyptianart.Thisshouldbynowsoundfamiliar….

ForWilkinson,theserockpaintingsshowthatpre-PharaonicEgyptianswerenotsettledflood-plainfarmers,butsemi-nomadicherderswhodrovetheircattleinbetweenthelushriverbanksandthedriergrasslands.Healsoidentifiedthatseveralofthesepaintingswerelocatedaroundancienttraderoutes.Forasemi-nomadicpeople,itisbynomeansalongstretchoftheimaginationtoarguethattheytrekkedthroughoutthesavannah,fromeasttowestandbackward.Andthus,inpre-dynasticEgypt,EgyptandtheTassiliweremorethanlikelyone—oratleastfarmorecloselyconnectedandexchangingthanthestandardmodelofhistoryprefers.

BothWilkinsonandZitmanargueforaradicalreinterpretationoftheoriginsofAncientEgypt.ForWilkinson,therockpaintingsinsouthernEgyptprovideproofthatitistherethatweshouldlookforthe“GenesisofthePharaohs”(alsothetitleofhisbook).ForZitman,theoriginofAncientEgyptcanbefoundinacultureandareathatstretchesintotheTassili,wherethereistheposepaintedonaclifffaceinSefarthatwouldlateradornthefrontwallsofseveralEgyptiantemples.Thatcannotbeacoincidence.Furthermore,italsocoincideswithwhatLhotewrote:“ThemostcommonprofilesuggestedthatofEthiopians,anditwasalmostcertainlyfromtheeastthatthesegreatwavesofpastoralistimmigrantscamewhoinvadednotonlytheTassilibutmuchoftheSahara.”22

TheTassilihasthusaddedanewchaptertoAfricanhistory—butitisanewchapteratthebeginningofthebook.ItisthehistoryofwhatisknownastheNeolithicwetperiod,whichlastedfrom9000to2500BC,whenmuchoftheSaharawashabitableforhumansandwhentheduneswerecoveredwithgrassland,supportinghippos,lions,crocodiles,zebras,giraffes,andsoforth.By7000BC,therewerehunters,dancers,bakers,andevensailors.Therewereshamans,leavingrockpaintingsontheclifffaces.TheearliestexamplesofSaharanrockartareinvariablyengravings,sometimesonaverylargescale,representingtheancientandpartiallyextinctwildlife.Thattheywereatthistimenomadichuntersisinferredfromalackofrepresentationsofdomesticanimals.OneofthemostprominentandcommonrepresentationsistheBubalusAntiqus,theancestorofmoderndomesticatedcattle,resemblingthemoderneastAfricanbuffalo,butwithmuchlargerhorns.Asitbecameextinctaround5000BC,ithasallowedarchaeologiststodatetheTassilirockpaintings.

Lhotethenidentifiedtheround-headedpeopleasthenextphase.ThispeculiarstyleisapparentlylimitedtotheTassili,buttherearesimilaritieswiththelargecaveatWadiSorainthe

GilfKebirandpaintingsintheEnnedi,showingthatthesepeoplegotveryclosetoEgypt.However,theconsensusamongEgyptologistsisthattheEgyptiansdidnotpenetratethedesert

anyfurtherthantheareaaroundDjedefre’sWaterMountain,asandstonehillabout50milessouthwestoftheDakhlaOasis.Thediscoveryofhieroglyphicinscriptionsinthisoasisin2003byGermanexplorerCarloBergmanncausedasensationinEgyptologicalcircles,asitforcedthemtoextendtheactivitiesofthePharaonicadministrationsanunprecedented50milesfurtheroutintotheunknownandwaterlessWesternDesert!

Now,however,thatdogmahasbeenshatteredbythediscoveriesmadebyMarkBordaandMahmoudMarai,fromMaltaandEgypt,respectively,whensurveyingafieldofbouldersontheflanksofahilldeepintheLibyandesert,morethan400mileswestoftheNileValley.BordaandMaraihavestatedthattheydiscoveredengravingsonalargerockconsistingofhieroglyphicwriting,aPharaoniccartouche,animageoftheking,andotherPharaoniciconography.Theshorttextyieldedastonishingrevelations.IntheannalsofEgyptianhistorytherearereferencestofar-offlandsthatthePharaohshadtradedwith,butnoneofthesehaveeverbeenpositivelylocated.BordastatesthatthedeciphermentrevealedthattheregionoftheirfindisnoneotherthanthefabledlandofYam,oneofthemostfamousandmysteriousnationsthattheEgyptianshadtradedwithinOldKingdomtimes,asourceofprecioustropicalwoodsandivory:“ItslocationhasbeendebatedbyEgyptologistsforover150yearsbutitwasneverimagineditcouldbe700kilometerswestoftheNileinthemiddleoftheSaharadesert.”23WiththedogmathattheEgyptiansneverwentanywherenowshattered,thefieldislaidwideopenforfurtherexplorations.ButmakingastepintotheTassiliandaddingittothehistoryofAncientEgyptmightbeharderthanmakingasmallstepontheMoon.Indeed,itwouldnotbeabigstepforMankind,butitwouldbebigstepforarchaeologyifeverorwheneveritistaken.

CIVILIZATIONONE?Civilizationisfarolderthanweassume.EuropedidnotbeginwiththeGreeksorRomansin

theeighthcenturyBC,butatleastin9000BC,asunderlinedbytheworkofBarryCunliffe.IntheSahara,wecanpushbackcivilizationtothatsameperiod,9000BC.ButintheMiddleEast,thesitesofGöbekliTepeandÇatalHöyükshowthatcivilization,capableofbuildingextraordinarytowns,manufacturingtoolsandjewelry,alreadyexistedin10,000BC!

FivemillenniaseparateusfromthebirthofancientEgyptinc.3100BC.Addanotherfivemillenniaandwearein8100BC.Addanothermillenniumandahalf,andwehavethedatewhenGöbekliTepe,inthehighlandsofTurkeyneartheIraqiandSyrianborders,wasconstructed.ArchaeologicallycategorizedasasiteofthePre–PotteryNeolithicAperiod(c.9600–7300BC),theworld’soldesttemplesitsintheearlypartofthateraandsofarhasbeencarbon-datedto9500BC.ItisthetimeframewhenPlato’sAtlantiscivilizationissaidtohavedisappeared.Anditwasbuiltanincredible5,000yearsbeforetheriseofwhatmanyconsidertobetheoldestcivilization,Sumer,nottoofarsouthofGöbekliTepeasonegoesdowntheRiverEuphratesandleavesthehighlandsoftheTaurusMountainsinTurkey.

GöbekliTepeisanincrediblesite.DavidLewis-Williams,professorofarchaeologyatWitwatersrandUniversityinJohannesburg,saysthat“GöbekliTepeisthemostimportantarchaeologicalsiteintheworld.”24Itisasmallhillonthehorizon,15kilometersnorthwestofthetownofSanliurfa,morecommonlyknownasUrfa,whichhasbeenlinkedwiththebiblicalAbraham(someclaimthatUrfawasthetownofUrmentionedintheBible)andwhichoncehostedtheHolyMandylion,linkedwithChrist’sPassion.OncealsoknownasEdessa,UrfaisontheedgeoftherainyareaoftheTaurusMountains,sourceoftheriverthatrunsthroughthetownandjoinstheEuphrates.Urfawas(andstillis)anoasis,whichcouldexplainwhyGöbekliTepewasbuiltnearby.Alife-sizedstatueoflimestonethatwasfoundinUrfa,atthepondknownasBalikliGöl,hasbeencarbondatedto10,000–9000BC,makingittheearliest-knownstonesculptureeverfound.Itseyesaremadeofobsidian.

GöbekliTepewasanotheraccidentaldiscovery.AnoldKurdishshepherd,SavakYildiz,

discoveredthesiteinOctober1994when,spottingsomething,hebrushedawaythedusttoexposealarge,oblongstone.AsurveyofthesitehadbeencarriedoutbyAmericanarchaeologistPeterBenedictin1963,butheidentifiedtheareaasaByzantinecemetery.WhenGermanarchaeologistHaraldHauptmann,andAdnanMisirandEyüpBucakoftheMuseumofUrfabeganexcavationsin1995,theysoonlearnedthatthesitewassomuchmore.

GöbekliTepeisaseriesofmainlycircularandovalstructuressetintheslopesofahill,knownasGöbekliTepeZiyaret.Ziyaretmeans“visit,”butthisisoftenleftoutofthename.ThoughsometranslateGöbekliTepeas“NaveloftheWorld,”andGobekdoesmean“navel”or“belly,”andTepemeans“hill,”themostcorrecttranslationofthesite’snameshouldbe“bulged-outhill.”

ThemoresensationalistmediahavemadeattemptstolinkGöbekliTepewiththebiblicalGardenofEden.GöbekliTepeisindeedold,butitisnotunique;norwasitagarden.However,throughoutthepast50years,thetimeframeforthebeginningofcivilizationhasbeenpushedbackfromtheriseoftheSumeriancivilizationinthefifthmillenniumBCtotheconstructionofGöbekliTepe,5,000yearsbefore.Alas,ithasbeenavoyagethathasnotreceivedtheattentionitshouldhavehad.

ThediscoveryofthebiblicaltownofJerichoanditsstonewalls,datedtoc.8000BC,wasthefirsttopushbackthedateofthebirthofcivilization.‘AinGhazalisoftenseenasasistersiteofJerichoand,withits15-hectarearea,isthelargestNeolithicsiteintheMiddleEastandfourtimesasbigasJericho.AmericanGaryO.Rollefson,itsprincipalarchaeologist,wasabletodatethetownto7250BC,andthereisevidenceofagricultureintheareadatingbacktoc.6000BC—laterthantheestablishmentofthetownitself.Initsheyday,2,000peoplelivedat‘AinGhazal.However,by5000BCthetownwascompletelydeserted.Thirtystatueshavebeenfoundthere,measuringbetween35and90centimeters;theyarehumaninappearancebutmayrepresentdeitiesorthespiritsofancestors.Jericho’sdiscoveryaddedweighttotheargumentthattheBibleishistory,notmyth.ButwhenitwasnextlearnedthatthereareevenoldersitesthanJericho,unfortunatelynotlocatedinPalestinebutfurthernorthinAnatolia,southeastTurkey,mediainterestinthesenewdiscoveriesseemedtowane.

ThemostfamousofthesesitesisÇatalHöyük.Itwasdiscoveredin1958byBritisharchaeologistJamesMellaart,whobeganexcavationsin1961andeventuallydatedthesiteto7500–5700BC.Itisthelargestandbest-preservedNeolithicsitefoundtodate.MellaartdescribeditasaNeolithicRome,anditisindeedworthyofthenametown.Itsconstructionsshowobvioussignsthatitsinhabitantspossessedareligion—labeledbysometobeaMotherGoddesscult,althoughthistheoryhasbeenthesubjectofmuchcontroversy.Whatisknownisthatthedeadwereburiedbeneaththefloorsofthebuildingsandthatseveralofthesestructurescontaindepictionsofbulls.SomepeoplehavegonesofarastosuggestthatthereislikelyacommonoriginbetweenÇatalHöyükandtheMinoancivilizationoftheGreekislandofCrete,despitethefactthat3,000yearsseparatethetwo.

ÇatalHöyükisoneoftheearliesthumansettlementsandfordecadeswasconsideredtobeoneoftheearliestexamplesofcivilization.ThediscoveryofGöbekliTepehaspushedbackthebirthofcivilizationafurther3,000years,nowdatedtotheeighthmillenniumBC.ÇatalHöyükshowsclearlytheaccomplishmentsofourancestorsandaspecificpreferenceforthebull.ImagecopyrightStipichBéla.MadeavailableaspartofCreativeCommonsLicense

onWikimedia.

ÇatalHöyükwasthefirstofseveraldiscoveriestoslowlyunveiltheTurkishregion’sancienthistory.GöbekliTepeisthereforebutoneofseveralextremelyoldsites,butistheoldestdiscoveredsofar.However,theexistenceofthesesiteshasonlybeenreportedwithinthespecializedpress,althougheachsitehasawowfactor.

ThesiteofÇayönü,locatedabout96kilometersfromGöbekliTepe,conformstoadesignthatisknownasagrillplan,asitlookslikeagrill.Thisrevealsthatcarefulplanningwentintoitsconstruction.AmericansLindaandRobertBraidwood,togetherwithTurkisharchaeologistHaletÇambel,begantoexcavateÇayönüin1964andfoundthatthefloorsofthebuildingsweremadeofterrazzo(burnedcrushedlimeandclay),althoughatthetimeofthediscoveryitwasthoughtthatthishadfirstbeenusedbytheRomans.Thesitealsorevealedtheuseofmetalsandtheearliestevidenceofthesmeltingofcopper,thoughsomeneverthelessarguethatthecopperwasoriginallycold-hammeredratherthansmelted.Theuseofcoppershouldnotcomeasatotalsurprise,asthesiteiswithinrangeofcopperoredeposits(aswellasobsidian)atErganiinnearbyDiyarbakirProvince.Allofthisinasitedatedto7500–6600BC.ÇayönüisoftenseenasthesitethatbegantheepochthatwouldculminateinÇatalHöyük.

Çayönüpresentedevidenceofthefirstfarmyardpigs,butitalsorevealedahoardofhumanskulls,onefoundunderanaltar-likeslabandstainedwithhumanblood.Somehaveconcludedthatthisisanindicationofhumansacrifice;othershavebeenunwillingtogothatfarbasedonasingletypeofartifact.Otherarchaeologicalevidencesuggeststhatsomepeoplewerekilledinhugedeathpits,andchildrenwereburiedaliveinjarsorroastedinlargebronzebowls.Çayönüisthereforecivilization,butperhapsnotasweliketoknowit.

AnotherimportantsiteisNevaliÇori,intheHilvanProvincebetweenDiyarbakirandSanliurfa.Here,HaraldHauptmannbeganexcavationsin1979andwasabletouncoverlargelimestonestatues.In1991,thesitewassubmergedwiththeconstructionofLakeAtatürkDam.ItsharesmanyparallelswithGöbekliTepeandisdatedto8400–8000BC.Alltheartifactsretrieved

arenowinmuseums,includingalife-sizedegg-likeheadwithcrudeearsandacarvedponytail,foundinanicheatthecenterofanorthwesternwall.Interestingly,theponytailisactuallyacurlingserpentthatendsinamushroom-likecap.Whateverbeingthefigureismeanttorepresent,GermanarchaeologistKlausSchmidtbelievesitwasworshippedasadeity.

NevaliÇorisetthestageforGöbekliTepe:Shortlyafteritsdisappearanceunderthewaters,GöbekliTepeemergedfromthesands.ManypeoplehighlighttheT-shapedpillarsofGöbekliTepeasthe“signature”ofthesite.However,suchT-shapedpillarswerealsofoundinNevaliÇori.Site-wise,NevaliÇoriismoresquarethancircularindesign,althoughasquareprecincthasbeenfoundatGöbekliTepe,too.Althoughthereareseveralparallelsbetweenthetwosites,NevaliÇori’spillarsareneverthelesssmaller,anditsshrineislocatedinsideavillage.

Incomparison,thesiteofGöbekliTepeissmall.BritishauthorAndrewCollinshascompareditssizetothatofthreetenniscourts.Thesite’sprincipalexcavatorsareKlausSchmidtandHaraldHauptmannoftheGermanArchaeologicalInstituteinIstanbul.AllofthecomplexesinGöbekliTepethattheyhaveunearthedsofararetypifiedbystructurescontainingthesite’stypicalT-pillars.

Thesepillarswereusedasdrawingboards,andmanydepictanimals,withanapparentpreferenceforboars,foxes,reptiles,lions,crocodiles,andbirds,aswellasinsectsandspiders.Mostofthesewerecarvedoutoftheflatsurfacesofthepillars.However,somearethree-dimensionalsculptures,includingonefind,madeduringthe2006excavationseason,ofareptiliancreaturedescendingonthesideofaT-pillar,demonstratingthatwhoevercreatedthishadmasteredtheartofstonecarving—onaparwithmuchofwhatwewouldseethousandsofyearslaterinSumerandEgypt.

Sofar,fourcircular/ovalcomplexeshavebeenexcavated.Thewallsaremadeofun-workeddrystoneandthefloorsofterrazzo.TheinteriorofthewallsusuallyhaveseveralT-pillarssetalongtheminaradiatingpattern,thedepthofthepillarnormallyagainstornearthewallsothatthetwomainsurfacesofthepillarcouldbecarvedandseenbywhoeverwasinsidethecomplex.Alowbenchrunsalongtheentireexteriorwallofeachcomplex.

Thestructuresaresituatedonthesouthernslopeofthehill,orientatedroughlynorth-southwiththeirentrancestothesouth.AlltheT-pillarswereexcavatedfromastonequarryonthelowersouthwesternslopeofthehill.Onepillarremainsinsituinthequarry;itis7meterslongand3meterswide,andiffullyexcavatedwouldhaveweighedabout50tons,underliningthatbuildingwithstonesthatweightonsdidnotbegininEgyptorinEnglandwithStonehenge.

ComplexA,thefirstcircularstructuretobeexcavated,isnicknamed“thesnakecolumnbuilding,”becausedepictionsofthesnakesomewhatdominatethecarvingsontheT-pillars.Oneisofanetcontainingsnakes.Anotherpillar,however,depictsatriadofbull,fox,andcrane,positionedoneabovetheother.Somepillarsonlyfeatureabull,othersonlyafox,andsoon.

ComplexBmeasures9metersindiameterwhenmeasuredfromeasttowest,and10to15metersnorthtosouth(partofitisstilltobeexcavated).Itisneverthelesstheonlycomplexdugtofloorlevel,revealingtheterrazzofloorsurface.Twocentralpillarshavealargefoxdepictedonthem.Onecentralpillar,no.9,is3.4metershigh;pillarno.10is3.6metershigh;theirweightsare7.1and7.2tons,respectively.Thecomplexwasbuilttohousethesemonolithicpillars,whichproveshowwell-versedourancestorswereinworkingwithgiganticstones,notmerelyinquarryingthem,butinshapinganddecoratingthemaswell.Archaeologistsbelievethat200T-pillarsoriginallystoodatGöbekliTepe.Ifeachweighed“only”5tons,itwouldstillmeanthat1,000tonsofpillarswereexcavatedanddecorated,andithighlightstheimportanceofthesiteandtheeffortthatwentintocreatingit,anno10,000BC.

ComplexCisnicknamed“thecircleoftheboar,”asitdepictsvariouswildpigs.Thereremainninepillarsaroundthewall,butseveralwereremovedatsomepointinthepast.Onepillarshowsanetofbirds.Aslaterculturesareknowntohavecaughtmigratorycranesinnets,couldthisbeacustomthatwaspracticedmuchearlierthanassumed?ComplexCisalsoofinterestbecauseaU-shapedstonehasbeenfoundtherethatisdeemedtohavebeentheaccessstone.Thisstonehasa

centralpassageof70centimetersinwidth,andonesideoftheUistoppedwithadepictionofaboar;theothersideunfortunatelyismissing.Again,theUshapeandtheboarunderlinethecraftsmen’stechnicalexpertiseincarving,whichisshownevenmoresoonpillarno.27,featuringtheearlier-mentionedthree-dimensionalreptiliancreature.ThisintricatesculpturecouldberegardedasbeingonaparwithMichelangelo’sstatueofDavid.

ComplexDisnicknamed“theStoneAgezoo.”Pillarno.43hasscorpions,andsomepillarsareindeedsoprofuselydecorated—muchmoreintensivelythanintheothercomplexes—that“zoo”isquiteanaptdescription.Onceagain,therearetwocentralpillars(nos.18and31),thoughotherpillarsrevealsymbols,suchasoneintheshapeoftheletterH,aswellasonewithanHturned90degrees.Thesitehasrevealedothersymbols,specificallyacross,arestinghalf-moon,andhorizontalbars—evidencethattheoriginofwritingislikelytobemucholderthaniscurrentlyassumed.Pillarno.33isthestarofthecomplex.SchmidtstatesthattheshapesonthispillarcomeclosetotheEgyptianhieroglyphs.Hencehepositstheexistenceofapictographiclanguageinthe10thmillenniumBC.

Combined,thesefourcomplexes—andothers,stillunexcavated—areaseriesofovalsandresemblethelayoutoftheoval-shapedStoneAgecomplexesfoundonMalta.Thisisallthemoreremarkable,asMalta’sovalshapeswereconsideredunique,thoughsomeofthemegalithsonSardiniaalsodisplaysomeoval-liketendencies,butnotasprofoundlyasatGöbekliTepe.

Arocktemplelowerdownontheslopeisequallyovalinshapeandhasanopeningtotheburialchamber.Whereasatothersitestheseopeningsaresonarrowthatahumancouldnotnavigatetotheinterior,hereitiswideenoughtoenter.

Elsewhereonthesite,onthenorthernslopeofthehill,thereisarectangularcomplexnamed“thelioncolumnbuilding.”Itsfourpillarshavedepictionsofleoninecreatures,whichcouldalsobetigersorleopards.Onepillarhasa30-centimeters-highgraffitoofasquattingwomanwhoappearstobegivingbirth.

ExcavationsatGöbekliTepearestillongoing;onlyaquarterofthesuspected200T-pillarshavebeendiscoveredsofar,andnotallthestructureshavebeenunearthed.Inshort,furthersurprisesmaybeinstore.Itisearlytodrawmajorconclusions,butwhatcoulditallmean?Thesitedefinitelydemonstratesthatthingsthatwethoughtweremuchmorerecentarefarolderandallpresentinonesite,sittinginaregionthatshowsthatacivilizationworthyofthatnameexistedthereinthe10thmillenniumBC,millenniabeforeanyonewouldhavedaredtoguessafewdecadesago.

KlausSchmidthaslabeledGöbekliTepe“thefirsttemple”and“asanctuaryoftheStoneAgehunter.”25Heseesthesiteaspartofadeathcult,notspecificallylinkedwithasedentarygroup,butatypeofcentralsanctuaryforseveralofthetribeslivingintheregion.Thecarvedanimalsarebelievedtohavebeentheretoprotectthedead.AtÇayönü,aspreviouslydescribed,onestructurehasacellarthatwasfoundtocontainhumanskullsandbones.Sofar,though,GöbekliTepehasnoevidenceofhabitation,andthereforeappearstohavebeenpurelyareligiouscenter.

Onceagainitappearsthat,justastheancientEgyptiansdid,thecivilizationthatconstructedGöbekliTepehadfargreaterregardfortheirreligiousbuildingsthanforanystructuresofapracticalormorematerialisticnature.Still,withonlyComplexBexcavatedtofloorlevel,notombsorgraveshavebeenfoundtodate.

Somehavevoicedcriticismastowhetherhunter-gathererscouldhavecreatedsuchastructureasGöbekliTepe.Themanyflintarrowheads(andthelackofconstructiontools)foundaroundthesitewouldseemtosupportthiscriticism,andonecouldevenseetheseartifactsaspartofsacredhuntsratherthanaspartofthedailyactivitiestoputfoodonthetable—ifindeedtablesevenexistedthen.

Schmidtmaintainsthatthehunter-gatherersconvenedatthesiteatcertaintimesoftheyear.Whetherthesemeetingsweredeterminedbysolarorlunarcyclesisanyone’sguess,butitisneverthelessaninterestingquestiontoponder.Equally,onecouldlogicallyconcludethatthose

whoconstructedthesitelivedthereandwereadedicatedresourcesupportedbyotherswhosustainedthemindietaryandhousingneeds.Archaeologistshaveestimatedthatupto500personswouldhavebeenrequiredtoextractthe10-to20-tonpillarsandmovethemfromthequarrytotheirdestination,adistancerangingfrom100to500meters.However,Schmidtactuallybelievesthatmaintainingthecommunityofbuilderswastherealreasonbehindwhyourancestors“invented”agriculture:Theybegantocultivatethewildgrassesonthehillstosustainthissedentarypopulation.Inshort,hebelievesthatreligionmotivatedpeopletotakeupfarming.

Aswellasappearingtohaveritualsignificance,GöbekliTepe,withitslargeandexquisitelydecoratedstoneblocks,revealsthatitscreatorshadanextraordinaryabilityandfamiliaritywithstonemasonryandcarving.Thatourancestorsin10,000BCweresoskilledisanarchaeologicaldiscoverythatiswipingoutlong-cherishedbeliefsabouttheoriginofcivilization.

Asforthecarvings,whyweresomeandnototheranimalschosen?Whydothedepictionsseemtohavenoapparentorganizationbutappeartobearatherrandomcollection?Thetruthis,wedon’tknow.Inlatercivilizations,alloftheseanimalsweregivendivineattributes.Somecultureschosetodepictsnakesbecausetheseanimalsshedtheirskin,whichtheysawasasymbolofrebirth.Othersoptedforthesameanimalfordifferentreasons.Sofar,thereisnowayofknowingwhatbeliefsthecreatorsandusersofGöbekliTepeheld.

Someobservershavepointedoutthatsomeofthecranesaredepictedwithhuman-likekneesandhavesuggestedthataformofshamanismwaspracticedinsidethistemple.Sistersiteshaverevealedsculpturesofamixtureofanimalandhuman,specificallythatofthebodyofabirdwithahumanhead.Asithappened,thousandsofyearslatertheancientEgyptiansusedthissymbolasahieroglyphtodepicttheba,thehumansoulfreedfromthebodyatdeathorduringsha-manicflight.

AndrewCollinshasspecificallyunderlinedtheshamanicpotentialofthesesitesinmodern-dayTurkey.Theimageofthepreviouslymentionednakedwomandepictsherhairintheshapeofahemisphericalmushroomcap.ThesideofonepillaratGöbekliTepefeaturesaseriesofserpentswithmushroom-shapedheads,fourwindingtheirwaydownwardandafifthoneclimbinguptomeetthem;theothersideshowsseveralinterwovenserpentswearingmushroom-likecaps,eightemergingatthetopandnineatthebottom.Isthisevidenceofaritualinvolvinghallucinogenicmushroomsorsimilarmind-alteringsubstances?Ifso,GöbekliTepemighthavemuchincommonwiththerockpaintingsoftheTassili,wheresimilarsceneswerefound,suggestingthatourancestorsusedhallucinogenicsubstancestoexploreotherdimensions.ItislikelythattheoriginsofbeliefinanafterlifeandtheexistenceofsuperiorintelligencescouldbederivedfromthepractitionersofGöbekliTepeandtheTassili—ormaybeweneedtotravelevenfurtherbackintime.

ThebonesofvultureshavebeenfoundatNevaliÇori,GöbekliTepe,andJerfel-Ahmar(inSyria).Acommunalcavesite,Shanidar,intheUpperZagrosMountainsofnorthernIraq,containedaseriesofseveredbirds’wingscoveredwithredochre.Theremainshavebeendatedtoc.8870BC.Thewingsarebelievedtohavebeenusedinsomeceremony,butpreciselyinwhatmannerremainsunknown.However,itisknownthat,inthedistantpast,thepeopleofthisregionplacedthebodiesofthedeadonhighconstructionsandletvultureseatthefleshofthedead.DepictionsofsuchaNeolithicexcarnationtowerhavebeenfoundonamuralinÇatalHöyük.Interestingly,humanboneshaverecentlybeenfoundinthesoilthatoncefilledthenichesbehindthemegalithsatGöbekliTepe.Schmidtargues:“[T]heancienthuntersbroughtthecorpsesofrelativeshere,andinstalledthemintheopennichesbythestones.Thecorpseswerethenexcarnated.”26Notjustvulturesbutwildanimalsseemtohavetakenpartinthisritual.ThismayexplainwhysomanyanimalsaredepictedontheT-pillars:Perhapsthepeoplewhoconstructedthesesitesfeltthat“something”ofthedeadlivedonintheseanimals.

WhatisknownisthatGöbekliTepeanditssistersiteshavepushedbacktheageofmonolithicbuildingmuchfurtherintime.Previously,welookedtothelikesofStonehengeandtheEgyptianpyramids,butnowwefindthatourancestorswerehaulingmassivestonestobuildtheir

constructionsaround12,000yearsago.EvenifastructuresuchastheSphinxweresuddenlyfoundtobe10,000yearsold,theimmediatereactionmightnowperhapsbe:“Sowhat?Itisnotthatunique.”Furthermore,ifthedatesforsomeofthesesitesinTurkeypre-datetheassumedtimeframeforsucheventsasthedisappearanceofAtlantisortheGreatFlood,itmeansthattheseancientancestorscannotbeneatlyplacedassurvivorsfromadeluge.

Ourancienthistoryhasgrownmuchmoreinterestingandcomplex.TheculturesthatfollowedtheestablishmentofGöbekliTepehaddomesticatedpigs,sheep,cattle,andgoats,andtheycultivatedwheatspeciessuchaseinkorn.Indeed,recentanalysishasshownthatthefirstcultivationofdomesticatedwheatoccurredatKaracadag,amountain32kilometersfromGöbekliTepe.Otherdomesticatedcerealssuchasryeandoatsalsooriginatedhere.AccordingtoSchmidt,thisadventurebeganinc.8000BC,manythousandsyearssoonerthanrecentlybelieved.

Itiseasyandtemptingtolabelthisregionasthecradleofcivilization,butthefactofthematteristhatithasalreadybeenproventhatcorn(maize)wasengineeredinMexicoatthesametime,onlyunderlininghowthefrontiersof“civilization”arebeingpushedbackonbothcontinents.Infact,thereisevidenceofBarbarysheepbeingcultivatedbyourancestorsinNorthAfricaasearlyas18,000BC.Furthermore,severalgrainsofemmerwheathavebeenfoundatthePalestiniansiteofNahalOren,suggestingcultivationofthiscropoccurredthereasearlyas14,000BC.

Mostimportantly,GöbekliTepeisnotalone.Anothersite,KarahanTepe,63kilometerseastofUrfaintheTektekMountains,deservesequalattention.Discoveredin1997andinvestigatedbyarchaeologistBahattinÇelikoftheTurkishHistoricalSociety,ithasbeendatedtoc.9500–9000BC.IthasanumberofT-pillars,aswellashighreliefsofawindingsnakeandothercarvingssimilartothoseatGöbekliTepe.Coveringanareaof325,000squaremeters,KarahanTepeismuchbiggerthanGöbekliTepe.Thestonepillarsarespaced1.5to2metersapartandprotrudeabovegroundlevel,waitingforanarchaeologisttoexposethemfully.Othercarvedstonesincludeabatteredtorsoofanakedmanandpolishedrockwithformsofgoats,gazelles,andrabbits.

Itistooearlytodrawanyextraordinaryconclusionsfromthesesites,apartfromthefactthatourhistoryisnolongerasweknowit.JustasJerichoprovedinpartthattheBiblecontainshistoricalfacts,though,thesesitesmayyetsubstantiatesomeoftheSumerianmythsthatclaimedthatagriculture,animalhusbandry,andweavingwasbroughttomankindfromthesacredmountainDu-Ku,whichwasinhabitedbytheAnunnadeities.Thoughit’sunlikelythatthismountainwasGöbekliTepe,weareprobablyinthecorrectgeneralvicinityhereatthefrontieroftheTaurusMountains.

Around8000BC,descendantsofthecreatorsofGöbekliTepeturnedontheirforefathers’achievementsandentombedtheirtempleunderthousandsoftonsofearth,creatingtheartificialhill—a“belly”—thatweseetoday.Whytheydidthisisunknown,thoughitwasadecisionthatpreservedthemonumentforposterity,butalsoinvolvedanextraordinaryamountoftimeandeffortontheirpart.Schmidtarguesthatthelocallandscapebegantochangearoundthattime:Asthetreeswerechoppeddown,thesoilbegantoloseitsfertility;theareabecamearidandbare,andthepeoplewereforcedtomoveelsewhere.Coulditbethattheybegantomaketheirdescentand,millennialater,establishedwhatisknownastheSumeriancivilization?Suchascenarioisjustonepossibility.

EveninancientEgypt,religiousconstructionswereoftenabandonedifnotdismantledafterawhile,becausetheybelongedtoaparticularastronomicalcycleoftimethathadsincepassed.IfthatwerethecasewithGöbekliTepe,itwouldmeanthatknowledgeofastronomyisolderbymillennia.Thepastfivedecadeshavesoradicallyreshapedourunderstandingoftheperiod10,000–4000BC,specificallythelevelof“civilization”ourancestorshadachievedinthosedays,thatthisshouldn’tatallcomeasasurprise.Itseemsthatit’sagiventhat,somewhere,evenoldertownsarewaitingtobeuncovered.

However,enteringintothemindsetofthesehunter-gatherers—howtheysawtheseanimals

andwhattheybelievedhappenedtothedead—isadifficultsubjectthatwillrequireyearsofstudy.Alas,itisanareawherefewarchaeologistsdaretotread,andinalllikelihoodtheywillhopfromonesitetothenext,asthey’vedoneforseveraldecades,andwillonlyuncoverthefact—insomecases,reluctantly—thatcivilizationismucholderthanwe’veassumed.Already,othersitesarevyingforGöbekliTepe’sfame.ThepreviouslymentionedsiteofJerfel-Ahmar,locatedalongtheEuphratesinSyria,hasbeendatedto9600–8500BC.Othersiteswillcertainlysoonsubmittheirapplications.It’slikelytheywillallrevealthattheyarepartofourhistory,butnotasweknowit.

Chapter3LOSTCIVILIZATIONSOFTHENEWWORLD

COPPERTRADEINC.,3000BCPrehistoricculturalexchangeisanideologicalenemyofmosthistorians.ButitisamatteroffactthattinwastradedthroughoutEuropeintheBronzeAge,forotherwisetherewouldnothavebeenaBronzeAge.ButtheissueoftheBronzeAgeanditstwoingredients—tinandcopper—doesnotstopattheedgeofthiscontinent.AcrossNorthAmericaareremnantsofalostcivilization,whichAmericanarchaeologistshavebeenslowtoappreciate—soslowthattherealtruthofwhobuiltsomeofthesestructuresmightforeverhavebecomelost.

ArchaeologistshavesomewhatreluctantlyacceptedthatmuchmorecopperwasusedthanwhattheyhavebeenabletoattributetoEuropeanmines.Sowheredidanextremelylargepartofthecoppercomefrom?Theanswer,asbizarreasitmaysound,couldbeAmerica.Itisknownthat,duringtheEuropeanBronzeAge,largequantitiesofcopperwereminedinNorthAmerica.However,nooneisabletoanswerwherethecopperthatwasminedtherewasusedontheAmericanContinent.Itsimplyhasnotbeenfoundthere.

Ifweweretoaddthetwoproblemstogether,dowehavethesolution?Ofcourse,theanswerforthereigningscientificdogmaisno,asitarguesthattherewerenotransoceaniccontactsintheBronzeAge,andhencecoppercouldnothavebeentradedfromtheNewtotheOldWorld.Butperhapsthereissufficientscientificevidenceavailablethatwillchallengetheseassumptionsofthescientists.

Thechiefingredientforbronzeiscopper.Theeraaround3000BCsawmorethan500,000tonsofcopperbeingminedintheso-calledUpperPeninsula,intheAmericanstateofMichigan.ThelargestminewasonIsleRoyale,anislandinLakeSuperior,neartheCanadianborder.Here,therearethousandsofprehistoriccopperpits,dugthousandsofyearsagobyancientpeoplesunknown.TheMinongBeltonIsleRoyalehasadistanceof1.75milesinlengthandisnearly400feetwide.Thecopperpitsrangefrom10to30feetdeepwithconnectingtunnels;onearchaeologistestimatedthattheirdiggingwouldtaketheequivalentof10,000menworkingfor1,000years.

Aftertwocenturiesofspeculation,noonehaseversatisfactorilyexplainedwheretheworld’spuristcoppermighthavegone.ExtractionfromIsleRoyalbeganin5300BC,withsomeevenclaimingthatitbeganasearlyas6000BC.Evidenceforsmeltingisknowntoexistfrom“only”4000BConward.

Theexactsizeofhoworewasminedhereisperhapsnevergoingtobeexactlydetermined,butwhatisknown,isthatc.1200BC,allminingactivitywashalted.Isitacoincidencethatin1200BCEuropewasplungedintoacontinent-widerecessionthatwouldlastseveralcenturies?Itwouldtakeuntilc.AD1000beforeminingwasrestarted;itlasteduntilAD1320.Duringthisperiod,amoderate2,000tonswereremoved.

InNorthAmerica,noteven1percentoftheminedorehasbeenrecovered.Someindividualpiecesoforethatwereremovedweigh34,000pounds,whichequalsthecombinedweightofallbronzeorcopperartifactsfoundintheUnitedStates.Otherstones,suchastheOntonagonBoulder,weigh3,700pounds.One5,720-poundmassfoundnearMcCargo’sCovewasraisedpartwaytothesurfaceoncribbinginthesamewayotherswerefoundinothermines.Theancientworkerswereraisingthesestones,butthearchaeologicalevidencerevealsthatsomewereleftabandonedmid-task,showingthattheminingeffortsweresuddenlyandunexpectedlycalledoff.

OctaveDuTemple,oneofthefirstarchaeologiststoinvestigatethesite,statedthattheminerslefttheirtoolsbehind,asiftheyhadthoughtthatthefollowingmorning,theywouldreturntotheirquarryandcontinuetheirwork.

Theseminerswereexperiencedlaborers.Themineswereefficientlyrun,producinglarge

quantitiesoforethatcouldbequicklytransportedtothesurface.Between1,000and12,000tonsofmaterialwereremovedfromonemine,resultinginapproximately50tonsofcopper.Theirtechniquewasbasic,butefficient:Theycreatedlargefiresontheveinsofthecopperore,heatingthestone,thenpouringwaterontopofit.Thiscrackedtherockandwiththeaideofstonetools,thecopperwasremovedfromtherock.

About5,000mineshavebeendiscovered,inanareathatisc.140mileslongand3to7mileswide.TheareaminedonIsleRoyalemeasures5to40miles.Ifallmineswereplacedinoneconsecutiverow,itwouldmeasurefivemiles,andbe25feetwideand30feetdeep.

Everyminethatwasopenedinthepast200yearsshowedsomeprevious,prehistoricminingactivity.Thisincludedmineswherethecopperoredidnotprotrudetothesurface—showingevidenceoftheadvancedknowledgethtallowedtheprehistoricminerstoidentifysubterraneanores.Italsoworkedtheotherwayaround,forsitesthatshowedevidenceofancientminingwereinmoderntimesconsideredtobegoodomens,astheywereoftenthebestsitestofindcopper—lotsofcopper.

Howtheminersknewwhichstonescontainedcopperisamystery.Theyobviouslydid,butwheretheylearnedthisinformationisunknown,asitremainsunknownwhowasresponsiblefortheminingactivity.

Iftherewerenotransoceaniccontacts,isitnothighlyremarkablethatbothcontinents,completelyindependentfromeachother,atthesamemomentintime,begantomineandusecopperandtintocreatebronze,yetAmericadidnothingsensiblewithit—apartfromafewartifactsthathavebeenrecovered?

TheMenomonieIndiansofnorthWisconsinpossessalegendthatspeaksabouttheancientmines.Theydescribedtheminesasbeingworkedbylight-skinnedmen,whowereabletoidentifytheminesbythrowingmagicalstonesontheground,whichmadetheoresthatcontainedcopperringlikeabell.ThispracticecloselyresemblesasimilarpracticethatwasusedinEuropeduringtheBronzeAge.Bronzewithahighconcentrationoftinindeedresonateswhenastoneisthrownagainstit.Thelegendmighthaveconfusedthestartoftheprocesswiththeresultoftheprocess.Evenso,S.A.Barnett,thefirstarchaeologistwhostudiedAztalan,ametropolitansitenearthemines,believedthattheminersoriginatedfromEurope.Hisconclusionwaslargelybasedonthetypeoftoolsthathadbeenused—toolsthatwerenotusedbythelocalpeople.Anotherpieceof“hard”evidencesofaruncoveredisastatuediscoveredinc.1660byamissionary,Allouez,whotraveledthroughtheregionandstumbledupona1-foot-tallcopperstatue,depictingamanwithabeard.ThenativeIndiansdonothavebeards.

Withavastworkforce—possiblyasmanyas10,000people—somemusthavedied.Itisalsolikelythatatleastsomelaborerscamewithfamiliestothearea.Inshort,theremusthavebeenanumberofdeadpeople,butwherearetheburials?Theanswer,itseems,isnowhere.ThereisnoevidenceofcremationorburialnearanyofthesitesortheUpperPeninsula;theonlythingsthatwereleftbehindweretheirtools—millionsofthem.

In1922,WilliamA.FergusondiscoveredaharboronthenorthcoastofIsleRoyale.Shipscouldloadandunload,aidedbyapierthatmeasured1,500feetinlength.Thissuggeststhatthetypeofshipsthatanchoredherewerelargeships—andthatthereweremany.Themostlikelyexplanationastothepurposeofthisharborwasthattheyformedthepointwherethecopperwasloadedtobetransportedtootherregions.Thepresenceofaharborwasfurtherproofthatthepeopleworkingthemineswerenotlocal,asthelocalIndiansonlyusedsmallcanoes.

Itislikelythatthemineswereonlyworkedduringthesummer,withtheworkforcemovingfurthersouthduringthewintermonths.Thiscouldexplaintheabsenceofbuildings:Peoplelivinghereinthewinterneedbuildingstosurvive,butthatisnotnecessarilysoduringthesummermonths.

Equallyinterestingisthefactthattherearenosignsofcoppersmeltingfactories,requiredforitsfutureuse.Thismeansthatthecopperwastransformedelsewhere,ascopperrequiredfurther

handlingforittobeuseful.Couldwefindoutwheretheminerswentforthewintermonths?ThoughbacktoEuropeisa

possibility,itisalsounlikely.TheirmostlikelyhabitatswereprobablyAztalanandRockLake,wheresomeyearsago,buildingsandatemplewerediscoveredjustbelowthewatersurface.Thesesitesareamere30milessouthofthesnowline,whichmakesthemidealplacestosettleforthewinter.Furthermore,theirwinterresidenceandsummerworksitewereconnectedviarivers,allowingforconvenienttransportation.

Mostinterestingly,itisaroundRockLakethatmanygraveshavebeendiscovered.Nolessthan70funeraryhillscontainingthecrematedremainsofthousandsofindividualshavebeendiscoveredthere.Oneofthebetterpreservedgravescontainsthebodyofamanwithahammer;asimilarhammerwasdiscoveredatIsleRoyale.

So,istheproblemofthecoppertradefullyansweredwiththediscoveryoftheirremainsaroundRockLake?TheproblemisthatthoughRockLakeseemedtohousetheworkforce,nowhereisthereanyevidencethatthey,orotherpeoplenearby,usedthecopper.Sotheproblemofwherethecopperwentremains.Furthermore,thecopperwasdefinitelyworthyofatransoceanicvoyage.ThecopperaroundLakeSuperiorwasthebestandmostimportantcopperfoundintheworld.BetweenAD1000andAD1400,thecopperwasexportedtotheMexicanToltecs—andperhapsothercivilizationsfurthersouth.Butwhowerethebuyersseveralmillenniabefore?

Whenwelooktotheproblemonaglobalscale,thereareonlyahandfulofpossibleculturesthatpossessedtheadvancedknowledgetominecopperore.Themostlikelycandidate,however,remainsBronzeAgeEurope.TheminingtechniquesinAmericaarealsoidenticaltothoseusedintheBritishIsles,fromwheretheothercomponent,tin,originated.TogetherwithSpain,theBritishIsleswerethemainsourcesoftin,andthedepletionoftheCornishtinminesin1200BCclearlymeantthattherewasnofurtherneedforcopper.Indeed,aftertheBronzeAgecametheIronAge,butthiswasadevelopmentthatoccurredoutofnecessity,notdesire,becauseourancestorssomehowfeltironwassuperiortobronze.

WesternEuropeintheBronzeAgewaslargelydrivenbythesea.Theareasthatweremostpopulatedandthefurthestdevelopedwereallcoastal,withmany,suchastheOrkneys,strangelyoffthebeatentrack—yettheOrkneysareperfectlysituatediftherewastransoceaniccontact.

MoreandmorescientistsareagreeingthatBronzeAgeEuropewasamaritimesystem.IsitthatimpossibletosuggestthattravelerswhosailedfromSpaintoScotlandwouldnothavebeenabletocrosstoAmerica?Somemightarguethatthewatersoftheoceanwerefarrougherthanthosecoastalwaters,butanyonesailingaroundLand’sEndinCornwall—wheretheshipshadtopasstotaketin—willknowtheseseasthereareextremelyrough.Woulditbeimpossibletoassumethataworldeconomyofcopperandtinexistedin3000BC?Thearchaeologicalrecordontwocontinentssuggeststhiswasindeedthecase.

THESMOKINGGUN?Findingevidenceofprehistoric,transoceaniccontactisverymuchlikelookingforthe

smokinggun.OnemanwhomayhavecomeuponthebestevidencefortransoceaniccontactisRussellBurrows.HeaccidentallydiscoveredacavealongabranchoftheLittleWabashRivernearhishometownofOlney,Illinois,in1982.Huntingfordiscardedarchaeologicalrelics,hefoundashallowcaveleadingintoasubterraneancorridor,thelikesofwhichyou’dnotexpecttofindinruralIllinois.Thepassagewaywaslinedwithoillamps,theceilingblackfromsmoke.The500-foot-longtunnelhadseveralchambersalongit.

TheBurrowsCave,asitisnowknown,isfamousforitslargenumbersofinscribedstones,oftencontainingprofilesofpeoplewholookAfrican,Egyptian,andEuropeanaswellasNativeAmerican.Onfirstsighttheylookcrude:theworkofanamateurorsomeonemeetinganimminentdeadline.Furthermore,preliminaryanalysesofthewritingonthestonesrevealedamix,ifnotamismatch,ofvariousstyles,words,andlanguagesthatarchaeologistsandlinguists

quicklylabeledasobviouslyfake(“obvious”beingapreferredwordthatscientistsusetounderlinewhattheycaneasily,obviously,seeisfake,thoughamateursarefooledbyit,obviously).Asearlyas1983,Burrowsplacedaverysmallcollectionoftheartifactsonsaleinalocalantiqueshop—butifhecreatedtheentirecollection,hecreatedsomanythathecouldneverhavegottenridofthemall.Moreover,itwasnotuntil1997thatheoranyoneelsewouldcashinonthestonesthemselves.IfBurrowswantedtogetrichfromcreatingfakeartifacts,hishoaxwasobviouslyillexecuted.

Ararephotograph,takenbyRussellBurrows,fromtheinsideofBurrowsCave,ofanareathatislabeledascrypt4.BurrowsfoundthisenigmaticcavecomplexinIllinois.Thecavewasatombcomplex,occupiedbywhatappearstobeEuropeannobilitythatfledEuropelongbeforeColumbuseverdiscoveredAmerica.

Butthecaveismorethanjustacollectionofinscribedstones.Burrowsallegedlyfoundandremovedmanygoldartifacts.Theselookgenuineandcontainthesamemismatchofwriting.Youcanonlywonderwhyafraud,ifBurrowswereindeedone,wouldusegold—which,tobeginwith,iscostlytoobtain.Itistruethatthereareconflictingstoriesaboutthisgold.Burrowsatonepointstatedthatsomeofthegoldhadbeenmelteddownandthensold.SwissauthorLucBürginclaimedthatBurrowsremovedhugequantitiesofgold,haditmelteddown,andthensoldit,depositingagrandtotalof$15million(U.S.dollars)intoSwissbankaccounts.Iftrue,thisindicatesthatBurrowsdidindeedgethishandsontremendousamountsofgoldanddecidedtosellforthegold’smonetaryvalue—notthearchaeologicalvalue.OthershavestatedthatBürginwasmerelytoldthisinformationbyafellowresearcherandpossessesnoevidenceforhisassertion.

Someskepticsclaimthatthegoldneverexisted—thatithasneverbeenseen.That’snottrue,becauseearlyresearchersdidseeit.IhavebeenshowncolorphotographsofapparentlygoldartifactsbyBurrowshimself.Othercriticsarguethatthe“gold”wasjustmetal,finishedoffwithgoldpainttomakeitlookreal.Iftheyarecorrect,thenBurrowsmerelycreatedtheseartifactstofoolarchaeologists,amateurscientists,andthemedia,andhecouldneverallowanydirectcontactwithortestingoftheartifacts.Itwouldalsomeanthathecouldneverhaveregardedthegoldartifactsaspartofaquickmoney-makingscheme.Inshort,thisconclusionisincompatible

withtheotherskeptics’argument,whichisthatBurrowstriedtomakemoneyfromahoax.Burrowsclaimedthatinsidethecomplex,hediscoveredamalehumanskeletoninthefirst

crypt.Thesecondchamberhadafuneralbierwiththeremainsofawomanandtwochildren.Agoldenspearheadlayinthewoman’sribs,wheretheheartwouldhavebeen.Theskullsofthechildrenshowedsignsofperforation.Thescenesuggestedthatthewomanandchildrenhadbeenmurderedatthetimewhenthemale,herhusband,died.Intotal,therewere12crypts.Thecentralchamber,containingthegoldensarcophagus,wasclosedbyastonethathadtoberolledaway.Theroom,includingtheceiling,wasdecoratedandwhitemarblewasseenthroughout.ThegoldensarcophagusinsidethestonetombresembledtheancientEgyptianformofburial.Itdisplayedthesamestyleofwearingthehairaswellasthecrossedarmsonthebody,andthehandswereholdingtheankhsymbol.ItissaidthatBurrowswasabletoopenthesarcophagusandsawthatitcontainedhumanremainsaswellasadeathmask,alsothoughttobeofEgyptianorigin.Althoughthesarcophaguswasoftremendousvalue—tobecomparedwiththegoldensarcophagusofTutankhamun—itcouldnotberemovedfromthecavebyjustBurrowswiththehelpofhisbrother-in-law.Furthermore,Burrowswasunsureastowhetherhemightfaceprosecutionifhedisturbedthehumanremainshe’dfoundinthecaveorifhetriedtosellanyofitscontents.

Burrowswasobviouslytotallyunpreparedforsuchafind(whowouldn’tbe?),andhisvolatilecharacterdidnothelpinasituationwherepatienceisavirtue.OnJuly27,1984,thelocalOlneyDailyMailranasmallarticleidentifyingBurrowsasthediscovererofalocalcave,butprovidedlittlemoreexceptforthishope:“[T]heuniversity[withwhichhewasincontact]willprobablybeginthedignextyear.Atthattime,moreinformationcanbegiven.”1ThoughBurrowssoughthelpfromthescientificworld,hereceivedmixedreactionsfromit.Soonafterward,oneamateurarchaeologistafteranotherpressedhisdoorbell.Eachonealmostimmediatelyaskedtoseethecave.It’slikeapersoninaplastercastgettingconstantlyaskedwhethersomeonecanseeorsignhis/herplaster;atsomepointtheanswerwillbeno,becauseitfeelsasifnooneisinterestedinyoubutonlyinyourplaster.ForBurrows,itfeltlikealltheywantedwastoseethecave;theyhadnobasicrespectorregardforhisownwishes,oftennotevenbotheringtoaskaboutthem.Peoplesuchasthesecameawaydisappointed,hurtbecauseBurrowsdidnotwanttoplaytheirgame,andtheyoftenvoicedscathingopinions.Inthisregard,amateurarchaeologistssufferfromthesamehumanfrailtiesasprofessionalarchaeologists.

OtherswantedtousetheBurrowsCavetosubstantiatetheirownpettheories.OneofthesewasJosephP.Mahan,authorofthe1983bookTheSecret,whosuggestedina1991lecturethatthecavewasconnectedwith“sun-relatedsemi-divinemortals[who]werethedescendantsofextraterrestrialimmortalprogenitorswhohadcometoEarthinfireships,hadresidedforawhile[and]hadupgradedthehumanoidstheyfoundherebymodifyingthegenesofthesechildrenofEarth,thusproducingahybridprogeny.”2SuchanonsensicalconclusionisnotbasedonanythingatallthatBurrowseversaidaboutthecase,butitrubbedoffbadlyonBurrows’simageandthecave.

Anotherexampleofhowthecavebecameahostageinotherpeople’sbattlesisthestoryofRichardFlavin,whousedthecavetopersecuteFrankJoseph.Formorethan15years,Josephhadnothingtodowiththestoryuntil,inhispositionasawriterforTheAncientAmericanmagazine,hebecameinterestedandeventuallywroteabookaboutit(TheLostTreasureofKingJuba).ButFlavininsteadfocusedonJoseph’spastasaneo-Nazi(datingbacktotheearly1970s)andusesthisasammunitionto“prove”thatanyonesuggestingthecavecouldberealishenceaneo-Nazi.FlavinmetBurrowsonafewoccasions,buthisinterpretationofeventsisspuriousatbestandhisaccountreadsmorelikethatofaChristianmissionaryinthelandsofthe“primitives”oracommunistwitch-hunterofthe1950sthanascientificapproachtothesubject.3

Inthefinalanalysis,thestoryoftheBurrowsCaveistypicalforafindingofthisnature.Justlookatothersimilardiscoveriesandreplacethenames;thegeneralstorylinewouldhardlyalter.Thesamebasicstand-offishere,withthescientificexpertsquicktocondemntheartifactsthey

wereshownasobviousforgeries.Bydefault,theartifactscouldnotbegenuine,forweall“know”thatColumbuswasthefirsttoreachAmerica.Whenitcametotheamateurs,Burrowswasunpreparedforandunawareoftheamountofin-fightingandcontroversythatexistinmostamateurorganizations.Intheprocess,hewaseatenalive—andsowashisstory.

Unfortunately,RussellBurrows’spersonaldisillusionmentapparentlyledhimtodynamitetheentrancetothecave.Hereportedlydidthisin1989,threeyearsbeforehiscowrittenbook,TheMysteryCaveofManyFaces,waspublished.It’sanextremelylevel-headedaccountofhisdiscoveryofthecaveandtheartifactsinside—andsomethingthatheconsideredtobehisfinalwordonthetopic.ButthoughBurrowsoftenclaimedtohavelostinterestinhisdiscovery(largelybecauseofthedifficultpeoplehehadtodealwith),hestillreturnedtoit.Thefactthathecouldnotletgo,eventhoughtherewasnothinginitforhimanymore,shouldperhapsbeseenasthebestevidencethatBurrowshadindeedmadealegitimatediscovery.Forifthisdiscoveryhadstartedasamoney-makingschemein1982,by1992hehadlongabandonedsuchhope.

In1993,diffusionistthinkersnowhadanewmagazinetoturnto,TheAncientAmerican,whichduringthecourseofthesubsequentdecadecontinuedtofollowthestoryofthecave.In1999,themagazine’sfounder/publisher,WayneMay,decidedthatifnooneelsecouldbringaboutachangeinthesituation,hewoulddosohimself.Havingreportedonthesubjectfortheprevioussixyears,spokentotheman,andheardhimout,MaygotBurrowstosignacontractandtodiscloseandshowhimthelocationofthecave—despitehisinitialbeliefthatBurrowshadliedaboutthelocationandhadactuallylaidafalsetrail.FrommypersonaldealingswithBurrowsin1992and1993,Ifoundhimtobeamanofhonor.Ifhepromisedsomething,hewoulddoit(cueforthecriticstolaughatwhattheywillseeismy“obvious”gullibility).That,itseems,iswhatMayfeltaswell.So,despitehisinitialreluctancetobelieve,Mayfinallyknewthelocationandperseveredwithhisinvestigations.Hisground-penetratingradarindicatedthatacavewasindeedthere.Theproblemwashowtogetin,consideringthatBurrows’sexplosionadecadeearlierhaddestroyedtheentrance.Unfortunately,itsoonbecameevidentthattheexplosionhadnotonlyblockedtheentrancebuthadalsodamagedtheinteriorofthetunnel.DuringMay’svariousattemptstogainaccess,eachtimehestumbleduponhugequantitiesofwater.Thisseemedtoindicatethattheexplosionhaddivertedtheflowofanundergroundriverandasaresulthadcausedwatertogushintotheundergroundcomplex.Itthereforelookedlikesalvaginganythingfromtheundergroundcomplexwouldbeterriblycomplex—andlargelyoutsideMay’scapabilities.

Inanutshell,thisisanearly30-year-longstorythathaslefthardlyanyonewhohaslookedintoituntouchedorwithoutanopinion.ItisalltooeasytolabelBurrowsahoaxer.Peoplewhohaveknownandworkedwithhimhavecalledhimmanythings,butnotafabricatorofevidenceoraliar.Hehasanexplosivenatureonoccasionandhassometimesnotbeenthebestjudgeofcharacter.Nooneisperfect,andwe’veobservedthesamehumantouchesinEmileFradinorSamOsmanagic.ButtheirsandBurrows’scharacterflawsarelargelyincidentalinthisnarrative.Onlyhisskepticsfocustooheavilyonthem,whereastheyshouldbefocusinginsteadonwhetherornothecouldactuallyhavefabricatedany,letalonesuchhugenumbersof,inscribedstones.Ifwewereplacedinthesamesituation,theendresultwouldbethesame,foritisinthenatureofsuchdiscoveriesandhowwereacttothemthattheytendtoproducethesamekindofoutcomes.

So,thefateofthecavewassealed,doomedfromthemomentthatBurrowssliddownintoit.Wheredoesthisleaveus?Forskepticstocryfoul,theyneedtocomeupwithbetterthan“obvious”statements.ThereisnoevidencethatBurrowsfakedthestones.SkepticsarguethatBurrowswasknowntoworkwithwoodandcreatewoodenartifactsinhissparetime.Indeed.Thistheyseeasevidencethathefakedthestones.Moreimportantly,thereisevidencethatacavesystemexistswhereBurrowsclaimsitexists.Ifitisallahoax,theskepticswillneedtoprovideevidenceinsteadofrepeatedlyusingtheword“obvious.”Still,evenifthecavesystemisthere,itmayperhapsbelosttousforever.Anyoperationthatcouldbemountedtoprovideaconclusiveanswerwouldcostanextraordinaryamountofmoney—andsuchresourcesare“obviously”notinthehandsofthediffusionists.Soitseemsthat,onceagain,theestablishmenthaswonthefight

andthestatusquoofhowwelookatourhistoryremainsstanding—andthatmaybetheonlyobviousthingaboutthisentirestory.

Whatsensecanwemakeofallthis?Couldagoldensarcophagus,allegedlyfoundinanIllinoiscave,beevidenceofpre-ColumbiantransoceanictravelbetweentheOldWorldandtheAmericas,assomanypeoplehaveclaimed?WhileBurrowsdescribedwhatthecavelookedlikeandwhatitcontained,fortunatelymostoftheartifactsremovedfromthecavewerephotographedearlyon,inpartduetotheeffortsofJamesSchertzandFredRydholm.Variousresearchershavelookedatthiscollection,andarchaeologistshavebeenquicktopointoutthemismatches.Butmostculturesareamismatchofcultures!LondonandNewYorkareprimeexamplesofhowvariousculturescreateanewone.Bothcitiesclearlyexist!Thingswerenodifferentinancienttimes,theEgyptiancityofAlexandriaprobablybeingthebestexample.Furthermore,thisisallabouttheapproach:Professionalarchaeologistswillarguethatallculturesdevelopedinisolation,whichwouldallowforeasyidentificationofartifacts,whereasitisbecomingevidentthatculturesexchangedgoodsandmaterialsfrequently,revealingwhatarchaeologistscallmismatches—artifactsthathavesignsofvariouscultures.

TheBurrowsCavewasaburialcave,butwhowasburiedhere?AnimportantclueisthatsomeofthestoneslabsdisplayedasignaturethatwasknownintheOldWorld.ItbelongedtooneAlexanderHelios,sonofCleopatraandMarcAntony,andtwinbrotherofCleopatraSelene,thefutureco-rulerofMauritania(inAfrica’swesternSahara).AmongBurrows’searliestteamofamateurresearcherswereJackWardandWarrenCook,thelatterofwhomdiedin1989.Cook’sanalysisoftheartifactsmadehimconcludethatcreatingthemwouldhavetakenthousandsofhours.Butmoreimportantly,CookcontinuedWard’sanalysisoftheirpossibleoriginandarguedthattheyweremostlikelytheremainsofaLibyan-Iberianexpedition.HeidentifiedMauritania’sKingPtolemaeusI(1BC–AD40),sonofCleopatraSeleneandKingJubaII(52–50BC–AD23),asthemanresponsibleforthistransoceanicvoyage.Couldthishavebeenpossible?

TherulersofMauritaniahadfallenfouloftheRomanemperors,ifonlybecauseoftheeconomicpowerthatMauritaniahadbecome,turningthescalesonwhowasincontrolofwhom.WhentheRomanEmpiredecidedtoredressthatbalance,theMauritaniankingJubaIIandhisfamilyhadtoflee.It’spossiblethatheusedtheknowledgeoftheseasthathisancestors,thePhoenicians,hadgathered.HeknewthelocationoftheAzores,whosegoodshewasabletosellatthehighestpricesinRomeandelsewhere.So,iftheBurrowsCaveartifactsaregenuineandtheinterpretationcorrect,it’spossiblethatthePhoenician-informedMauritanianroyalfamilysailedfurtherwest,beyondtheAzores,totheAmericas.

IftheyendedupinCentralAmerica,perhapstheyenteredtheMississippiRiverandtravelednorthuntilreachingIllinois—wheretheysettled,farremovedfromthesquabblesoftheOldWorld.ThecaveartifactsarenottheonlyevidenceofthepresenceofanenigmaticpeopleinthefirstcenturyAD.AccordingtooneNativeAmericanlegend,theregioncontainsthetombofakingwhowasnotnativetoAmerica.Thetribeonceknewthelocation,butthisinformationisnowlost.CouldthislocationbethesameastheBurrowsCave?Furthermore,itisknownthatJubaIIorderedagoldensarcophagustobepreparedforthemausoleumthathadbeenbuiltforhiminTipaza(modern-dayAlgeria).ThiswasoneoftheprizedpossessionsthattheRomanshadtriedtogettheirhandson,buttheyneverdidfindthesarcophagusortheMauritanianking.Officialhistoryissilentonthefateofboth.KingJubaIImusthavedied,andheandhissarcophagusmusthaveendedupsomewhere,andmaybethatwassomewhereinIllinois.

THELEGENDOFAKAKOR

OnMarch3,1972,GermanjournalistKarlBruggermetalocalAmazonianIndian,TatuncaNara,inthebackstreettavernGracasaDeus.ThemeetingwouldresultinBrugger’sbookTheChronicleofAkakor,publishedin1976,whichsawanumberofforeigneditionsandcreatedthelegendofAkakor,amythicaltownsomewheredeepwithintheAmazonianjungle,stilllefttobediscovered.In2008,thestorywasincorporatedinIndianaJonesandtheKingdomoftheCrystalSkull.

ThetitleofBrugger’sbookwassupposedlythesametitleasthechroniclethattheAmazonianUghaMogulalatribe(whichalsomakesanappearanceintheIndianaJonesmovie)heldsacred—oratleastcentral—totheirmythologyandphilosophy.Indeed,TatuncaNaraclaimedtobeamemberofthisunknownAmazoniantribe,thesonofanativeandthedaughterofaGermanmissionary—whichwassupposedtoaccountforhisimpeccableGerman.

ThemerenotionthatanAmazoniantribehadawrittenchroniclewasremarkable,astheAmazonpopulationislargelybelievednottohaveawrittenlanguage.AsecondbombshellwasthatTatuncaclaimedthattheYearZerooftheChroniclewas10,481BC—verymuchoutsideacceptedarchaeologicaldatesforhumanoccupationoftheAmazon,butperfectlyfittingintheAtlantisandDelugetheorythatmanyalternativeresearchersfavoredastheanti-thesistotheScience-wroughtframeworkandthatwas,atthetime,alreadymadepopularduetotheAmerican“prophet”EdgarCayce.ThethirdbombshellwasthattheGodscamefromasolarsystemknownasSchwerta,andbuiltanundergroundtunnelsysteminSouthAmerica.Eachelementonitsownandalltogetherevenmoresomadeforastunningrevelation—orlie.

TatuncaNarahadmadeaseriesoftallclaims,andtheydefinitelyrequiredthecaliberofanIndianaJonestotestthemtoreality.ThebestevidenceinfavorofthemwouldbetodiscoveranyoftheseveralcitiesintheAmazonjungle,includinganyofthe13undergroundcities,whichthiscivilizationhadallegedlyleftbehind.TheirmostimportantancienttownsweresaidtobeknownasAkakor,Akanis,andAkahim,aswellasCuczoandMachuPicchu,thelattertwoknownsitespartoftheIncanEmpire.Thefirst,Akanis,wasbuilt“onanarrowisthmusinthecountrythatiscalledMexico,”4ataplacewherethetwooceansmeet(Panama?).ThesecondwasAkakor(apparentlyderivedfromAka,“fort,”andkor,“two”—FortTwo)andlayfarupthePurusRiver,inahighvalleyinthemountainsoftheborderbetweenBrazilandPeru:“Thewholecityissurroundedbyahighstonewallwiththirteengates.Theyaresonarrowthattheygiveaccessonlytoonepersonatime.”5TatuncaaddedthatthecityhadaGreatTempleoftheSun,thatitcontaineddocuments,suchasmapsanddrawingstellingthehistoryoftheEarth.“Oneofthemapsshowsthatourmoonisnotthefirstandnottheonlyoneinthehistoryoftheearth.Themoonthatweknowbegantoapproachtheearthandtocirclearounditthousandsofyearsago.”6

ThethirdfortresswasAkahim,whichwasapparentlynotmentionedinthechroniclebeforetheyear7315BC,waslinkedwithAkakor,andwassituatedonthebordersofBrazilandVenezuela.TatuncaNaraconcludedthat26stonecitieswerebuiltaroundAkakor,includingHumbayaandPaititiinBolivia,Emin,CadirainVenezuela,andsoon.Asstoneisrareintheselocations,itmerelyunderlinedthat,ifgenuine,thesewereindeedextraordinaryfinds.Alas,Tatuncaadded,“[A]llthesewerecompletelydestroyedinthefirstGreatCatastrophethirteenyearsafterthedepartureoftheGods.”7Itmeantthattherewasverylittlelefttocheckontheground.ItalsomeantthatTatunca’sclaimsseemedtobeunverifiable.

WasTatuncatellingthetruthorwasheaconartist?Itwasaverytalltalehetold,andwiththestakesbeingveryhigh,Bruggerdecidedtoinvestigateandseewheretherabbit—orTatunca—wouldtakehim.ThetwodecidedtogoonanexpeditioninsearchofAkahim,settingoffonSeptember25,1972,onatripthatwouldlastsixweeks.Akahim,however,wasnotdiscovered.

ThatwasActOne.In1976,TheChronicleofAkakorwaspublishedandthecontroversywasreignited.Partofthecoremessageofthechroniclewasthestatementthattherewasanetworkoftunnels,somestillinexistencetodayandusedbytheNativeAmericans.Onhispart,duringthesummerof1977,SwissancientastronautauthorErichvonDänikentraveledforathirdtimetoManaustomeetwithTatuncaNara,inthehopethatviaTatunca,hecouldproduceevidenceandvindicatehimself.ApartfromvonDänikenandBrugger,athirdEuropeanenteredthescene:aformerSwissairpilotFerdinandSchmid,whowaslivinginBrazil,andwhocontactedTatuncaNarain1975.In1977and1978,thepairmadeseveralattemptstopenetrateintothejungle,insearchofAkahim.The1978expeditionwasjoinedbyanarchaeologist,RoldaoPiresBrandao,addedtotheteambytheBraziliangovernment.Hewasalsothereasonwhythemissionhadtobeabandoned:Brandaoapparentlyshothimselfinthearm,forunknownreasons.Oncerecovered,

hegottheBrazilianauthoritiessufficientlyinterestedtosetupanexpeditionoftheirown,andheeventuallysetoffwithsixmen.

InitsAugust1,1979edition,Veja,aBrazilianmagazine,reportedthediscoveryofAkahim,includinganumberofphotographs.Thatsameyear,TatuncaandSchmidclaimedtohavefoundAkahim,too—sortof.Earlyon,TatuncahadstatedthatAkahimhadthreelargepyramidsandtheyclaimedtohavefoundthese.Still,thoughseen,theyhadnotvisitedthesiteitselfandSchmidlost—orclaimedtohavelost—hiscameraandfilm.

ThenbeganActTwoforreal.Itwasthetimeframewhentwolegendsmerged:TatuncastatedthatheknewJuanMoricz,aHungarian-bornEcuadorianwhohadallegedlyshownErichvonDänikenundergroundtunnelsinEcuador.Sotwoseparatestoriesofundergroundtunnelswerenowpossiblylinked.TatuncastatedhehadmetMoriczwhenhewasstayinginVenezuelain1967.MoriczdidspendtimeinVenezuela,afactthatisnotoftenreportedorknown.AsMoriczwasalsoquiteahigh-profilevisitortothecountry(hebefriendedthepresident),thatTatuncametMoriczisthereforenotanimpossibility.Butwhetheritissignificantisanentirelydifferentmatter.

ThelegendofAkakorunexpectedlyreceivedanentirelynewdimensionwhenKarlBruggerwasmurderedleavingarestaurantinRiodeJaneiroonJanuary1,1984.ThoughalifedoesnotcostmuchinBrazilandarmedrobberyisevenmoreviolenttherethanintherestofSouthernAmerica,somehavequeriedwhetherhismurderhadanythingtodowithhisbookand/orknowledgeofAkakor.Sofar,noonehasbeenabletoshowalink.Atthetime,TatuncaNarawasapparentlyquestioned,butwasabletoprovideanalibiforhiswhereabouts.

ThencameActThree—anactthatfewpeoplehaveseenorknownabout.Sincethe1970s,theAmazonhasbecomemuchmoreopentotheworld,andpartswhereBruggerhadgreatdifficultyingettingtoarenowlessso.Akakor,however,remainsundiscovered.Atthesametime,thequestionneedstobeposedwhetherTatuncamerelydrovewithBruggerintothejungle,knowingthateventhougheverythingwasaninvention,theywouldatsomepointhitanobstacle,whichwouldnecessitatetheirreturnhome—andwouldmakehislielivetoseeanotherday.

AfterBrugger,TatuncaNaratookseveralothersintothejungle,apparentlyallenthralledbythelegendofAkakor,andtryingtobethediscoverer—oratleastco-discoverer—ofthismythicalcity.In1980,TatuncaleftwithAmericanJohnReedonsuchanexpedition,butonlyTatuncaNarareturned;whathappenedtoJohnReedisunknown,butitisassumedhediedintherainforest.In1983,TatuncaleftwithSwissexplorerHerbertWanner,andhedidn’treturn,either.Afewyearslater,agroupoftouristscameacrossahumanskull,whichwaslateridentifiedasWanner’s.In1987,SwedeChristineHeuseralsoleftwithTatuncaonanexpedition,anddisappearedaswell.TatuncaNaralaterdeniedhetraveledwithanyofthesemenintothejungle,butthesitewhereWanner’sskullwasfoundleftnodoubtwhatsoeverthathehadleftonanexpedition,TatuncaNarabeingtheonlylogicalguidethataccompaniedhim.

RumorsofTatunca’sowndeathcirculatedonanumberofoccasions.In2003,hehadhimselfdeclaredasmentallyinstable,butheneverthelesscontinuedtoofferhisservicesasatourguideforanywillingparties.

Whatislessknown—theFinalAct—isthatthestoryofAkakorturnedouttobeafraud.ThestorywasunraveledwhenTatuncaNarawasexposedasbeingoneGüntherHauck,aGermanex-pat.ThediscoverywasmadebytheGermanadventurerRüdigerNehbergandfilmdirectorWolfgangBrög.BrögtrickedTatuncatotakehimontoanexpedition,duringwhichhisstorybegantounravel.ItwasdiscoveredthatTatuncahadleftGermanyin1967,whichexplainedwhyhespokeperfectGerman,yetbrokenPortuguese.Apparently,heleftGermanyashewastryingtoescapeimprisonmentduetounpaidalimonyafteradivorcein1966.Since,hisex-wifehasconfirmedthatHauckisindeedthe“TatuncaNara”inBrugger’sphotos,andtherearealsopre-1968GermancourtproceedingsthatmentionHauckpreferredtogobyanicknameTatungeNare.

That,alas,istheunfortunatestoryofthelegendofAkakor,whichkilledatleastthreepeople

andwhichwas,inorigin,thestoryofamanwhowasabletocontheworld.However,noonedoubtsthattherearestillundiscoveredsettlementsandtribesintheAmazon,andsincethe1970s,whenthisstorystarted,severalhavebeendiscovered.ButtunnelsorstonecitiesintheheartlandoftheAmazonareunlikelyforanyonewhohasbeenintherainforest.Tofindawrittenchroniclehereisunlikely,butnotimpossible.TheappealofhisstorywassuchthatitsentmenonaquestforAkakor,whichverymuchbecametothemtheirprivateGrailQuest.Alas,forsome,thefactthattheydidnotasktheproperquestionaboutTatuncabeforesettingoff,didn’tresultinthemwakingupinanemptycastleinthemorning,butthattheyneverwokeupeveragain.

LOSTCITIES

TheAmazonandSouthAmericaasawholecontinuetorevealitshistorytous.IfweeverassumethatSouthernAmericanhistoryisknown,thatissimplynotthecase.Itwasasrecentas1911thatMachuPicchuwasdiscovered.The“LostCityoftheIncas”isonly50milesfromtheancientcapitalCusco,butapparentlynooneeverfoundit—thoughnewtheoriesareemergingthatsuggestthat,forseveraldecadesbefore1911,thesitewasknownbutwaskeptsecret,asgoldandothertreasuresweresecretlyremovedfromit,tobesold.Thetraditionalaccounthasitthatthroughoutthecenturies,thesurroundingjunglegrewoverthesite,leavingnoclearvisibleindicationthatatruelostcitywaslocatedthere.

OnJuly24,1911,AmericanhistorianHiramBinghamannouncedthediscoveryofMachuPicchutoscholars.Binghamhadactuallybeensearchingforanotherlostcity,Vilcabamba,thelastIncarefugeastheSpanishConquistadorsinvadedPeru.Itwasan11-year-oldlocalboy,PablitoAlvarez,whotookBinghamuptoMachuPicchu.Today,MachuPicchuisoneofthemostdesiredtraveldestinationsintheworldandatrulywonderfulexperiencetohave.

In2001,HughThomsonwroteTheWhiteRock,histraveljournalofhowheheardofanIncaruinthathadbeendiscovered,butwhoselocationhadsubsequentlybeenlost.Thomsonmadeithismissiontorediscoverthesite,whichhedid.TheWhiteRock,orChuquipalta,isabout20mileswestofMachuPicchu,butwhatisobvioustoanyonewhohasbeentoPeru’sSacredValley,andmaybenotsotosomeonewhohasn’t,isthatdistanceintheAndesorAmazonisofnoimportance.Thejunglerulesandcanhideanything,evenifoneweretostand3yardsinfrontofit.Thomson’saccountrevealsthateveninthe21stcentury,discoveringlostcitiesintheAndesisnotyetanexhaustedendeavor.

In1952,VictorvonHagensetofftoexploretheoldIncaroadfromLakeTiticacatoQuitoinEcuador,aformidabledistance.Afterward,hewrotethatherealizedthattheIncahadaroadsystemthatwasatruemasterplan:asystemthathadacombineddistanceof10,000milesofall-weatherroads,manyofwhichweremarvelsofengineering.Manyoftheroadsedgedaterritory,delineatinganinternalborder.Ratherthanzigzagupahill,theyusedsteepstairways,fortheanimalusedtocarryweightonthissystemwasthellama,which,unlikehorses,hadnoproblemswithstairs.

VonHagen’sdiscoveryfitsinalargerframeworkthatAmericanauthorCharlesC.Mannhasbrilliantlybroughtintoperspectivein1491:“ContrarytowhatsoAmericanslearninschool,thepre-ColumbianIndianswerenotsparselysettledinapristinewilderness;rather,therewerehugenumbersofIndianswhoactivelymoldedandinfluencedthelandaroundthem.”8MannshowsthatSouthAmerica’shistoryisupforreinterpretationwitheverynewdiscovery.Forexample,earlyreportsfromexplorersintheAmazonspokeofcities,someofthempopulatedbytensofthousandsofpeople.Butafewdecadeslater,subsequentexplorerscouldnotfindasingletraceofthesecities,andthereforetheconsensusgrewthattheearlyexplorershadmerelytoldtalltales.SatelliteimageryhasnowconfirmedthatthereareindeedlostcitiesdeepwithintheAmazon.WhathappenedwasthatthesetribeswerealsoexposedtotheSpanishviruses,towhichtheyhadnoimmunity.HundredsofthousandsofpeoplediedinSouthAmerica—whichiswhythebigcitiesthattheearlyexplorershadfoundhadbeencompletelywipedoffthefaceoftheEarth.

Inhisbook,Mannunderlinesthenow-usualskepticismofprofessionalarchaeologiststotruly

appreciatetherealityofthesituation.BettyJ.Meggers,oftheSmithsonianInstitute,wrotetohimsaying,“IhaveseennoevidencethatlargenumbersofpeopleeverlivedintheBeni”—oneoftheareasthatcaughtMann’sinitialinterest.“Claimingotherwiseisjustwishfulthinking.”9Mannhighlightsthatthereisabigdifferencebetween“notseeingevidence”and“reality”andthatthereisnowishfulthinkingatallinvolvedinwhatisnowbeinguncoveredacrossSouthAmerica.

TheleadinglightsofSciencearecaughtinwhatMannhaslabeled“Holmberg’sMistake”:

TheSirionoarethebestknownofanumberofNativeAmericangroupsintheBenitoday.Between1940and1942ayoungdoctoralstudentinanthropologynamedAllanR.Holmberglivedamongthem,andpublishedanaccountin1950ofhisexperienceinNomadsoftheLongbow.[…]Hesawthemasprimitivehumankindlivinginarawstateofnaturethatformillenniahadexistedalmostwithoutchange.Quicklyrecognizedasaclassic,thebookprovidedanenduringimageofSouthAmericanIndianstotheoutsideworld.10

Holmbergwaswrong.Whatfollowsisadetailedaccountthatrevealsthat—likeEurope—thepeopleofAmericawerefarlessprimitivethanreported,andhadextraordinarymeansofcommunicationandtransportation.ThisnotonlyappliestothebestknowncivilizationsliketheMayaandtheInca,butacrossthecontinent,fromthedeepestjunglesoftheAmazon,tothecoastofPeru,whereasrecentlyasthe1990s,afewhillsweremisidentifiedasnaturalformations.Now,theyareconsideredtobetheoldestpyramidsintheworld!

THEOLDESTTOWNINTHENEWWORLD

WecallittheNewWorld,becausewebelieveitwasdiscoveredasrecentlyas1492andbecausethecivilizationsthatlivedthereappeartobefarmorerecentthatthoseoftheOldWorld.Butwhatifthiswereyetanotherillusion,projectedbyhistorians?

Sometimebefore3200BC,ifnot3500BC,somethinghappenedintheNorteChicoinPeru,anagronomical“nogo”area,wherehardlyanythinggrows.This,however,isthesitewheretheoldesttracesofagenuinecivilization—pyramidsincluded—werefoundinAmerica.Andat3500BC,itisonparwiththelikesofSumerandAncientEgypt.

Atleast25largeceremonial/residentialsiteshavesofarbeenfound,ofwhichCaralhasbecomethemostfamous.TheNorthChico,roughly100kilometersnorthofthePeruviancapital,Lima,consistsoffournarrowrivervalleys,fromsouthtonorth,theHuaura,Supe,Pativilca,andFortaleza.TheancientpyramidsofCaralpredatetheIncacivilizationby4,000years,butwereflourishingacenturybeforethepyramidsofGizawerebuilt.NosurprisethereforethattheyhavebeenidentifiedasthemostimportantarchaeologicaldiscoverysincethediscoveryofMachuPicchuin1911.

Thefirstfull-scalearchaeologicalinvestigationoftheregiontookplacein1941inAspero,whenGordonR.WilleyandJohnM.CorbertofHarvardinvestigatedasaltmarshatthemouthoftheSupe.Theyfoundabigtrashheapandamulti-roomedbuildingwithnopotteryandafewmaizecobsunderthepoundedclayfloor.Theywonderedhowmaizecouldhavebeencultivatedinasaltmarshandwhythesepeoplecouldhavepracticedagriculture,yetapparentlyhadnopottery.WilleyandCorbettalsofoundsixmounds,someofthemnearly5meterstall.Theywerecataloguedasnaturaleminencesofsand.

Thirtyyearslater,Willey,inthecompanyofMichaelE.Moseley,revisitedthesiteandrealizedthatthesenaturaleminenceswere,infact,temple-typeplatformmounds.Healsorealizedtheremighthavebeenasmanyas17suchmounds,allofwhichWilleyhadmissedonhisfirstexplorationofthesite.“Itisanexcellent,ifembarrassing,exampleofnotbeingabletofindwhatyouarenotlookingfor,”hecommentedlater.11Astoitsage:CarbondatingrevealedthatAsperocouldgobackto3000BC,wherebysamplesfromanearbysiteevenrevealedadateof4900BC.Thoseobjectivefindingswereneverthelessseenasimpossible—fartoooldwith

“whatwasknown”andhencenotaccepted,andnodoubtwaitingforanother,futurediscoverythatwillshowthatmaybetheimpossibleistrueafterall.

Caralislocated14milesinlandfromAspero.EventhoughCaralwasdiscoveredin1905,itwasquicklyforgottenasthesiterenderednogoldorevenceramics.ItrequiredthearrivalofRuthShadySolisin1994beforeagenuineparadigmshiftwouldoccur.SheisamemberoftheArchaeologicalMuseumoftheNationalUniversityofSanMarcosinLima.Since1996,shehascooperatedwithJonathanHaas,oftheAmericanFieldMuseum.Together,theyhavefounda150-acrearrayofearthworks,whichincludessixlargeplatformmounds,one20metershighandmorethan100onaside.ButShadySolisdidnotmakethesamemistakeWilleyhadmade:Shefeltthatthe“pyramids”werejustthat;theywerenotnaturalhills,assomeofherpredecessorhadcataloguedthestructuresofCaral.Hersubsequentresearchledtotheannouncement,intheApril27,2001issueofScience,ofthecarbondatingofthesite,whichrevealedthatCaralhadbeenfoundedbefore2600BC.The“impossible”carbon-datingresultsofAsperonowseemedmorelikely—andCaralhadbecometheoldestcityinthe“New”World,olderthantheGizapyramids.

WhatisCarallike?Thesiteisinfactsooldthatitpre-datestheceramicperiod,thereasonwhynopotterywasfound.Itsimportanceresidesinitsdomesticationofplants,especiallycotton,butalsobeans,squashes,andguava.Asmentioned,theheartofthesitecovers150acresandcontainssixstoneplatformmounds—pyramids.Thelargestmoundmeasures154by138meters,thoughitrisesonlytoaheightof20meters;twosunkenplazasareatthebaseofthemoundandalargeplazaconnectsallthemounds.ThelargestpyramidofPeruwasterracedwithastaircaseleadinguptoanatrium-likeplatform,culminatinginaflattenedtophousingenclosedroomsandaceremonialfirepit.Allpyramidswerebuiltinoneortwophases,whichmeansthattherewasadefinitiveplaninerectingthesemonuments.ThedesignofthecentralplazawouldalsolaterbeincorporatedinallsimilarstructuresacrosstheAndesinthemillenniatocome—thusshowingthatCaralwasatruecradleofcivilization.Aroundthepyramidsweremanyresidentialstructures.Onehouserevealedtheremainsofabodythatwasburiedinthewallandthatappearstohavebeenanaturaldeath,ratherthanevidenceofhumansacrifice.Amongtheartifactsdiscoveredare32flutesmadefrompelicanandanimalbones,engravedwiththefiguresofbirdsandmonkeys.ItshowsthatthoughsituatedalongthePacificcoast,itsinhabitantswereawareoftheanimalsoftheAmazon,showingonceagainthatourSouthAmericanancestorstraveledacrossvastdistancesmuchearlierandfarmoreprominentlythanlargelyassumed.

HowdidCaralbegin?Itissuggestedthatseveralsmallvillagesmergedin2700BC,quitepossiblybasedonthesuccessofearlyagriculturalcultivationandfishingtechniques.Theinventionofcottonfishingnets—thecottongrownintheSupevalley—musthavegreatlyfacilitatedthefishingindustry.Itisbelievedthatthisexcessoffoodmighthaveresultedintradewiththereligiouscenters.Butapartfromaneconomicmodelofexchange,thenewsocialmodelalsomeantthatalaborforceexistedthathadinessencelittletodo.Thislaborforcecouldthusbeusedforreligiouspurposes.Caralmighthavebeenthenaturalresultofthisprocess—justlikepyramidselsewhereintheworld,whetherBosniaorEgypt,seemtohavebeentheresultofanavailableworkforce.

ThediscoveryofCaralhasthereforereintroducedapowerfulenigma:Atthesametime,ontwodifferentcontinents,agriculturaladvancementscreatedanewstyleoflife.Theavailableworkforcethatagriculturehadcreatedwasreemployedintheconstructionofpyramids.This“template”isvisibleinPeru,Sumer,andEgypt,allinthe3rdmillenniumBC.Coincidence,orevidenceofdesign?Alternativeresearcherswillcertainlysoonreopenthisdebate,butarchaeologistssteerwellclearofitforthemoment,eventhoughthethirdmillenniumBCispreciselytheperiodthatinNorthAmerica,peoplewereengagedinthetransoceaniccoppertrade.

EvenwithoutaEuropeanconnection,Caralishardtoaccept.Itisveryold.Still,itsdatingof2627BCisbeyonddispute,basedasitisoncarbondatingreedandwovencarryingbagsthatwerefoundinsitu.Thesebagswereusedtocarrythestonesthatwereusedfortheconstructionofthepyramids.Thematerialisanexcellentcandidatefordating,thusallowingforahighprecision.

Thetownitselfhadapopulationofapproximately3,000people.Thereare17othersitesinthearea,allowingforapossibletotalpopulationof20,000peoplefortheSupevalley.Indeed,theCaralarchaeologicalteambrokeuptoinvestigatesomeoftheothersites,suchasalongthePativilcaRiver,thenextrivertothenorth,andtheFortaleza,justnorthofthePativilca.AllofthesesitessharesimilaritieswithCaral.Theyhavesmallplatformsorstonecircles,andallweremajorurbancentersonparwithCaral—thoughsomeofthemwereevenolderthanCaral.HaasbelievesthatCaralwasneverthelessthefocusofthiscivilization,itselfpartofanevenvastercomplex,tradingwiththecoastalcommunitiesandtheregionsfurtherinland—asfarastheAmazon,ifthedepictionofmonkeysisanyindication.

ButNorteChicomayhavefarmorediscoveryinstoreforus.Onesite,Huaricanga,sawafirstpaperpublishedinDecember2004.TheteamofHaas,WinnifredCreamer,andAlvaroRuizfoundevidenceofpeoplelivinginlandfromthecoastasearlyas9210BC,withtheoldestdateassociatedwithacitybeing3500BC.OtherurbansitesintheregionarenowdatedasbeingolderthanCaral:Caballeteat3100BC,andPorvenirandUpacaat2700BC.CharlesMannwriteshow“individually,noneofthetwenty-fiveNorteChicocitiesrivaledSumer’scitiesinsize,butthetotalitywasbiggerthanSumer.”12

HaasdescribesthecivilizationofNorteChicoasthesecondexperimenthumanitydidwithgovernment:surrenderingpersonalfreedomandlibertytoacentralizedauthority,whichthenapparentlydecidedtocreatearitualcenter—acity,askingthosewhohadsurrenderedtheirfreedomtoworkhard—ifnotveryhard—forthiscommonorgreatergood.Thecitieswerenotsitedstrategically,nordidtheyhavedefensivewalls;noevidenceofwarfarehasbeenfound.Itseemsthatcooperationexisted,becausethepopulationrealizedthatcooperationwouldbenefittheindividualandthecommunityasawhole.ThoughHaasandhiscolleaguesputforwardseverallogicalreasons,Caralisprimarilyareligiouscultcenter.Andnooneseemstodaretosuggesttheperhapsobviousreason:thatthesepeoplebuiltCaralbecauseoftheirbeliefandadorationofoneormoredeitiestheyheldincommonworship.

Thattheworkforceinvolvedwasnotslavesoroppressedissupportedbythearchaeologicalevidence.HaasandCreamerbelievethatthecityrulersencouragedtheworkforceduringconstructionbystagingcelebratoryroastsoffishandachiraroot.Afterward,theremainsofthesefeastswereworkedintothefabricofthemound.Alcoholissuspectedofhavingbeenconsumed,andmusicseemstohavebeenplayed:AtCaral,ShadySolis’sdiscoveryof32flutesmadeofpelicanwingbonestuckedintoarecessinthemaintempleprovidestheevidenceforthatconclusion.

Thecreationofareligiouscompleximpliestheexistenceofapantheon.Littleevidencehasbeenuncoveredofwhatthesegodsmayhavebeen,otherthanadrawingetchedintothefaceofagourd,datedto2280–2180BC.Itdepictsasharp-toothed,hat-wearingfigurewhoholdsalongstickorrodineachhand.TheimagelookslikeanearlyversionoftheStaffGod,afanged,staff-wieldingdeitywhoisoneofthemaincharactersintheAndeanpantheon,thedeitythatisfiguredprominentlyontheGatewayoftheSuninTiahuanaco,ontheshoresofLakeTiticaca,hundredsofmilesaway.

Foranunknownreason,Caralwasabandonedrapidlyafteraperiodof500years(c.2100BC).Thepreferredtheoryastowhythepeoplemigratedisthattheregionwashitbyadrought,forcingtheinhabitantstogoelsewhereinsearchoffertileplains.ButthefactthattheStaffGodisfoundtwomillennialaterelsewhereinSouthernAmericashowsthatthesepeopledidnotdisappear;theymerelymovedelsewhere,andseemtohavebuiltotherreligiouscentersontheirtravels.

Theharshlivingconditionshavenotdisappeared,however.AccordingtotheWorldMonumentsFund(WMF),Caralisoneofthe100importantsitesunderextremedanger.ShadySolisarguesthatiftheexistingpyramidsarenotreinforced,theywilldisintegratefurtherandmoneyfromtourism,aswellasprivatedonations,willhelppreservethesite.Conservationwillgohandinhandwithexploration.AndthoughCaralcontinuestostealthelimelight,othernearby

sites,suchasAspero,areolder.Indeed,Asperomightonedaylayclaimtothetitleoftheworld’soldestcity.

ShadySoliscametoCarallookingforthefabledmissinglinkofarchaeology:a“mothercity.”Today,sheisstilltryingtoconvincepeoplethatCaralwasindeedtheoldesturbancivilizationintheworld:“ThediscoveryofCaralchallengedtheacceptedbeliefs.SomehistorianswerenotreadytobelievethatanurbancivilizationexistedinPeruevenbeforethepyramidswerebuiltinEgypt,”shesays.“Thisplaceissomewherebetweentheseatofthegodsandthehomeofman.”13

Still,thefameofCaralastheoldestpyramidcomplexmightbeshort-lived.Archaeologistshavefounda5,500-year-oldceremonialplazaatSechinBajo,inCasma,229milesnorthofLima,thecapital.ThediscoveryoccurredbyateamoftheLatinAmericanInstituteattheFreieUniversityinBerlin,undertheauspicesofProfessorDr.PeterFuchs.Itcontainedaplatformpyramidthatwasoriginallypossiblyupto100meterstall.CarbondatingshowsitisoneoftheoldeststructureseverfoundintheAmericas.Nearly2,000yearslater,anotherstructuremeasuring180by120meterswasaddedontoit.ThediscoveryatSechinBajomeansthispyramidcomplexisnowevenolderthanCaral,anditmeansthatthedawnofcivilizationintheNewWorldiscontinuouslypushedback,revealingthattheNewWorldisjustasoldastheOldWorld.Maybeolder?

JURASSICLIBRARY

May13,1966wasthe42ndbirthdayofalocalphysician,Dr.JavierCabreraDarquea,andhisoldfriend,photographerFelixLlosaRomero,hadpresentedhimwithaseeminglyinnocentgift:acuriouslymarkedstone.CabreralivedinIca,thecapitaltownofasmallPeruviancoastalprovince,some185milessouthofthecapitalLima.

Dr.Cabrera,whohadalong-standinginterestintheprehistoryoftheregion,examinedthedesignonthestoneandidentifieditasaspeciesoffishthathadbecomeextinctmillionsofyearsago.NewsofhisexcitementreachedtheearsofCarlosandPabloSoldi,brothersandwell-knowncollectorsofpre-Incaartifacts.TheyshowedCabrerathousandsofsimilarlymarkedstonesfoundinthenearbyOcucajeregionandtoldhimthattheyhadrepeatedlyfailedtointerestarchaeologistsininvestigatingthearea.Cabrerabought341stonesfromthemfortheequivalentof$50.

Cabrera’sprivatemuseumincludedacollectionofstonesbelongingtohisfather,BoliviaCabrera(aSpanisharistocrat),gatheredfromthefieldsofthefamilyplantationinthelate1930s.Theyresembledhisnewacquisitions,andsoonhefoundanothersupplier—afarmernamedBasiloUschuya—andboughtmanythousandsmorefromhim.Bythelate1970s,Cabreraestimated,hehadmorethan11,000oftheseanomalousengravedstones.

AmongtheIcastonesaredepictionsofhumansapparentlyfightingdinosaurs.Quicklyconsideredtobefakebymany,forothersthequestioniswhyimpossibleencounterssuchasthiswerecreatedbysomeonetotrytopassoffacollectionofstonesasgenuine.ItisaquestionthathasmadetheIcastonesextremelycontroversialforanumberofyears.ImagecopyrightBrattarb.MadeavailableaspartoftheCreativeCommonsLicense

onWikimedia.

Thestonesvaryinsizefrompebblestoheftybouldersandhaveadarkpatinaintowhichthedesignsareincised.Theybearanastonishingvarietyofimages(includingsomeshowingbestiality,whichhavebeendescribedaspornographic)andCabreraarrangedhiscollectionintogroups,includingstarmaps,mapsofunidentifiedlands,scenesofcomplexsurgery,menusingtelescopestoobservestarsandcomets,andwhatseemtobehumansinflyingmachines.Here,too,aredepictionsthatchallengetheacceptedviewofthehistoryoflifeonEarth.Theyshowpeopleinteractingwithextinctanimals;huntinganddomesticatingavarietyofdinosaurs,inparticularthebrontosaurs,TyrannosaurusRex,stegosaurs,andflyingpterodactyls.Accordingtoconnoisseurs,therealgemofthedinosaurseriesisasceneinwhichmenusehandaxestokilladinosaur.Whatimpresses,theysay,isthatthehuntersseemtodisplayaknowledgeoftheanimal’sanatomyinchoppingatacriticalnervecenterinthedinosaur’sspinethatwouldinflictaquickandsuddendeath.Inshort,itseemedthatthestonesweretestimonythatJurassicParkhadbeenreal:thathumanityhadsomehowlivedatthetimeofthedinosaurs—orviceversa.

Cabrera’smedicalcareerwasdistinguished—he’dretiredasprofessorandheadofthedepartmentofmedicineattheUniversityofLima—soitisnaturalthat,atfirst,hekeptquietabouthisso-calleddinosaurstones,preferringtodrawattentiontothosethatdisplayedadvancedscientificknowledge,suchastheastronomicalandmedicalimages.Thesurgery-themedstonesimplythatthemakerspossessedanadvancedknowledgeofmedicinemillionsofyearsbeforetheearliestmoderncivilization,forhere,ingorydetail,arescenesofheart,liver,andkidneytransplants,acesareansection,abrainoperation,sophisticatedequipment,acupuncture,andgeneticengineering.Inshort,thishighlycontroversial“libraryinstone”isanarchaeologicalanomaly—aprimeexampleofwhattheForteanpioneerIvanSandersoncalledoops-art,orout-of-placeartifacts.

Inthelate1960s,afterhehadboughtthousandsoftheengravedstonesfromfarmerBasiloUschuya,Cabreratirelesslypromotedhisdiscovery,tellinganyonewhowouldlistenabouthisspeculations,anditsooncametotheattentionofrevisionistssuchasErichvonDänikenandRobertCharroux.RidingintheslipstreamofvonDäniken’sChariotsoftheGods?—aworldwide

best-sellerin1969—aspateofsimilarbooksemergedintheearly1970s,almostallofthemincludingtheIcaenigma.Mostclaimeditwasstraightforward,ifpuzzling,evidenceofanadvancedcivilizationfromatimebeforethedinosaursperished65millionyearsago.Morerecently,Creationists—whoplacetheBibleaboveDarwiniantheory—haveusedtheIcastonestosubstantiatetheirbeliefsthatthebehemothoftheBookofJobis,infact,adinosaur.Rejectingthemootedantiquityofthestones,theybelievethestonesshow,instead,thatdinosaurssurvivedintorelativelymoderntimes,co-existingwithearlyman,andofferproofoftheGenesisaccountoftheCreationsomesixmillenniaago.

Accordingtothereigningscientificopinion,aspanofsome60millionyearsseparatesthelivingdinosaursfromourearliesthumanancestors.Thishugegapintime,supportedbygeologicalevidenceandmoderndatingmethods,makestheideaoftheco-existenceofdinosaursandmanhardtoentertainscientifically.Butweknowfromhistorythathistoriansloveisolationism,whereasthetrueimageryofourpastisthattherewerenosuchcleardistinctions.Cremo’sresearchhasfurthermoreshownthathumanshavebeenaroundmuchlongerthanwethinkand,whereasitmightappearthatpushingourpresencebackfrom100,000yearstoonemillionyearsstillfallsfarshortof65millionyears,atleast,thereisanever-increasingpossibilitythatJurassicParkmighthavebeenreal.

Then,itseems,thebubbleburst.ABBCTVdocumentarywasseverelycriticaloftheIcastones,drawingtheattentionofthePeruvianpressandresultinginthearrestofUschuyabythelocalauthorities.Interrogated,headmittedhehadcarvedthestoneshimself;hewantedtobilkthetouristsandclaimedheneverthoughtitwouldgetoutofhandonsuchalargescale.Remarkably,afterhisrelease,Uschuyacontinuedtomakeandsellstones,presumablywithofficialknowledge.

TheIcastoneswerenowconsideredtobeahoaxandofficiallyabranchofthetouristindustry.Itwasover—orwasit?Whendealingwithcontroversiesofthissort,nothingiseversimple.Believersintheantiquityofthestonesclaimedthatthefarmeradmittedtothehoaxforaverysimplereason:Ifthestonesweregenuine,hehadbeensellinggovernmentpossessions.Peruvianlawdictatesthatarchaeologicaldiscoveriesshouldbeturnedovertothegovernmentandhefacedprisoniffoundguilty.Byadmittingitwasasimplehoax,thefarmerwasletoffthehook—andwasabletoprovidehisfamilywithanincome.WhenvonDänikenvisitedthefarmerin1973,Uschuyaconfirmedtohimthathehadfakedthestones,butlater,inaninterviewwiththeGermanjournalistAndreasFischer,Uschuyaclaimedtheopposite.Theyweregenuine,heinsisted,andheadmittedtoahoaxtoavoidimprisonment.

ItissometimesallegedagainstCabrerathathecolludedinthemakingoffakesandmusthaveprofitedfromthem,butthereisnoevidenceofthat.Inanycase,Cabrera’soriginalmotive—topreservethestones—isclearfromtherecord.AlongwiththeSoldibrothers,hetriedtoattracttheattentionofatop-levelarchaeologicalinvestigationintowhathebelievedwasagenuinepre-Incanmystery.Indeed,thoughCabreraisoftensingledout,hewasnottheonlyoneinterestedinthesestones,orconvincedthattheyweregenuine.TheSoldis’sinterestbeganin1961when,accordingtoHermanBuse,theIcaRiverfloodedand“uncoveredintheOcucajeregionalargenumberofengravedstoneswhicheversincehavebeenanobjectofcommerceforthehuaqueroswhofoundthem.”14Alsointerestedintheobjectswasanarchitect,SantiagoAgurtoCalvo,thenrectoroftheUniversidadNacionaldeIngenieria,whoboughtmanyand,in1966,beganexcavatingpre-IncatombsaroundOcucaje.Inanarticlethatyear,hedescribedthedesignsas“[u]nidentifiablethings,insects,fish,birds,cats,fabulouscreaturesandhumanbeings[…]inelaborateandfantasticcompositions.”15In1968,CalvodonatedagreatnumberofengravedstonestotheIcamuseumbutfailedtohavetheprovince’sculturaldepartmentdeclaretheOcucajeregionaspecialpreservetopreventtheillegalremovalofancientobjects.

TheearliestPeruvianartifactsseemtodatebacktoaround20,000yearsago,anddiscoveriesofengravedstonesintheIcaregiongobacktoSpanishrecordsofthemid-15thcentury.ThecuratoroftheIcamuseumacceptedCalvo’scollectionatfirstasexamplesofpre-Incaburialart,buttheywerewithdrawnfromopendisplayin1970,whenCabrera’sideasgainedinternational

notoriety.Asageneralrule,museumshatecontroversy.WhenCabreravisitedthemuseumtocomparehisartifactswithCalvo’s,thecuratorsaidhewithdrewthembecausehenowbelievedthehuaqueros(grave-robbers)hadmadethem,whichisremarkable,forgrave-robbersnormallygettheirmaterialfromthegravestheyrob,whichwouldmakethematerialgenuine.

DespiteUschuya’sdamningadmission,Cabreracontinuedtofeedthecultofthedinosaurstones—hecalledthemgliptoliths—andbecametheirbiggestpromoter.Heputhiscollectionondisplayinhishouse.Shelveslinedeverywall,organizedbysubject:theracesoftheplanet,ancientanimals,lostcontinents,andsoforth.Cabreraconsideredthathishypotheticalancientpeople—GliptolithicMan—hadlargerbrainsthanours(eventhoughnoskeletalremainsexist)andwerethereforemoreintelligentthanus.Thesehumanssupposedlyusedaformofconcentratedpsychicenergywithwhichtheywereabletoinfluencecelestialeventsandrecordontheirstonestheapproachofagreatcomet.Further,hebelievedthatsomeofthe“machines”depictedlooklikespacecraftandprobablytraveledthroughspacewithoutconsumingfuel.Now,Cabreraascendsintoarealmallhisown,leavingbehindhispuzzledandmoreconventionalcolleaguesfortheincreasingisolationofhiscontemplationamongthestrangestones.Hebelieveshehascometoknowwhattheyaresaying.“Icanonlydeduce,”hewrote,“thatthemenwhocarvedthesestonesco-existedwiththeseanimals.Thismeans,ofcourse,thatmanisatleast405millionyearsold.”16

Cabrera’sreadingofthestoneshaslittlesupport;especiallyastheengravedimageslendthemselvestoother,lessdramaticinterpretationsandthereisnotenoughcorroboratingdetailtosubstantiateanyofthem.Forexample,evenifweassumetheyaregenuineandmillionsofyearsold,theydonotnecessarilycontainthetypeofinformationCabreramaintains;theheartandbraintransplantscouldjustaswellbemutilationsoractsofcannibalism,andtheflyingmachinesresemblebirdsmorethanhigh-techcraft.Americanarchaeologist-publisherDavidHatcherChildresssaid,halfinjest,thatthesceneshowingancientsusingtelescopescouldequallyshowthemplayingagameofprehistorictennis.

OnFebruary25,1996,NBCTVshowedadocumentarytitledTheMysteriousOriginsofMan,whichincludedtheworkofMichaelCremo.NeilSteede,anindependentarchaeologistanddirectoroftheEarlySitesResearchSociety,wasoneofitsresearcherswho,in1995,traveledthroughoutSouthernAmerica,gatheringmaterialfortheprogram.HeinvestigatedtheIcastonesfirsthand,butthoughttheyshouldnotbeincludedintheoriginaldocumentarybecausetheydidnotaddanyscientificweighttothedebate.

In1997,thedocumentary’sproducer,BillCote,decidedtorepackagetwocontroversialitemsdroppedfromtheoriginalbroadcast.ThesegmentconcerningtheIcastoneswascalled“JurassicArt”andwasmarketedforcabletelevisionandthevideosalesmarket.TheproductionfocusedonSteede’sresearch,ashewasthelatestarchaeologisttoinvestigatethecollection.WhenSteedemetBasiloUschuya,thefarmerconfirmedthathehadengravedthestonesfromdrawingsthatCabrerahadbroughttohim.Why?“Makingthesestonesiseasierthanfarmingtheland.”17UschuyastatedthatCabrerahadabout5,000genuinestones—inotherwords,stonesthatUschuyahimselfhadnotmade—andthathehadnotfabricatedalloftheothers,contrarytowhathehadpreviouslystated.

CabreraexplainedUschuya’simplicationbyadmittingthatalargenumberofstoneshadindeedbeencopied,buttheywereonlyforsaletotourists.Thereisofcourselittleharmincreatingreplicas,apositionmostmuseumswillbehappytoagreewith.Indeed,thereisnohardevidencethatCabreraeversaidhewassellinggenuineartifacts,suggestingwhatwasoccurringwasnotfakingstones,butcreatingreplicasforsale.AsUschuyastated:Cabrerahad5,000genuineartifacts.Cabreraalsoclaimshewasshownacaveinwhichthecacheofstoneshadremainedhiddenformillionsofyears.Thiscavewasrevealed,hesays,afterasevererainstormwashedopenanewareaneartheIcariver.(ThismayormaynotbetheeventreferredtobyHermanBusein1965.)Cabreraremainstight-lippedonwhotookhimtothecaveand,asnomapsorpicturesofitexist,wehaveonlyCabrera’swordforit.Interestingly,Cabrerahasstated

thathehopesitwillnotbefound.EvenErichvonDäniken,whodescribesCabreraasawarmfriend,wasdeniedtheprivilege.Steede,whoofferedtobeblindfoldedthroughoutthejourneytothecave,wasalsorebuffedandnowbelievesthecaveneverexisted.

Surely,youask,couldn’tthematterbesettledonceandforallbydatingthestones?Unfortunately,thoughsometestingwasdone,theresultsremaininconclusive.CabrerahimselfsentstonestotheuniversitiesofLima(Peru)andBonn(Germany)andtoNASAscientistJosephBlum.AtBonn,aProfessorFrenchenapparentlyconfirmedthatthestoneswereandesite(anextremelyhardvolcanicrockcomposedmostlyofsilica)andthattheoxidizedpatinaontheirsurfaceindicatedsignificantage.

In1967,CabreraaskedfriendEricWolf,aminingengineer,toarrangeananalysisandpublishedtheresultsinhisbook.Thestoneswereindeedandesite,wornsmoothinancientrivers.“Ihavenotfoundanynotableorirregularwearontheedgesoftheincisions,”18Wolfnotes,concluding:“Theseetchingswereexecutednotlongbeforetheyweredepositedingravesorotherplaceswheretheywerediscovered.”19Cabreraadds,specifically,that“thecoatingofnaturaloxidationcoverstheincisionsaswell.”20Thiswouldsuggestthestoneswereindeedancient.However,thishastobebalancedbythefirsthandobservationbyNeilSteedethat,eventhoughthestonesheexamineddidhavethispatina,therewasnopatinainthegrooves.Thissuggeststhat,althoughthestoneswerecertainlyveryold,thecarvingswereoffarmorerecentorigin.

ThoughsomeinvestigatorsclaimthattheywererefusedpermissiontoseetheCalcocollectionintheMuseumofIcastash,NeilSteedewasgrantedaccess.HeconcludedthatthesedefinitelygenuinestonesshowafinerworkmanshipandhavelessdeepcutsthanCabrera’sstones.ThisisanindicationofamorehighlyskilledmanufacturerthanCabrera’sartisan.Furthermore,theyarerestrictedtodepictingconventionalhumansandexistinganimals,notextinctanimals;nordotheyincludeanyexamplesofthemoreexoticmotifsoftheCabrerastones.Itsuggeststhatacacheofinscribedstoneswasfound,butthatmoreimaginativesceneswerelateraddedtothecollection,nodoubtineffortstogainalargeraudiencefortheseartifacts.

InthesameyearthatTheMysteriousOriginsofMandocumentaryaired,theGermancablechannelKabel1broadcastitsowninvestigation.TheteamhadfilmedsecretlyasCabreratookthemintooneofhis“secret”rooms.Here,insteadofincisedstones,wereastonishingclaysculptures:smalldinosaurscrawlingoutofanegg,kangaroos,peoplewithodd-shapedheads,andothersimilarthemes.TheteamdecidedtoconfrontBasiloUschuyawiththisnewfootage.Heclaimedtohavemadethesesculpturesaswell,forwhatinhisopinionwasaminimumsalary,andshowedtheteamsuchasculpture,whichseemedindistinguishablefromthoseinCabrera’ssecretroom.

Thestorybecamestrangerwhen,thatsameyear,ErichvonDänikenlaunchedtheGermanversionofhisbookArrivaloftheGods,inwhichhereportedonhis1996triptoPeru—andsaidthatCabrerahadallowedhimtovisitandphotographthefigurines!VonDänikenstatedthathewasfirstshowntheseclayfiguresduringhisvisitin1983.Thepointisthat,unlikethestones,theseclayfigurinescanbetested.VonDänikensentonetotheUniversityofZurichforcarbondatingandtheyreportedthatthefigurinewasmodern.Hisfellowresearcher,JohannesFiebag,senttwoothersamplestotheUniversityofWeimar,whichlikewiseconcludedthatthesampleswererelativelyyoungandstillcontainedwater.Conclusion:Thesefigurineswerenotahundredthousandyearsold,asCabreraclaimed;theycouldhavebeenmade20yearsago.

ItseemsincreasinglylikelythattheIcastoneshavebeenfabricated,butitisdifficulttobelievethattheyareall—estimatesrunto50,000pieces—madebyonepoor,uneducatedfarmer.Noindependentstudyhasbeenmade,ifonlytoseparateanypossiblyauthenticartifactsfromthefakes.NordoweknowtowhatextentCabrera’sinterpretationshavebeenbasedonanyofthefakes.TheoneresearcherwhohasknownCabrerathelongest,ErichvonDäniken,hasrepeatedlystatedthatsomestonesaredefinitelyfakes.Hehasalsocastdoubtontheoriginsoftheentirecollection.Intheend,perhapsvonDänikenunderstandsCabrera’smotivebest.Heisconvinced

Cabreratellsstories:“Andstoriesistherightword,fortheydonotfitinwithanyscientificschemeofthings.Theoldmanusesengravingswhichhemustknowarefaketosubstantiatehisbeliefs.Why?Hashebecomesoenamoredofhisowntheoriesthathethinksimitationswillbackthemup?”21

Cabrera’sinterestinmedicineandarchaeologymighthavemadehimsusceptibletoaningeniousfraud,butifsoheisnottheonewhohasprofitedfromit.Orperhapshehasfooledhimself,seeingevidenceofhiswishfulthinkingeverywhere.In1966,themediawererifewiththethemeofmenanddinosaursinteracting,especiallyinthemovieOneMillionYearBC(1966).WasCabrerainspiredbythis?Orwasheinspiredbytheso-calledAcambarofigurines,namedaftertheirplaceoforigininMexicowhere,in1925,WaldemarJulsrud,aDanishstorekeeper,foundhundredsofclayfigurinesofdinosaursthat—astheirIcacounterpartsweresome40yearslater—arecavortingwithmen?MoreresearchmustbedonetosettlethedoubtsabouttheIcastones,buttheforecastisnotlookingpromising,allthemoresoasnoresearchhasoccurredonthemsinceCabrera’sdeathin2001.

GOLDRUSH

FromthetimeoftheSpanishConquistadorstothepresent,therehavebeenpersistentaccountsoflostcities.Often,thesewerelinkedwithfabledtreasure,especiallylargegoldendepositswaitingforthemanwhowouldstumbleuponthem.Themostfamousofalllegends,nodoubt,isthatofElDorado,whichinoriginwasnotsomuchacity,butaman.

ElDorado,“thegoldenone,”wasthenamegiventoaColombianMuiscatribalchiefwhocoveredhimselfwithgolddustatthetimeofhiscoronationanddoveintothehighlandlakeofLakeGuatavita,nearpresent-dayBogotá.Soon,themanbecameacity,thenakingdom,ifnotanempire.In1541,FranciscoOrellanaandGonzaloPizarrodepartedfromQuitotowardtheAmazonBasin,insearchofit.ThoughElDoradoremainedelusive—eversince,toeveryone—OrellanadidbecomethefirstpersonknowntonavigatetheAmazonRiverallthewaytoitsmouth.

AsElDoradoneverwasacity,theCityofGoldwasofcourseneverfound.Thestoryisneverthelessabsolutelytrue;fewifanydoubtthatthistriballeadercoveredhimselfingolddustandperformedthisceremony.ButElDoradowasnevertheonlyCityofGold.Inthe16thcentury,rumorstraveledaroundMexicoaboutthe“SevenCitiesofGold,”calledCíbola,whichwaslocatedacrossthedesert,hundredsofmilesnorth.Thestoryisthoughttohavecomeaboutasacombinationoftwomyths,oneofthemaPortugueselegendofsevencitiesontheislandofAntillia,theotherthefactualdiscoveryofpueblositesinwhatarenowArizonaandNewMexico.

Therumorshavebeentracedbacktofourshipwreckedsurvivorswho,upontheirreturntoMexico,spokeofhavingheardstoriesfromNativesaboutcitieswithgreatandlimitlessriches.Whenheheardthisnews,ViceroyAntoniodeMendozaorganizedanexpeditionheadedbyFranciscanfriarMarcosdeNiza,whotookoneofthefoursurvivors,oneEstevanico,ashisguide.WhenEstevanicoapparentlyheardthatCíbolawasnearby,hedidnotwaitfordeNizaandreachedCíbola(whatisnowidentifiedasHáwikuh,NewMexico),where,atthehandsoftheZunitribe,hemethisdeath,whilehiscompanionswereforcedtoflee.

MarcosdeNizareturnedtoMexicoCityandclaimedthathehadseenCíbolafromagreatdistance,andthatitwaslargerthantheAzteccapitalofTenochtitlan.Hesaidthatthepeopleuseddishesofgoldandsilver,decoratedtheirhouseswithturquoise,andpossessedgiganticpearls,emeralds,andothergems.

TheViceroywastednotimeandmountedamilitaryexpedition,ledbyFranciscoVázquezdeCoronado,takingdeNizaashisguide.CoronadoleftwithasmallgroupofexplorersfromCuliacánonApril22,1540.WhentheyarrivedattheNewMexicanpueblo,hesoonrealizedthatthefriar’sstorieswerelies.Still,eventhoughCíbolawasnotacityofgold,itwasclearlyacivilization.ThefriarmayhaverealizedthattheViceroywouldonlyeverbeinterestedinsending

troopsiftherewerestoriesofgold,althoughthefriar’sambitionsmayhavebeenpurelytoconvertthelocalstotheChristianfaith.TheZuniNativeAmericanswouldhaveremainedoutsidethereachoftheSpanishConquistadorsformuchlongeriftherehadnotbeenrumorsofgold.TheZunisoonrealizedhowtoplaythegame.WhileamongtheZuni,Coronadoheardanotherrumorfromanativethattherewasacitywithplentyofgold,knownasQuivira,locatedontheothersideofthegreatplains.NowbelievedtobemodernKansas,Nebraska,orMissouri,heofcoursefoundnosuchgoldencity,butdidfindmoreNativeAmericancultures.ThoughtheywerenotElDorado,theywereindeedalostcivilization,untildiscovered.

BothIncaandPueblopeopleweremastersatsendingtheSpanishConquistadorsonwildgoosechases,astheyknewtheywouldgivetheirrightarmforgold.ButyoucannotblametheSpanishConquistadorstoomuch,forwhentheyenteredtheIncacapitalofCuscoin1533,andespeciallytheCoricancha,thecentralreligioustemple,therewasgoldeverywhere.Literally.

TheCoricancha,meaning“thecorralofgold,”wasdedicatedprimarilytoViracocha,theIncacreatorgod,andInti,theSungod.Thesouth-facingwallsofthetemplewerecoveredwithgold,inordertoreflectthelightofthesunandilluminatethetemple.Itissaidthatthereweremorethan700sheetsofpuregold,weighingabout4poundseach.InsidethetemplewasthePunchaco,asolid-golddiskinlaidwithpreciousstones,whichrepresentedthesunandwhichwasprobablythemostsacredobjectintheIncaEmpire.

Pizarro’smenstrippedthe1.5tonsofgoldfromthewalls.Theygatheredhundredsofgoldsculpturesandobjectsfromthetemple,includinganaltarbigenoughtoholdtwomenandanextraordinaryartificialgardenmadeofgold,includingcornstalkswithsilverstemsandearsofgold.AtthecenteroftheCoricancha,markingaplaceknownasCuscoCaraUrumi(the“UncoveredNavelStone”),wasanoctagonalstonecoffer,whichatonetimewascoveredwith55kilogramsofpuregold.That,too,wasremoved.

Tragically,everythingwasmelteddownwithinamonthandputonboatsthatsailedforSpain.Thefleetbecameembroiledinanavalbattle,allthegoldsinkingtothebottomoftheseas.Everythingwaslost,exceptthePunchaco,eventhoughitswhereaboutsremainunknowntothisday.AstotheCoricanchaitself:ThatwasconvertedintothemonasteryofSantoDomingo,whereonce4,000IncapriestshadofficiatedmassesforViracochaandInti,nowtheDominicansworshippedJesusChrist.

AtthetimeoftheSpanishConquest,severalitemsoftremendousimportancewereneverthelesshiddenbytheIncathemselves,includingthePunchaco.Thecollectiveofthislosttreasureisoftenlabeledthe“treasureofIncaKingAtahualpa”andrumorshaditthatitwastakenoutofCuscointotheAmazonianjungle;otherstoriesargueitwassecretedawayintunnelsbelowCuscoitself.ThisrumorhasbeenlinkedwithstoriesaboutatunnelleadingfromtheCoricanchaandexitingnearSacsayhuaman,thefortressthattowersabovethecity.ThisexitwasknownasChinkanaGrande(“BigCave,”thoughitisalsotheQuechuanwordfor“labyrinth”),whichuponcloserinspectionseemstobenothingmorethanabigholeafewmetersdeep.In1989,archaeologistFernandoJimenezdelOsotriedtofilmtheentranceofthecave,butfailedinhiseffortsduetothenarrownessoftheopeningandtherubbleinside.But…

In1600,JesuitFriarJosédeAcostasaid:

ThecelebratedcaveofCusco,calledChinkanabytheIndians,wasmadebytheIncakings.Itisverydeepandrunsthroughthecenterofthecity,itsmouthorentrancebeinginthefortressofSacsayhuaman.ItcomesdownonthesideofthemountainwheretheparishofSanCristobalissituatedand,withvaryingdegreesofdepth,endsattheCoricancha.AlltheIndianstowhomIhavespokenhavetoldmethattheIncasmadethiscostlyandlaboriouscavetoenabletheirkingsandarmiestogointimesofwarfromthefortressofSacsayhuamantotheTempleoftheSuntoworshiptheiridolPunchauwithoutbeingdetected.22

Inthe17thcentury,aneffortwasmadetofindthetreasuresupposedlysecretedawayundertheIncacapital.Afterateamspentseveraldaysunderground,onlyonepersoncameoutalive.Interestingly,heemergedfromanopeningunderthemainaltarofthechurchofSantoDomingo,theformersiteoftheCoricancha.Mostimportantly,thesurvivorbroughtwithhimanearofcornmadeofsolidgold,definitiveproofthatthelegendswereatleastpartiallytrue.

Acenturylater,in1814,BrigadierMateoGarciaPumakahuashowedhissuperiorspartofthetreasure.HetookanofficerblindfoldedthroughthemainsquareofCuscotoastreamandthen,afterremovingsomestones,proceededdownastonestairwayintoCusco’sunderworld.Oncetheblindfoldwasremoved,theofficersawlargesilverpumaswithemeralds,“bricks”madeofgoldandsilver,andmuchmore.Asincredibleasitmayseem,itisindeedlikelythatsomeofthetreasureoftheCoricanchawassecretedaway—thoughsomewasleftbehind,leavingtheSpanishwiththeimpressionthattheyhadcapturedeverything.

Interestingly,Pumakahuastatedthat,whenwitnessingthesetreasures,hecouldheartheclockoftheCathedralofCuscoringingabove.ItseemseveryoneinCuscowaswalkingongold,withoutknowingit.

SpanishjournalistandnovelistJavierSierracooperatedwithVicenteParisinhiseffortstoretrievethetreasure.ParisnotedthattheCoricancha,theconventofSantaCatalina,SanCristobalchurch,andSacsayhuamanwerealigned;iftherewasatunnel,itwouldrunperfectlystraight.In1993,theydecidedtotesttheancientaccountsandtheirnewhypothesis.TheychosethemainaltarofSantoDomingotocheckwhetheranopeningwasindeedpresentthere.FatherBenignoGamarra,abbotoftheConventofSantoDomingo,confirmed:“Yourinformationiscorrect,butthetunnelinquestionextendsmuchbeyondSacsayhuaman,sinceitendsinsomeplaceunderneathQuito,inEcuador.”23Theabbotwasthusclaimingthattheundergroundnetworkextendedforhundredsofmiles,whichmightseemdifficulttobelieve,butisthereforenotuntrue.

Still,therewas—nodoubtnotunexpectedly—aproblem:Themainaltarentrancetotheundergroundsystemwaspartiallyclosedaftertheearthquakesthathitthecityin1950.Whenworkhadbeencarriedouttostrengthenthefoundationofthechurch,though,aUNESCOreporthadcatalogedfourcryptsinthemonastery.Furthermore,oneSpanishexplorer,AnselmPiRambla,claimedthathehadenteredthestructureasrecentas1982.

Sofar,everythinglookedpositive.ToquoteSierra:

ThepriestmetmeinhisstudyalittlebeforedaybreakonMarch21,inordertoresolvethemysteryofthegoldencorn.‘“I’monlygoingtotellthistoyou,Iwillletyoutakephotographsandaskquestionsononecondition,”hewarned,“ThatyoudonotrevealwhatI’mabouttotellyouuntilIamnolongerhere.”Iaccepted.Gamarrathenunwrappedasmallbundleonthetableofhisstudyinwhichtwoelaboratelyencrustedgoldcrownshadbeenprotected.24

Sierraalsobecameconvincedthatthetunnelhadaspecialfunction:“Every24thofJunetheinteriorofthetunnelwastotallyilluminatedbytheraysofthesunbeingreflectedonthesurfaceofthefamoussolardiscandwereintimedeflectedtowardstheinterioroftheChinkana.There,aseriesofmirrorsofhighlypolishedmetalsheetsconductedthelighttoSacsayhuaman.”25GamarraaddedthattheoriginalwallsoftheCoricanchahadbeenexcavated.Hefoundoutthattherewasastreamoriginatinginthemainsquare,runningtotheoldwallsoftheCoricancha,underthechurch.Tohim,itshowedthatanaturalpassageconnectedthevariousstructures.

In1999,AnselmPiRamblanegotiatedwiththeNationalInstituteofCulture,thepalaceofGovernmentandFatherGamarratoarrangetheconditionsfortheexplorationbeneaththeMonasteryofSantoDomingoinsearchoftheIncatunnel.SponsoredbyTexanfinancierMichaelGalvis(atacostof$760,000),theprojectgotunderwayinAugust2000,usingground-penetratingradartomaptheundergroundtunnel.Theprojectrevealedthat“beneaththealtarofSantaRosa,aboutfourorfivemetersdown,welocatedacavitytwometerswidethatwebelieve

canbetheentrancetoagreattunnel.”26ThefourthcryptthathadbeenidentifiedbyUNESCO,hadsincedisappeared.

ThoughpartoftheIncatreasurewasthereforeapparentlyhiddenunderneathCusco,anotherpartofthetreasure(including14gold-cladmummiesoftheformerIncaemperorsremovedfromtheCoricancha)wassaidtohavebeensentbyllamacaravanintotheAntisuyo,themountainjungleareaeastofCusco.Thecaravan’sdestinationwasamountain-junglecitycalled“Paikikin”;theSpanishcalledthiscityElGranPaititi—andhenceanamewasbornthatwouldsoonbecomeoneofthemostenduringlegends.Thementionofgoldand/orthedrivetoberememberedasthemanwhorevealedtheprideoftheIncaempire—onparwithCarter’sdiscoveryoftheTombofTutankhamun—hashadalastingappealonmanyLaraCrofts.

ThoughthereislittledoubtthatPaititididexist,whereitwas,isunknown.FormerPeruvianjournalistNicholasAsheshovarguesthatPeruissolitteredwithruinsthatthere’ssomethingseriouslywrongifanareadoesn’thaveany;eithernoone’slookedhardenoughorthey’rejustincompetent.Furthermore,whetherPaititiwasjustthecitytowhichpartofthetreasurewastransported,orwhethertherewassomethingspecialaboutthecity,isanotherbigquestionmark.Iftheformer,anyoldruinofasmalltownorsettlementmightintheorybePaititi,yetunlessthereissomewhereanameorfurtherreference,anactualdiscoveryofaruinmightbringnohardconfirmation.

In2001,ItalianarchaeologistMarioPoliacameacrossaJesuitdocumentinRome,writtenin1600bymissionaryAndreaLopez,whovividlydescribesalargecity,richingold,silverandgemstones,locatedinarainforestandcalledbyitsinhabitantsPaititi.AndreaLopezdescribedwaterfallsanddeepforestsaroundthemysteriouscity,andtheinformationwaspresentedtoPopeClementVIII.

In1681,aJesuitmissionarynamedFrayLucerospoketotheIndiansintheRioHuallaguareaofnortheasternPeru,whotoldhimthatthelostcityofGranPaititilaybehindtheforestsandmountainseastofCusco.Hewrote:

ThisempireofGranPaytitehasbearded,whiteIndians.ThenationcalledCurveros,theseIndianstoldme,dwellinaplacecalledYurachuasiorthe‘whitehouse’.Forking,theyhaveadescendantoftheIncaTupacAmaru,whowith40,000Peruvians,fledfarawayintotheforests,beforethefaceoftheconquistadorsofFranciscoPizarro’sdayinAD1533.Hetookwithhimarichtreasure,andtheCastilianswhopursuedhimfoughteachotherintheforests,leavingthesavageChunchoIndios,whowatchedtheirinternecinestruggles,tokilloffthewoundedandshootthesurvivorswitharrows.Imyselfhavebeenshownplatesofgoldandhalf-moonsandear-ringsofgoldthathavecomefromthismysteriousnation.27

ThetestimonysuggestedthatacenturyandahalfaftertheSpanishConquest,GranPaititiwasstillanoperationalIncacity,beyondthereachofall.

AnothertreasurehunterwasPedroBohorques,apennilesssoldierwhopretendedtobeanobleman.In1659,afterservinginChile,Bohorquesre-baptizedhimselfasDonPedroelInca,swearingthatroyalIncabloodflowedthroughhisveins.BohorquessethimselfupasemperorofaNativeAmericankingdomattheheadwatersoftheHuallagaRiversouthofCusco.Heconvertedalmost10,000PeladosIndiansintohisservice,anddeclaredallSpaniardsfairgame.Allofthiswasnodoubtmerelyaprequeltohisrealintentions:tosendsomeofhisfollowersonasearchforPaititi.Alas,histeamdidnotreturnwithgold,whereuponBohorqueslefthisempirebehindandwenttoLima.There,theSpaniardsthrewhiminprisonandsentencedhimtodeath.KnowingtheSpaniardswereevenmoreinterestedingoldthanhe,hepromisedtorevealthelocationofGranPaititiifhewasreleased.Thejudgesrefused,butmanytreasurehuntersvisitedhiminprison,begginghimtosharehissecretwiththem.Herefused,andwenttothegallowsin1667.

SowhereisGranPaititi,generallyspeaking?GranPaititiisbelievedtobeinthePaucartamboareaofPeru,eastofCusco,towardtheMadredeDiosRiver.Indeed,onfirstimpression,theareawheretolookseemswell-defined,yetthathasnotmadethesearcheasier—enablingsometosuggestGranPaititisimplydoesnotexist.

OneofthemorerecentexpeditionswasorganizedbyBostonanthropologistGregoryDeyermenjianandBritishphotographerMichaelMirecki,whomountedtheirfirstexpeditionin1984.TheirspecificgoalwasajunglemountainineasternPerucalledApucatinti,asvariousaccountsstatedthatthemountainonwhichPaititiislocatedwascalledApucatinti.Alas,whichmountainistherealApucatintiisopenfordebate,asthereareseveralcarryingthatname.

However,historically,GranPaititiwasnotreportedasbeinglocatedontopofamountain,butbyalake—andofcoursethereismorethanonelake,too.Still,inAugust1986,DeyermenjianmadeittothesummitofApucatintiwithhisIndianguides.Totheirdisappointment,neitherPaititinoranyotherstructureswereatthesummitofthemountain.Since,Deyermenjianhascontinuedtoexplorethejungles,andbeginningin1994,alliedhimselfwithPeru’sforemostlivingexplorer,Dr.CarlosNeuenschwander,whohadbeenconductinghisowninvestigationintoPaititiandthesignificanceofthePantiacollaplateausincethe1950s.Noneofhisexpeditionshavebeensuccessfuleither.

FrenchexplorerThierryJamin,too,hasorganizedalmostyearlyexpeditionsinsearchofthecity.Jamin’sinterestbeganwiththesearchforpyramidsthatsatelliteimageryhadrevealedinDecember1975.SituatedatthefootoftheSierraBajaduPantiacolla,thepyramidfieldwasapparently4kilometerslong,orientatednorth-south,withapparentlytwolinesofpyramids(20intotal),andsome150to200metersinlength.

In2001,withateamof22,includingtheFranco-PeruvianexplorerHerbertCartagena(whohaddiscoveredthelostcityofMameriain1979),hesetoutforthepyramids.Whenhearrivedonthesite,thefirstimpressionwasthatthestructureswerenatural,andwereananomalousgeologicalformation.Still,thestructuressuggestedtohaveknownsomehumanintervention,ifonlybecausevariousIncatoolswerelocatedinthearea.Furthermore,thelocals,theMachiguengas,consideredthesepyramidstobeasanctuaryoftheancients,knownlocallyastheParatoari.Theyusedcertainvaluablesaseverydayinstruments,leavingJamintospeculatethatatreasurewasnearby:GranPaititi.Since,Jaminhasmadeanumberofrepeatvoyages,butdespitesomeinteresting,thoughrathermundanepetroglyphs,hehasnotdiscoveredthegoldenPaititi.

Jaminwalksindangerousfootsteps.In1970,journalistRobertNicholswentonhissearchforPaititi.NicholshadtraveledtosomeofthetoughestplacesinthePeruvianjungle,soheseemedwellequippedtohaveagoatlocatingPaititi.

NicholswantedtoexploretheareaaroundLaConvención,butnonewsofhimwasheardforseveralmonths,beforeNicholasAsheshovdecidedtosearchforhiscolleague.ItwaslearnedthatNicholshadenteredthejunglewithtwoyoungFrenchtravelersandadozenMashcoIndiansasguides.Theseguideshadreturnedshortlyafterward,refusingtogoonpasttheShinkikibenipetroglyphs.Throughoutthenextsixmonths,AsheshovsearchedbothforNicholsandPaititi,findingneither.

Twoyearslater,YoshiharuSekino,aJapaneselawstudent,wentintothejunglealoneandlearnedthatNicholsandtheFrenchmenhadbeenmurdered;apparently,theFrenchmenhadmadeadvancestolocalMachiguengawomen,resultinginthemurderofallthree.SekinohadevenmadeaphotographofthekillerswithNichols’smacheteandsomeofhissurvivingpossessions.SekinotriedmorethanoncetofollowuponNichols’sleads,settingoffintothejunglearmedwithsatellitephotographsthatshowedthesamecuriousseriesofdotsthathadinspiredsomanyothers.

Paititiisnotjustanobsessionforforeigners.InPeru,JuanCarlosPolentiniWesterhasleftapowerfullegacy,includingoneorganizationknownasPaititiPeru,whichorganizesadventureholidays,butwhichalsofirmlybelievesintherealityofPaititi.MariadelCarmen,thecompanymanager,hasorganizedanumberofexpeditionsbasedoninformationprovidedbyPolentini,

whomshehasbeenadiscipleof,aswellasaccompanyinghimonhisowntreks.Polentini,anArgentinepriest,trekkedthejunglesformorethan25yearsinsearchofthecity.FordelCarmen,“ProvingtheexistenceofPaititiinPeruisonlyamatteroftime.Ifthisisreal,ourPeruwouldbecomethemostvisitedcountryintheworld.OurManuNationalParkandtheKcosñipata-Pilcopataareawouldbecomethelaunchingpointforalltheexpeditionsandtourists.”28

Somemightcallherdeluded,oroverlyoptimistic,butitisamatteroffactthatthejunglesofSouthernAmericaarestillgivinguptheirsecrets.Eachyear,newsitesarebeingdiscovered.OnJanuary16,2008,NationalGeographicNewsevenreportedthatPaititimighthavebeendiscovered.OnJanuary10,2008,Peru’sstatenewsagencyreportedthatanarchaeologicalfortresshadbeendiscoveredinthedistrictofKimbiriandthatthedistrict’smayorsuggesteditwasthelostcity.MayorGuillermoTorresdescribedtheruinsasa40,000-square-meterfortificationnearanareaknownasLoboTahuantinsuyo.Fewotherdetailsaboutthesitewereoffered,butinitialreportsdescribedelaboratelycarvedstonestructuresformingthebaseofasetofwalls.

FranciscoSolísfromthePeruviangovernment’sCusco-basedNationalInstituteofCultureneverthelessstatedthat“itisfartooearlytomakeanydefinitivejudgments.”29

IfeverPaititiisdiscovered,itwilloutshinemostotherarchaeologicaldiscoveries,includingMachuPicchu,ifonlybecauseofallthegoldthatissupposedlypartofthistreasure.Andthus,thegoldmummyofTutankhamunwouldberivaledbyanothergoldmummyfromanIncaking.

ThisformofarchaeologyisofcoursemorethebailiwickoftreasurehuntingalaIndianaJonesandLaraCroft.WhatisamatteroffactisthatalmostfivecenturiesaftertheConquest,largesectionsofSouthAmericarefusestosurrendertheirsecretsandstoriesoflostcitiesandentirelostcivilizationscontinuetomaketherounds,andbediscovered.Asawhole,theonlyconclusionwecandrawnowisthat,asistheOldWorld,theNewWorldisfarolderandfarmorehomogenousthanstandardhistoryiswonttotellus.ThereissolidarchaeologicalevidencethattheNewWorldisjustasoldastheOldWorld,andthepyramidcomplexatCaralisprobablythebestevidenceforthat.Caralwasexploredlessthantwodecadesago,andeventhatstoryisnotyetfullyuncoveredfromthedustoftime.

ThecavepaintingsofLascaux,France,areabout20,000yearsold.Longthoughttobetheworkofhunters,itisnowknownthatthesitesofthesepaintingswerecarefullyselected,thecavesbeingtheequivalentofmodernchurches.SomeresearchershavearguedthatwhatweknowaboutthesepeopleconformswithwhatPlatowroteaboutthepeopleofAtlantis.(Image©Profsaxx,madeavailableaspartoftheCreativeCommonsLicenseonWikipedia)

EversinceMachuPicchuwasdiscoveredin1911,itsbeautyandmajestyhavemadeitoneofthemust-seeplacesontheearth.ThoughthestonesusedinitsconstructionarenotasmassiveasthoseusedelsewhereinPeru,itslocationmakesitpartofasacredpatternthatinvolvedthewanderingsofthecivilizingdeityViracocha.(ImagecourtesyofPhilipCoppens)

TheNebraskydisk,datedto1600BC,showsstarsandphasesofthemoon.ItwasfoundinGermanyin1999.(Image©Dbachmann,madeavailableaspartoftheCreativeCommonsLicenseonWikipedia)

TheLayardLensintheBritishMuseumwasusedbyourancestorsforstargazing.(Image©geni,madeavailableaspartoftheCreativeCommonsLicenseonWikipedia)

GöbekliTepeisoneoftheoldestarchaeologicalsiteseveruncovered.ThistemplecomplexinTurkeydatesbackto10,000BC,andrevealsthatourancestorswerequitecapableofworkingwithcarefullyhewnstonethousandsofyearsbeforeiscommonlyaccepted.Eachofthestones(below)ofGöbekliTepeisexpertlycrafted,revealinganimalsandotherimages.Theartworkissodelicatelycraftedthatitissometimesdifficulttobelievethatthecarvingsweredonemorethan7,000yearspriortothedawnofAncientEgypt.(Image©Teomancimit,madeavailableaspartoftheCreativeCommonsLicenseonWikipedia)

ThepyramidcomplexofCaralinnorthernPeruisoneoftheoldestsitesintheNewWorld.Datingtoc.3200BC,thepyramidsare1,000yearsolderthanthoseofAncientEgypt.Theirdiscoveryrevealedthatthe“NewWorld”isjustasoldastheOldWorld.(Image©HåkanSvensson,madeavailableaspartoftheCreativeCommonsLicenseonWikipedia)

TheAntikytheradevice(left)wasfoundin1900inashipwreck.Ittook50yearsbeforeresearchersrealizedthatitincorporatedaccurateworkingsforvariousbodiesofthesolarsystem.Itisnowoftenconsideredtobethefirstcomputer.(Image©Marsyas,madeavailableaspartoftheCreativeCommonsLicenseonWikipedia)

IncludedinthevariousartifactsandmaterialsrecoveredfromtheBurrowsCavewassaidtohavebeensubstantialamountsofgold,revealingamixtureofhieroglyphicinscriptions,suggestingthatthetombbuildersoriginatedinEgypt.(Image©PhilipCoppens)

ThemegalithictemplecomplexofCallanish,ontheOuterHebrides(Scotland),hasnowbeenidentifiedasthetempleofApolloonHyperborea—atonepointbelievedtohavebeenonlyamythicalislandmentionedbytheGreeks.Today,itisacceptedthatGreeksailorscircumnavigatedtheBritishIsles.(Image©PhilipCoppens)

ThistranquilcourtyardinthecenterofCuscoisallthatremainsoftheCoricancha,thegoldentemplethatwasoncetheveryheartoftheIncaCivilization.AllitsgoldwasremovedbytheSpanishConquistadors,thoughvariousreportsclaimthatsomeofthetreasurewassecured.(Image©PhilipCoppens)

TherockpaintingsoftheTassiliarethousandsofyearsold,datingbacktoatimewhentheSaharawasfertileandpopulated.SomeresearchersnowarguethatitwasthesepeopleswhomovedtoEgyptwhentheSaharabecamedesert,andwhowereinstrumentalinsparkingtheEgyptiancivilization.(Image©PhilipCoppens)

TheOracleofDelphiwasoneofthegreatestoracularsitesoftheancientworld.ThePythiabroughtvisitorsintocontactwithotherworldlyrealities.Itwaspartofaseriesofinitiationcentersthatweredesignedtoteachhumanitythattherewasmuchmoretorealitythanwhatcouldbeseenwiththenakedeye.(Image©PhilipCoppens)

TheBosnianPyramidoftheSun(right)dominatestheskylineofthetownofVisoko,justoutsideofSarajevo.Alignedwiththecardinalpoints,thestructurewasonlyidentifiedasapyramidasrecentlyas2006,makingitthetallestandoldestpyramideverdiscovered.ThePyramidoftheMoon(below)isthesecondlargestpyramidoftheVisokocomplex—andintheworld.Excavationsonitstophaverevealeda“floor”ofperfectlyshapedstones.Thereareanumberofinterestinggeometricalandsolaralignmentsbetweenthevariouspyramidsofthecomplex.(Images©PhilipCoppens)

TheIcaStones(right)comprisearemarkablecollectionofabout50,000stones.Someshowdinosaursfightingwithmen,forcingthequestionofwhetherourancestorscoexistedwiththedinosaurs,andwhetherthecurrentlyaccepteddating,whichseparatesthesetwospeciesbymillionsofyears,iserroneous.(Image©Brattarb,madeavailableaspartoftheCreativeCommonsLicenseonWikipedia)

TheislandofSantorini(Thera)isputforwardbymanyastheactualsiteofAtlantis.However,neitheritssizenoritslocationmatchPlato’sdescriptionofthesunkencivilization,eventhoughtheancienttownsofTheraweredestroyedwhenthevolcanoeruptedinthemiddleofthe15thcenturyBC.(ImagecourtesyofPhilipCoppens)

Chapter4THEBIGA:ATLANTIS

Atlantis.Theworld’smostfamouslostcivilization.InthefourthcenturyBC,theGreekphilosopherandhistorianPlatowroteaboutthislostcivilization,andeversince,ithasmorethanintriguedhumanity.

The“IslandofAtlas”wasfirstmentionedinPlato’sdialoguesTimaeusandCritias,writtenabout360BC.HewrotethatAtlantiswasanavalpowerthathadconqueredmanypartsofWesternEuropeandAfrica.AfteritfailedtoattackAthens,itsank,“inasingledayandnightofmisfortune.”1

Platogavespecificinformationaboutitstimeframe—9,000yearsbeforethetimeofSolon,whichwouldmakeitc.9600BC—andlocation,infrontofthePillarsofHercules,today’sStraitofGibraltar,atthesouthernmosttipofSpain.

InCritias,PlatoidentifiedGreekstatesmanSolonastheoriginalsourceforthestoryofAtlantis.HehadlearnedaboutthislostcivilizationduringavisittoEgypt.SolonhadmetapriestofSais,whotranslatedthehistoryofancientAthensandAtlantis,recordedonpapyriinEgyptianhieroglyphs,intoGreek.

EversincePlatowroteaboutthestoryofAtlantis,theworldhasbeendividedintobelieversandskeptics.TheskepticshavenouniformapproachotherthantosayitisimpossiblethatAtlantiscouldhavebeenreal.They“know.”Hence,Atlantisisexplainedaway.ManyunderlinePlatothephilosopher,ratherthanlistinghimasahistorian(suchdistinctionsdidn’texistinAncientGreece),andarguethatheinventedAtlantis,assometypeofidealsociety,tooffsetitwithAncientGreece.WhattheyfailtoaddressistheissuethatPlatowroteaboutthelostcivilizationinabookthatisallabouthistory,notphilosophy.

OthersarguePlatoorSolonweremistaken,andthatAtlantiswasactuallyamemoryofamorerecentevent,suchastheTheraeruptionthatsignaledtheendfortheMinoancivilizationonnearbyCreteinc.1450BC,ortheTrojanWar.

ThetruthofthematteristhatAtlantiswasdefinitelyapossibility.Weknowthatin9600BCthesealevelswerelower,astheworldwascomingoutofthelastIceAge.Forseveralthousandyears,thesealevelsrose,soforacivilizationtobeswallowedupbytheoceanin9600BCisnotonlypossible,butweourselveshaveseenthisoccurredtoanumberofplaces,suchasDoggerland.

Furthermore,itislittleknownthatinhisowntime,PlatohadsupporterswhoreportedonthevalidityofPlato’saccount.Crantor,astudentofPlato’sstudentXenocrates,cameoutinhisdefense.Crantor’swork,acommentaryontheTimaeus,isnowlost,butfifth-centuryADNeoplatonistProclusreportedonit.Hewrote:

AsforthewholeofthisaccountoftheAtlanteans,somesaythatitisunadornedhistory,suchasCrantor,thefirstcommentatoronPlato.CrantoralsosaysthatPlato’scontemporariesusedtocriticizehimjokinglyfornotbeingtheinventorofhisRepublicbutcopyingtheinstitutionsoftheEgyptians.PlatotookthesecriticsseriouslyenoughtoassigntotheEgyptiansthisstoryabouttheAtheniansandAtlanteans,soastomakethemsaythattheAtheniansreallyoncelivedaccordingtothatsystem.Crantoradds,thatthisistestifiedbytheprophetsoftheEgyptians,whoassertthattheseparticularsarewrittenonpillarswhicharestillpreserved.”2

Thefinalsentence,however,isdebatedbytheskeptics,foritisofcoursehardevidencethatPlato’saccountwashistorical,notimaginary,astheyargue.Theskepticsargue—correctly—thatintheoriginal,thesentencedoesnotstartwithCrantor,butwith“he.”Obviously,most

translatorshaveidentifiedthisasCrantor,buttheskepticsargueitshouldbePlato—thusofferingthemanescapefromanotherwise-harshreality.

Indeed,throughoutancienttimes,manywereconvincedofAtlantis’sexistenceandPlato’struthfulness.TheseincludedStraboandPosidonius,bothexpertgeographers.ThisisinsharpcontrastwiththeclaimsmadebyPlatoscholarDr.JuliaAnnas,RegentsProfessorofphilosophyattheUniversityofArizona,whoargues:

ThecontinuingindustryofdiscoveringAtlantisillustratesthedangersofreadingPlato.Forheisusingwhathasbecomeastandarddeviceoffiction—stressingthehistoricityofanevent(andthediscoveryofhithertounknownauthorities)asanindicationthatwhatfollowsisfiction.Theideaisthatweshouldusethestorytoexamineourideasofgovernmentandpower.Wehavemissedthepointifinsteadofthinkingabouttheseissueswegooffexploringtheseabed.3

Clearly?TheonlyclearthinghereisthatAnnasclearlypreferstoreachconclusionsthatarenotsupportedbythehistoricalevidence.InTimaeus,PlatohasthespeakerCritiastwiceemphasizethathisstoryisaboutsomethingthatactuallyhappened!

THEHALLOFRECORDS

ThoughPlatonevermentionedit,todayitiswidespreadbeliefthatsurvivorsofAtlantissettledinEgyptandwereresponsibleforthedawnoftheEgyptiancivilization.ThoughIpersonallydonotadheretothispointofviewasitisexpressedinmanypopulartheoriesandbooks,ingeneral,ofcourse,itispossible.WeknowthatAncientEgypthadconnectionswiththelostcivilizationsoftheSaharabeforeitbecameadesert,anditisentirelypossiblethatthesepeoplefledfromalostcivilizationthathadbeendestroyedafewthousandsofyearsbeforeabitfurthertothewest.

AccordingtoEdgarCayce,thereisahiddenHallofRecordslocatedneartheSphinxontheGizaPlateau.Thoughthereisnoarchaeologicalevidenceofitsexistence,formanyyears,explorationsofthesubterraneanaspectsofthispyramidcomplexhaveoccurredin

greatsecrecy,anditisequallycleardiscoverieshavebeenmadethathavenotbeensharedwiththegeneralpublic.Imagecopyrighttheauthor.Thepopulartheories,however,arguethatatGiza,atthefootofthepyramidplateau,the

SphinxissaidtoguardoveraHallofRecords,whichissaidtocontaininformationaboutthislostcivilization.ThephraseHallofRecordsoriginatedwiththeearly-20th-centuryAmericanpsychicEdgarCayce,whostatedthatfivehumanraces(white,black,red,brown,andyellow)hadbeencreatedseparatelybutsimultaneouslyondifferentpartsoftheEarth.TheredracehaddevelopedinAtlantis.

In1933,CaycemadeaseriesofpredictionsaboutthediscoveryofthisHallofRecords,statingthatwewouldcometoamomentousmomentinhumanhistory,whichheidentifiedastheyear1998,duringwhichanancienttimevaultinEgyptwouldbeopened.Hearguedthetimevault—theHallofRecords—hadbeeninstalledin10,500BCandclaimedthatthematerialsinsidewouldprovethatthelegendofAtlantiswastrueandthathumancivilizationwastensofthousandsofyearsolderthanbelieved.Wenowknowthatinrecentyears,evenwithoutthediscoveryofsuchaHallofRecords,thelatterstatementisdefinitelytrue.

Cayce’sclaimaboutAtlantisiswell-known,butwhatislittle-knownisthatmostofhispredictionsnevercametrue.TogetherwithLynnPicknettandClivePrince,IinvestigatedCaycefortheir1999book,TheStargateConspiracy,inwhichtheyshowedthatmostofCayce’spredictionsnevermaterialized.HearguedthatChinawouldinvadetheUnitedStatesinthe1920s,anapparentlyoutrageousclaim—butnotwhenwerealizedthatCaycewasclosefriendswiththeheadoftheAmericanSecretService,whichjusthappenedtofearsuchanattack.AfterourexplorationintothelifeandtimesofCayce,wecameawaywiththeknowledgethatCayce’spredictioncouldbesafelydisregarded,andthefactofthematteristhattheexistenceofaHallofRecordswasneverannouncedbefore1998.

Inthe1990s,HughLynnCaycereportedlysaid,accordingtoEdgarCaycebiographerA.RobertSmith:“Igothim[ZahiHawass]ascholarshipattheUniversityofPennsylvaniainEgyptology,togethisPhD.IgotthescholarshipthroughanAREpersonwhohappenedtobeontheFulbrightscholarshipboard.”4Dr.Hawass,thenheadoftheSupremeCouncilofAntiquitiesofEgypt,stronglydeniedthis,thoughitisafactthathewasadmittedtotheUniversityofPennsylvaniathroughthisscholarship.(Note:AREistheAssociationforResearchandEnlightenment,anorganizationsetuptopromotetheworkofEdgarCayce.)

Formanyyears,HawasswasbothinEgyptandabroadidentifiedasamanwhosuppressednewfindings.SomeevenwonderedwhetherheorhisfellowEgyptologistshadindeedfoundtheHallofRecords,buthadrefusedtoreleasethisinformationtothegeneralpublic.TheStargateConspiracywasoneofthreebooks(Giza:TheTruthbyChrisOgilvie-Herald

andIanLawtonandSecretChamberbyRobertBauvalbeingtheothertwo),whichin1999providedanoverviewofthecontroversythatwasbelievedtosurroundtheGizaPlateauandthepyramids,andwhethertherewereanyundiscovered,orpurposefullykepthiddenbytheEgyptianauthorities,chambers,whetherinsidethepyramidsorunderorneartheSphinx.

Thepreviousdecadehadseenarenewedinterestintheplateau,partlybecauseofthetheoriesofRobertBauvalandGrahamHancockandthediscoveryofadoorinaninaccessiblepartoftheGreatPyramid.ItwasfoundonMarch22,1993,byGermanroboticsengineerRudolfGantenbrinkduringtheinstallationofanairconditioningsystem.AnyonewouldthinkthatEgyptologistswouldjumpuponthisdiscoveryandquicklyinvestigatewhatlaybehind.Instead,itwasanextremelyslowdevelopmentthattookyearsandthatmadeitappearthatEgyptologistsweretrulynotatallinterestedinthisnewdiscoveryorwhatwasbehindthedoor.Weretheseimpressionscorrect,orwasitpartofalargerframework—ifnotcover-up?

OnesourceIcontactedwhenHawasswasstillinpower—heresignedasMinisterofAntiquitiesin2011,intheaftermathoftheEgyptianRevolution—said:

IamafrequentvisitortoEgyptandwhenIspeaktogovernmentofficials,mostdon’tlikeHawass.TherearemanyarchaeologistsinEgyptthatdoexcellentwork.AnyonewhovisitsEgyptandfollowsEgyptologyseesthisfirst-hand.TheonlyproblemisHawassandtheSCA.Why?BecauseHawasshasbeenimposeduponEgyptbycertainforeigners,andthisforaverylongtime.Theyhavechosenanignoramus,haveflatteredhim,givenhimaPhDthroughtheARCE[AmericanResearchCenterinEgypt].He’sapuppet.5

Pressedastowhythatis,thesourceadded:

Sothatthesecretswillnotgetoutandthattheyhavethebestarchaeologicalconcessions.IfHawassisstillthere,it’sonlybecauseheknowshowtoplaywithnationalism.IhearhimsayeverydayhowforeignerswanttostealfromtheEgyptiansandthattheantiquitiesareEgyptian.It’sclever,becauseitmakesitappearasifheisfightingtheEgyptiancauseandhewon’tbepushedaside.6

Thesourcealsonoted:“TheSCAfollowstheordersofforeignersfromwhomithasreceivedhelpinguardingtheirinterests.”7Indeed,thoughonemightthinkthattheEgyptiansareincontroloftheirowncountry,archaeologicallyspeaking,thatappearancecanbedeceptive.

ThepuppetmasterorganizationthatwasidentifiedwastheAmericanResearchCenterinEgypt.TheARCE’sWebsitestates:“AmongARCE’smanygreatachievementsisourrelationshipwiththeSupremeCouncilofAntiquities(SCA)withintheEgyptianMinistryofCulture,withoutwhomourworkwouldnotbepossible.ARCEisviewedasmakingimportantcontributionsthatservetohelpEgyptdirectlyinitspursuitofculturalheritagepreservation.”8

ARCEwasfoundedin1948by“aconsortiumofeducationalandculturalinstitutions,”andtheorganizationunderlinesthatitisalsothereto“strengthenAmerican-Egyptianculturalties”andespeciallyto“establishanofficial‘presence’forNorthAmericanscholarsinEgypt.”9

Interestingly,ARCE’sWebsiteadds:“EncouragedandaidedbytheUSDepartmentofState,in1962ARCEenteredintoanexpandedandmorestructuredconsortium,andwaschargedwithmanaginganddistributingover$500,000yearlyinPublicLaw480(FoodforPeace)funds.”10ThismeansthatARCEfulfillsbothscientificandsocialfunctions.However,seeingthatitworkswiththeU.S.DepartmentofState,onecouldaskwhetheratonepointARCEwasusedorabusedforotherpoliticalpurposes,seeingasEgypthashadanintriguingpoliticalpastinthebattlebetweenEastandWest.Interestingly,onesourcecontactedme,claimingthatfrequentlytheSCA(SupremeCouncilofAntiquities)receivesfromtheU.S.NationalSecurityAgency(NSA)satelliteimagerycontaininginformationastowhetherornottheremaybesubterraneanstructuresatcertainsites.

ButbacktoHawassandtheSphinx.ThepreviouslynotedoperationalframeworkwasinevidenceinApril2009,whenHawassreported:“Undermydirection,theSupremeCouncilofAntiquitiesisworkingtoreducethegroundwaterlevelaroundantiquitiessitesthroughoutEgypt.WehavecompletedaUSAID-fundedefforttode-waterKarnakandLuxortemples,andworkisunderwayinmanyotherplaces.OneofourgreatestrecentsuccesseshasbeenthedevelopmentofasystemtopreventtheGreatSphinxatGizafromgettingitspawswet!”11

Ratherintriguingly,headdedinhisreport,titled“TheStoryoftheSphinx,”adiscussionaboutmysteriousundergroundtunnelsandchamberscarvedbelowtheSphinxbyso-calledancientcivilizations.Some,includingJohnAnthonyWest,RobertBauval,andGrahamHancock,claimthatsecretswereburiedbeneaththeSphinxbysurvivorsofalostcivilization10,000yearsago.TheyalsoclaimthatwatercausedtheerosionoftheSphinx,andthatthismeansthatitdatesto“longbeforetheOldKingdom.”12Supportershavesuggesteddrillingholestofindsuchhiddenchambers.Hawassnoted:“Ihavealwaysrefusedtopermitsuchaprojectinthepast,because

therewasnoscientificbasisforit.BecausesuchdrillingwasanecessarypartofourworktoprotecttheSphinxfromgroundwater,however,wedidfinallydrillinthevicinityofthestatue,andwefoundthattherewerenohiddenpassagesorchambersthere.”13

DespitealltheusualhypethatHawassusestounderlinehismostmundaneaccomplishments,thisisanunfortunate—andtotallyunscientific—conclusion.Thereareseveralstudies,suchasseismicworkfrom1992andtheSchorradarsurveyfrom1996,thatshowgeologicalanomalies(read:cavities),mostofwhicharenatural,butthatissomewhatbesidethepoint.

Infact,onemightargue—andsomehave—thatHawassspecificallytestedforgroundwaterinthoseparticularlocationswherehewassurethatnosuchcavities,naturalor“hiddenpassagesorchambers,”wouldbefound.Itwouldmakesensetotestforgroundwater,butHawass’sglibstatement“thattherewerenohiddenpassagesorchambers”cannotbereachedfromthelimitedresearchthistestcarriedout.Withoutdoubt,therearecavities.Fullstop.Infact,HawasshimselfannouncedtotheEgyptianpressonApril14,1996,thattherearesecrettunnelsundertheSphinxandaroundthepyramids.Hestatedhisbeliefthatthesetunnelswouldproveto“carrymanysecretsofthebuildingofthePyramids.”14Althoughpeopleareallowedtochangetheirminds,theyshouldperhaps,13yearstothemonth,highlighttheirnewposition.NotDr.Hawass.

However,Hawass’s“StoryoftheSphinx”reportisalsocontrarytofindingsfromscanscarriedoutbyDr.Abbasandteam,publishedbyNRIAG(NationalResearchInstituteofAstronomyandGeophysics)in2007.Butratherthancommentonafellowacademicwhohashadhisresultspublishedinascientificpublication,Hawass—forreasonsthathavenothingtodowithscience,butarelikelytodowithgrandstandingifnotmoresinistermotives—hasagoatthelikesofWest,Bauval,andHancock.WhytheageoftheSphinxdeterminedthroughwatererosionhasanythingtodowiththepresenceofchambersbeneaththemonumentitisnotaltogetherclear,either.ConsideringtheotherunscientificjumpsHawassmakes,though,nothingshouldcomeasasurprise.

WhenonelooksatHawass’sreportsratherthanathisstatementstothepress,anevenmoreinterestingpictureemerges.Welearnthatinearly2008,theSupremeCouncilofAntiquitiescooperatedwithCairoUniversity’sEngineeringCenterforArchaeologyandEnvironmenttodrillfourboreholes,each4inchesindiameterandabout20metersdeep,intothebedrockatthebaseoftheSphinx.Acamerawasloweredintoeachboreholetoallowexaminationoftheplateau’sgeology.15

The“StoryoftheSphinx”reportcontainsseveralgems,someofwhichHawassshouldaddress,butinsteadhecreatesasmoke-and-mirrorsshow.Onemightalmostwonderwhetherhedoesnotwantthismaterialtobenoted;judgingfromwhathappeneduponpublication,thefewwhoreportedontheannouncementindeedfocusedonthe“West-Bauval-Hancocksidebar”andnotonthemainshow.

Aseparatescientificupdatestatesthat260cubicmetersofwaterarebeingpumpedouteveryhourthroughdrainagetubes.That’s6,240cubicmeters,or6,240,000liters,ofwaterperday.AnOlympicswimmingpoolhas2,500,000liters.Inshort,waterofaquantityequaltoalmostthreeOlympicswimmingpoolsispumpedawayonadailybasisfromunderneaththeSphinx!Indeed,theSphinxcouldroughlyfitinsideanOlympicswimmingpool.Thereportcontinuesthat,assuch,thewaterinfrontoftheSphinxhasbeenreducedto70percentofitsoriginalvolume.Butwait:“Nofewerthan33monitoringpointswereestablishedtoinspectthemovementofthebodyoftheSphinxandthesurroundingbedrock,thisoveraperiodofamonth,andthismonitoringprovedthattheyaresteady.”16

UnlessIamseriouslymistaken,forsuchseriousamountsofwatertobemovedhourly,therewouldneedtobeatleastonecavity,roughlythesizeofasmallswimmingpool,thatcouldfillupcontinuouslywithwater.Inshort,anundergroundlake.SothereportstronglysuggeststhefallacyofHawass’sownconclusions!

Thisbringsustothenextquestion:WhyaretheEgyptianarchaeologicalauthoritiesemptying

anundergroundlake?Forstability,orforsomethingelse?OnemightarguethatremovingthewaterwillreducethestabilityoftheSphinx,whichwasanobviousconcern,asthisiswhythestabilityoftheSphinxareawasbeingmonitored.Apparently,though,basedonamonth-longobservation,emptyingthisundergroundcavitydoesnotendangerthestabilityofthesurfacestructures.Butwhyemptyitinthefirstplace?TokeeptheSphinx’spawsdry?

Onesource,whenconfrontedwithHawass’sreportsandmyobservation,hasgonesofarastoarguethatHawass,accompaniedbyEgyptologistMarkLehner,hadactuallyfoundthislakeseveralyearsago.Thelakeisundertheentireplateau,theareacontainedwithintheconcretewall(constructionofwhichbeganin2002).Headdedthat,inhisopinion,theseprojectswerepreparationforanexplorationoftheGizaunderworld.

TheEgyptianRevolutionofJanuary2011waslargelytheresultofknownandwidespreadcorruptionthroughoutthegovernment,andEgyptologywasnotimmunefromthis.OnOctober8,2008,theformerHeadofRestorationinIslamicCairoandtwootherEgyptianCultureMinistryofficialswerejailedfor10yearsforreceivingbribesfromcontractors.TheCairocourtorderedAymanAbdelMonem,HusseinAhmedHussein,andAbdelHamidQutbtopayfinesofbetweenLE200,000andLE550,000[U.S.$33,000–91,000].17

AbdelHamidQutbwasactuallytheheadofthetechnicaldepartmentattheSCAandreportedtoHawass.ThecontractsundersuspicionwereworthmillionsofdollarsandinvolvedtherestorationofsomeofEgypt’smostfamousmonuments.HawasswasquicktodefendQutbatthetimeofhisarrestinSeptember2007,claimingthattheaccusedwasnotinapositiontogiveoutcontracts.HawasstoldtheBBC’sArabicServicethatcontractsareonlyhandedoutaftera“rigorousprocedure”andthatQutbhadnodecision-makingpower.18Thecourtobviouslyruleddifferently,andifHawassmadeacommentatthatpoint,Icouldnotfindareferencetoit.

IntheinterviewatthetimeofQutb’sarrest,HawassalsotoldtheBBCthathetakes“immediateactionagainstanyemployeewiththeslightestshadowofsuspicionhangingoverthem,evenifthepersonturnsouttobeinnocent.”19Guiltyuntilproveninnocent,itseems,isthemodusoperandiwithintheSCA.NowondertherearereportsthatHawassisunpopularwithinEgypt.

ThiswasnotthefirsttimethatHawassfoundhimselfinmurkywaters.Infact,atthesametimethatGantenbrink’srobotuncoveredthehiddendoorinsidetheGreatPyramidonMarch22,1993,Hawasswassuspendedfromhisthen-positionaschiefinspectoroftheGizaPyramidPlateau.Synchronicity,ordidGantenbrinkmakeuseofthepowervacuumtoannouncehisfindinginApril1993,knowingthatotherwiseitmightbesuppressed?

Whathappenednextisalsointerestingandrevealing.Upontheannouncement,Gantenbrinkwasbannedfromresuminghiswork.TheEgyptianAntiquitiesOrganization(EAO),thepredecessoroftheSCA,claimedthatGantenbrinkhadbrokenaruleofarchaeologybyspeakingforhimselfratherthanthroughtheproperchannels—whichareobviouslythere,byitsownadmission,tocontrolwhatgetsoutandwhatdoesn’t.Whathappenednextisalsointerestingandrevealing.GrahamHancockwrites:“The[then]DirectoroftheGermanArchaeologicalInstituteinCairo,DrRainerStadelmann,sidedwiththeEgyptiansandcondemnedGantenbrinkforhispressaction.DrStadelmannwasadamantaboutthenonimportanceofthefind.‘Thisisnotadoor;thereisnothingbehindit.’”20ThepresidentoftheEAO,DrMuhamadBakr,wentsofarastoclaimtheannouncementahoax.Hestated:“Theorificeoftheshaftistoosmallfortherobottogothrough.”21HistoryhasshownBakrtobewrongonbothcounts.

ItwasBakrwhoremovedHawassfromhisposition,claimingthatavaluableancientstatuehadbeenstolenfromGizaunderHawass’swatch.

ToquoteagainfromHancock:“Threemonthslater,inJune1993,DrBakrhimselfwasfiredandreplacedbyDrNurElDin.Amidaccusationsofmalpracticeandfraud,DrBakrspokeofa‘mafia’whichhadbeeninvolvedwiththePyramidsfor‘thelasttwentyyears’.Refusingtogivenames,DrBakrsaid,‘Iwantedthewholematterinvestigatedbytheprosecutionauthorities,but

myrequestwasrefused.’”22

Inearly1994,Hawasswasreinstatedtohisposition.ThoughBakrisnotthemostcrediblesource,thereareneverthelessclearechoesoftheARCE.Hawass’sreinstatementwas“saidtohavebeenbroughtaboutbyAmericanintervention,”accordingtoChrisOgilvie-Herald,writingintheBritishmagazineQuestforKnowledge.23Attheveryleast,Hawassseemstobequitefortunateinthatnomatterwhat,whetheritinvolvestolenstatuesorhistechnicaldepartmentheadbeingfinedandimprisoned,heremainsimmunetoitall.

GantenbrinkneverreturnedtoworkinsidetheGreatPyramid.HeevenofferedtheEgyptianauthoritiestheuseofhisrobot—becauseonlyarobotcanpenetratetheairshaft—andvolunteeredtotrainanEgyptiantechniciantooperateit,buthissuggestionswerenottaken.

However,Hawasseventuallyarguedthatthediscoveryofthedoorwasextremelyinterestingandwouldbefurtherexplored.InMarch1996,hestatedthatthedoorwouldbeopenedinSeptemberofthatyear.Themonthwasright,butitwasonSeptember17,2002,thatthedoorwasfinallyopened.TheeventwasbroadcastliveonFoxTVinAmericaandtransmittedto140countriesviatheNationalGeographicChannel.Theendresultwasthediscoveryofanotherdoor,whichHawassclaimedwouldbeopenedsoon.Theworldstillwaits.

Duringthe2002livebroadcast,Hawassmadesomeintriguingthrowawayremarks.Forinstance,hearguedthat“‘itwasnot‘slaves’whobuiltthepyramids,but‘greatEgyptians’.”24Afterward,hetoldtheArabicnewspaperAlGomhoreyathat“[t]heresultsoftherobot’sexplorationrefutetheallegationsreiteratedbyJewsandsomewesterncountriesthattheJewsbuiltthepyramids.”25Ofcourse,theexplorationofanairshaftdoesnosuchthing.ButanequallyseriousscientificfauxpasisthatnooneactuallyclaimsthattheJews,asslaves,everbuiltthepyramids.Roughlyspeaking,ifthiswereahistoricalevent,itwouldhaveoccurredc.1,000yearsafterthebuildingofthepyramids.PracticallyanyoneofsomeeducationintheWesternworldisawareofthis.YetoneoftheleadingarchaeologistsandtheprotectorofEgypt’sheritageisnot,itseems.

Hawassfrequentlyabusesnationalism,butsomejournalistsandobservershavegonefurther,positingthatintheiropinionHawassisanti-Semitic.Inmyopinion,Hawasssuffersfromaseverecaseofverbaldiarrheawheneveracameraoramicrophoneisplacedinfrontofhim.

Onamoreseriousnote,theSCA(read:Hawass)foryearshadastrangleholdonmostoftheresearchoccurringinEgypt,andwhetherandhowitgetsreported.ThisisinevidenceinthecaseofGantenbrink,whobroketherule,andalsointhecaseofDr.Abbas,whoseofficialGizareporthasbeenstoppedfrompublicationforaverylongtime.SourcesIcontactedsaidthatthey,too,hadseveralreportswaitingtobepublished,butthattherewasalwaysonedelayoranother.Thiskindoftreatment,ofcourse,isnotsciencebutcontrol,ifnotagagorder.Somemightarguethatthereisaseriousbacklog;othersmightshout“cover-up.”

Indeed,whydidtheSCAplacesuchstringentpenaltiesonthepublicationofscientificreportswithoutitsconsent—thepenaltyoftenbeingthedenialofaccesstoEgyptianarchaeologicalsites?Thesearethemeasuresofadictatorshipatbestandarefarremovedfromanyscientificapproach,butthentheSCAoperatedwithintheframeworkofadictatorship.

NoonewillarguethatEgyptaloneisinchargeofdecidingwhodigswhen,where,andtowhatextent,eventhoughitisobvious,inlightoftheSCA’sconnectionwithARCE,thatthisisnottrulythecase.Butoncepermissionhasbeengiven,theparticipatingscientistsandorganizerssurelyshouldhavethepowertodecidewhenandwheretopublishtheresults,ratherthanbeingliterallygaggedbytheSCAuntilit—ifever—deemsitappropriatetoreleasetheresults,andeventhensometimesdemandingeditorialchanges.Allofthisisoccurringwithoutanyexternaloverview.

OnesourcewentsofarastoarguethatHawass’sapproachisoneofdisinformation:thatHawasscarefullytwistsscientificresultsthatdonotconformtothestandardhistoryofancientEgyptandthat,asheexercisessolecontrolandmakeshimselfthemedium,hecanalmost

singlehandedlymaintainthestatusquoofEgyptianhistory.This“Hawasstouch”isalsoinevidenceinthespininhis2009Sphinxgroundwaterreport.Buttheimportantquestionis:Why?

Theanswerhasalreadybeengiven:HawasstriedtomaintaintheconsensusviewofancientEgyptianhistory.ThisiswhyheoftensingledoutHancock,Bauval,andWest.Hawassrealizedthatthesearethemostvociferousanddangerouspartiesthatcangoagainsthim,buttheyarenotaloneinfeelinghiswrath.Hawassdeniedfindingswhentheydidn’tfitwithhisagenda,anddefamedanyindividualfordaringtohaveadifferentideaandnotreleasingitthroughhisoffice.

In2008,ProfessorBarryKempreportedonhisresearchatthecityofAmarna,createdbyrebelPharaohAkhenaten.ThePharaohwasobviouslydespisedand,inthedecadesfollowinghisdeath,theancientEgyptianstriedtoremoveanymentionofhisexistence.ItwasreportedthatKempandhisteamfoundskeletalremainsatAmarnathatshow“signsofmalnutrition,extremelabour,andthelowestageofmortalitywitnessedatexcavationsofPharaonicsites.”26ThisevidencegoesalongwaytoconfirmthatAkhenatencreatedabrutalregime,oneofwhichfewwereproud.

However,thefindingswereimmediatelysubjectedtocriticismfromHawass,whousedtheEgyptianstatenewsservicetoaccusetheexcavatorsofdistortinghistory.Heclaimedthattheirfindingswere“notbasedonanyadmissiblescientificproofs”andaddedthat“[b]uildingAkhenatencitywasanobsessionforancientEgyptiansliketheGizaPyramidsandworkerswantedtorealiseanationalachievementtobeproudof.”27Hawass,byhiscomments,waslaterdescribedas“indulginginemptychauvinism.”28

Hawassisalsoproudthathe“workedtostrengthenEgypt’santiquitieslaw”andthatin2002he“workedtohaveanewlawenactedforbiddingexcavationinUpperEgypt...toencouragedocumentationandpreservationratherthanexcavation.”29Indeed,HawassisproudofthefactthathehasstoppedallexcavationsinUpperEgypt!Onecanonlywonderwhy.Noonewillarguethatdocumentationandpreservationareimportant,buttotheexclusionofeverythingelse—andtomakeitalaw,ratherthanjustaninternalguideline?

Finally,wheninterviewedaboutgeologistRobertSchoch’stheorythattheSphinxismucholderthanthepyramids,Hawassstated:“IfgeologistsprovewhatSchochissaying,stillinmyopinion,asanEgyptologist,thedateoftheSphinxiscleartous.”30Inshort,nomatterwhattheevidence,Hawassclaimsitisallcleartohim.ItisclearthatforHawass,Egyptologyisareligion,notascience.

ThoughHawasscanandshouldbeblamedformanythings,itisequallyamatterofrecordthatEgyptologyasascienceisseriouslyinneedofspringcleaning.Itmightperhapscomeasasurprisetolearnthatsincec.1840theparadigmofEgyptianhistoryhasremainedfirmlyinplace.Seriousscientificevidencehasoftenbeenputasidetomaintainadogma,andHawassandmanyother“scientists”arereligiouslystickingtoit.

In1984,85samplesweretakenfromtheGizaPlateau,includingfivefromtheSphinx,whichweresubmittedforcarbondating.Theresultsshoweddatesfrom3809to2869BC.ThismeantthattheacceptedEgyptianchronologyforthebuildingoftheGizapyramidswasoffby200to1,200years.BauvalquotesMarkLehner:“TheGizapyramidis400yearsearlierthanEgyptologistsbelieve.”31

Equally,inthe1950s,ZakariaGoneim,thenchiefinspectorofEgyptianAntiquities,foundtheinviolatesarcophagusofThirdDynastyPharaohSekhemkhetinsidehispyramid.Whenthesarcophaguswasopened,therewasnomummyinside.Itwasanemptysarcophagus.Inthiscase,graverobberscoulddefinitelynotbeblamed.Infact,inmanyinstances,includingwiththeGreatPyramid,Egyptologistshaveidentifiedgraverobberyasthereasonforanemptysarcophagus.Ifitwereacrimesceneinvestigation,fewdetectiveswouldreachasimilarconclusionbasedupontheavailableevidence.

Egyptology,infact,lookswithdisdainuponancientrecordssuchasthoseoffirst-centuryBC

historianDiodorusSiculus,whowrotethatnotasinglepharaohwasburiedinapyramidthathehadconstructedforhimself,butthatthepharaohswereburiedinsteadinasecretplace.Egyptologistsprefertoargue—despiteevidencethatprovesotherwise—thatthepyramidsarebuttombs.

DutchauthorWillemZitmanponderswhytoday’sscientistsdonotwanttoadmitthattheAncientGreekswereallschooledinAncientEgypt,astheythemselvesclaimed.Instead,hesays,theyprefertopretendasiftheGreeksdiscoveredeverythingbythemselves,andthustheycanmakeclaimsthattheEgyptiansdidnothingwhatsoevertofurtherscienceorknewnothingofastronomy.Zitmanaddsthat,althougharchaeo-astronomyhasbeentaughtasascientificdisciplinesince1983,Egypthashardlybeendiscussed—anotableexception.ItispreciselywhensuchavacuumiscreatedthatitwillbefilledbytheoriesofthelikesofRobertBauval.IfEgyptologistsdonotlikethatfact,theyshouldnotblameBauval.

Intheend,Hawassdoesstandfor,andsumsup,thecurrentstateofEgyptology.HeblamesthelikesofWest,Bauval,andHancockformakingridiculousstatements,butinAugust1996—unsurprisingly,whileinfrontofacamera—HawasswasscramblingthroughatunnelleadingundertheSphinx,stating:“Noonereallyknowswhat’sinsidethistunnel.Butwearegoingtoopenitforthefirsttime.”32Thisisfurtherevidencethathis2009statementisacompleteandutterdistortion—ifnotofthetruth,thenatleastofwhathesaidbefore.

So,in1996,thereweretunnels.ButinApril1999,HawassappearedonFoxTVanddeniedtheexistenceoftunnelsgoingoutfromtheTombofOsiris,anundergroundstructureneartheSphinx.InApril2009,herepeatedthisstory,asifheneededtodosoonceperdecade.Yet,asmentioned,inAugust1996hewasactuallyfilmedwalkinginsideatunnelundertheSphinx!

AsBauvalpointsoutinSecretChamber,thecontroversyinvolvingHawassandtheGizaPlateaudatesbackmanydecades:“MeanwhilesomethingunusualhappenedinvolvingZahiHawass.ForreasonsthatarenotclearhestartedadiginfrontoftheSphinxtemple,apparentlyinconnectionwiththeInstituteofUndergroundWateroftheEgyptianMinistryofIrrigation.Adrillingthroughsomefiftyfeet[15meters]ofdebrisstruckredgraniteinsteadofthenaturallimestoneofthearea.”33)

RedgraniteisnotnativetotheGizaPlateau;theonlysourceisAswan,hundredsofmilestothesouth.Theverypresenceofredgranite,discoveredin1980inthevicinityoftheSphinx,provesthatthereissomethingunderneaththeGizaPlateau.IfHawasssaysanythingdifferent,itshouldfirstbeseenasacaseof“methinkethheprotestethtoomuch.”WhetherwhateverishiddenunderneaththeGizaPlateauhasanythingtodowithAtlantis,or—morelikely—withaforgottendimensionofthehistoryofAncientEgypt,isaquestionthatonlytimewillbeabletoanswer.

THEQUESTFORATLANTIS

Atlantisisauniqueword,atranslationfromtheEgyptianwordKeftiuintoGreek.KeftiuwasatranslationofanoriginalAtlanteanword—thussaidPlato.Asitisauniquename,andauniqueaccount,thestoryofidentifyingAtlantisisdifficult;haditbeeneasy,themysterywouldhavebeensolvedlongago.

WhenPlatowroteTimaeusandCritias,hewouldprobablyneverhaveimaginedthatAtlantiswouldcreateacontroversyinthefollowingmillennia.ThoughthecivilizationisoftenbelievedtobelocatedintheAtlanticOcean,numerouslocationshavebeenproposed,fromAmericatotheMiddleEast.OneofthemanyresearcherswhoclaimtohavelocatedAtlantisisAmericanresearcherRobertSarmast.Thoughhisstorymaynotbeasspectacularassomeoftheothertheories,itdoeshavetheadvantagethathispossibilityislikely—andthusmightbethekeythatunlockstheproblem.

OneofthemostremarkablefactsaboutthedisappearanceofAtlantisisthatthe“continent”slowlysank.Itwastheendresultofaseriesofdisasters,whichincludeearthquakes.According

toSarmast,thisisaclueindeterminingthelocation.Briefly,SarmasthasidentifiedtheMediterraneanSeaasthelocationforAtlantis,specificallytheareaimmediatelytothesoutheastofCyprus,currentlyburiedunderneath1,500meters—aboutamile—ofwater.ItisknownthattheMediterraneanhasnotalwaysbeenasea,atleastnotaslargeasitscurrentsize.Atleastthreetimes,earthquakesandthecontinentaldrifthaveclosedtheStraitofGibraltar—thePillarsofHercules.Asaconsequence,waterbegantoevaporate,turningtheseaintoland.Thisisnowanacceptedscientificfact,testifiedbyvariousgeologicalremains,includingthevisibleroutesoftheNile,continuingitscoursemuchfurther.

GrahamHancockisoneoftheauthorswhohasgoneinsearchofevidencethatbuildingsandcartrutsaroundtheislandofMaltaarenowburiedunderneaththewater’ssurface,evidencethatevenrelativelyrecently(5,000yearsago)thewaterlevelseemstohavebeenlowerthantoday.

Sarmastarguesthatapproximately10,000yearsago,theStraitwasclosedoff,whichresultedinoneofthebiggestwaterfallstheworldhaseverseen—ahundredtimesbiggerthanVictoriaFalls.Butwhenearthquakesreopenedthecorridor,millionsoftonsofwaterslowlyenteredtheMediterranean,wherebylandbegantosinkunderneaththewater.SarmastbelievesthatAtlantiswaslostinthiscatastrophe.

AtlantishasanumberofcharacteristicsthatSarmastfeelshehasbeenabletoconfirmapplytoCyprus.Thepresenceofelephantsandcopperaretwoimportantcharacteristicsthatfitwithinhishypothesis.CopperwassoabundantinCyprusthattheislandwasactuallynamedafterthemetal.

Butwhatabouttheso-calledPillarsofHercules,whereAtlantiswassaidtobelocatedbeyond?CriticismagainsttheidentificationofthePillarsasGibraltarpredatesSarmast;EberhardZanggerwasoneofthosewhoarguedthatvariouslocationsaroundtheMediterraneanSeacarriedthatdescription.Gibraltarshouldnotbeconsideredthesolecandidateforthattitle,someargue.

ButcouldAtlantisbeanisland,iftheMediterraneanSeawasnotasea?Eventhoughmostoftheseawasturnedintoland,theriversstillemptiedinsidethearea—andsomeoceanmustalwayshaveremainedatthebottom,unlesstheperiodinwhichtheMediterraneanwascutofffromtheAtlanticOceanwasextremelylong.

ItisafactthattheshoresoftheMediterraneanSeashowsignsoftheoriginsofcivilization,wherebytheeasternshoreshavemanyremainsthataredatedto8000BC—relativelyshortlyafterthesinkingofAtlantis,whichtheAncientEgyptianshaddatedtoapproximately9500BC.Itthusseemslikelythatthatregionindeedhadanunknowncivilization.IfAtlantiswaslocatedintheAtlanticOcean,wouldwenothaveseenthosesignsinthewesternMediterranean,orevenonthewesternshoresoftheAtlanticOcean,alongSpainandMorocco?

SarmastaddsthatCyprusstillhasayearlyFestivaloftheFlood,whoseoriginhasbeenlostinthemistsoftime.Isitaremembranceofthecatastrophe?ThefestivalisevennamedKataklysmos,andeventhoughitisnowcelebratedatPentecost,thiswasanoldfestivalthattheChurchChristianized.

ItisnottheonlypotentiallinkwithAtlantis.Thehighestmountainontheislandisnowalmost2kilometersabovesealevelandisnamedOlympos.IsthistheoriginalOlympos,thesacredmountainoftheGreekgods?

Sarmasttouchesupon,butdoesnotextensivelydiscuss,thepossibilitythatthedemiseofAtlantismaybeconnectedwiththestoryofNoahandtheFlood.Acatastropheofthissort—thefillingoftheMediterraneanbasin—andtheArkofNoahbeginningtofloatonwater,untilitfinallyreachesland,areverysimilar.Indeed,oncethewatershadrisentoanewlevel,theworldhadbeentransformedandtheevilsoftheoldworldhadbeenwashedaway.TheevilwasalsoinAtlantis,asthedisasterthatbefellithasbeenidentifiedasGodwashingtheslatecleanoftheevilthatthecivilizationhadbeguntowreakuponitsneighbors.

WhetheritwasGodoranaturaldisaster,therefillingofthebasinmusthavecreatedamassivereaction—panic—withthepeoplethatlivedinsideit.Somemusthavebeenconfrontedwitha

risingsealevel,andsomemayevenhaveexperiencedatsunami.Manymusthavedied.Atlantishadafurtherproblem,inthesensethatitwasaplain,locatednexttothesea.Ifithadbeenamountaincivilization,theymayhavesurvived,orhadmoretime.Amongallthevictimsthatthedisastermusthavemade,acivilizationalongtheshoresmusthavebeenitsmajorvictim.AndtheEgyptiansrememberedthem.

However,Sarmast’shypothesisremains,forthemoment,justthat.Atbest,ithighlightsthatthereislikelyalostcivilizationwaitingtobediscoveredbelowthewatersoftheMediterraneanSea.Itwillbeanotherlostepisode,andmightprovideinterestinginsightsastohowJericho,Malta,andmaybeevenOldEuropewerealloncerelatedandpartofalargerwhole.ButthefactofthematteristhatCyprusislikelynotAtlantis.ThoughtherewereseveralPillarsofHercules,andtheonePlatowouldhavereferredtowasGibraltar.Equally,PlatolistedthedimensionsofAtlantis,andthesemeasuredalmost1,000milesinwidth—acivilizationthatonecannotplaceeverywhere,andespeciallynotonthetinyMediterraneanvolcanicislandofTheraassomehavetriedtomakedo.ItthereforeseemsthatthequestforAtlantisisnotover.

ATLANTIS:THELOSTWALHALLA

Intheeighthcentury,VikingshipslefttheirScandinavianhomelandandsetsailfordistantshores.Bytheendofthe11thcentury,theendoftheVikingAge,theirlongshipshadreachasfarwestasIcelandandGreenland,asfarsouthasNorthernAfrica,andasfareastasConstantinopleandtheVolgaRiver.Throughouttheninthcentury,theVikingswouldattackandslowlytakecontroloftheBritishIsles,aswellasmanyothercountriesinEurope,includingFrance,reachingParisinAD845.By900,majortownsandabbeysacrossthecontinenthadbeensacked;thevanquishedcountrieswouldneverbethesameagain,anddistantmemoriesoftheVikingraidscontinuetoliveoninpopularlegendstothisday.

WhatcausedtheVikingstoinvadesomanyEuropeancountriesremainsanunansweredquestion,thoughhistorianshavespeculatedwildlyonthesubject.EarlytheoriesfocusedonoverpopulationandtheneedtoexpandtheVikingterritory.Thisproposalhasnowbeenabandoned,thoughthereiscurrentlynonewtheoryheldastheconsensusviewastowhytheVikingsinvadedEurope.Missingfromthegammaofpossibilitiesisthattheymighthavegoneinsearchoftheirmythicalhomeland,Walhalla,which,accordingtotheirlegends,wassomewheretothesouthwest.WalhallaisoftencalledtheHalloftheGods,butinmythitwasinextricablylinkedwithanislandwherethegodshadsupposedlygranteditsinhabitantsthegiftofimmortality.ThattheVikingshadindeedlefttheirhomelandinsearchofWalhallawastheconclusionreachedbyBelgianhistorianMarcelMestdagh.AfteryearsofretellingthesametraditionalstoryoftheVikingconquestofEuropetohisstudents,herealizedthattherewaslogictotheVikingmethodology,inwhichtheyinvadedfirstEnglandandthenFrance.Mestdaghhadnoticedsomethingthatnoonehadseenbefore.

Aftertheirinitialconquests,mostlyofislandsandcoastalregions,theVikingsgatheredtheirso-calledGreatArmy.InEngland,theGreatArmywasformedin866,thecoreofitcreatedbysoldiersbroughtbyboatsfromDenmark.Theirmissionwastoconquerthemajortownsandcities,ataskthatwasaccomplishedin879whenthearmycrossedtheChanneltocontinuetheircampaigninFrance.MestdaghrealizedthatthewayinwhichtheGreatArmymovedaboutthroughEnglandwasnothaphazard,butratherinvolvedatypeofpattern.Itwasalmostasthoughsomethinginthelandscape—somethinginthetopography,perhaps—wasleadingthemfromplacetoplace.Whateveritwas,itwassomethingthatwasstillpresentorvisibleatthattimebuthaslongsincebeenlosttous.

Manyyearsandagreatdealofresearchlater,Mestdaghrealizedthatthismissingcluewasstillpresentinthelandscape,thoughwenolongerrecognizeditassuch:Itwasanancientroadnetworkthatfannedoutfromtwotowns,oneinEngland(Nottingham)andoneinFrance(Sens).MestdaghwasabletoshowthatthenetworkofroadsinEnglandcenteredonNottingham,butthattheVikingshadn’tbeenabletofindtherewhattheywerelookingfor.AftertheconquestofNottingham,newrecruitscamefromDenmark,andtheVikingArmycrossedtheChannelinto

France.Theretheymadeuseofthesamesystemofroads,wherebyallroadsledtotheFrenchcityofSens,whichtheVikingGreatArmyreachedinlate886.

Interestingly,SenswastheonlycitythattheVikingsdidnotsack.Instead,itwastakenafterapeacefulsiege,whichlastedonlyaboutsixmonths.ThehistorybooksmakespecialnoteofthefactthatnoonewasinjuredorkilledduringthesiegeofSens.WhentheGreatArmyarrived,thepeopleofthetownhadsettledontheislandsintheriverYonne,fullyexpectingthattheywouldbebrutallyinvadedlikeanyothertown.SomehistorianshavearguedthatthearchbishopofSenshadboughtpeacewiththeVikings,butthereisnoevidencetosupportthis.Inshort,thereisnoknownreasonwhytheVikingswouldhavebeensorespectful.Mestdaghwondered:WasSens,theformerstrongholdoftheCeltictribeknownastheSenones(“theElders”)somehowsacredtotheVikings?WasSenswhattheVikingshadbeenlookingforandhadnowfound?CoulditbethatSenswastheirmythicalWalhalla?Andwasthisthereasonwhytheydidnotsackthetown?

TheFrenchCityofSens,southeastofParis,hasbeenidentifiedasthecenterofanenormousmegalithiccivilization,whichBelgianhistorianMarcelMestdaghidentifiedasAtlantis.ThelocalCeltictribewaslaterknownastheSenones(“theElders”)andtheregion,despitebeinghundredsofmilesfromthesea,isknownastheIle-de-France(“theIslandofFrance”).Imagecopyrighttheauthor.

WhattheVikingsencounteredinnorthernFrancewasanoldandlong-forgottensystemofroads.MestdaghbelievedtheroadnetworkhadoriginallybeentheworkoftheRomans,whowereknowntohavebeenroadbuildersparexcellence.ThenotoriousRomanconquerorJuliusCaesarhadchosenAgedincum—Sens—asthetownwherehestationedhisarmies,thoughitbecameonlyanadministrativecenterinthelatefourthcenturyAD.

Itsoonbecameclear,however,thattheRomanshadnotconstructedthisnetworkofroads,asitwasinterlacedwithanetworkofmegalithicstonesandthereforedatedbackthousandsofyearsearlier,longbeforetheRomanseverinvadedGaul.StandingstonesandothermegalithicconstructionsareknowntohavebeenusedasboundarymarkersbytheCelts,apeoplethatcamefromtheEasternpartsofEuropeinthefirstmillenniumBC.ItiswellknownthattheCeltsmadeactiveuseofthesemegalithicsites,andwhenplacessuchasStonehengewereanalyzedinthe18thcenturybythelikesofWilliamStukeley,itwasthoughtthatthepriestlyclassknownasthedruidsperformedelaborateceremoniesinsideandamongthesemonuments.Caesarinhis

conquestofGaulspecificallytargetedandhunteddownthedruids,thusensuringthatnothingoftheirknowledgesurvived.

NosuchexterminationhadoccurredintheScandinaviancountries,whichwereequallyrichinmegalithicsites.Infact,northernEuropehadarelativelypeacefultransitionfrommegalithictimesallthewaytotheVikings.ThismeantthattheknowledgeassociatedwiththesemegalithssurvivedwellintotheeraoftheVikings,whichmeantthatwhentheylandedinEuropetheyknewfarmoreabouttheseancientmarkersthanthelocalpeopledid.TheVikingshadeffectivelymaintainedanactivelinktoaformerworld,andbyAD800,whentheysetouttofindtheirWalhalla,theymanagedtodosolargelyonthebasisofthislink,which,sadly,hadbeensevered,firstbytheRomansandlaterbyChristianityinEnglandandFrance.Asaconsequence,verylittleoftheVikingknowledgewaspasseddowntous,soMestdaghhadtospendyearsdrivingthroughthecountrysideofnorthernFrance,mappingmegaliths,roadnetworks,andancientmonuments,aswellascatalogingancientlegends—allofthisatatime(the1970sand1980s)whentherewasnoGPSnorthemodernmiraclethatisGoogleEarth.Itwasamonumentaltaskthatwouldbeacontributingfactortohisearlydeath,thoughnotbeforehecouldpublishtheastonishingconclusionshisresearchhadrevealedtohim.

Whenhelookedattheresultsofhispainstakingresearch,herealizedthatthisnetworkofroadsandmegalithswasonlypartofthestory.Healsodiscoveredaseriesoftremendouslylongditches,whichhadatonetimeformedaseriesofvast,concentricovalswithSensatitscenter.Noonehadeverfiguredoutwhattheseovalssignified.Infact,theraisedsidesoftheditcheshadoncebeenusedtoconstructroads,manyofwhichsurvivedandarestillinusetothisday.ButMestdagh’son-siteinvestigationsshowedthatenormousditcheshadoncebeenlocatedthere,andthatoftentimes,theycouldstillbedescribedinthelandscape.Becausetheditchesweremadeofsand,theirintegrityhadslowlydegeneratedduringthemorethan3,000yearsthattheyhadnotbeeninuse.Detailedanalysisrevealedthattheywereactuallyditcheswithraisedborders.Inthecenterofeachwasadepressionortroughthathadprobablycontainedwateratonetime.Theseinnerditchesprobablyfunctionedascanalsandwereoftenconnectedtorivers;indeed,portionsoftheconcentricovalsthatsurroundedSenswerecomprisedofactualrivers—theportionoftheriverMarnebetweenMeauxandChâlons-sur-Marne,forexample.

ThetrueextentofknowledgethatMegalithicpeoples—theonesresponsibleforthethousandsofmegalithsinwesternEurope—possessedhasnotyetbeendiscernedeitherbyarchaeologyorhistory.Butinthe1970s,archaeologistAlexanderThommadeanamazingdiscovery.Afterperformingdetailedstudiesofmorethan600megalithsinBritain,Ireland,andBrittany,herealizedallofthemhadbeenbuiltwithastandardunitofmeasurement,whichhecalledtheMegalithicyard.Healsoconcludedthattherewasacentralformofgovernment,“becausetheremusthavebeenaheadquartersfromwhichstandardrodsweresentoutbutwhetherthiswasintheseislandsorontheContinentthepresentinvestigationcannotdetermine.”34ThatheadquartersmightbeSens.MestdaghhadrealizedthatthecreationofthesacredcenteratSenshadbeendoneinaccordancewiththecardinalpoints,bysomeonewithadetailedunderstandingofgeography.Themainaxisofthisgeometricalpatternraneast-westandwentthroughthecenterofthecityofSens,extendingtotheeast,withthecenteroftheroadsystemlocatedabout1.5mileseastofthecity.

TheendresultofMestdagh’sinvestigationwasmultifold,manyofthemoutsidethescopeofthisbook.First,therewereatotalof64roads,extendingasfaras200milesineitherdirection.Hehadfoundhundredsofmilesofthisroadnetworkstillinuseinthe1980s,withnumerousmegalithsandsacredsitesalongtheway.Second,MestdaghalsorealizedthatmanyofthenamesofthetownsandvillagessituatedalongtheseroadscontainedtheMarc-orMerc-prefix—literally,“marker.”Oneofthebetter-knownsitesislocatedonthesouthernroad,whichskirtedthePuy-de-Dôme,afamousextinctvolcano,whichwascommonlyregardedassacredsinceCeltictimes,ifnotearlier.ItssummitholdsatemplededicatedtotheRomangodMercury,afurtherreferencetothemerc-prefix.IsitacoincidencethatMercuriuswasthoughttobetheprotectoroftravelersontheroad?

Thissystemoffourconcentricditcheswouldhaverequiredanextraordinaryamountofworktoconstruct,forthecircumferenceofOvalI,thefirstandsmallestoval,isalreadyanincredible400miles.OvalIVhasaxesof297and370miles,andacircumferenceof1,106miles—staggeringdimensions,butdefinitelystillwithinhumancapabilities,particularlywhenwerememberthattheGreatWallofChinastretchesformorethan5,500miles.

OnamapofFrance,OvalIIIisalmostvisibletothenaked,untrainedeye:TakeanymapfromFranceandfindthetownofRouen;followitdowntoLeMans,Tours,andChâteauroux.FurthernorthisasmallsectionbetweenAmiensandPoix;betweenPoixandRouenthereisasectionmissingonmodernmaps,butitisknownthattherewasonceaRomanroadhere.Farfrombeingmerefigmentsoftheimagination,theseovalsareveryreal.

WhenyoumaptheoldCeltictribalboundaries,theycoincidewiththeovalsandthefanlikeroadnetworkcenteredonSens.WhenweknowthatthisMegalithicsystemincorporatedstandingstonesandthattheCeltsusedthesestonesasboundarymarkers,theenigmaofwhycertainstandingstoneswerebuiltincertainplacesisexplained.MestdaghhadessentiallydiscoveredaMegalithiccivilization,acivilizationthathadoncebeenlosttothesandsoftime.Buthadit?Thereweretheeasilyidentifiablereferencestoanisland,rememberedinthenameIle-de-France,butcouldthisplacereallyhavebeenthemythicallostislandofAtlantis?

Fortunatelyforthetrainedhistorian,Mestdaghdidnothavetotakethisonfaith.WenowknowthatthestoryofAtlantiswastoldtoPlatobySolon,whohadvisitedEgyptandheardaboutthelostcityfromsometempleprieststhere.TheyhadprovidedSolonwithprecisedimensions—3,000stadia(333miles)—ofthisisland,whichPlatothenincorporatedinhisaccount,partofanunfinishedworkknowntousasTimaeus.Andhereiswhereitgetsinteresting:OvalIVcanbeinscribedinsideadiamond(asanyovalcan)comprisedofequalsidesthatare333mileslong.Thisdistancecorrespondsperfectlywiththe3,000stadiathatPlatomentionedasthedimensionsofAtlantis!Thereismore.PlatolocatesAtlantisonrelativelyflatland,andsituatesitbetweenthemountainsandthesea.OvalIVisindeedlocatedonrelativelyflatland,andsitsbetweenmountains(theAlps)andthesea(theMediterranean).PlatoaddsthatthedistancefromAtlantistotheseais2,000stadia,or222miles—preciselythedistancefromthesouthernmostpointofthediamondtotheMediterraneancoastline.Finally,usingthesystemofroads,Mestdaghwasabletoretracethe10kingdomsofAtlantismentionedbyPlato,concludingthattheareawithinOvalIwasthe“middlekingdom”andthattheareabetweenOvalIandOvalIVcontainedthenineotherkingdoms.AnotherGreekphilosopher,Proclus,referredtoatextofMarcellus,whichstatedthatthewidthofthemiddlekingdomofAtlantiswas1,000stadia,whichisactuallypreciselythewidthofOvalI!AndcanitbejustacoincidencethatthereisatownnamedAvalon,thenameofalostmythicallandinCeltictradition,locatedonthisveryoval?

MestdaghalsofoundsupportingevidencethattheMegalithiccivilizationwasAtlantisfromtheMegalithicEraitself.Petit-Montisafamoustumulus(amoundofearthand/orstonesoveragraveorgraves)aroundtheGulfofMorbihan,aregionthatisknowntodaymainlyforitsmorethan4,000standingstones,mostofthemalignedintorowsinandaroundthetownofCarnac.Thetumulusdatesbackto4600BCandisoneofthemostsignificant,butalsomostbrutallydamaged,cairnsinBrittany.Z.LeRouzicwasoneofthefirstFrencharchaeologistswhoactivelyinvestigatedandrestoredtheMegalithicmonumentsofBrittanyinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.Insidethetumulus,LeRouzicidentifiedaseriesofstonesthatcarriedinscriptionsalongtheinteriorwalls.StoneMisanellipsewith18spokesandistraditionallyinterpretedasasolarwheel.MestdaghcontendedthatthiswasactuallyamapofAtlantis,whichshowedthenine-plus-onekingdomsofthelostcivilization.Ananalysisofthecarvingsaroundthesolarwheeladdedweighttothisinterpretation,asitshowedmountainstothesouth,aswellastheshoresofEastAngliaandKent,andtheRhineandMainriversystem,thusrevealingthe“solarwheel”—Atlantis—wasrenderedinalocationthatmakesitgeographicallyfitwithMestdagh’sMegalithiccivilization.

ForMestdaghtherewasnodoubtthatthelostcivilizationofAtlantishadbeenfound.Itwouldhavetakenourancestorscenturiestobuildthistrulygiganticandsophisticatedcivilization.The

Megalithiccityhadalsobeenanislandsurroundedbyanastonishingsystemofcanals.Buttheetymologyofthewordislandprovidesuswithperhapsthebestclueastoitsshape.Forexample,thewordislandinDutchiseiland,whichmeans“eggland”or“thelandintheshapeofanegg”—anoval.TheEnglishwordislandcomesfromis-land,orys-land,anditisinBrittanythatthestoryofthedrownedlandofYsisrecorded.Inthestory,dikesareusedtoprotecttheislandfromthesea,and,incredibly,dikesarepreciselywhatMestdaghfound.

ItismybeliefthatSenswasthecapital,thesacredspiritualcenterofAtlantis.NodoubtthisiswhyitsinhabitantswereknownastheSenones,“theElders,”inCeltictimes.Itssacrednaturewasalsoapparentduringmedievaltimes,whenitsarchbishopsheldtheprestigioustitleofPrimateofGaulandGermany,anextraordinaryhonorthatthehistorybookshavehadgreatdifficultyexplaining.ThefactthatCaesarhimselfstationedhisarmyinSensgivesfurthersupporttotheideathatSenswasofgreathistoricalimportance.Caesarknewthatthedruidswerehismostdangerousopponents.Hemadeithismissiontosilenceandexterminatethem,famouslygivingchaseandthencorneringtheminEnglandontheislandofAnglesey.DidCaesarstationhisarmyinSensbecausethatwastheirFrenchheadquarters?

SensasthecenteroftheMegalithicworldmightseemodd,givenourmodernperspectiveonthehistoryofthatarea.TodaythemegalithsinCarnacarefarbetterknown.Thisissomethingforwhichthetourismindustryispartlytoblame.AninventoryofallextantFrenchmegalithswasestablishedin1880andprintedintheBulletindelaSociétéd’AnthropologiedeParis.Thereportshowsthatbyfarthelargestconcentrationofmegaliths—261outof509pockets—canbefoundinandaroundSens.Thoughmostofthesedisappearedbytheturnofthelastcentury,duetotheencroachmentofcivilizationandthecontingenciesofourmodernage,theareaaroundSenswasonceliterallylitteredwithmegaliths.Itwasthecenterofalostworld—Walhalla.

Archaeologiststendtoseemegalithicmonumentsintotalisolation.Forexample,thegiganticstonecirclesofAveburyarelocatedamere12milestothenorthofStonehenge,whichisprobablythebest-knownmegalithicmonumentintheworld.Hardlyanyresearchhasbeenundertakenbyprofessionalarchaeologiststofindwhatcommonground,ifany,existsbetweenthetwostructures,eventhoughit’sverystraightforwardthatthepeopleofStonehengeknewofAvebury,andviceversa.Mestdagh’sresearchmethodologyshowedthatweshouldnotlookatmegalithiccomplexesinisolation—asarchaeologytendstodo—butasacoherentwhole.ThisideaisalsoinlinewiththeconclusionsdrawnbyAlexanderThomthatthemegalithiccivilizationhadheadquarters—acapital—somewhere.ThatcapitalhasnowbeenidentifiedasSens.Whatthismeansisthatfromc.4500to1200BC,amajorcivilizationexistedinEuropeaboutwhichweknowverylittle.

Whatwenowcalltheinhabitants(theMegalithicpeople)showsthatwehavegivenprimacytothisaspectoftheirculture—thestonecuttingandtechnologybehindit.ButMestdagh’sdiscoveryunveiledseveralmorefacetsofthiscivilizationthatwereonparwith,ifnotsuperiorto,AncientEgypt.Infact,thisispreciselywhySolonwastoldofthiscitywhenhevisitedEgypt.WhereastherearethousandsofbooksaboutancientEgypt,though,thereishardlyanyknowledgeabouttheMegalithiccivilizationofnorthernEurope.Itismissingfromthepagesofhistoryaltogether,andifithadnotbeenforafewEgyptianpriests,Solon,andPlato,itmighthavebeenlostforever.

WhenMestdaghfocusedhisresearchonStonehengeandAvebury,hefoundremnantsofaroadthatconnectedthetwosites,whichwasequallyofovaldesign.Theroadactuallyextendsbeyondthetwosites.Whentracedonamap,hefoundthattwo-thirdsofthisovalstillexistedandthatitsdimensionswerepreciselyone-tenthofthedimensionsofOvalIIinFrance.Withthismathematicalinformation,hehadundeniableproofthatthemegalithbuildersofFranceknewthemegalithbuildersofEngland.EverythingthathappenedformorethanthreemillenniainnorthernEuropewasexecutedaccordingtoaplansogreatindesignthatitdefiesbelief.ThatispreciselywhatthelostcivilizationofAtlantiswas.

TheancientEgyptiansknewaboutthelostcivilizationofAtlantis.InEgyptianmythology,the

Afterlifewasidentifiedasanislandinthewest,intersectedbycanals,andwasrepresentedasanenclosedovalformedbythebodyofNut,surmountedbyOsirisholdingalofttheSolarDisk.ThisEgyptianequivalentofWalhallawasknownastheSekhet-hetep,theFieldofOfferings.Egyptologistshaveinterpretedthese“myths”astheproductsoftheimaginationsoftheancientEgyptians.Analternativeinterpretationisavailable—onethatshowsthatSekhet-hetepwasoncerealandexistedinFrance.

ThattherewassomekindofcommunicationbetweentheMegalithiccivilizationandEgyptwasonceacceptedinarchaeologicalcircles.ItaliananthropologistGuiseppeSergirecordedfindingthesignoftheankhandotherhieroglyphicsignsonseveralFrenchdolmens.ProfessorJ.MorrisJonesconfirmedthesuggestionofSirJohnRhysthatCelticlanguagespreservedanEgyptianHamiticsyntax:“Thepre-AryanidiomswhichstillliveinWelshandIrishwerederivedfromalanguagealliedtoEgyptianandtheBerbertongues.”35FrencharchaeologistLetorneaunotedin1893intheBulletindelaSociétéd’Anthropologiethat“thebuildersofourmegalithicmonumentscamefromtheSouth,andwererelatedtotheracesofNorthAfrica.”36Inmodernarchaeologicalcircles,however,thisisamostunpopularopinion,asitspoliticalcorrectnesssuggeststhatallculturesdevelopedtotallyindependentofeachother,simplybecauseitisnowseenasanoutdatedcolonialperspectivethatsomecultureswereincapableofaccomplishingextraordinaryfeatssuchasbuildingtheGreatPyramidontheirown.WhenitcomestotheMegalithiccivilizationofAtlantis,thisstanceisturnedonitshead,andarchaeologistsarguethattherewasnosuchthingasonemonolithiccivilizationatall!

Mestdagh’smaterialwasonlyevermadeavailabletoaDutchaudience;thereforefollow-upresearchafterhisdeathin1990hasbeenlimited.DutchresearcherWimZitmanhasstudiedMestdagh’sconclusionsandhasnotedthatthedimensionsoftheAtlanteancivilizationcontainedaseriesofnumbersthataremathematicallyrelatedtothestarSirius.Siriusisthebrighteststarintheskyandissacredinmanycultures,butinnonemoresothaninAncientEgypt.Zitmanarguesthattheancientsworkedwiththenotionthattimewasequaltodistance—aconceptthatisessentiallycorrect,aswenowknowthattimeandspaceareidentical—andthatwhenonemeasuresthedistancesbetweenancientmonuments,oneoftenfindsnumbersthatcorrespondtocertainastronomicalmeasurements.Theancients,heargues,observedtheskyandastronomicalevents,andincorporatedthemintheirearthlyconstructions,toreflectoneaspectofthefamousmaxim:“asabove,sobelow.”Inthiscase,whatwasseenintheskieswasalsodepictedonthegroundinthesacredlayoutofthesestructures.Zitman,inhisbookEgypt:ImageofHeaven,hasdemonstratedhowthisoccurredinAncientEgypt.Forcertainastronomicalbodiesandconstellationstobemapped,noteverythingcouldbedonefromEgypt,andCallanishmaybethebestexampleofthis.

Ofcourse,itwas12,000yearsagothatAtlantissank,atleastaccordingtoPlato.Yetalltheinformationwe’vegleanedsofarsuggeststhatitendedsometimearound1200BC.SoalthoughitisanundeniablefactthattheMegalithiccivilizationofSensborethesamedimensionsandwassituatedinthesamelocationasPlato’sAtlantis,thetimingdoesn’taddup.Whatarewetomakeofthis?

ForMestdaghtheanswerisinthepossibilitythatthenumberofyearsthatwasquotedtoSolondidnotrefertosolaryears,butlunaryears.Ifthisistrue,thatwouldyieldanenddateofc.1200BC,whichwouldconformwiththeinformationprovidedtoSolonbytheEgyptiantemplepriests.Wecannotbesurethatthisisthecorrectapproach.IfwetakePlato’sinformationasgospel,thereareseveralpossibilities:SomeonewasconfusedandinerroraboutthedatesoftheAtlanteancivilization;twoseparatelegendsweresomehowmadeone,withanotherlostcivilizationsomewheretobefoundthatis12,000yearsold;ortheMegalithiccivilizationofSenswasnot,infact,therealAtlantis.ThedimensionsofAtlantisareidenticaltothoseofthisMegalithiccivilizationatSens.UnlessthevariousanalysesoftheMegalithiccivilizationsarewrong,themegalithsofnorthwesternEuropedonotdatebackto12,000yearsago.Thisleavesoneoption,whichforthemomentneedstobetheworkinghypothesis:thattheMegalithiccivilization,itselfatrulylostcivilization,wasconstructedasacopy—aperfectreplica—of

anothercivilizationthatwasoncelostitselfandthatwasindeedfarolder—inotherwords,theoriginalAtlantis.

Apartfromthetimeframe,everythingabouttheMegalithiccivilizationfitsAtlantis.ThedatingoftheMegalithiccivilizationitselfisbyproxy(thatis,bythematerialfoundaroundthevariousstandingstones).Coulditbethatthereweretwophases—oneextremelyold(12,000yearsold),andthatfromc.4000BConward,peoplecameandrepairedthestructures,re-creatingAtlantis?Itisahypothesisthatiscurrentlyimpossibletovalidate,butthatquiteoftenmeansthatitisthetruth,waitingtobeproclaimed.

THEARMSOFORION

TheGreatPyramid.Stonehenge.Teotihuacan.Tiahuanaco.FourofthemostimportantandbestknownancientmonumentsonthesurfaceoftheEarth.WhatifthosefourmonumentswereabletolocatethelostcivilizationofAtlantis?

ThatistheconclusionthatWillemZitmanhasreached,followingyearsofresearch.ZitmanknowsthatutteringthenameAtlantisinconnectionwithAncientEgypt—oranythingelse—willnotenchanthimwithEgyptologists,butwhereverhehasturnedinhisstudies,thedistantshadowofAtlantishasalwaysloomedonthehorizon—orhasbeentheonlylogicalconclusiontodraw.

Eachofthesesitesisthecenterofitsowncivilization:Teotihuacanwasthesitewherethegodsweresaidtoconvenein3114BC,themythicalcreationdateoftheMaya.TiahuanacowastheplaceofemergenceoftheIncacreatordeityViracocha.TheGreatPyramidhardlyneedsanintroduction,andStonehengeisoneofthemostfamousmegalithicmonuments,featuringprominentlyintheworkdonebyMarcelMestdagh.

Zitmanbelievesthatthefoursitesneedtobeconnectedbyaseriesoflines,thoughonecentralfeatureneedstobeadded:acenterpoint—thelocationofAtlantis.WhenthisisdrawninthemiddleoftheAtlanticOcean,theresultingimageistheconstellationOrion.

Toattainthiscenterpoint,oneneedstoworkwithStonehengeandGiza:OnaMercatorProjectionoftheworld,drawalongitudinallinethroughStonehenge,andonthelatitudeofGiza,measurethedistancefromwherebothlinescross.MarkthesamedistancetoGizaontheothersideofthelongitudinalaxis.YouendupintheAtlanticOcean,at30.30North—thelatitudeofGiza—and35.07.30West.Interestingly,theresultingimageis—ofcourse—atriangle,butonethatlooksidenticaltoacross-sectionoftheGreatPyramid,featuringthesameinternalangles.Coincidence?Mostlikely,design.

TothispointintheAtlanticOceanyouneedtoconnecttwolines,onefromTeotihuacanandonefromTiahuanaco,andtheendresultisindeedtheconstellationofOrion.IsitacoincidencethatOrion’sBeltwasincorporatedinthelayoutofthePyramidcomplexofbothTeotihuacanandGiza?Bothsitesareoftenlinkedwithsomehowcontainingknowledgeofalostcivilization;theMayalegendsspeakofanislandintheEastandhowsurvivorsreachedtheNewWorld.ThoughitisclearthatitisnotacoincidencethattwopyramidcomplexesbothweredesignedintheimageofOrion’sBelt,thatbothsites—andthreeothers—werecarefullymappedsoastomaketheoutlineoftheconstellationofOrionandthatthiswaslikelylinkedwiththelostcivilizationofAtlantis,suddenlyhasaddedfarmoreweighttothisspeculation.

Zitmanmeasuredthedesignandnotedthatthedistancesconnectingthevarioussites,whenaddedup,alsorevealedinformationaboutdiameteroftheEarth—whichshouldn’tcomeasasurprise.Foranyonetohavecreatedthisalmost-worldwidedesign,thatsomeonemusthavemappedtheEarthandmusthavebeenawareofthedimensionsoftheEarth.Thatmappingmusthaveoccurredatleastinc.3000BC—andmorethanlikelythousandsofyearsbefore,atthetimeofAtlantis.

Thefourmostimportantarchaeologicalsitesintheworld—Giza,Stonehenge,Teotihuacan,andTiahuanaco—whenmappedontheworld,revealthattheyarelaidoutintheformationoftheconstellationofOrion.ThepositionofOrion’sBeltisintheAtlanticOcean,makingonewonderwhetherthisisthesiteofAtlantis.ImagecopyrightWillemZitman.Usedwithpermission.

TheGiza–Atlantis–Teotihuacandistancemeasures12,748kilometers,whichisonly8kilometersdifferencefromthecurrentlyaccepteddiameteroftheEarthontheequator.Thetotallengthofthisdesignis31,316kilometers,or10,000Pi,or60,000,000royalels(theEgyptianroyalelis52.36cm),or12,000PhixPhi.Coincidence,orevidenceofadvancedmathematics—andhenceanadvanced,lostcivilization?

PLATO:PREHISTORIANInthebookPlato,Prehistorian,archaeologistMarySettegastarguesthatPlato’sAtlantis

providesaccurateinsightsintowhatarchaeologyisuncovering.First,shearguesthattheexistingmodelofprehistoryisindesperateneedofchange,butthatfewarchaeologistsarewillingtoletgooftheunilinearapproach.ShepointstothecavesofLascaux,datedtoc.20,000BC,aculturethathadharnessedthehorseby12,000BC,whileBarbarysheepweremanagedinNorthAfricaasearlyas18,000BC.SeveralgrainsrecoveredatthePalestiniansiteofNahalOrensuggestthatgrainwasundercultivationasearlyas14,000BC.ThesediscoveriesshowthatsettlementssuchasGöbekliTepeandJerichoareactuallyquiterecent,comparedwiththesefindings,andthatthepathofhumancivilizationisfarolderthancommonlyaccepted—themythicaldateof4000BC.

Settegastarguesthatalltheavailablearchaeologicalevidencesuggeststhattherewas“civilization”pre-10,000BC(thusconformingwithPlato’sAtlantis),thatthesepeoplelivedinareasoftheworldthatarecurrentlyundersealevel,andthattheywerefurthermorecompetentseafarers.Shearguesthat“catastrophicfloodswouldnotbeinconsistentwiththearchaeologyofGreeceandAnatoliamidwayintheeighthmillenniumB.C.,”37towhichsheadds“thewaveofinexplicablysophisticatedsettlersthatappearedintheNearEastinthelasthalfoftheeightmillenniumB.C.[e.g.Jericho]mayactuallyhavebeenrefugeesfromPlato’sruinedculturesinthewest.”38

ShearguesthatwhathasdonetheAtlantishypothesisadisserviceistheendlessspeculationaboutwhereAtlantiswouldbe.Instead,shefeels,everyoneshouldhavefocusedonlandthatwasstillabovesealevel,forPlatoarguedthatsouthwesternEurope,includingItalyandGreece,wasunderthecontroloftheAtlanteankings.Isthereanyevidence,shewondered,thatinc.9000BC,thisterritoryanditslandwereasPlatodescribedthem?

TheshortanswerreachedbySettegastisyes.ShereferstotheMagdalenianCulture—bestknownforitscaveart—“whichforseveralthousandyearshadgracedEuropeasfarasItalywithanartistictraditionofuncommonexcellenceandunity,adevotiontothehorse[…]andpossiblyasystemofwrittencommunication.”39Archaeologistshavemappedthisculturebuthavefailed,Settegastargues,toseethatitperfectlycorrespondswiththeAtlanteanEmpireasdescribedbyPlato.Furthermore,PlatonotedtheAtlanteans’relianceonthehorse,equallyapparentintheMagdalenianCulture.Settegastaddsthatthearchaeologyhasshownthatinc.9600BC,theMagdaleniancivilizationindeedwasshowingsignsofdecay.

Archaeologyisnevergoingtobeabletoanswerallquestions.ButSettegastsuggeststhatifweputarchaeologyandthelegendofAtlantistogether,ahomogenouspictureemergesthatmakessenseofEuropeanhistoryinc.10,000BC.Thisisapictureinwhichtherewasindeedalargecivilization,somewhereinthewestandlikelysomewhereintheAtlanticOcean,whichhadpartsofwesternEuropeunderitscommand.ThecavepaintingsofLascauxandseveralothersareevidenceofthisadvancedcivilization.Whenittriedtostretcheverfurthereast,probablyforclimatologicalreasons,theveryheartofitscivilizationcollapsed—swallowedbytherisingsealevelsthatweretheconsequenceoftheendofthelastIceAge.ThisleftAtlanteaninhabitantshomelessinwesternEurope,anditismycontentionthatthesesurvivorswereinstrumentalincreatingtheMegalithiccivilization,recreatingAtlantisinFrance.

TherisingsealevelthatdestroyedAtlantisalsoinfluencedtheMediterraneancivilizations.Ratherthanassumecivilizationbeganhereinc.4000BC,itisnowabundantlyobviousthattherewerehighlycivilizedcentersinTurkeyandwhatisnowtheMediterraneancoastlineoftheMiddleEast.Equally,intheSahara,climatologicalconditionswerefarbetterforhumansettlements,asevidencedintheTassili.Inshort,withinthisnewframework,civilizationisatleasttwice,andpotentiallyfourtimes,asoldasthestandardhistorytextbooksaretellingus.Clearly,theyareinneedofanurgentrewrite.

Chapter5PREHISTORICGENIUS

THEWORLD’SFIRSTCOMPUTER

In1900,aGreekspongedivernamedEliasStadiatos,workingoffthesmallGreekislandofAntikythera,foundtheremainsofaGreekshipatthebottomofthesea.Thewreckwas50meterslongandwaslocated15–25metersoffPointGlyphadia,lyingin43metersofwater.Atthetime,divinghadtobedonewithouttheaidofanymoderntechnologycurrentlyavailabletothedivingcommunity.Itmeanttheworkwashighlydangerous.Infact,whentheauthoritiesbegantoremoveobjectsfromthewreck,outofthe10divers,onewasaccidentallykilledandtwootherdiversbecamepermanentlydisabled.ConditionshadvastlyimprovedwhenCousteauvisitedthewreckin1953,butbythattime,theGreekgovernmenthadlongremovedeverythingfromthesunkenboat.

Therewardsoftheinitialteam’sworkweremarbleandbronzestatues,goldjewelry,amphorae,andotherartifacts,alldatingfromthefirstcenturyBC,whentheshipwasbelievedtohavesunk,onwhatisbelievedtohavebeenadeliveryfromRhodestoRome.

Inearly1902,ValerioStaisbegansortingthroughtherecoveredmaterial,alldonatedtotheMuseumofAthens.OnMay17,1902,Staisnoticedacalcifiedlumpofbronzethatdidnotfitanywhereandthatlookedlikeabigwatch.Heguesseditwasanastronomicalclockandwroteapaperontheartifact.Whenitwaspublished,hewasridiculedforevendaringtosuggestsuchathing.Hiscriticsarguedthatsundialswereusedtotellthetime.Adialmechanismwasunknownatthetime,eventhoughitwasdescribedonwhatScienceconsideredtobeapurelytheoreticalbasis.Thestatusquowasthat“manyoftheGreekscientificdevicesknowntousfromwrittendescriptionsshowmuchmathematicalingenuity,butinallcasesthepurelymechanicalpartofthedesignseemsrelativelycrude.GearingwasknowntotheGreeks,butitwasusedonlyinrelativelysimpleapplications.”1

Sotheycoulddoit,buttheydidnotdoit.So,hadStaisrightfullyidentifiedwhatsomecalledthe“mostcomplicatedpieceofscientificmachineryknownfromantiquity,”2orwasittoogoodtobetrue?Thefuturewouldtell,butitwasforthemomentdefinitelytoogoodtobebelieved.

In1958,YalesciencehistorianDerekJ.deSollaPricestumbledupontheobjectanddecidedtomakeitthesubjectofascientificstudy,whichwaspublishedthefollowingyearinScientificAmerican.Partoftheproblem,hefelt,wasitsuniqueness.DeSollastated:“Nothinglikethisinstrumentispreservedelsewhere.Nothingcomparabletoitisknownfromanyancientscientifictextorliteraryallusion.Onthecontrary,fromallthatweknowofscienceandtechnologyintheHellenisticAgeweshouldhavefeltthatsuchadevicecouldnotexist.”3HelikenedthediscoverytofindingajetplaninTutankhamen’stombandatfirstbelievedthemachinewasmadein1575;adateofthefirstcenturyBCremainedhardtoaccept,letalonedefend.

Still,Pricemusthaverealizedthatwhereasitsagewasadangeroussubjecttodiscuss,itwassafetoexplorethemechanismandfunctionoftheinstrument.Hethusconcludedthattheobjectwasaboxwithdialsontheoutsideandaseriesofgearwheelsinside.

Atleast20gearwheelswerepreserved,includingasophisticatedassemblyofgearsthatweremountedeccentricallyonaturntable.Thedevicealsocontainedadifferentialgear,permittingtwoshaftstorotateatdifferentspeeds.Doorswerehingedtotheboxtoprotectthedialsinside.Astoitspurpose,themechanismappearedtohavebeenadeviceforcalculatingthemotionsofstarsandplanets—aworkingmodelofthesolarsystem.

Thiswasnotjustspeculationonhispart.Pricenotedthatthefrontdialwasjustcleanenoughtoreaditsfunction:

Ithastwoscales,oneofwhichisfixedanddisplaysthenamesofthesignsofthe

zodiac;theotherisonamovableslipringandshowsthemonthsoftheyear.Bothscalesarecarefullymarkedoffindegrees.[…]Thisdialshowedtheannualmotionofthesuninthezodiac.Bymeansofkeylettersinscribedonthezodiacscale,correspondingtootherlettersontheparapegmacalendarplate,italsoshowedthemainrisingsandsettingsofbrightstarsandconstellationsthroughouttheyear.4

Priceknewhehadmerelypostponedtheinevitableandwouldhavetotackleitsage.Evidenceofitsancientorigincouldbefoundinthedeviceitself:theGreekinscriptions.PricewashelpedinthisworkbyGeorgeStamires,aGreekepigrapher.ToquotePrice:“Someoftheplatesweremarkedwithbarelyrecognizableinscriptions,writteninGreekcharactersofthefirstcenturyBC,andjustenoughcouldbemadeofthesensetotellthatthesubjectmatterwasundoubtedlyastronomical.”5Therewasnowayback,andscientistscouldonlypretendthedeviceandPrice’sanalysisdidnotexist—oraccepttheundeniabletruth:Itwasancient.ItwasGreek.Embeddedbeliefsystemsofwhattheancientswere,coulddo,anddidwouldhavetobeadjusted.

Therewasalsocircumstantialevidence,whichcreatedahistoricalframeworkintowhichthedevicefitnicely:SimilarmechanismsweredescribedbyCiceroandOvid.Cicero,writinginthefirstcenturyBC—therighttimeframe—mentionedaninstrument“recentlyconstructedbyourfriendPoseidonius,whichateachrevolutionreproducesthesamemotionsofthesun,themoonandthefiveplanets.”6HealsowroteofasimilarmechanismthatwassaidtohavebeenbuiltbyArchimedesandthatwaspurportedlystolenin212BCbytheRomangeneralMarcelluswhenArchimedeswaskilledinthesackingoftheSiciliancityofSyracuse.ThedevicewaskeptasanheirloominMarcellus’sfamily.

Despitetheseliteraryreferences,scientistsweredoubtful,andPricesummeduptheirthinking:

EventhemostcomplexmechanicaldevicesdescribedbytheancientwritersHeroofAlexandriaandVitruviuscontainedonlysimplegearing.Forexample,thetaximeterusedbytheGreekstomeasurethedistancetravelledbythewheelsofacarriageemployedonlypairsofgears(orgearsandworms)toachievethenecessaryratioofmovement.ItcouldbearguedthatiftheGreeksknewtheprincipleofgearing,theyshouldhavehadnodifficultyinconstructingmechanismsascomplexasepicyclicgears.7

Still,someonehadobviouslyappliedthetheoryandhadcomeupwithapracticaltool.Butwhohadcreatedthemachine?ThelikelysuspectmayhavebeenGreekastronomer,mathematician,andphilosopherGeminus,astudentorlatefollowerofPoseidonius.Thelatter,ofcourse,wastheonewhomCicercocreditedwithinventingexactlywhatthedevicewas.

GeminuswasaStoic,fromaschoolfoundedbyZeno,andlivedfrom135to51BC,teachingonRhodes.Rhodeswasthecenterofastronomicalresearch.GeminusnotonlyisknowntohavedefendedtheStoicviewoftheuniverse,butinparticulartodefendmathematicsfromattacksbySkepticandEpicureanphilosophers.TheAntikytheradevicewouldhavebeenrightuphisalley,asitcombinedastronomyandprovedthepowersandtheexcellencetowhichappliedmathematicscouldexcel:Scienceandmathematicscouldmimicthemotionsoftheuniverse.

Mostimportantly,helivedintherighttimeframe.Furthermore,thedateforwhichthiscalculatorwassetwastheyear86BC,whichsomeresearchershavearguedcanbeseenbythepositionsofthedialsandpointers.Asfiveconjunctionsofplanetsinfourzodiacalsignsoccurredthatyear,anidealtimetosetanastronomicalcalendar,86BCwasanimportantastronomicalyear.Thisdatehasalsoinfluencedthedatingoftheshipwreck,asmanybelieveitwillnothavebeenmuchlater;otherwisetheclockwouldhavebeenresettoanastronomicaleventatalaterdate.Manythusargueforadateof83–81BC,thoughotherspositdatessuchas71BC,addingthatthereisnoguaranteethedevicewasnotidleforanumberofyearsbeforebeingtransportedtoRome.

Allofthisunderstandingisintriguing,butforoneresearcher,MauriceChatelain,oneimportantingredientwasmissing:logic.Chatelainarguedthat“ifsomeonewantstoconstructanastronomicalcalculatorbyusingintermeshinggears,thefirstconditionistofindthenumberofcyclesnecessarytoobtainanexactnumberofwholedays.Someofthesecyclesareeasilyfoundbutmanyarenearlyimpossible.”8

Eachgearisacycle;thisishowanymechanicalclockworks:Secondsturntominutes,tohours,andinsomeclockstodays,ifnotlargercycles.Tomakesuchclockswork,notonlydothecyclesneedtobeknown,butalsotheratiosbetweenthecycles:howsecondsrelatetominutes(60:1),minutestohours(60:1),hourstodays(24:1),andsoforth.Itisdifficultenoughtoconstructsuchadeviceforthesolaryear,buttheAntikytheradevicealsoincorporatedthecyclesofthemoonandfiveofthenearestplanets.Nowonderscientistswereskepticalthatthedevicewas…adevice.

Tomakethesystemwork,thesystemwouldhavetobebasedondays,andthusthecycleswouldbeexpressedinfull,wholedays,withtheratiosbetweenthevariouscyclesbaseduponthedaycountsofthecycles,too.Thegeniusthatcreatedtheartifactwouldthushavetobeawareofthecyclesoftheheavenlybodies.ThisinitselfwaswithintheremitoftheGreekscientificcommunity—andmanygenerationsandcivilizationsolderthanthat.Akeyquestionwaswhatsystemwasused,aseachcountryhaditsown.TheGreeksusedtheso-calledMetoniccycleof19tropicalyears,butthis,Chatelainfelt,hadnorealvalueincreatingagearcalculator.

AccordingtoChatelain,onlytheEgyptiancalendarsystemissuitedforbeingusedasacalculator—andhealsofounditwastheoneatthebasisoftheAntikytheramachine:

TheseeminglycomplicatedEgyptiancalendar,basedonSirius,theSun,andalsotheMoon,actuallyworkslikeacharm.Everyfouryearsrepresentsexactly1,461dayswhichinturnrepresent49.474synodicalmoonmonths.Thislastnumberhastobemultipliedonly19timestogiveanumberofwholedays—27,759—equalto940months,or76Sothicyears,whichisthecycleoftheRhodescalculator!”9

Still,somedonotshareChatelain’senthusiasmforanEgyptianorigin.Oneinscriptiononthedeviceitselfsignificantlyreads“76years,19years.”ThisreferstotheCalippiccycleof76years,whichisfourtimestheMetoniccycleof19years,or235synodic(lunar)months.Thenextlineincludesthenumber“223,”whichreferstotheeclipsecycleof223lunarmonths.Pricereasonedthat

usingthe[Metonic]cycles,onecouldeasilydesigngearingthatwouldoperatefromonedialhavingawheelthatrevolvedannually,andturnbythisgearingaseriesofotherwheelswhichwouldmovepointersindicatingthesidereal,synodicanddraconiticmonths.Similarcycleswereknownfortheplanetaryphenomena;infact,thistypeofarithmeticaltheoryisthecentralthemeofSeleucidBabylonianastronomy,whichwastransmittedtotheHellenisticworldinthelastfewcenturiesBC.10

ThoughallofthisknowledgewasnotGreekinorigin,thequestionremainedwhetheritwasBabylonianorEgyptian.

Pricehadinjectedanewlifefluidintothedevice,andmajorbreakthroughsoccurredinthelastdecadeofthe20thcentury.Withthearrivalofpowerfulcomputers,thosemachineswereusedtoreminisceaboutwhatmanyconsideredtobetheoldestcomputer—andthelatestgenerationwasusedtoshedlightonwhatsomeconsideredtobethe“Adam”oftheline.

First,apartialreconstructionwasbuiltbyAustraliancomputerscientistAllanGeorgeBromley(1947–2002)oftheUniversityofSydney,workingtogetherwiththeSydneyclockmakerFrankPercival.ThisprojectledBromleytoreviewPrice’sX-rayanalysismadein1973andtomakenew,moreaccurateX-rayimagesthatwerestudiedbyBromley’sstudent,

BernardGardner,in1993.Later,JohnGleaveconstructedaworkingreplicaofthemechanism.Accordingtohis

reconstruction,thefrontdialshowstheannualprogressoftheSunandMoonthroughthezodiac—againsttheEgyptiancalendar.But,asiftoremainneutralintheEgyptianorGreekdebate,hestatedthattheupperreardialdisplaysafour-yearperiodandhasassociateddialsshowingtheMetoniccycleof235synodicmonths(19solaryears).Thelowerreardialplotsthecycleofasinglesynodicmonth,withasecondarydialshowingthelunaryearof12synodicmonths.

Anotherreconstructionwasmadein2002byMichaelWright,mechanicalengineeringcuratorfortheScienceMuseuminLondon,workingwiththepreviouslymentionedAllanBromley.OnNovember30,2006,thejournalNaturepublishedanarticleonWright’sandhisteam’sanalysisoftheAntikytheradevice.Itconfirmedthattheinstrumenthadbeenusedtopredictsolarandlunareclipses.ThearticlecreditedDerekdeSollaPrice,butequallystatedthat“althoughSollaPrice’sworkdidmuchtopushforwardthestateofknowledgeaboutthedevice’sfunctions,hisinterpretationofthemechanicsisnowlargelydismissed.”11

Thenewanalysisconfirmedthatthemajorstructurehadasingle,centrallyplaceddialonthefrontplatethatshowedtheGreekzodiacandanEgyptiancalendaronconcentricscales.Ontheback,twofurtherdialsdisplayedinformationaboutthetimingoflunarcyclesandeclipsepatterns.Previously,theideathatthemechanismcouldpredicteclipseshadonlybeenahypothesis.Thestudyalsorevealedsomeofthecomplexityoftheengineeringthathadgoneintothisdevice.TheMoonsometimesmovesslightlyfasterintheskythanatothersbecauseofthesatellite’sellipticorbit.Toovercomethis,thedesignerofthecalculatoruseda“pin-and-slot”mechanismtoconnecttwogearwheelsthatintroducedthenecessaryvariations.

Theteamwasalsoabletodeciphermoreofthetextonthemechanism,doublingtheamountoftextthatcannowberead.SomeoftheinscriptionsmentionthewordsVenusandstationary,suggestingthatthetoolcouldlookatretrogressionsofplanets.

Wrightalsobelievesthedevicewasnotaone-off:“Thedesignerandmakerofthedeviceknewwhattheywantedtoachieveandtheydiditexpertly;theymadenomistakes.Todothis,itcan’thavebeenveryfarfromtheireverydaystockwork.”12Soitwasprobablymassproducedatthetimeandmusthavebeentheproductofprevious,lessfancyclocks.Thatthoseearliermodelshavebeenlostinthemistsoftimeisunderstandable,butthebigquestionbywhicheveryoneisbafflediswhysuchclocksdidnotcontinuetobebuiltinthecenturiesthatfollowed—indeed,whyittookmorethanamillenniumbeforeaclockofthesametechnologicalexpertiseappearedagain.

Despiteacceptancethatthisisafirst-centuryBCplanetarium,somequestionsremain.Pricepointedoutthathehimselfdidnotknowwhetheritwasoperatedmanually,byturning,orautomatically.Hesaid:

Ifeelitismorelikelythatitwaspermanentlymounted,perhapssetinastatue,anddisplayedasanexhibitionpiece.Inthatcaseitmightwellhavebeenturnedbythepowerfromawaterclockorsomeotherdevice.PerhapsitisjustsuchawondrousdevicethatwasmountedinsidethefamousTowerofWindsinAthens.ItiscertainlyverysimilartothegreatastronomicalcathedralclocksthatwerebuiltalloverEuropeduringtheRenaissance.13

—1,500yearslater.Wright’steamarguesthatitwasmanuallyoperated,butthiswouldsomewhatworkagainstamassproduceditem,foritwouldrequirethemostworkfromthosepeoplebuyingit;careforthedevicewouldbelabor-intensive.SoperhapsPrice’shypothesisthatitwastobeusedwithinareligioussettingismoreappealing—thougheveryhypothesisiscurrentlyguesswork.

ThediscoveryoftheAntikytheradeviceledtoonegiganticrealization:thatoureverydayclockstartedasanastronomicalshowpiecethathappenedalsotoindicatethetime—andnotvice

versa,asmostbelievedhalfacenturyago.Gradually,thetime-keepingfunctionsoftheclocksbecamemoreimportant,andthedevicethatshowedthecyclesofheavenbecamesubsidiary—onlytobeforgotten,andthenreinventedalloveragain—allwheelsinclusive.

Today,thedeviceisworshippedbymanyasitisseenasthefirstcalculator-computer.PricelabeledtheAntikytheradevice“inaway,thevenerableprogenitorofallourpresentplethoraofscientifichardware.”14Itshouldnotcomeasasurprise,then,thatwhereastheoriginalmechanismisdisplayedintheBronzecollectionoftheNationalArchaeologicalMuseuminAthens,accompaniedbyareplica,anotherreplicaisondisplayattheAmericanComputerMuseuminBozeman,Montana.Insubstance,itisbronze;intellectually,itisacomputer.

Ofcourse,whattheAntikytheradeviceequallyshowsisthatahighlytechnicaldevicewasaccidentallyfoundacenturyagoandthatittookdecadesbeforethescientificcommunityevendeignedtoconsideritevidenceofascientificknowledgeofourancestors(inthiscase,theGreeks).KnowingthatScienceisactuallyquitequickandwillingtograntsuchthingstotheGreeks,itbecomesclearhowreluctantScienceistobestowtechnologicalinnovationsonourancestors.Infact,RobertTemplefoundanentireseriesofthemcompletelylostwithinthewallsofvariousmuseums.

CRYSTALLENSES

ArthurC.ClarkeprovidedthefollowingendorsementforRobertTemple’sTheCrystalSun:“shouldbereadbyallwhohaveaninterestinthehistoryofscience,andmaywellcausearevolutioninthissubject.”15Morethanadecadesinceitspublicationin2000,therearestillnosignsofarevolution(forallthereasonscitedalready),butthebookisaremarkablecollationofvariousartifacts—mostlylenses—thatTempleidentifiedinthemuseumsoftheworld.Hisconclusionwasthatallofthesemuseumshadbeensittingonartifactsthatwereevidenceofalosttechnology,datingbackatleasttothethirdmillenniumBC,involvingmakingglasslensesthatwereoftenusedforastronomicalobservations.Templenotesthat,unknowntoourmodernarchaeologistsandhistorians,ascienceofopticsandasophisticatedtechnologyforthemanufactureoflenseswaswidespreadandfundamentalinancienttimes.TemplearguesthatitexplainshowtheEgyptianssurveyedtheirpyramidsandhencewereabletobuildthemwithsuchextraordinaryprecision;likemodernsurveyors,theyusedtheequivalentoftheodoliteswithlenses.Buttheuseoflenseswasnotjustinthebuildingtrade:GreekphilosopherDemocritushadabasictelescopethroughwhichheviewedthesurfaceofthemoonanddescribedithavingmountains.

Temple’sinterestbeganin1967,whenhemetDerekdeSollaPrice,whotoldhimaboutacrystallens,ofBabylonianorAssyrianorigins,thatwasondisplayintheBritishMuseum:theLayardLens.ThelenswasexcavatedbyAustenHenryLayardin1849inachamberoftheNorth-WestPalaceoftheancientAssyriancapitalofKalhu,inthosedaysthoughttobeNineveh(whichiswhyanothernameforthislensissometimestheNinevehLens).Layardstraightforwardlyidentifieditasalens,adding:“itis,consequently,themostancientknownspecimenoftransparentglass.”16Sinceitsdiscovery,olderlenseshavebeenidentified.TheobjectwaslinkedwithSargonII,KingofAssyria,from722to705BC.

Oncediscoveredandidentifiedasalens,criticismbegantomount,includingfromclassicistThomasHenriMartin,whoarguedthat“SirDavidBrewsterthinksthatthislittlepieceofquartzhadbeenshapedtobeatrueopticallens,andnotasimpleornament.ThishypothesisoftheEnglishscholarseemstousimprobable.Thecrystalwasundoubtedlyanornament.”17Martin,ofcourse,usedthosefinescientificwordsofimprobableandundoubtedlyexpertly.Fortunately,thelikesofW.B.Barker,presidentoftheCollegeofOptometristsinLondon,cametotheobject’sdefenseandarguedforitbeingalens,evenoutliningitspotentialusageinancientastronomy.

Templesoonrealizedthatvariousmuseums,aswellasothersectionsoftheBritishMuseumitself,haddozensoflensesintheirpossessionandevenondisplay.TheycamefromAncientGreeceandBabylonia,butalsoEgypt,wherefoursuchlenseswerefoundatKaranis(currently

ondisplayintheEgyptianMuseuminCairo),thoughascribedtoRomantimes.Templealsofoundreferencestolensesinseveralancienttexts.TheskepticsarguethatEuclid

didnotmentionlensesinhisbookTheOptics.First,theworkisincomplete,butwhatarewetomakeofthisstatement:“Butthingsthoughttobegreaterthanthemselvesseemtobeincreased,andthethingsnearertheeyeappeargreater.Soobjectsincreasedinsizewillseemtoapproachtheeye.”?18Isthisnotareferencetothemagnifyingeffectofalens?Quitestraightforwardly,thosecultureswhoselensesareinsidethemuseumshadauthorswhospokeaboutlenses,asonewouldexpecttofind.

GreekgeographerandhistorianStrabowroteTheGeography,inwhichherelatesonhisvisittotheSpanishCapeSt.Vincent,themostwesternpointofEurope.HediscussesopticaleffectsofthesettingandrisingSun(refraction),butnotesthattherearetwomethodsusedtostudytheSun:onewiththenakedeye,theotherobservedthroughtubes.Templeuncoveredthat“tubes”wasactuallyasubstitution—thetranslatorsdidnotknowordidnotagreewiththeoriginaltext,orfeltthattheGreekwriterhadbeenmistakeninhiswordusage.Why?Becauseifaliteraltranslationwasmade,theobservationwasnotdonethroughatube,butthroughglassspheres!Whywasthetranslatedchanged?Becausethetranslator,G.Kramer,theGermaneditoroftheStraboeditionof1844–52,hadpronouncedittobecorrupt.Torepeat:AscientistsinglehandeddecidedtheoriginalGreektextcouldnotbetrue,asitshowedtheancientGreekspossessedglassspherestomakeastronomicalobservations,andhencepronouncedittobeanerror,andthereforesubstituteditwithanotherword,whichwasinhisopiniontherightword!Evidenceoflensesusedforastronomicalobservationswaswrittenoutofthesourcematerialbyscientists!Why?Because“thesespheresmostassuredlycouldnothavebeenemployedasastronomicalmeasuringinstruments.”19Whynot?Becausethescientistssayso.

Thirteenth-centuryEnglishphilosopherRogerBaconrelatedthatalighthouseonthecoastofNormandyhadbeenusedbyJuliusCaesartostudytheEnglishcoastlinepriortohisinvasionoftheBritishIsles.Howwasheabletodothis?Throughtheuseofatelescopeoralargetelescopicmirror.Thetelescopeistrulyonlytwolenses,heldinafixedpositionbyatube.

Inshort,Templefoundnumerousevidence,includingarchaeologicalevidence,suchasCarthaginiantowers,thatshowedthatscientistsbothdidnotwanttoandoftenwereincapableofrecognizingancientevidencethatlenseswereusedfarmorefrequentlyinancienttimes,andthatthiswentbackthousandsofyears.

TheuseoflenseswasnotlimitedtotheMediterraneanculture.TemplebelievesthattheMegalithicculturemadeuseofthemandarguesthatDiodorus’sdescriptionofHyperboreaimpliesthepresenceofalargetelescopethere,too.TheaccountstatesthatthemountainsontheMooncouldbeseenandthat“itappearstobebutalittledistancefromtheearth,”whichTemplenotes“canonlybesatisfactorilyexplainedonthebasisofthisbeingadescriptionofatelescopicexaminationoftheMoon”20andarguestherewasatleastonetelescopeinMegalithicBritain.HealsonotedthatAlexanderThom,inhissurveyofmorethan500megalithicsites,alwaysunderlinedtheiraccuracy,whichThomimplied—andTempleextrapolates—couldonlyhavebeenachievedwiththeuseofsometechnology—inotherwords,atelescopeandsimilardevices.

Ofcourse,theexistenceofancientlensesalsomeansthattherewasacapabilityofcreatingtheselenses,andthatlargelyremainsataboosubjectwithinthescientificcommunity.Howweretheymade?Where?Bywhom?Allofthesequestionsarestillwaitingforsomeonetoadoptthemandnurturethemtowardananswer.

THEBIMINICRYSTAL

CouldtherebeacrystalpyramidinthewatersoffBiminithatisoneofthesunkenremnantsofthelostcivilizationofAtlantis?Thequestioncouldbepurelytheoretical,butthequestionisfarmorepracticalandpertinent:Thereisaneyewitnessreportfromasourcewhoseclaimhasneverbeendisproven—andanartifact!

Thestorybeginsin1970,whenDr.RayBrown,anaturopathicpractitionerfromMesa,Arizona,wasscuba-divingneartheBahamas,20milesoffalocationthatisknownastheTongueoftheOcean,accordingtoaninterviewCharlesBerlitzdidwithBrownforhis1984book,Atlantis:TheEighthContinent.Brownandhisgroupwerelookingfortreasure,leftonSpanishgalleonssunkenseveralcenturiesagoandknowntobescatteredontheoceanfloor.Astormhadhitjusttheareaandhadstirreduptheoceanfloor,whichmeantthatnewbootymightbediscovered,assandhadbeenmovedaboutandmighthaveexposedportionsofthesegalleons.Apparently,thestormhadalsosweptsomeoftheteam’sequipmentandpossessionsoverboard—including,apparently,acamera—whichiswhyweonlyhaveastoryandnoaccompanyingphotographs.

Brownrecountedthatduringthedive,hebecameseparatedfromhisfellowfourdivers.Whiletryingtocatchupwiththem,henoticedapyramidshapeappearingbelowhim.Inatelevisedinterviewin1980,fortheseriesInSearchOf,Brownstatedthat“wefoundruinsandbuildingseverywhere,”addingthat“ThebuildingshadanEgyptianorclassiclooktothem.”21

Hecalculatedthatthepyramidwas22fathomsdown(44yards)androseto120feet,whilepartsofitwereobscuredbytheseafloor.Hestatedthatthejointsbetweentheblocksofthebuildingswerealmostindiscernible,thusattestingofthestructure’sgoodpreservationandconstructionexcellence.Hedescribedthecapstoneasresemblinglapislazuli,anintenseandbeautifulblue.

Moreimportantly,Browndiscoveredanentranceintothepyramid,whichhefollowed,toarriveinasmallrectangularroomwithapyramid-shapedceiling.ThoughBrownwaswithoutaflashlight,therewassomehowsufficientlightinsideforhimtosee.Hedescribedtheroomashavingnoalgaeorothermaterialattachedtothewallsandbright.Butitwasn’tthewallsthatcaughthisattention.Ametallicrod,3inchesindiameter,hungdownfromtheapexoftheceiling,theendofwhichheldamulti-facetedgem.Below,ontheflooroftheroom,stoodacarvedstonetoppedbyastoneplate,whichheldtwometalbronzehands.Insidethetwohandswasacrystalsphere,whichBrowndecidedtotakewithhim.Previously,hehadtriedtodislodgethemetallicrodfromtheceiling,butwasunableto.Brownrelatesthatasheleftthestructure,heheardavoice,warninghimnevertoreturn.

AvariationofthediscoveryemergesinPreparefortheLandings,inwhichauthorsMichaeelandAuroraEllegionrelatethattheybefriendedBrowninthe1980sandthathedisclosedthatthediscoverywasmadein1968,not1970;thathewasononeoftheboatswiththefamousFrenchdiverJacquesCousteau;andthatthesitewasnotofftheBahamas,but100mileswest,towardSouthBimini.Despitedifferentcircumstancesandlocation,allotherdetailsofthepyramidandwhattranspiredinsideareidenticaltoaccountsthatBrownrepeatedlytoldinpublic.WhenresearcherGregLittleinquiredwiththeCousteauSociety,helearnedthatBrownwasdefinitelynotpartofanyCousteauexpedition.Asmentioned,though,intelevisionandotherinterviews,Brownwasconsistentthathemadethediscoveryin1970,not1968,andthefactthatsomeretoldhisstorydifferently,yearsafterhisdeath,isnotBrown’sfault.

Extraordinarytreasuresnotonlyrequireextraordinaryevidence,theyalsocomewithextraordinaryemotionsinthepersonwhohasdiscoveredthem.InthecaseofBrown,hesaidthattherewasfear—fearthatthegovernment,whetherlocalorUnitedStates,wouldconfiscatehiscrystalifhemadeitpublic.By1975,itseemsthattheimportanceofthefindandmakingitknowntotheworldoutweighedthisfear.Still,inhindsight,hewouldonlyshowthecrystalsphereaboutahalfdozenorsotimes,buteacheventwas…eventful,withthevisitorsdescribingaseriesofstrangeactivitiesassociatedwithit.Then,lessthanadecadeaftergoingpublic,Browndisappearedoffstage,takinghisspherewithhim.Thestoryremainedandbecameanoften-repeatedstoryofevidenceofalostcivilization,butnothingmore.

Partoftheproblem—andBrown’sproblem—wasthateventhoughtherewasanartifact,therewasonlyBrown’swordforit.Therearenophotographsofthepyramid,asBrownwasdivingwithoutacamera.NooneafterwardwasabletolocatethesiteorfindthestructuresBrown

claimedhehaddiscovered.Thesphereisremarkable,butitisonlyacrystalsphere,withnoirrefutablepowersthatwouldmakeeveryoneconvincedweareinthepresenceofoneofthemostimportantancientartifactsontheplanet.IntheinterviewwithBerlitz,Brownrelatedthat“I’mnottheonlypersonwhohasseentheruins—othershaveseenthemfromtheairandsaytheyarefivemileswideandmorethanthatinlength.”22Buttheproblemwasthatifthatweretrue,noneofthosewitnesseswereonrecordorhadspokenoutaboutit.Brownwasonemanwithanartifactandastorytellingamostinteresting,butuncorroboratedtale.Itmeantthatinthefinalanalysis,itallboredowntoonequestion:Washebelievable?

Then,Dr.Browndisappearedoffthescene.Hediedintheearly1990s,andthestoryofthecrystalwasmentionedbysome,butlargelywasjust“oneofthosestories,”withnoproof,asthefateofthecrystalspherewasunknown.Then,between2005and2010,thecrystal—todaydubbedbysome“TheAtlantisOrb”—resurfaced,inthehandsofArthurFanning,aresidentofSedona(Arizona),whoreferstotheobjectasthe“EyeofGod.”

ImetArthurFanninginAmsterdam,inearlyNovember2009,whenhewasinvitedasalecturerattheFrontierSymposium2009.Iwasabletomeetthesphereinaprivatesetting,aswellashangoutwiththenewownerhimself.Arthurwasdowntoearthandrelaxed,thoughdidtakethespherewithhimeverywhere,keepingitinaspeciallydesignedpouchonhisbelt.Heletspeopleseeandbearoundthesphere,eveninvitingmembersofanalmost-500-bigaudienceontothestagetocomeandseethesphereforthemselves.

WhenIcontactedhimtoverifysomedetailsastohowhegotthesphereinhispossession,FanningsaidthathehadknownBrownpersonally.AfterFanninghadheldachanneling,“heinvitedmetoafriend’shouseforaprivateshowingofthesphere.BeforeRaypassedon,[D.J.]receivedthesphere.Hehaditforaboutaweekbuttheenergywastoointenseandhegaveittome.Hesaidhewasguidedtodoso.”23FanningalsoinheritedapicturethatRayhadcommissioned,whichdepictedhowthesphereinsidethepyramidwasinthetwohandsthathelditandthegolden-coloredrodthatcamedownfromtheceilingthathadthered-facetedpointhoveringoverthesphere.

ThereisnodoubtthatFanning’sspherewasBrown’s,butitisalsoclearthatittookFanningsometimeafterreceivingtheobjectbeforedecidinghewouldshowit.LikeBrown,gettingmassivepublicattentiontotheobjectisnothisdesire,thoughoncehehasanaudience,heallowseveryonetoseeit—asperBrown’smodusoperandi.Ateachdisplay,FanningofferseveryonetheopportunitytoverifytheinterestingcharacteristicsassociatedwithBrown’scrystal:whenturnedintoaspecificposition,inthecenterofthecrystal,threepyramid-shapedobjectsbecomevisible.Fromanothervantagepoint,asinglehumaneyewassaidtomanifestitself.

DuringbothBrown’sandFanning’sexhibitionsoftheobject,therewerewidespreadinterpretationandspeculationofwhatallofthismeant.AnassociationwithAtlantiswaseasilydrawn,asitwas,afterall,discoveredinasunkenpyramid.Experimentswithcompassneedlesalsorevealedthatwhentheneedlewasplacednexttotheorb,itwouldspincounter-clockwise,butwhenmovedaslittleas2inchesawayfromthesphere,itwouldspinclockwise.OntheInSearchOfshow,Brownshowedhowthespherealsomagneticallyrepelledobjects—showingthatthesphereisdefinitelynotanobjecthequicklyboughtinashoppingmall.

CouldBrown’scrystalbearemnantofAtlantis?WasthepyramidinwhichhediscoveredtheobjectaremnantofAtlantis,too?ThefactthatBrown’sstoryinvolvedasunkenpyramidoffthecoastofBiminiobviouslybringshisstoryintotherealmofAmericanpsychicEdgarCayce,whoproclaimedthat,after1968,evidenceofAtlantiswouldbefoundoffthecoastofBimini.WasBrown’sstorythefulfillmentofthisprophecy—howeverpoorCayce’strackrecordforpredictingthefuturewas?

AndwhattothinkofBrown?Heobviouslydidnotdoitforthemoney.Hoaxersoftengoforfameandifso,Browndefinitelyachievedhisgoal.Therearenophotographs.Therearenocorroboratingwitnessreports.SothecentralquestionisalwayswhetherBrowncanbebelieved.

GregLittlerelatesthatafteranappearanceontheCoast-to-CoastradioshowinwhichhetackledBrown’ssphere,hereceived“anemailfromanelderlymanwhosaidhehadbeenafriendofBrownsincechildhood.AfterexchangingafewemailsherelatedthatBrownconfidedtohimthattheentireaffairwasahoaxBrownconcoctedtotakeadvantageofallofthemediacontroversythathadbeenstirredupbythe1968discoveryoftheBiminiRoad.”24LittleaddsthatthereisnoevidencetosupporttheclaimthathiscontactknewBrownorspeaksthetruth.However,ifBrowndidwanttobepartoftheBiminiRoadasevidenceforAtlantiscontroversy,hewaitedalongtime—sevenyears—beforehebegantoshowthecrystal.Ifhehadimmediatelylaunchedhisstoryin1970,itwouldseemlogical.ButwithBrown’ssagabeginningin1975,ifitwasahoax,itwaslargelyastand-alonecampaign.Furthermore,BrowndidnotmakemanyreferencestoCayce,theBiminiRoad,orotherbuzzwordsthatcouldmakehisstoryfarmoresensationalandknownthanwhathedid.

Someofthosewhohavelookedintothestory,suchasGregLittle,haveconcludeditisalikelyhoaxandpointoutthattheweakestelementofthestoryisthatnoneoftheotherfourdiverseversteppedforward.Butthereisaperfectlynormalexplanationforthis,whichLittleseemsnottohavecaught:WhenBrowntoldthebasicstory,ofhowheheardavoicesay“Youhavegotwhatyoucamefor.Nowleaveanddon’tcomeback,”heexpandedthattheotherdivershadheardthesamevoiceandwarning,eventhoughtheywerenotinsidethepyramid.ApparentlyawarethatBrownhadfoundsomething,buttheyhadn’t,theydecidedtoreturn,butdrownedduringthatdive.Thepossibilitythattheotherdiversdied,ofcourse,explainswhynooneofthemeversteppedforward.ItcouldalsobethereasonwhyBrownwaitedforfiveyearsbeforegoingpublicwiththestoryanditcouldevenbethereasonwhy—ifwearetoaccepttheEllegions’versionasaccurateonsomecounts—whyonoccasionBrowndecidedtochangethelocationofwherepreciselyithadhappened.Indeed,onemightarguethatknowingthathewaswarnednottocomebackandthatthosewhodid,died,itwouldbeprudentnottogiveanaccuratelocation,knowingthatfuturedivers,evenifonlytryingtoverifyBrown’saccount,couldmeetasimilarfate.Ofcourse—toringtheskepticalbell—thenotionthatfourpeoplehaddiedandBrownremainedtheonlyeyewitnessisalsotheperfectcircumstancecreatedifitwereallahoax.Forahoax,thereneedstobemotivation,andtheonekeydenominatorabouttheentireBrownandtheCrystalSpheresagaisthatnoonehasseenBrownasatricksterorahoaxer,andthattheentiremethodologyofhowhewentaboutitwasthatofamanwhohadagenuineartifact,andnotsomeonewhoknewhehadcreatedaperfecthoaxandwasgoingtoexploitittothefullest.

WithBrown,allwehavetodayareasphereandamuteobject—excepttothosewhocanpsychicallyconnecttoit—whichhassomeanomalouscapabilities,butwhichmightneedtobetestedfurtherinthenearfuture.Ifso,thenBrown’scrystalspheremightfinallymakeitintotheranksoftrulyamazinganomalousartifactsthatchallengeourcurrentparadigmofwhathumanity’spastlookedlike.Staringintoit,whenweseethreepyramids,dowealsoseethisfutureforthisobject?

TALKINGTOGOD

TheArkoftheCovenant.IndianaJoneswentinsearchofit,anditsfateandwhereaboutscontinuetoenthrallmillions.Itseemsthatitsfamehasovertakensomeverybasicobservationsaboutthis…device.

InExodus,GodwassaidtohaveinstructedMosesonMountSinaionhowtoconstructtheArk.Theaccountitselfretainedthesedetailedinstructions,includingitsdimensions,material(gold-plated),andfinishing.Infact,agreatamountofspecificswereretainedinabookthatisnowlargelyseenasreligiousinnature,ratherthanengineering:Fourringsofgoldweretobeattached(twooneachside)tothecentralpartoftheArk,andthroughtheserings,stavesofshittim-woodoverlaidwithgoldweretobeinserted,sothattheArkcouldbecarried.Itwasstatedthesewerenottoberemoved.

TheBiblemakesitclearthattheArkenablesGodtocommunicatewithMoses,andsowhatwehaveisanaccountofdivinetechnology:manbuildingadevicethroughwhichGodcanbe

contacted,thedesignapparentlyoriginatingwithGod.TheBibleitselfcontainsevidencethatthiswasindeedtechnology.Forexample,thosecarryingithadtowearspecificclothing,andthereareanumberofincidentsinwhichpeoplewereaccidentallykilledbytheArk.Equally,thoughtheArkwascarriedbytheIsraelitesduringtheir40yearsofwanderinginthedesert,whentheIsraelitescamped,theArkwasplacedinitsowntent,outsideofthemaincamp.ThiswasnotbecauseGoddemandedprivacy,butbecausetheArkwasunderstoodtobeadangerousdevice,tobekeptawayfrompeopleasmuchaspossible.

TheArkalsoaccomplishedsomemiracles,whichbiblicalscholarswouldascribetotheWillofGod,butwhichseemtohaveamoretechnologicalexplanation.WhenJoshuacrossestheRiverJordan,theArkwascarriedatthefrontofthecommunity.Duringthecrossing,theriverdriedupassoonasthefeetofthepriestscarryingtheArktouchedthewaterandremainedsountilthesamepriestslefttheriverafterallthepeoplehadpassed.SomemightarguethiswasclearevidenceofGod’sdirectinterventioninthis“miracle,”butthiswasaneffectoftheArk,notGod,andtheIsraelitesknewit.TheArkwascarriedintotheRiver,thewatersdisappeared,andthepriests,ratherthanadvancingtotheothershore,remainedontheriverbed,astheyknewthatassoonastheywouldwalkoff,thewaterswouldreturn.TheeffectwascausedbytheArk,anditsnaturewastechnological.

VariousdesignsastohowtheArkoperatedhaveofcoursebeenproposed,anditisunlikelywewilleverknoworbeabletoverifyhowtheArktrulyfunctioned,butonaquitefundamentalreading,itappearstobethattheArkwasadevice.ThoughmanyhavewrittenabouttheArkbeingatypeof“MannaMachine,”inwhichitsomehowdispensedfoodtotheIsraelites,myopinionisthatthiswasapieceoftechnologythatindeedallowedcommunicationwiththedivine.Weactuallyknowthatthisisnottheonlydeviceofthiskind,thoughitisdefinitelythemostfamousone.

TheAncientEgyptiansstatedthattheywereableto“animate”statuesoftheirgods,sothatthegodscouldspeaktothem.Variousancientculturesdidthesame.Inanumberofinstances,whathasbeendiscoveredwasthatthiswereprehistoricspecialeffects,inwhichthestatuehadaseriesoftubesinstalled,normallyleadingtoasmallroom,whereapriestwashiddenwhocouldthenutterthedivinewords,asiftheywereemanatingfromthestatue,thesoundtravelingfromhishideout,viathetubes,tothestatue.

Suchexamplesdoexist,butcantheyexplaineverything?Forexample,itwasalsosaidthatthistechnologyofanimatingastatueresultedinthisstatuebeingabletowalk.Recently,inaScandinavianmuseum,itwasreportedbythecleaningstaffthattheyhadobservedsomeoftheEgyptianstatuesmovingintheirdisplaycases—allbythemselves.Onemightthinkthisisatalltale,butitjusthappenstobepreciselywhattheAncientEgyptianssaidthesestatuescoulddo.

Thetopicisalsoapplicabletocrystalskulls.Thoughmanyoftheseskullsareofmodernorigins,ahandful,suchasMAXandtheMitchell-HedgesCrystalSkull,arenot.25“Psychics”whohaveworkedwiththeseskullshavecomeawaywithinformationthattheyclaimtheseskullshavecommunicatedtothem.

Mywife,KathleenMcGowan,communicatedwithMAXinMarch2009,askingquestionsaboutanumberofpeopleshewasabouttomeet,oneofwhomwasme.Atthismeeting,webothfellinloveandmonthslater,Kathleenconsultedhernotes,inwhichMAXhadtoldher“youwillshowPhiliplove,”whichatthetimeshethoughtmeantmeintroducingtoafriendofhers,whichshefullyexpectedtobethestartofarelationship.MAXhadamoredirectrelationshipbetweenKathleenandmeinmind,andheknewandtoldher,thoughshetooknonoticeofitatthetime.

InMarch2011,wespentaweekendwithMAXinAlbuquerque,NewMexico.OnSaturdayofthatweekend,severalpeoplecamefor30-minute,privatesessionswithMAX,andmanyhungaroundafterthesessionsforafewminutestospeakwithJoAnnParks,theownerofMAX.Noneofthesepeoplekneweachother,butthosewhosaidMAXhadcommunicatedwiththemonthatdayallcameoutoftheirprivatesessionwithahighlyconsistentstory,whichwasquiteclearevidencethattheywereindeedpickingupcommunicationsfromthisskull—MAX.This

informationwasnotgeneric(suchas“respectyourparents”),butveryspecificandalsohighlydetailedabouteventsthatwerehappening,presentingtheminamannerthatthesepeoplecouldnothavegleanedelsewhere.MAX’stakeonsomecurrenteventswasveryunique.

Egyptianstatuesorcrystalskullsareallmadefrommaterialsthatourmodernsocietyisusingforinformationstorage.Weusequartzinourwatches,andweusesandinourcomputers.Today’scomputerageislargelybasedonsandandrocks,andweknowthatthesearecapableofretaininginformation.Thatourancestorsfiguredoutthesameandthattheymayhaveusedsandandrocksinsimilarfashion—thoughmoreartisticallybymakingthemphysicallyattractiveintheshapeofastatueoracrystalskull—isapossibilitythatweshouldnotalltooeasilydisregard.Alas,noresearchatallhasoccurredorisoccurringinthisfield,whichmeansthatanswersastohow—andindeedwhetherornot—theydidmightstillbealongtimeinthefuture.

Chapter6EARTH.SEVERALTENSOFTHOUSANDSYEARSBC

THELOSTCONTINENTOFMU

JamesChurchwardwasapatentedinventor,anengineer,andamanwhoclaimedthathehadfoundevidenceofalostcivilization:Mu.MuwassaidtohavebeenthePacificequivalentofAtlantis,thoughChurchwardsaidAtlantis’soriginwasactuallyasacolonyofMu,acivilizationthatwasmucholderthanAtlantis.

ThefirstmantowriteaboutMuwasAugustusLePlongeon,whoinarchaeologicalcircleshasthedistinctionofbeingthefirsttomakeaphotographicrecordoftheruinsofChichenItza.InhisbooksSacredMysteriesAmongtheMayansandQuiches(1886)andQueenMooandtheEgyptianSphinx(1896),LePlongeonrelatedhisdeciphermentoftheso-calledTroanoCodex,whichheclaimedshowedthattheMayaweretheancestorsoftheAncientEgyptians.HeclaimedthatthedocumentalsorevealedthattheMayanshadoriginatedfromalostcivilization,Mu,whichwasonparwithAtlantis,andwhichhadbeendestroyedbyavolcaniceruption.HeaddedthatQueenMoo—clearlylinkedwithMu—hadtraveledfromthiscontinenttoEgypt,whereshehadgonedownintothehistorybooksunderhernewnameofIsis.Unfortunately,whentheMayanlanguagewasdecipheredseveraldecadeslater,itwaslearnedthatLePlongeon’sinterpretationofthisdocumentwascompletelyerroneous,sometimesevenusinglettersthatwereinfactnosuchthing.JackChurchward,adescendentofJamesChurchward,statesthatLePlongeonreliedonthetranslationofBrasseurdeBourbourg.JackChurchwardreceivedane-mailfromoneofdeBourbourg’sdescendants,whostatedthatthetranslationwasdonebychannelingaspirit,whichexplainswhyLePlongeonerredsomuchwhenheinterpretedthedocumentbasedonthistranslation.

LePlongeondidputthelostcivilizationofMuonthebooks,butleftittotheosophistHelenaBlavatskytopopularizethelostcontinent,claimingitwasthemysticalbirthplaceofocculttraditions.ButthemanwhobroughtMufromtheoryandspeculationtorealitywasJamesChurchward,whoclaimedtohavefoundhardphysicalevidenceforthecontinent’sexistence,whenhewasshownasecretlibraryinIndia.

BorninBritain,ChurchwardeventuallysettledintheUnitedStates.Itwasyearsbefore,though,whilelivinginSriLanka,whereheownedateaplantationwithhiswife,thathetraveledtoIndia.Duringthisjourney,helaterclaimed,hefoundalostepochofhumanity’shistory.InIndia,hebefriendedapriestwhotaughtChurchwardtoreadanancientdeadlanguage.Allegedly,thepriestandtwoothersweretheonlypeopleintheworldabletoreadit.Thelanguagewaswrittendownonnumeroustablets,whichthepriestallowedChurchwardtoseeandread.Churchwardintimatesinhisbooksthathetrickedthepriestintoshowinghimthetablets,aswellasteachinghimthemeaningofthedeadlanguage.Ashedidso,Churchwardclaimed,herealizedthatthetabletshesawwerenotthecompletelibrary.Nevertheless,hewasabletocreateahomogenouspictureofthelostcivilizationofMubyconsultingothersourcesandpeople.

Theseeventshappenedinthelate19thcentury,eventhoughChurchwardonlywentpublicwithhisMumaterialin1924—averylongtimetoremainsilentaboutsuchatremendousexistence.Toogoodtobetrue?No,asitisknownthatChurchwardhadbeeninterestedinancientcivilizationslongbeforethepublicationofhisbook.Inthe1890s,hediscussedthesubjectofMuwithLePlongeonandhiswife,Alice.JackChurchwardstatesthatanunseenpublicationfromhisancestorisCopiesofStoneTabletsFoundByWilliamNivenatSantiagoAhuizoctlaNearMexicoCity.Itisknownthatin1927,ChurchwardandLePlongeonexchangedletters.

Churchward’sdiscoverybecamefamouswhenamajorarticleonitappearedonNovember10,1924,intheNewYorkAmericannewspaper.Init,thecentralframeworkofChurchward’sclaimsaboutMuwasputforward.Thecivilizationwaslabeled“EmpireoftheSun.”Itwasonceacivilizationthathad64millioninhabitants,knownastheNaacals,thepriestlybrotherhood,

keepersofthesacredwisdom,wholived50,000yearsago.Allknownancientcivilizations—India,Egypt,andtheMayas—weredecayedremnantsofitsmanycolonies.

In1926,attheageof75,ChurchwardpublishedTheLostContinentofMu:MotherlandofMan.WherewasMu?ItextendedfromnorthofHawaiitotheFijisandEasterIsland.Geologistsfindithardtoimaginedrylandhere,astheareaiscrossedbytheso-calledAndesiteLine,makingitgeologicallyunlikelytherewasalandmasshere.

AsChurchwardneverproducedanyevidenceforhisvisittotheNaacalLibrary,severalpeopletreathisclaimswithskepticism.SowasChurchwardaliar,orsomeonewithgenuineexperiences?Tounderstandthemanbetter,itisnotedthatsomeaspectsoftheMulegendareoriginaltoChurchward,andsomearen’t.ItwasLePlongeonwhohadfirstwrittenabouttheNaacal,in1896,whereheidentifiesthemasMayaadeptsandmissionaries,withthewordNaacalmeaning“theexalted.”ButLePlongeonidentifiedtheirhomelandasCentralAmerica,notMuinthePacificOcean,whichwasspecifictoChurchward.

WhataboutChurchward’srelationshipwithBlavatsky?TheybothclaimedthatinIndia,theyhadbeenexposedtolostknowledge.InthecaseofBlavatsky,hersourceoflostknowledgewastheBookofDzyan,supposedlywritteninAtlantisandpresentedtoherbytheIndianMahatmas.

Indeed,thoughitcouldbearguedthatChurchwardmerelycopiedfromthelikesofBlavatskyandLePlongeoninhisexploitofMu,atthesametime,itcouldbesaidthathisstoryistotallytrue,thatitconfirmsBlavatsky’sassertions,andthatChurchwardspentseveraldecadescementinghiscasebeforehewentpublicandwrotehisseriesofbooksonthesubject.

ChurchwardwaslivinginIndiainthe1880s,beforehemovedtotheUnitedStatesin1889.ItisduringhistimeinIndiawhenheallegedlymadecontactwiththeseIndianadepts,allowingforaperiodofroughlyadecadewherehecouldbefriend,learn,andstudythelanguage—morethansufficienttime.Churchwardsaidhestudiedthelanguagethatwassaidtobehumanity’soriginallanguage,whichhehadlabeledNaga-Maya,formorethantwoyears.

AfterhavingreadtheNaacaldocuments,hecontinuedhissearchesforfurtherinformation.InBurma,hevisitedanancientBuddhisttempleinsearchofthemissingrecords,carryinglettersofintroductionfromtheIndianhighpriestswithwhomhestudied.

WhatislackingfromChurchward’saccountisanyverifiableinformation.HisstorytrulyhingesonwhetherornotheacquaintedanIndianpriestandsawnumerousraretablets.Thereisnothingtosubstantiateit,though,ithastobesaid,nothingtodebunkit.Itissimplyamatterofbelief:whetheryoubelieveitornot.

Asaresult,foryears,thestoryofChurchwardthereforeremainedalegend,whilehisbookswerereprintedasgenerationaftergenerationwasintroducedtohiswritings.Butneveranythingnewwasfoundthatmightchangethestatusquo.

ThatchangedwhenGermanindependentresearcher,author,andtravelagencymanagerThomasRitterclaimedhehadenteredasecretlibraryunderneathSriEkambaranathatempleinKanchipuram,India,inwhichhehasfoundevidenceofthelostcivilizationofMu.HeclaimsthatonJuly23,2010,hewascontactedbyonePachayappa,whoinvitedhimtoentertheundergroundcomplex—andevenallowedhimtophotographsomeofitscontents!Ritterstatesthat“atchamberno.4thepriestonlyallowedmetotakepicturesfromtwotablets,notfromallthisbooksthere.Thetwotabletsheshowedme,arealittlebitdamaged.Butyoucanseeclearlytheinscriptions.”1

TheTempleComplexofSriEkambaranathainIndiaiswhere,accordingtoThomasRitter,thereisanundergroundcomplexthatcontainsevidenceofthemythicalcontinentofMu.MuwasallegedlyacontinentintheIndianorPacificOcean.Despiteyearsofsearchingforevidence,thereisnoarchaeologicalorhistoricalevidencethatMuhaseverexisted.ImagecopyrightSsirammt.MadeavailableaspartoftheCreativeCommonsLicense

onWikimedia.Thesetwotabletsaretheso-calledNaacaltablets,whichJamesChurchwardclaimedtohave

seenmanydecadesbefore.WhenRitterpublishedthematerial,therewasimmediatelyatorrentofdisbelief,nothelpedbytherealizationthatwhatRitterapparentlyshowedwasatabletunearthedinByblos(Lebanon),discoveredbyFrencharchaeologistMauriceDunand.Becauseofthesmallamountofwritingonthetablets,theyhavesofarnotbeendeciphered,thoughthescriptisidentified—Proto-Byblian—andthereforenotrelatedtoIndia.Indeed,thetabletpresentedbyRitterisintheBeirutMuseum(Cat.16598)andnotasecretlibraryinIndia.

RitterclaimsthatonhistripinJuly2010,hewasnotwelcomedbytheusualyoungpriestNarjan,whomheknewwell,butanelderman,Pachayappa,who,unlikeNarjan,didnotspeakEnglish.PachayappadidimmediatelyshowhimthingsNarjanneverhad.Hetookhimdownintotheundergroundstructuresofthetemplecomplex.Ritterstates:“Beforeaniron-bounddoorhestoppedandpointedwithsomegesturetothebottom:‘Rishiplace!’”2Thenheopenedthedoor,behindwhichtheNaacallibrarywaslocated.

WhetherRitterislyingornot,hehasatleastspecificallyidentifiedatempleasthelocationofthelibrary:theSriEkambaranathaTempleinKanchipuram,inthestateofTamil(India).Thegatetowerofthetemplecomplexmeasuresmorethan60meterstall,makingitthelargesttempletowerinSouthernIndia;ismadefromgranite;andisdecoratedwiththeimagesofgods,goddesses,andheroes.ThecomplexisaHindutemplededicatedtoLordShivaandisoneofthefivemajorShivatemples,eachofwhichrepresentsanaturalelement.TheSriEkambaranathaTemplerepresentstheelementearth.Thetemple’shistorydatesbacktoatleastAD600,thoughitcouldbeolderandisnotoriousforitshallwaywithathousandpillars,asthetemple’sinnerwallsaredecoratedwithanarrayof1,008Shivalingams,asymbolofthemaleenergy.

Ritterhasdrawnattentiontothesubterraneansystemofthiscomplex,whereheclaimsthereare10chambers.Innineofthesechambers,theystoredthetablets.Eachroommeasured25meterslongand15meterswide,withtheceilingquitelow;hecouldtouchitwhenhestretched

hisarmout.PachayappaclaimedthattheinscriptionsdetailedtheRishiPuranas,thelivesoftheculturebringersofAncientIndia.Insidewereblackgranitetables,andthereweretensofthousandsofstonetablets.Ritternotesthat“bothsidesofsuchpostcard-sizedstonetabletsengravedwithtinylineswerenarrowcharacterscoveredinanunfamiliarscript.Otherplatesshowedfinegeometricpatternsonrunning,technicaldrawings,mapsandastronomicalimages.”3Whenheaskedwhattheycontained,hesaiditwasthelegacyoftheSevenSages.

Inthefirstthreechambers,thetabletsaremadefromblackgranite;inthenextthree,fromgold.Eachgoldentabletwas14by10centimeters,andabout2to3millimetersthick,andwereboundtogetherasinbooks.

Inthefinalthreerooms,hefoundsilverandbronzetabletsthatwerehardtoread,soRitterusedahandkerchieftopolishthetablet,restoringittoitsoriginalstate.

Ritterclaimshewasonlyallowedtophotographtwotablets.Allofthesechambershaveinscriptions,describingthelivesanddeedsoftheRishis,andhasproducedphotographsoftheseinscriptions.

The10throomwaslocatedattheendofthecorridor.Inthemiddleoftheroomroseacolumnofabout1.5metershighfromasolidblackmaterial,and,accordingtoPachayappa,thematerialwasnotstone.BehindthelingamwerestatuesoftheSevenRishis,placedinasemi-circle,andtheyweremadefromashimmeringmetal,whichRitterthoughtcouldbegoldorsilver-plated.OneofthemhewasabletoidentifyasAghasthiya,whoisalwaysdepictedasadwarf.

Throughouttherooms,Ritteralsosawrollsofmetalfoils,oneofwhichPachayappaopened.Heclaimedtheywereeasytounrollandthatthematerialwasverythin,remindinghimoftitanium,asitdidnottearorwrinkle.Thecharactersinscribedonitwereetched,ratherthanengraved,andRitterrealizedthathehadseenoneoftheserollsbefore:inChurchward’sbooks.

Atthebackofthisroomwasanotherdoor,butPachayappaindicatedthathewouldnotopenthisforRitter.Hedidlearnthatthedoorledtoalargeundergroundtunnelsystem,someofwhicharesaidtoconnecttotownsseveraltensofmilesaway.

Ritterstatesthatnon-Hindusandforeignersnormallyfindthelibraryclosedtothem,andevenaccesstothecentralpartofthetempleisforbidden.ItisRitter’sconvictionthatitwasherethatChurchwardwasshowntheNaacaltabletsandthathe,morethanacenturylater,steppedintoChurchward’sfootsteps.

JackChurchwardhasstudiedthematerialofhisancestorsindetailandremainsskepticalofRitter’smaterial.RitterclaimsthatsomeofthescrollshefoundwerethesameasChurchwardfound.JackChurchward,however,adds:“IfJameswasthere,thenthetabletswouldhavebeenwrappedandputawayinwhatJamesreferredtoas‘chatties,’andthereforenotvisible.Jamessaidasmuchinhisbooks.Ritterdoesnotsayanythingotherthanhesawasymbol,hedoesn’tknowthatthetabletsJamessawwereunfiredclay,orthatthetabletswouldhavebeenpackedaway.Justmytwocents.”4

JackChurchwardhasbeenaskingRitterformoreevidence,includingphotographs,tobackuphisextraordinaryclaims,butsofar,Ritterhasnotbeenforthcoming,includingmissingadeadlineuponwhichhepromisedhewoulddeliversuchmaterial.MyowntwoattemptstocontactRitterequallyreceivednoreply.GermanresearcherswhomIcontactedarguedthatIshouldplacenofaithinRitter’sclaimswhatsoeverandevensuggestedIshouldnotspeakoftheman.

EventhoughthereisnoevidenceforRitter’sorChurchward’sclaims,throughoutthe20thcentury,theseandotherstorieswereabletoinspiremanypeopletoleavethecomfortableconfinesoftheWesternworldbehindandtraveltoAsia,insearchofevidenceofthislostcivilizationanditsremnants,whichweresaidtobefoundinsecretparts.AndtheIndianaJonesstorieswererighttoincludetheNazisaspartofthosewhowereenamoredbytheselegends.

THEQUESTFORTHELOSTCIVILIZATIONS

In1938,aNaziexpeditionsetouttofindtheoriginsoftheAryanrace,thoughttobelocatedsomewhereinthesacredmountainsofTibet.SponsoredbySSchiefHeinrichHimmler,theexpeditionwasledbyErnestSchäfer,anaturalist,andBrunoBeger,ananthropologist.TheexpeditionreachedtheTibetancapitalofLhasainthebeginningofJanuary1939.Fromthemiddleofthe19thcentury,Tibetanditscapitalhadbeenclosedtoforeigners.ButtheNaziexpeditionmadeit,spendingthenexteightmonthsinTibet,beforefleeingsouthtoCalculatta,takingwiththem120volumesoftheTibetanbible,theKangyur,hundredsofpreciousartifacts,andrareanimals.

Manyclaimshavebeenmade,oneofwhichisthattheexpeditionwastodiscoveraconnectionbetweenAtlantisandthefirstcivilizationofCentralAsia.SchäferbelievedthatTibetwasthecradleofhumanity,whereacasteofpriestshadcreatedamysteriousempireknownasShambhala,adornedwiththeBuddhistwheeloflife,theswastika,andthatthemenweremagiciansthemselves,intentonforginganalliancewiththeTibetanmysticalcitiesofAghartiandShambhala.In1922,PolishexplorerFerdynandOssendowskiwroteBeasts,MenandGods,inwhichherelatesthatonhistravelsthroughAsia,hewastoldofasubterraneankingdomthatwasknowntotheBuddhistsasAgharti.TherearedefinitelysuchtraditionsinAsia,astheTibetanandIndianBuddhistsspeakofthissubterraneankingdom,thoughtheynameitShambhalaandlocateit“somewhere”inInnerAsia.Theplacewasoriginallyseenasoneofpeaceandhappiness,thoughitwouldlatertransformintoaplaceofpurity.Therewerealsovariouslegendsattachedtoit,especiallypropheciesaboutthefateoftheworld.

ShambhalawassaidtoberuledbyalineofkingsknownasKalkiKings,whoweresaidtoupholdtheintegrityoftheKalachakratantra,deemedtobeoneofthemostcomplexformsoftantricBuddhism.TheKalachakrapropheciesstatethatwhentheworldwouldberuledbywarandgreed,the25thKalkikingwouldemergefromthehiddenkingdomwithahugearmytovanquishthedarkforcesandusherinaworldwideGoldenAge.Eversincethe17thcentury,peoplehavebeentryingtolocateit.PortugueseCatholicmissionaryEstêvãoCacellaactuallythoughtitwasanothernameforCathayorChina.In1627,heheadedoutonamissiontofindit,butfailed.

InGermany,Himmlerwasfascinatedbylostcivilizations,Indianwisdom,andalternativemedicine.Ifhehadlivedinthe1960s,hewouldhavebeenaleadingmanintheFlowerPowermovement,butashewastheheadoftheSS,heusedhispowertotryandfindanswersinfarmorecruelways,includingexperimentingonprisonersofwartotesthistheoriesontheancientGermansuper-race,whichhethoughtwassomewherelost.HefoundedtheAhnenerbespecificallytoadvancethestudyoftheAryanraceanditsorigins.From1935onward,aseriesofexpeditionswasorganizedtofindevidenceinsupportoftheseandothertheoriesthatwoulduncoverthislostAryanrace.In1937,theNazigovernmentsentarchaeologistFranzAltheimandhiswife,photographerErikaTrautnann,toValCamonicatostudythefamousprehistoricrockinscriptionsthathadbeenfoundthere.Upontheirreturn,AltheimclaimedthattheyhadfoundtracesofNordicrunesontherocks,arguingthatAncientRomewasoriginallyNordic,andhenceAryan.Thatsameyear,HimmlerinvestigatedtheclaimsofHansF.K.Günther—namelythatearlyAryanshadconqueredmuchofAsia,includingattacksagainstChinaandJapan,inapproximately2000BC.GüntherwentasfarastoclaimthatGautamaBuddhawasofAryanoffspring.ButofalltheexpeditionsHimmlersponsoredororganized,theTibetanexpeditionwasthelargestandmostambitious.HewaslikelyinspiredbythefailedexpeditionofthegreatRussianmysticNicholasRoerich,whoin1926hadtriedtoenterTibet,butwasinsteaddetainedandreturnedtotheBritish.

In1937,AmericanTheosophistGottfrieddePuruckerarguedthattheGobidesertwasoncefertileandlushwithcities,andwhereonewouldfindtheseatoftheFifthRootRace.BlavatskydescribedtheFifthRootRacewiththefollowingwords:

TheAryanraces,forinstance,nowvaryingfromdarkbrown,almostblack,red-brown-yellow,downtothewhitestcreamycolor,areyetallofoneandthesamestock

—theFifthRoot-Race—andspringfromonesingleprogenitor,[...]whoissaidtohavelivedover18,000,000yearsago,andalso850,000yearsago—atthetimeofthesinkingofthelastremnantsofthegreatcontinentofAtlantis.5

Blavatsky’sFifthRootRaceandHimmler’sideaofthelostrootsoftheAryanRaceareveryclosefriends,anditseemsquiteapparentthatifnotdirectly,atleastindirectly,HimmlerwasinfluencedbyBlavatsky’sdoctrines,whichspokeoflostcivilizationsandahistoryofasunkencontinentthatwasthousandsofyearsold.

Dr.IsrunEngelhardt,theforemostauthorityonSchäfer,isadamantthattheman’spersonalambitionsfortheexpeditionwerepurelyscientific.Begerisknowntohavebeenexposedtoalternativehistoryfromhisprofessorsatuniversity,anditisassumedthatheindeedhopedtofindevidencethat,somewhereinAsia,hewouldfindevidenceoftheexistenceoftheAryanrace.Infact,in1943,BegerworkedattheAuschwitzconcentrationcamp,lookingintohundredsofJewsandprisonersfromcentralAsia,measuringtheirskullsandbodies.AfterBeger’sworkwascompleted,everyoneinvolvedwasgassed,andtheircorpsesdeliveredtoanoldfriendofBegertobecomepartofauniversityanatomicalcollection.

Inshort,theexpeditionwasascientificsuccess,butnoevidenceoftheAryanraceorShambhalawasfound.Today,despitehundredsofbooksonShambhala,Agharta,andthelike,noevidenceatallexiststhatthesecivilizationsexist.Themainproblemofthesemythsisthattheyarerecent.SomemightarguethatthisismerelybecauseAsiahasonlybeenunlockedinrecenttimes,butitisamatteroffactthattherearenoancient,openlyavailabletextsthatdocumenttheexistenceoflostcivilizationssuchasMu—unlikeAtlantis,whichwaswrittenaboutmorethan2,000yearsago.ThoughtheAsiancultureshavetruelegendsaboutShambhala,thesemythshavealwaysbeenadaptedforWesternconsumption,asaresultofwhichanoriginalmythhasbeenchanged,sometimesbeyondrecognition.Recently,though,archaeologyhasbeenabletoshowthatthelegendsofancientconnectionsbetweenEuropeandAsiawereindeedbasedonfact.

WHITEMASTERSINTHEDESERTSOFCHINA?In1907,theRussianexplorerPyotrKuzmichKoslov(1863–1935)wasoneofthefirstto

reachLhasaandmeettheDalaiLama.Afterward,heorganizedfurtherexpeditionsandexcavatedKharaKhoto.KharaKhotowasaTangutcityfoundedin1032thathadbeenruinedbytheMingChinesein1372.Koslovunearthedatomb50feetbelowtheruinsandfoundthebodyofawoman,apparentlyaqueen,accompaniedbyvariousscepters,wroughtingoldandothermetals.ThoughKoslovtooknumerousphotographsthatwerepublishedinAmericanWeekly,hewasnotallowedtodisturborremoveanythingfromthetomb,whichwassealedagain.HislastexpeditiontoMongoliaandTibetoccurredfrom1923to1926andresultedinthediscoveryofXiongnuroyalburialsatNoin-Ula.

Whenhelearnedaboutthisdiscovery,JamesChurchwardbelievedthattheprimarycolonyofMuwastheGreatUighurEmpireandthatKharaKhotowasitsancientcapital,butthatthecivilizationwasatitsheightabout15,000BC.Checkanyencyclopedia,andyouwillfindthatChurchward“borrowed”thatnamefromthehistoricalUighur,whotodayliveprimarilyintheXinjiangUyghurAutonomousRegionofChina.

Later,FrenchauthorRobertCharrouxwroteabouthistheorythattheGobiDeserthadMagithatsurpassedeventhosethatwereresidentinTibet.Storiessaythatthesecitieshadoceanports,andEdgarCayceevenarguedthatelevatorswouldonedaybediscoveredinalostcityhere.OthershaveseenthisregionasthehomelandofthoseancientUFOs,thevimanas.

ButwhereasitistheGobiDesertthatmightstillholdsomesecrets,itistheTaklamakanDesertthathasprovideduswithrevelations.TheTaklamakanDesertisalargesandydesert,partoftheTarimBasin,aregionroughlybetweenTibetandMongolia,inwesternChina,andcrossedatitsnorthernandsouthernedgebytheSilkRoad.Conditionsaresoharshthattravelersavoidedthedesertasmuchaspossible,butinmillenniagoneby,theregionwaspopulatedandhabitable.

Inrecentdecades,however,thedeserthasonceagainbecomeanoasis—forarchaeologistsandanomalists,asitisherethathundredsofCaucasoidmummieshavebeenfound.Themostnotablemummiesarethetall,red-hairedCherchenMan(datedtoc.1000BC),theHamiMummy(c.1400–800BC),andtheWitchesofSubeshi(fourthorthirdcenturyBC),whoreceivedtheirnamebecauseofthetallpointedhatstheywore.However,theoldestmummyofallistheLoulanBeauty(1800BC).

Thoughnottheoldest,oneofthemostfamousmummiesoftheTaklamakanDesertisthatofCherchenMan.ThisEuropean’sbodywasplacedinapoplar-woodbox,loweredintoanarrowshaftgrave,andleftforeternity.Itwastheclimaticcircumstancesthatmakethisregionsoinhospitabletodaythatpreservedthesecorpsesthroughoutthemillennia,turningthemintomummies.

CherchenManis6feettall,wasaround50yearsoldatthetimeofhisdeath,hadreddishbrownhair,alongnose,fulllips,andagingerbeard.Hewasburiedinaredtwilltunicandtartanleggings,andhisbodyisfarbetterpreservedthanthenotoriousEgyptianmummieseveryonestumblesacrosseverywhere.Mostinterestingly,CherchenMantoowasburiedwithnolessthan10hats,onethatlooksRoman,anotherthatlookslikeaberet,acap,andevenaconical“witch”hat—whichisthereforesomethingofacommonfeatureofseveralofthesemummies.Hisbodydatesbackto1000BC,andDNAanalysishasshownthathewasaCelt.

Nexttohimwerefoundthemummiesofthreewomenandababy.Oneofthewomenisdressedinaredgown,wearingtallboots,withherhairbrushedandbraided.Shehasaredyarnthroughherearlobesand—liketheman—hasseveraltattoosonherface.Allmummieswerepaintedwithayellowsubstance,believedtohelpinthepreservationofthebody.Thebaby,probablythreetofourmonthsold,iswrappedinbrownblankets,tiedwithblueandredcord,withabluestoneplacedoneacheye.

Theoldestofthemummiesisthe4,000-year-oldLoulanBeauty,amummythatwasdiscoveredin1980intheancientChinesegarrisontownthatwasdiscoveredbyHedinonMarch28,1900.ThetownwaslocatedneartheLopNormarshes,onthenortheasternedgeoftheLopDesert.Hedinwasabletorecovermanymanuscripts,whichstatedthattheculturewaswipedoutbyalargeseismicoccurrence,whichdrasticallychangedtheclimateoftheareaandturneditintoadesert,asitremainstoday.ThatwasseveralmillenniaaftertheLoulanBeautylived.Thisfemalemummyhaslong,fairhair.Shewas45whenshediedandwasburiedwithabasketoffood,containingdomesticatedwheat,combs,andafeather.Nodoubt,thesenourishmentswerefortheafterlife.

At1800BC,theBeautyistheoldestmummyfoundintheTarimBasin,butsheisnottheloneEuropeantohavelivedhereinthosedays:ThecemeteryatYanbulaqcontainednolessthan29mummies,whichdatefrom1800BCto500BC,21ofwhichareCaucasoid.BestpreservedofallthecorpsesisYingpanMan,whoisalsoknownastheHandsomeMan,a2-meter-tall,2,000-year-oldCaucasianmummythatwasdiscoveredin1995.Hisfacewasblondandbearded,andwascoveredwithagoldfoildeathmask,whichisaGreektradition;healsoworeelaborategolden-embroideredredandmaroonwoolgarmentswithimagesoffightingGreeksorRomans.Hisheadrestsonapillowintheshapeofacrowingcockerel.

ElsewhereintheTarimBasin,hundredsofothermummieshavebeenfound,allofwhichareknowntohavebeenofEuropeanorigin.Someofthemummiesarethoughttohavepossiblybeensacrificialvictims.Ayoungwomanwasfoundpartiallydismembered,hereyesgougedout.Ababyboyhadapparentlybeenburiedalive.Thequestioniswhetherthelatterwassacrificial,orwhetherhewas“merely”buriedwithhisdeadmother.

Howeverintriguingthelocalsettingmightbe,theinterestinthesemummiesexistslargelybecausetheyareout-of-placeremains.NotonlyisthereDNAevidencethatshowsthatthesepeopleoriginatedfromEurope,butanalysessuchastheweaveoftheclothhavealsoshownthatitwasidenticaltothosefoundonthebodiesofsaltminersinAustria,datingfrom1300BC.ThewoodencombsburiedinAsiaarealsoidenticaltothosefoundinCelticcountries.Soarethe

stonestructuresontopoftheirburialsites—similartothedolmensofwesternEurope.Inshort,EuropeansinthesecondmillenniumBCmaynotonlyhavegonetoAmerica;theyareknowntohavecometotheFarEast.

Despitesuchcertainties,archaeologistsandhistorianshavebeenunabletofillinthe“softevidence”—whichareneverthelessthemostimportantquestions:HowdidtheygotoChina,andwhydidtheygotoChina?

ThatweknowabouttheseEuropeanvisitorstoChinaatallislargelythankstotheworkofDr.VictorMair,aprofessorofChinesestudiesattheUniversityofPennsylvania.HisfascinationbeganwhenhetouredtheUrumchiMuseum,wheresomeofthesemummiesareondisplay.HetheninvitedDr.ElizabethW.BarberofOccidentalCollege(California)tovisitthemummiesandgiveherexpertopinionontheweavingthatwasondisplay.

“Fromaround1800BC,theearliestmummiesintheTarimBasinwereexclusivelyCaucausoid,orEuropoid,”saysMair.6EastAsianmigrantsarrivedintheeasternportionsoftheTarimBasinabout3,000yearsago,whereastheUighurpeoplesarrivedafterthecollapseoftheOrkonUighurKingdom,basedinmodern-dayMongolia,aroundtheyear842.Inshort,Mairleaveslittledoubtthatweareconfrontedwithalostcivilization,existingofagroupofEuropeansettlersinaregionmillenniabeforethehistoryofthisregionstartedtobewritten.

TheimportantquestioniswhetherweareinthesamebailiwickasChurchward,whosawthisregionasbeingofcentralimportance.Thatanswer,itseems,isnegative.MairbelievesthatearlyEuropeansheadedinalldirections,sometravelingwest,intowesternEurope,butothersheadingeast,eventuallyendingupinXinjiang.

HisopinionstallywiththoseoftextileexpertBarber,whoinherbookTheMummiesofUrumchiexaminedthetartan-styleclothandconcludedthatthegarmentscanbetracedbacktoAnatoliaandtheCaucasus,thesteppeareanorthoftheBlackSea.Shearguesthisgroupofpeopledivided,startingintheCaucasusandthensplitting,onegroupgoingwestandanothereast—contrarytoMair’sopinion.

Sowhatdoweknowaboutthesepeople?Weknowthattheywerehorsemenandherders,usingchariots,andmayhaveinventedthestirrup.Weknowthattheyhadarrivedinthisregionby1800BC.Weknowthataround1200BC,theIndo-Europeanswerejoinedbyanotherwaveofimmigrants,fromwhatisnowIran(theso-calledSakabranch).Infact,theSakanomadshadhigh-pointedhats(liketheonesfoundnexttoCherchenMan)asdisplayedonthePersepolisreliefsinsouthernIran.AbronzestatuefoundintheAltaiMountainsfromthefifthcenturyBCworeasimilarhat.MostimportantarethefactsthatthestatuehadCaucasoidfeaturesandshowedsimilaritiesindresstoCherchenMan.ApartfromhardDNAevidence,thereismuchotherincontrovertibleevidencethatmakesthisEuropeanpresenceinChinaahardfact.Thediscoveryofthesemummiesindeedrewrotehistory—whethersomelikethatornot.

ThecurrentconclusiondrawnaboutthesemummiesandthewavesofsettlementsisthereforethatitwasonlyuntilseveralcenturiesBCthattheeastwardmovementoftheWesternracetoXinjiangwasmorerapidthanthewesternmovementofMongoloidpeopleandthattheregionbecame“Chinese.”WhenT.D.Forsythreportedonhis1875missiontotheregion,hestatedthatthesepeoplewerestilltall,fair-faced,withlighteyesandsandywhiskersandhair.Headdedthatthey“onlyrequiretobeputintocoatandtrouserstopass,sofarasoutwardappearancegoes,forthefairestEnglishman.”7Twomillenniabefore,PlinytheElderin“Taprobane”wroteabouttheSeres,whichweredescribedtotheRomanEmperorClaudiusbyanembassyfromTaprobane(Ceylon).Hesaidthatthey“exceededtheordinaryhumanheight,hadflaxenhair,andblueeyes,”adescriptionthatcomesclosetothosepeoplelivingintheTarimBasin.PlinytheElderalsosaidtheyhadan“uncouthsortofnoisebywayoftalking,havingnolanguageoftheirownforthepurposeofcommunicatingtheirthoughts.”8

ThoughnoTochariantextswerefoundinrelationtotheTarimMummies,itisnowlargelyacceptedthattheseEuropeanemigrantsspokealanguageknownasTocharian(theChinese

calledthemYuezhi),whichhasproventobeclosetothelanguagesofwesternEurope.Today’sUighurarethereforeknowntobemorethanhalfCaucasian,andtravelersthroughtheregionremainoftenstunnedastohowEuropeanthelocalslook.

IfoneweretofindaBronzeAgeseafarerinAmerica,itwouldobviouslycreateworldwidecontroversy.ThediscoveryofEuropeansonChinesesoilhasalsohadmajorpoliticalimplications.Theregionisrifewithseparatistmovements,andthegovernmentfearsthatpromotingatrulyuniquearchaeologicalfindmightresultinserioussocialandpoliticalunrest.ThatisoneofthemainraisonswhytheTerracottaWarriorsarefarmorefamousthantheTarimMummies.

SocialunrestisthegreatestbetweentheUighurandtheHanChinese.Intheirdrivetolayclaimtotheregion,theLoulanBeautywasevenraisedtothestatusofracialiconbytheUighur,whocallher“motherofthenation”—withoutlittlesupportingevidence.ChinesehistorianJiXianlin,writingaprefacetoAncientCorpsesofXinjiangbyWangBinghua,saysthatChina“supportedandadmired”9researchbyforeignexpertsintothemummies—thatis,MairandBarber.“However,withinChinaasmallgroupofethnicseparatistshavetakenadvantageofthisopportunitytostiruptroubleandareactinglikebuffoons.Someofthemhaveevenstyledthemselvesthedescendantsoftheseancient‘whitepeople’withtheaimofdividingthemotherland.Buttheseperverseactswillnotsucceed,”Jiwrote.10

IncomparingtheDNAofthemummiestothatofmodern-dayUighur,Mair’steamfoundsomegeneticsimilaritieswiththemummies,butnodirectlinks.TheHanChinese,meanwhile,considerthemselvestobeoccupiersofthecenteroftheworld.Everyoneelseweresavages,sothediscoveryofEuropeansontheirterritory—theremainsfurthermoreolderthananythingtheHanChinesecouldpointatinthearchaeologicalrecord—meantthatsomementalgymnasticshadtobeperformedtopreservetheircherishedself-opinion.ThefactofthematteristhatneithertheUighurnortheHanChineseseemtobedirectlyrelatedtotheseancientsettlers—andthatbotharebutmodernadditionstoaregionthatwaspopulatedmillenniaearlier.Inshort,thediscoverieshavemadeithardonbothgroupstocontinuetoratifytheirclaimtotheregion.

Infact,whatthediscoveriessuggestsisthatbothimmigrantsandmodernlocalChineseareamixtureofraces.“WhileitisclearthattheearlyinhabitantsoftheTarimBasinwereprimarilyCaucasoids,”Mairhaswritten,“itisequallyclearthattheydidnotallbelongtoasinglehomogeneousgroup.Rather,theyrepresentavarietyofpeopleswhoseemtohaveconnectionswithmanyfar-flungpartsoftheEurasianlandmassformorethantwomillennia.”11Headds:“ModernDNAandancientDNAshowthatUighurs,Kazaks,Kyrgyzs,thepeoplesofcentralAsiaareallmixedCaucasianandEastAsian.ThemodernandancientDNAtellthesamestory.”12Itunderlines,onceagain,thatsomanycultures,whetherancientormodern,aregeneticallyamixtureofsomanyraces,contrarytosomanypoliticalideasofpuregenes.

WhatbroughttheseEuropeanshere?ItisknownthatthesouthernTaklamakanDesertwasanareawhereChina’sSilkRoadonceflourishedandprosperouscitieswerebuilt.InKhotan,twolargeriverswerechanneled,creatinganoasisthatgrewwheat,rice,corn,cotton,grapes,peaches,andmelons,whilesheepweregrazing.Lifemusthavebeengoodinthosedays,andthattheseEuropeanshadeverythingtheycherished.However,becauseofgradualclimatechange,manysuchcitieswereabandonedandsubsequentlyeatenbythedunes.

TheSilkRoadwasanancientcaravanroutethatconnectedChinatotheWest.TheEuropeanmummiesinthispartoftheworldmightsuggestthatthistraderouteisindeedolderthanpreviouslythought—verymuchliketransoceaniccontactmightbeseveralmillenniaolderthanColumbus’sfirstvoyagetoAmerica.

TheSilkRoadwasnotjustaconduitforsilk;manyotherproductsweretransportedandtraded,andtherouteswerenotmerelytraveledbymerchants,butanyonewantingtogoEast—orWest.Theroutesshouldthereforebeseenastheancienthighway”betweenChinaandtheMediterraneanSea.

TradingbetweentheEastandWestoccurredfromthedawnofcivilization—ifnotbefore.Between6000BCand4000BC,peopleintheSaharawerealreadyimportingdomesticatedanimalsfromAsia.By3000BC,lapislazuli—theonlyknownsourceofwhichwasBadakshan,innortheasternAfghanistan—wasfoundinEgypt.Mostspecifically,thesupplyofTarimBasinjadetoChinafromancienttimesiswellestablished.NephritejadefromminesintheregionofYarkandandKhotan—nottoofarfromthelapislazuliminesofBadakshan—wasfoundinChina.XinruLiuwrites:“ItiswellknownthatancientChineserulershadastrongattachmenttojade.AllofthejadeitemsexcavatedfromthetombofFuhaooftheShangdynasty,morethan750pieces,werefromKhotaninmodernXinjiang.Asearlyasthemid-firstmillennium[BC]theYuezhiengagedinthejadetrade,ofwhichthemajorconsumersweretherulersofagriculturalChina.”13WhenweknowthatEuropehadexpertminers,maybethesepeoplecametothisregionbecauseoftheirminingskills,nottominecopperortin,buttominejade,andaddyetanothermineralanditemontheever-growinglistofmaterialsthatweretradedthousandsofyearsago,acrossvastsectionsof,ifnottheentireworld.

TheTarimMummieshavedestroyedtheideathattheWestandtheEastdevelopedindependentlyandthattheyonlyrelativelyrecentlymadecontact.Thediscoveryofthesemummieshasdriventhefinalnailinthiscoffin—almostliterally.Science,itisclear,hasshownastraightforwardlinkbetweenthesemummiesandCelticinhabitantsofEurope.Thequestion,however,iswhetherEuropeanswenteast—oraCaucasoidgroupofpeople,perhapsnativetotheTarimBasin,wenttoEurope.

Turningthepathoftravelintheoppositedirectionwouldoffersomeconfirmationforthespeculationthatthisregionwasindeeda“homeland”toourearlyancestorsandthattheyspreadtootherregions—specificallyEurope—fromhereout.

WithsolittleknownaboutBronzeAgeCeltsbothinEuropeandAsia,nofirmconclusionscanbedrawneitherway—andperhapsneverwill.However,theBookofManu(alsoknownastheLawsofManu),oneofthesupplementaryarmsoftheVedas,statesthatthe“UighershadsettlementsonthenorthernandeasternshoresoftheCaspianSea”andthe19th-centuryGermananthropologistMaxMullerarguedthatthefirstCaucasianswereasmallcompanyfromthemountainsofCentralAsia.Theseconclusionsareobviouslyold,butshouldtheythereforebeerroneous?WrittenmorethanacenturybeforetheTarimMummieswerediscovered,theyactuallydidspeakofthepresenceofCaucasiansinChina.Iftheygotthatright,isitpossibletheygototherthingsright,too?

OnefinalquestionthatthereforeneedstobeaddedtothelonglistofquestionsaboutthesemummiesisinwhichdirectiontheCaucasianstraveled.CouldtheCaucasianmummiesoftheTaklamakanDesertbenative,ratherthanEuropeanvisitors?Onlythefuture,andfuturediscoveries,islikelytotell.ItisatleastanundeniablefactthattherewascontactbetweenBronzeAgeEuropeansandChina,alongtheSilkRoad.TheevidenceisforalltoseeintheUrumchiMuseum.

THEELYSIANFIELDSInthe1930s,FrenchpoliceofficerXavierGuichardpublishedhislife-studyintotheplace

namedEleusis.ThereissuchacityinbothGreeceandEgypt.TheGreekcityisthemostfamous,asitisthehomeoftheElysianmysteries.Inmythology,wealsohavetheElysianfields,whichareintimatelyconnectedtotheafterlife.GuichardpublishedhisfindingsinabookcalledEleusisAlesia,astudyontheoriginsofEuropeancivilization.Publishedin1936,ithadaprintrunof500copies,ofwhichseveralwerelost.In1997,IaskedaFrenchfriendwhetherhewasabletolocateacopyofthisbook.HefoundoneinLyons,thesecondlargestlibraryinFrance.Myfriendwasabletotellmethatnoonehadloanedoutthebookforthepast20years!

ThesearetheconclusionsthatGuichardreached:AllplacesthatwerecalledAlesia(oranamecloselyrelated)hadbeengiventhisnameinprehistorictimes.Notasingleplacehadbeengivensuchanameinmorerecenttimes.HebelievedthatthenamederivedfromanIndo-European

root,meaning“ameetingpointtowherepeopletraveled.”ThemajorityofthesesitescouldbefoundinFrance,wherethereweremorethan400,butthenameoccurredasfarawayasGreeceandEgypt,butalsoinPolandandSpain.GuichardwasunabletofindsuchnamesinBritain,whichsuggestedtohimthatthesecitiesmightgobacktothetimeofthelastIceAge,whenBritainwascoveredwiththicksheetsofice.

Guichardmadeitanissuetovisitmostsitesfiguringinhisresearchinperson.Hediscoveredthattheyhadtwocharacteristicfeatures:Theywereonhillsoverlookingrivers,andtheywerebuiltaroundaman-madewellofsaltormineralwater.HealsobelievedthatallthesiteslayonlinesradiatinglikethespokesofawheelfromthetownofAlaise,ineasternFrance.

ThisisanechoofwhatMestdaghdiscoveredregardingSensandhow64roadsleftthiscity,radiatinginalldirections.GuichardbelievedthatinthecaseofAlaise,24lines,equallyspacedradiatinglines,plusfourlinesbasedonthesunrise/sunsetatthetwoequinoxesandthesummerandwintersolstices,emanatedfromit.Thiswasatotalof28lines,whichcouldhavealunarconnection.Intriguingly,aplayofnumbers,startingfrom28(whichis2times14),givesnumberslike56,64,and72,allofthemfeaturingprominentlyinsitessuchasStonehenge,themegalithiccivilizationandothermythology.Ofcourse,wecandoalotwithnumbers(whichis,afterall,whattheyweredesignedforinthefirstplace),butitisinterestingthatcertainkeynumberskeepcomingback.Inparticular,thesenumbersalwayshavedirectastronomicalsignificance.

Guichardneverexploredwhetherthelineswerejustlinessomeoneinancienttimeshaddrawnonanancientmap,orwhethertherewasactuallyasystemofroadsunderlyingit.Asfourlinesweresightlinesconnectedwiththesun,itislikelythatthesewereinfactrealroads.Ifso,thiswouldmakeAlaisetheolderbrother—orfather—oftheroadsystemthatwas—likely—laterbuiltfromSens.Andifthiswasasystemofroads,thenpeopletraveledonit,atleastonthosesectionsthatwereonland.ItalsomeansthatFrancewashometoaprehistoriccivilization,likelyatthetimeoftheIceAgeorpre-datingit,whichshouldnotcomeasasurprisebynow.IfGuichard’ssystemoflineswereroads,italsoexplainswhythesepeopleweresohighlymobileandwhyeventheFarEastwaswithintheirreach.Ofcourse,evenifGuichard’slineswerenotroads,thenprehistoricEuropehadothermeansoftransportation,bothoverlandandsea,forweknowthatthiscontinentwasonelargeexchangeofgoods,heldtogetherbythecopperandtintradefortheproductionofbronze,whichwastheprehistoricequivalentoftoday’soilindustry.

WithGuichard’sfindings,wearebacktoc.10,000BC,whenGöbekliTepewasconstructed,whenAtlantiswasrulingsectionsofEurope,andwhencivilizationwasalreadyinexistence,preciselyasitissaidintheancientaccounts.

Goingbeyondthe10,000BCmarkisfarmoredifficult.Atthismomentintime,archaeologicalremainsbecomesporadic—maybe,indeed,becausethecentersofcivilizationofthosetimesarenowlocatedundersealevel.WeknowthattherewerecavepaintingsinEurope,buthowfardoesthehistoryofcivilizationtrulystretch?

LOSTCIVILIZATIONOFTHESTONEAGE

Large-scaleprehistoricminesandquarrieshavebeenknowntobeexcavated,atleastinsouthernAfrica,namelySouthernMozambiqueandSwaziland,100,000yearsago.Others,datingto45,000–35,000yearsago,havealsobeenfound.Morethanamillionkilosoforeisknowntohavebeenextractedfromthelargestsites.Atanothersite,halfamillionstone-diggingtoolswerefound.ForMichaelCremo,thesearebitrecentexamplesofcivilization,asheisconvincedwehavebeenhereformillionsofyears.

FewwillwanttogothatfarwithCremo,butEnglishanthropologistRichardRudgleyspeaksofalostcivilizationoftheStoneAge,tensofthousandsofyearsold,basedontheanomalouspiecesofevidencethatliescatteredinvariousmuseums.Rudgleyarguesthat“theprehistoryofmankindisnomerepreludetohistory,ratherhistoryisacolorfulandeventfulafterwordtotheStoneAge.”14HearguesthatStoneAgeexplorersdiscoveredalloftheworld’smajorland

masses,wereabletocountandmeasure,performedmedicaloperations,includingamputationsandcranialsurgery,andexperimentedwithlichenandmossfuels,notingthatprehistoriclifeexpectancywasbetterthanitisforcontemporarythird-worldpopulations,whilewarfarewaslessprevalentthantoday.

Rudgleyalsodispelscertainwide-heldbeliefs.Forexample,theadoptionoffarmingisstillgenerallyseenasaclearsignofcivilization.Yettheadoptionoffarmingcausedadeclineinbodystature,bodysize,andlifeexpectancy,aswellasthedevelopmentofanewhostofdiseasesanddisorders,includingleprosy.Morerecent,cancer,obesityanddiabeteshavebeenaddedtothislist.Itappearsthatprehistorywasindeedsometypeofgoldenageinwhichmanlivedlongerandwithfarlessillnessesanddiseases!

TheStoneAgewasfarmoreadvancedthanwethoughtitwas,butSciencehasonehang-upthatitcannotgetover:writing.TheapparentabsenceofwritinginthosetimeshasmeantthatSciencetreatseverythingbeforetheinventionofwritingwithdisdain,nomatterhowmuchscientificaccomplishmentsacivilizationhad.Eventhoughourancestorsmaynothavebeenwriting,theyweredefinitelytalking.Infact,thefurtheronepushesbackinhistory,thelesslanguagesthereare;RudgleylabelsthisthequestfortheMotherTongue.Academicshaveproposedvarioustypesofclassificationandseldomareabletoagreeontheconclusionstheydraw,butwhatcanbesummarizedisthatsomeofourancestors’languagegoesbacktensofthousandsofyears.Andithastobe,forhowelsecouldourancestorsorganizethemselvesforsuchspecifictasksasmining,100,000yearsago?Takealookatmodernmining.Thisinvolvedatleastbasicunderstandingsofscience,socialorganization,andprojectmanagement,whichwouldhaveinvolvedfarmore“civilization”thanwearewonttobestowuponourancestorssomanytensofthousandsofyearsago.Whenthearchaeologicalrecordfurtherindicatesthatourancestorswereabletoperformsurgeries,againhistoryisnotasweoftenthinkitis.

Ourancestorswerefarmoreadvancedthanthat.HoweverreluctantScienceistogothere,ourancestorswereclearlyexpertastronomers.Themegalithicmonumentswereexpertlyalignedtostellarphenomena,andcavepaintingsareknowntohavecontainedatleastanunderstandingoftheperiodsofthemoonandcertainconstellations.AtLascaux,France,onedepictionisofsixlargedotsaboveanAuroch(abull).Inancienttimes,theconstellationofthePleiadeswasrepresentedabovetheshoulderorbackofTaurus,theBull.ThoughthePleiadesareknownastheSevenSisters,becausetheconstellationismadeupofsevenstars,thisseventhstarisactuallyonlyvisiblewithbinoculars—whichtheartistsofLascauxmaynothavepossessed,makingthisaconstellationofsix,ratherthansevenstars.Ifnotacoincidence,ourancestorsweredepictingtheconstellationsonthewallsofthisPaleolithiccave.

Thesecavepaintingswereprincipallyresponsibleforthebeliefthatourancestorslivedincaves.Caveswerenotforliving,butinsteadwereseenasthefirst—natural—cathedrals.

THESTONEAGECATHEDRALS

Interestingly,thecavepaintingswerediscoveredinthedeepestnooksofcaves.Whatmadeourancestorsmakethesedrawingsintheseinaccessibleplaces,wheretherewaslittlechanceofthesepaintingsservinganysocialfunction?Thequestionastowhyourancestorspaintedthesedrawingsisfurthermoreriddledwithpreconceptions.In1865,SirEdwardTylorarguedthattherewasacorrespondencebetweenmagicandprehistoricart.Otherexperts,suchasBreuil,interpretedtheseashuntingmagic,wherethedepictionsweremadefortheirmagicalpowerovertheanimalthatwouldbekilled.Intheend,suchaninterpretationdiscoveredtobetoonaïve:Anoverviewrevealedthatonly15percentofdepictionswereofanimalsthatplayedanyrolewhatsoeverinthehunt.

Torepeatthequestion:Whatisitthatpersuadedourancestorstopenetratetheinnermostdarknessofacaveandpaint?AmongthosewhohavetriedtoanswerthisquestionisDavidLewis-Williams,whofeltthatthestatusquoonthesubjectmatterwasinadequate.Forsomereasons,ourancestorswereattractedtothosedarkestregionsoftheunderworld,whichwascarefullyexploredandbecameaworkshoptoexpresstheearliestexpressionsofart.Still,itwas

notart;itwasreligiousart:Thearthadapurpose.Lewis-WilliamsisconvincedthatthecavesbecamethecathedralsoftheStoneAge,withthepaintingsdepictingthecoreoftheirreligiousbeliefs.

Inthefirstdecadesofthe20thcentury,severalresearchershadcatalogedtheprehistoriccaves,specificallyinFranceandSpain.Eachresearchertriedtobuildatheorythatmightexplainwhathehaddiscovered,butitseemedthateachsubsequentdiscoveryinvalidatedtheprevioustheory.Onesuchtheorywasthattheseriesofpaintingsfoundinthecaveswerepartofapattern,wherebycertaindepictionswereonlyfoundincertainpartsofthecavesystem(forexample,neartheentranceorinthedeepestreaches).However,thistheorywasproveninadequate,resultinginthecommonunderstandingthatitwasverydifficult,ifnotimpossible,tomakesenseofwhatourancestorshadbeendoing.Inshort,itwasfeltthattheartwork,howeverbrilliantforourprimitiveancestors,hadbeennothingmorethanrandompaintingsincaves—withoutanyfurtherlogic.

Lewis-Williamsthoughtdifferently.Hefeltthatapatterndidexist.Healsofeltthatthepaintingswereadistinguishingfactorbetweenourancestors—modernman—andits“nephews,”suchasNeanderthalman.AccordingtoLewis-Williams,Neanderthalman,despitehiscloseproximity,didnotpossessanimaginationinthesensethatwedo.Healsoidentifiedthatwhatwasdepictedwereimagesofthemind:visions—inotherwords,whatthemindobservedwhenitwasinanother“reality.”Ourancestors—oratleastsomeofthem—musthaveexperiencedalteredstatesofconsciousness.Thismusthavegreatlyintriguedthem,asitcontinuestothepresentday.Inprehistorictimes,Lewis-Williamsargues,thosevisionswouldbethefoundationforthecreationofourreligion,beginningwiththebeliefinan“Otherworld”beyondournormal,physicalsenses.Inthisrespect,thecaveswerethefirstcathedralsofhumanity’sproto-religion.This,ofcourse,meansthatontopofStoneAgeman’saccomplishmentwastheexplorationofotherrealitiesandthecreationofreligion.

Theseotherworldlyexplorerscreatedthepaintingsusingthenaturalcontoursoftherockand“exteriorized”whattheirvisionshadallowedthemtosee.Lewis-Williamsisafirmbelieverthattheartworkofthecavesaredepictionsofwhatourancestorswitnessedintheirvisions:enigmaticlines,strangepatterns,followedbyanimals.Theyformalogicalsequenceofwhatpeopletodaystillseeintheirownhallucinogenicexperiences.Suchpatternsareknownfromanthropologicalstudiesofshamaniccultures,whichequallyoftenusedhallucinogenicsubstancestoentertheOtherworld.

Hefurtherarguesthatmanypaintingsseemtoriseoutoftherock.Thepaintingstransformthenaturalshapeoftherock,inthesamewaythatourobservationwouldbetransformedundertheinfluenceofhallucinogenicsubstances.TheactofpaintingwasthereforebringingthevisionsoftheOtherworldintothisreality:creatingtheOtherworldhere,inthedeepestreachesoftheUnderworld.

Manyanthropologistshaveidentifiedthattheshaman,inhisvoyagetotheOtherworld,iseithertransformedinoraidedbyananimal,oftentotemicinnature.Thisanimalactsashisspiritguide,orhispoweranimal.Animalswereoftenchosenforaparticularquality,suchastheabilityofflightforbirds,anditisthisreason,nothuntingmagicwhyanimalswereoftendepictedonthewallsofthesecaves.

Thewallsofthecaveswereaportalintoanotherdimension.TheOtherworldwaslocatedbehind,orinside,therocks.Thefigurespaintedonthesewallshadescapedthatreality—bridgedthedivide,liketheshamans.ThesewerethemediatorsbetweenourrealityandourneedsandtheOtherworld,thehomeofthegodswhohadbeenidentifiedasresponsibleforthecreationofthisworld.Thecavewasthereforethefirsttemple,wheresacredspacewascreatedtoallowcontactwiththedivine.Itwasinitsinnermostrecesses,inthebellyofMotherEarth,thattheOtherworldwasclosest—andwherethedarknessofthecavecreatedasilenceandsolitudeeverydayrealitydidnotoffer.

Remarkably,18,000yearsago,thesecavepaintingsdisplayahighlevelofscientific

achievement,specificallyinthescienceofacoustics.AmericanresearcherStevenWallersampledaselectionofcavesitesinFranceandfoundthatechoesnormallyvibrateatanaveragelevelof3decibels.Rock-artpanelsofhoofedanimals,though,henoted,reflectedsoundat23–31decibels,andpanelsdepictingfelinecreatureswerefarlower,at1–7decibels.Unpaintedsurfacestendedtobetotallyflay,showingthattheplacementoftheseanimalswasnotatallcoincidental,butdefinedbytheacousticalqualitiesofthesiteinwhichtheywerefound.“Modernhumans,whounderstandsoundreflection,tendtotrivializeechoes,andthismaybethereasonwhythemotivationforrockarthasremainedsolonganenigma.Thediscoverythatechoesofpercussivenoisesresembletoaremarkabledegreethesoundsofgallopinghoofedanimalsprovidesacruciallinkbetweenthecontextandthecontentoftheart.”15

Confrontedwiththesecavepaintings,wearespecificallystaringatthebirthofthephysicalrepresentationofabeliefin“another”world,whichwouldevolveintoadedicatedcult—andintheendorganizedreligion.ItwouldleadtothebuildingoftheEgyptianpyramids,artificialtombstryingtoreflectnaturalcaves,andtheBookoftheDeadbeingthewrittenaccountoftheshamanicvisionsexperiencedintheOtherworld.

Ourancestors,itseemsingestedthefoodofthegodstoestablishthiscontact.Thisfoodwas,onnumerousoccasions,magicmushrooms,thougharchaeologyhascompiledanextensiverangeofhallucinogenicsubstancesthatourancestorsused.

Theoldestdepictionsofhallucinogenicmushroomsare7,000to9,000yearsoldandarerockengravingsinTassilli.Hereisasequenceofpeoplethataredancing.Eachdancerholdsamushroom-shapedobjectinhisrighthand.Twoparallellinesradiatefromthisobject,towardthecentralareaofthedancer.

GreekcivilizationhadtheTempleofDemeter,theGoddessoftheEarth,atEleusis,theplace-namethatsogreatlyintriguedXavierGuichard.PhilosopherssuchasAristotle,Plato,andSophoclespartookinitsrituals,theElysianMysteries,thecontentsofwhichhaveneverbeenwrittendown,eventheycontinuedtoexistuntilwellintotheChristianera.

ThesemenwereamongthethousandsofpilgrimswhomadethevoyagebetweenAthensandEleusis,topartakeintheyearlyceremonies.OncetheywereatEleusis,fromahidden,centralroominthetemplecomplex,asubstancederivedfrommushroomswasgiventoeachparticipant.Theyremainedinthetempleforthedurationofonenight,butleftinthemorningforeverchanged.Thedivinepotionhadbroughtthemtoanotherreality,wheresomemayindeedhavecomefacetofacewithanotherworldlyintelligence.OurAncientGreekswerebutarecentexampleinalongtradition,stretchingbacktensofthousandsofyearsinthepast,ofpeoplewhohadtakenthefoodofthegodsandcameawayconvincedthattherewasmoretolifethanwecouldseewithournakedeyes.

Inmyopinion,itisthisbelief—orunderstanding—thatrealitywasmorethanweexperiencedthatwasthetruemotorthatpropelledcivilization—notfarming,norwriting.LookatAncientEgypt,andweseethetemplesandpyramidsthatsurvived,notthepalacesofthePharaoh,whichwereoftennotevenmadefromstone.LookatthecavepaintingsofLascaux,andrealizeitmusthavetakensomeonemonthstocreatethese.GöbekliTepe,too,wasatemple,notaresidence.Whereveryouseephysicalevidenceofcivilization—orthebestevidenceofcivilization—intheformofbuildings,youwillseethatthosebuildingswerenormallyconnectedwithreligion.Thehistoryofcivilizationisindeedlargelydistilledfromthereligiousmonumentsareancestorsmade.Itisbecauseourancestorsfeltthatthosemonumentswerethemostimportant,forwhereasourexistencehereonEarthwasbutatemporarything,thattheybelievedthatthesoulandthedivinewereeternal.

Chapter7CREATINGHEAVENONEARTH

FINDINGCENTERS

Intheeighthcentury,theVenerableBedeidentifiedLichfieldCathedralasthecenterofEngland.Ifhewastryingtomakeageographicallysignificantstatement,hewasofftarget.In1941,SirCharlesArden-Close,director-generaloftheOrdnanceSurvey,identifiedthecenteroftheBritishIslesasbeingonWatlingStreet,4mileseast-southestofAtherstone,closetotherailwaybridge,betweenthevillagesofHigham-on-the-HillandCaldecote.HeacknowledgedtwositesthattraditionallyweresaidtomarkthecenterofEngland:acrossatMeriden,inWarwickshire,andanancienttree,theLillingtonOak,atLeamington.Neitherofthemarethecenter,thoughbothhaveputinclaims.

EnglishwriterJohnMichellinAttheCentreoftheWorldputsforwardaseriesofexamplesthatshowsthatourancestors,thousandsofyearsago,wereabletoidentifythecenterofislands,whethersmallorlarge—likeBritain.MostofhisstudieswereexecutedinwesternEurope,andhefoundthatthisknowledgeofknowingthecenterprecededtheRomans.ThereforeitwasatleastinexistenceinCeltictimes,butmaystretchevenfurtherback,tomegalithictimes.

WhereasfindingthecenterofsmallislandslikeShetlandortheOrkneysisquitestraightforward,inthecaseoftheBritishmainlandorevenEngland,thatisnotthecase,asitinvolvesdistancesofseveralhundredsofmiles.Somehowourancestorswereabletodoso,yetsomehowalltheattemptsinthelastfewcenturiestodosowerelessaccuratethantheworkofourancientancestors.

MichellnotedthatatMeriden,anoldstonecrossissaidtohavemarkedthesitethatclaimedtobethecenterofEngland,thoughhenotedthatearlytopographicalwritersdidnotmakeanymentionofit.HediscoveredthatthefirstreferencetoMeridenasthecenterwaswrittenin1876byJ.TomBurgess,whoalsomentionedtherivalcenteratLeamington.

ThecrossatMeridenhasbeenmoved,anditsoriginalsiteisnotexactlyknown.Meridensupposedlymeans“miryvalley,”butanyonewillnoticethecloseresemblancetomeridian,thelongitudinallineslinkedwithmappingtimezonesontheEarth.However,beforethe13thcentury,thesitewasknownasAlspath,suggestingMeridenisindeedmorecloselylinkedwith“miryvalley”thanameridian.

TheotherlistedcontenderistheMidlandOakatLillington,onthewesternoutskirtsofLeamington.ItsironrailingswereremovedduringtheSecondWorldWar,whichunfortunatelyledtotheoak’sdeath.In1982,anewoakwasplanted.

However,likeMeriden,MidlandOakisnotthecenterofEngland.ThoughArden-Closeacknowledgesonlytwocontendersforthistitle,therearefarmore—andbetter—candidates.NigelPennicksawRoyston,withthecrossingofIcknieldWayandErmineStreet,astheperfectgeomanticcenter.ThiscrossingwasmarkedbytheKingStone,sittingontopoftheenigmaticRoystonCave,whichcontainsaseriesofremarkableinscriptionswhoseoriginsremainunexplained.Ifeverthesewerecentersofanything,itwasofregions,notEngland.

ThesameappliestothecaseofOxford,thoughitsclaimcomeswithapowerfullegend.IntheMabinogion,itissaidthattheCeltickingLluddwasinstructedtomeasurethelengthandbreadthofEnglandinordertodetermineitscenter.Atthatspot,hewouldfindtwofightingdragonsthatwereresponsiblefortheevilsafflictingthenation.Whenhewentonthisquest,hefoundthetwocreaturesfightingatwhatisnowOxford.

Othershaveusedgeographytodefinethecenter,includingJohnWalbridge,whohasidentifiedArburyHill,Northamptonshire,astheEnglishomphalos.OnArburyHill,at225metersthehighestpointinNorthamptonshire,theterritoriesofthreeCeltictribesconverged,anditisthepartofEnglandmostdistantfromthesea.Thoughinteresting,intheend,itisclearthatit

hastoolittletobecomeagenuinecandidate.Walbridgedidunderlinecertainconditionsthissacredcenterhadtomeet.Michellstated:“In

alltraditionalsystemsofreligionthisimage[ofthecenter]hasprovidedthedominantsymbol.Thedoctrineassociatedwithitdescribestheuniverseasadivinelyborncreation,neverthesame,neveratrest,butwithastill,unvaryingcenterwhich,likethecoreofamagneticfield,governseverythingaroundit.”1Headded:“Ineverytraditionalsociety,[thecenter]isprovidedbyarockorpillarwithinthenationalsanctuarywhichisknowntobethegenerationcenterofmankindandthespotwherethepoleoftheuniversepenetratestheearth.”2

Thiscentralrockwastheomphalos,thesacredrockmarkingthesacredcenter.PerhapsthebestknownexampleistheomphalosofDelphi,whosepositionwasdefinedbyZeusreleasingtwodoves(somelegendsargueforeagles)fromtheeastandwestendoftheworld.ThetwobirdsmetatDelphi,whichthereforewasthecenteroftheworld.TheconceptofbirdscannotmerelybefoundinDelphi,butalsoatHeliopolis,inEgypt.ProfessorofancienthistoryLivioStecchinistatedthat“usuallyontopofSokar,asontopofanyomphalos,thereareportrayedtwobirdsfacingeachother;inancienticonographythesetwobirds,usuallydoves,areastandardsymbolforthestretchingofmeridiansandparallels.”3

Doves,orpigeons,werethereforespecificallylinkedwithoraclecenters,ofwhichDelphiwasone.Thesekindsofbirdswereusedbyseafarerstodiscoverwhetherornottheywereclosetoland,andwenowknowthattheseancientseafarerswentmuchfurtherthancommonlyappreciated.The“trick”canalsobefoundintheBible,whereNoahreleasedadovetofindoutwhetherornottheFloodwatershadsubsided,aswellasinitsinspiration,theEpicofGilgamesh.Finally,thereisthemythicalbird,thephoenix,linkedwithHeliopolis,restingonthebenbenstone,theprimordialhill.

TheomphalosstoneatDelphilayinthemostimportantpartofthetempleofApollo,neartheAdyton,theseatofthePythia.Itwasherethatmenwerebrought,tobeshownvisionsoftheOtherworld.Itseemsquiteapparentthattheproximityofthestonewasnotcoincidental,asthestonemarkedthegatewaytotheOtherworld.

InCaesar’sGallicWars,herelatesthatthecenteroftheCelticworldwasChartres,nowfamousforitsGothiccathedral,whichcontainsoneofthesurvivingmedievallabyrinths.ChartreswastheCelticplaceofassemblyandwasthecenterofGaul,theCelticrealm,equidistantfromitswesternandeasternextremities—thetipofBrittanyandthemouthoftheRhine—whichmeansthattheCeltswereabletomapvastdistances.

TodefinethecenterofEngland,though,weneedtostartwiththe“mainaxis”ofBritain:thelinebetweenDuncansbyHead,themostnortheasterlypartoftheScottishmainland,andSt.Catherine’sPoint,ontheIsleofWight.Interestingly,itcrossesthecoastofSouthernScotlandatthepointwheretheformerofScottishcountyofHaddingtonshire(nowEastLothian)joinsBerwickshire;thiswasoncethemostnorthernpointofEnglandanditisprobablynotacoincidencethatthedivisionofthosetwonationswaspreciselyhere.

EquidistantfromthatpointandtheoppositeextremityatLand’sEnd,thepointonthemainaxisthatisatthecenterofthisisoscelestriangle,isthecenterofEngland.

Allancientnationssearchedforthecenter:theGreeks,theCelts,theRomans.Meridenisc.12milesfromVenonae,whichtheRomansurveyorsidentifiedasthecenterofEnglandandwheretheyplacedthecrossingpointoftwooftheirgreatroads,WatlingStreetandFosseWay.WhenwecomparethelocationarrivedatbyArden-Closewithmodernmeans,withthelocationidentifiedbytheRomans,wearetalkingaboutadifferenceofafewmiles.ItunderlinesthegeographicalknowledgeandexpertisetheRomanspossessed,wherebytheysomehowwereabletoarriveatthesameconclusionswithouttheavailabilityofanymodernmaps.

VenonaeisnowknownasHighCross,anisolatedpointontheWarwickshire-Leicestershireborderwherefourparishesmeet.Avisittotheplacewilllastmerelyafewminutes:TheA5,orWatlingStreet,isatwo-wayroadthatturnsone-wayatthiscrossroadsothatpeoplecanmore

easilygetoffit.Onceoff,youhaveacrossingoftwominorroads:themainonethattakesyoutoClaybrookeMagna,andanotherone,BumbleBeeLane.Theonce-RomanmainroadFosseStreetisnownothingmorethanatrack,andonmapsislistedas“LeicestershireRound.”

HighCrosssitsontopofariseinthelandscapeandisthereforeindeedanomphalos.Burgesssaidthat57churchtowerscanbeidentifiedfromthislocation.Dr.WilliamStukeleydescribedHighCrossas“thecentre,aswellasthehighestgroundinEngland;forfromhenceriversruneveryway.”4Hemighthavebeenrightaboutthecenter,butitdefinitelywasnotthehighestgroundfromageographicalperspective.

HighCrossisacrossingonhighground,butthenamecomesfromamonumentthatwaserectedonordersoftheJusticesofWarwickshirein1711,atacostof£400(U.S.$600):atallcross.Ithadaninscription,whichononesideread:“Thenoblemenandgentry,ornamentsoftheneighboringcountiesofWarwickandLeicester,attheinstancesoftheRightHonourableBasilEarlofDenbeigh,havecausedthispillartobeerectedingratefulaswellasperpetualremembranceofPeaceatlastrestoredbyherMajestyQueenAnne,intheyearofourLord,1712.”Itcontinuedontheotherside:“If,traveller,yousearchforthefootstepsoftheancientRomans,hereyoumaybeholdthem.Forheretheirmostcelebratedways,crossingoneanother,extendtotheutmostboundariesofBritain;heretheVennoneskepttheirquarters;andatthedistanceofonemilefromhence,Claudius,acertaincommanderofacohort,seemstohavehadacamp,towardsthestreet,andtowardsthefossatomb.”The“highcross”isnowgone,butStukeleyleftuswithadrawingofthemonument.

WhereasChartrescontinuestoriseatthecenteroftheGallicworld,inBritain,farlessisvisibleofthisonce-sacredcenter.EquallylosttodayistheimportanceofFosseWay,whiletheotherRomanhighway,WatlingStreet,is“only”theA5,notasuper-highway.Nearbyis,nevertheless,stilltheconnectionoftheM6withtheM1,themodernarteriesofautomobileEngland.

Venonae(sometimesreferencedasVenonis)wasthereforethesettlementatthecenterofBritain.ItismentionedintheAntonineItinerary,adocumentofthelatesecondcenturyAD.ThedocumentlistsallRomanroutesacrosstheempire,15ofwhicharewithinBritainnadthreeofwhichpassthroughthissettlement:IterIIwastheroutefromHadrian’sWalltoRichboroughinKent;IterVI,theroutefromLondontoLincoln;andIterVIII,theroutefromYorktoLondon.

Thoughlittlevisibleremains,archaeologicalexcavationsofVenonaehaveoccurred,andhencethesettlementisknowntohavestretchedatleasthalfakilometertothesoutheast.ExcavationsonthesouthsideofWatlingStreethaverevealedpostholes,hearths,gullies,andslotsoftimberbuildings,butsofarnocompletebuildingplanhasbeenuncovered.Thoughcentrallylocated,itappearsitwasimportantonlyforthatreason.Infact,itisonlymentionedonce,aslateasthesecondcenturyAD,andthearchaeologicalevidence—pottery—recoveredonsitedatesonlyasfarbackasFlavian(c.AD69–96).Assuch,thoughacenterofBritain,itwasfromacommercialordemographicperspectivealmostinsignificant.

OnewondershowfaradvancedRomangeographywasthattheyquiteaccuratelyidentifiedthisareaasthecenterofEngland—andconstructedtheirnetworkofroadssothatpreciselyhere,twomainrouteswouldcross.But,asmentioned,howevermuchtheRomansmighthaveknownandgiventotheBrits,thisknowledgedidnotbeginwiththeRomans.ItappearsthattheCeltswerealreadyawareofthecentricityofthisregion,andtheirsacredcenterwasnotHighCross,butahillnearby.

TheCelticomphaloswasCroftHill,128metershigh,afewmilessouthwestofLeicester,and5milesfromHighCross.ItisknownthatthehillwasusedasabeaconinancienttimesandthatfromitssummitseveralkingsofEnglandsurveyedtheirkingdom.Writingaboutthissolitaryhillin1879,localhistorianT.L.WalkerwasconvincedthatthishillwastheomphalosofCelticBritain.Britishalternativeresearcher/writerPaulDevereuxagreed.

Mostomphaliarestand-alonehills,andCroftHilldefinitelystandsout.Furthermore,Croft

Hillisquiteconicaland,mostspecifically,ismadeofgranite,twocharacteristicsthatwouldhavegreatlypleasedourancestors,foromphaliwereoftenconicalhills.Itwasarockintherightshape,oftherightmaterial,intherightplace.

Today,mostofCroftHill’sinteriorhasactuallybeencarvedout,whichbecomestrulyvisiblewhenonestandsonitssummitandseesthemassivecanyonwallthequarryinghascreated.NotingthatinancientmythologythecenteroftheworldwassaidtobeamidwaystationbetweenHeavenandHell,someonehasdefinitelybeentakingthistooliterallyandismakinghiswaytoHell.

CroftHillwasanimportantgatheringplace.Itunderwritestheclaimthatthissacredcenterwasrecognizedassuchbymany,andweshouldrecognizeitassuch.AtCroft,inAD836,KingWiglafofMerciaheldcouncil,whichwasattendedbydignitariesthatincludedtheArchbishopofCanterburyandotherbishops.Thesitewasalsousedasanopen-aircourt,aswellasthesiteofanannualfair.

BothVenonaeandCroftHillareclosetothe“real”geographicalcenterofEngland,whichunderlinesthatinCeltictimes,perhapsasmuchas3,000yearsago,ifnotlonger,ourancestorspossessedadvancedknowledgeaboutthegeographyoftheislandonwhichtheylived.

JohnMichellstatedthatCaesarnotedthatthedruidswereskilledinastronomyandastrology,butalsogeodesyandlandmeasurement.Headded:“DespiteCaesar’shint,accuratesurveyingisnotgenerallyattributedtotheancientpriesthoods.”5Hewentontoarguethatitshouldneverthelessbeseenasanancientskill.Inrecentdecades,wehavecreditedthedruidsandtheirpredecessorwithanadvancedunderstandingofastronomy.Butastronomywasalsoconnectedtolandmeasurement,accordingtothedoctrineof“asabove,sobelow.”Havingmasteredknowledgeofthelayofthelandissomethingwehavenotyetendoweduponourancestors.

Howtheyacquiredthatknowledgeisanexcellentquestion,withnoknownanswer.Inacultureandatimewherenavel-gazinghasalmostbecomeanartform,weshouldabandonourcomplacentself-absorptionandtrytoanswerhowourancestorscouldidentifyarealnavelofanenormousislandandgetitsoright.Whenwedo,wewillonceagainbecomingtrulycentered.

Thecenteroftheworldwasasiteoutofwhichthenationradiated.ThisispreciselywhatweseeinSensandAlaise.WeknowthatSenswasthegeographiccenteroftheoriginalorcopiedAtlantis,butthequestioniswhatAlaisewasthecenterof—somethingolderandlargerstill,foritslocationwasmoreinland,totheeast.

Historiansareoftenatalosstoexplainwhycertainsiteswereabandonedascapitalsinprehistorictimestobereplacedbyothers.Amongthemyriadpossibilities,oneshouldbeadded:Becausethebordersofthelandhadchanged,acenterhadtobedefined.ThisexplainswhyfrommegalithictoCeltictimes,thecenteroftheworldmovedfromSenstoChartres.

Thisknowledgewasglobal;thetownofCuscowasthenaveloftheentireIncaculture;Cuscomeans“navel.”TheJesuitFatherBernabeCobo,inhisbookTheHistoryoftheNewWorld(1653),wroteabouttheso-calledcequesinCusco.Thesewerelinesonwhichwak’as(shrines)wereplacedandthatwereveneratedbylocalpeople.Cequesweresacredpathways,andCobodescribedhowthecequesradiatedoutwardfromtheTempleoftheSun,theverycenteroftheIncacapital.Thecequesradiatedoutbetweentwolinesatrightangles,whichdividedthecityintofourandextendedoutintotheIncaEmpire.Eachcequewasinthecareofafamily.Wak’asmostlytooktheformofstones,springs,hills,orstonesonhills.

Bothcequesandwak’asrevealtheglobalnatureofhowourancestorsdividedtheworld;thisuniversalapproachmakesitclearthatthisknowledgeandmethodologyofdoingthingswentbacktothemostancientoftimes.

ASINGAUL,SOINIRELANDIrelandwasneverconqueredbytheRomans,whichmeansthatCeltictraditionssurvived

longer.Irelandhasrememberedwhereitssacrednavelwasandremains:Uisneach.Thesacred

divisionoftheislandwasdoneinfour,themeridiandividingthetwohalves,thenthehorizontalcutdividingthosepartsagain.Assuch,thefiveprovinceswerecreated:Ulster,Leinster,Munster,Connacht,andMeath,thelatteraroundthecenteratUisneach.ThenameMeathisderivedfromtheLatinwordmedia(“middle”),emphasizingtheimportanceofcentrality.

NemhedhiscreditedwithlightingthefirstfireatUisneach.HepushedtheFormorians,thelegendarygiantswithoneeye,onearm,andoneleg,tothecoastalfringes.LegendalsohasitthatthefollowersofNemhedheventuallydispersedacrossEuropeandweresucceededbytheFirBolg,whoaresaidtohavecometoUisneach,andfromtheretheydividedthecountry.

Eachprovincewasruledbyoneoffivebrothersresponsibleforprosperity,order,andjusticeforall.Itisrecordedthateachprovincialking,whenattendingtheseassemblies,hadtowearahero’sringofredgold,whichheleftbehindonhischairasatributefortheHighKing.ToquoteCarryMeeghan:“Thisformedthebasisofsacralkingship,aconceptthatsurvivestothisdayonsomeoftheislandsandincertainremotepartsofthecountry.”6Sacredkingship,ofcourse,wasoncethenormthroughouttheworld.

ApartfromNemedh,thecenterisalsolinkedwithLugh,whocameheretorescuehismother’speoplefromtheheavytaxesdemandedfromthembytheFormorians.Aftertheirdefeat,LughruledfromUisneach,anditissaidhediedherealso.Thisbringstheconcepthomethatthekingruledfromthesacredhill,inthecenterofhisland,Ireland.Italsoshowsthetraditionoftheking(identifiedwiththesun)marryingtheland,oftenidentifiedwiththegoddess.

Asitformsthesacredcenter,wecouldpresumethatUisneachwouldbeamajesticoratleastintriguingmountain.Thatisnotthecase.Uisneachisa181-meters-highlimestoneoutcropwestofMullingar.Likesomanyotheromphali,itismorethepositionandtheshapethanitsheightthatsetsthesehillsapart.

ArchaeologicaldigshaverevealedthathugefireswereburnedtherefromNeolithictimesonward.Thenear-circularsanctuary,55metersindiameters,wasdefinedbyaditch120centimetersdeepand1meterwideatthebase.ThesetwoconcentricbeaconringsaroundthecentralUisneachfirepointhavebeenidentifiedasafireeye,whichhasbeendiscoveredonseveralmegalithicdepictions,suchastheHilloftheHagatLoughcrew.TheOldIrishwordsúilmeansboth“eye”and“sun,”anditseemsfireconnectedboth.

Theseritualfireswerethenrelayedtootherhills,andsoonward,untilallofIrelandwas“lit.”BeaconfirescouldindeedbeseenfromtheretomorethanaquarterofIreland,andinmostdirectionsthehillsuponthehorizonscouldrelaythemessageofthebeaconasfarastheseacoast.JohnTotland,asrecentlyas1740,recalledsuchchainsoffires,“whichbeingeveryone[…]insightofsomeother,couldnotbutaffordagloriousshowoverawholenation.”7AccordingtoTotland,apairoffireswaslitateachsite,“oneonthecairn,”“anotherontheground,”togetherevokingtherisingsun:“IrememberoneofthoseCarnsonFawn-hill[…]knownbynoothernamebutthatofBealteine,andfacinganothersuchCarnonthetopofInch-hill,”8inhisnativeregionoftheInishowenpeninsula.

Oncethefirewaslit,otherritualsoccurred.TraditionhasitthatatBeltane,cattleweredriventhroughtwofires,topreservethemfromfutureaccidents.Itisthistradition,whichsurvivedinmanyplaces,fromwhichtheexpressionabaptismbyfirecomes:Literally,cattle,aswellaspeople,werebaptizedbyfire,toprotectthemfromharm.ThatthetraditionisnotjustmedievalfolklorebutdatesfromancienttimeswassubstantiatedbyexcavationsatUisneach,wherecarcassesofanimalsthathadbeenburnedwerefoundonthesite;theyweresacrificestothegods.

Theseweretheritualsofthefiregod.WhatabouttheMotherGoddesswhomhemarried?Uisneachisbelievedtohavebeentheburialplaceofagoddess,Eriu,orErin.Sheisthegoddesswhogavehernametotheisland:Eire,Ireland.Therockswereherbones,theearthherflesh,andtheriversherveins.LegendhasitthatthisMotherGoddesswasburiedunderneaththeCatStone,onthesouthwesternslope.Thestoneisnamedassuchbecauseitissaidtoresembleacat.

However,itsIrishnameisAilnaMirenn,orStoneofDivisions,underliningitscentrallocation;fromhere,the“bodyoftheMotherGoddess,”Eriu,wasdivided.

OneofthecentersoftheprovincesofIrelandwasatCruachain,theresidenceofthekingsofConnaught,theO’ConnorDon.ThecentralfeatureistheMoundorRathofCruachain.SheseemstobealocalversionofErinandwasnamedafterthegoddessCrochenCroderg.ShewasbornofthesungoddessEtain(alocalversionofLugh?),droppingfromherapronasshepassedover.Whenshefell,shewentintothegroundthroughtheOweynagat,theCaveoftheCats.Oweynnagatisanaturalfissure,about120feetdeepintothelimestone,onthesideofoneoftheearthworksthatarepartofCruachain.Apparently,therewasonceaninscriptioninthecave,datingfromtheearlyChristianera,andwritteninOgham,whichread:“StoneofFraech,sonofMedbh(Maedbh).”

Thecavehasasmallentrance—easilymissed.Weshouldseeitasthe“vulva”oftheMotherGoddess,throughwhichweenterherwomb—theunderworld.Itshouldthusnotcomeasasurprisethatherfemaleorgansarealignedtothesun.Herentranceisalignedwiththerisingsunatmidsummer,shiningintothecave.Crodergitselfmeans“bloodred,”thecolorofthesettingsun,butalsonodoubtexpressingthemenstrualblood,withthesunpenetratingintothecavenodoubtsymbolizingfertilizationofthewombbythesolarlight.Itshouldthusnotcomeasasurprisetolearnthatthisdeityhadadaughter,theinfamousMaebh,whowouldbecomethequeenofConnaughtandwhosepalacewassaidtobemoundofRathcroghan—fromwhichthekingsruled.Thecaveitselfissaidtobeherburialplace.

TheusageofOweynnagatisonparwiththewayourancestors20,000yearsearlierwereusingthecavesofLascaux:sacredbelliesofMotherEarth,inwhichcontactwiththedivinewassought.Itshouldberememberedthateachconicalhillwasalsothecenteroftheworld,fromwhichonecouldreachtheotherworlds,whetherthatwasknownasHeavenorHell.

InhisnotesonIreland,datingfromAD82,historianPtolemyofAlexandriafixesthepositionofthecapitalcitiesofeachofthefiveIrishkingdomsbygivinglongitudeandlatitudefiguresforeachofthem.Taraisnotincluded,whichsuggeststhat,atthattime,Uisneachwasstillthesacredcenter.Inc.AD400,TarawasthesitewhereSt.PatrickenteredintoapowerstrugglewiththeCelticelitebylightingarivalSpringEquinoxritualfireontheHillofSlane,asdirectcompetitiontotheritualfirelitfromTara,whichwassupposedtobethefirstlighttobelit.

ThewordTarasimplymeans“hill.”LegendsaysitcontainsthetombofTea,thequeenoftheancestors,inyetanotherdisplayofthekingsmarryingtheMotherGoddess—inotherwords,theland.ThebestknownfeatureofthesiteistheMoundoftheHostages,thenamehavingnothingtodowithanyarchaeologicalevidencefoundthere,buttheresultof19th-centurynamingconventions.Itsspecialstatusisconfirmedthroughvariousexcavations,whichhavefoundoverahundredbodies,makingitthemost“popular”moundinIreland.Itwouldsuggestthatcertainprivilegedpeoplewereburiedinthepresenceofthetombofthegoddess.

Themoundistheoldestmonumentonsite,datingfromabout3000BCandhasashortsubterraneanpassage,intowhichthesunshinesonNovember8thandFebruary8th,datesidentifiedasthebeginningofwinterandspring.Thephenomenonworksbyplacingasillstoneattheentrance,alignedtothehorizon,sothatabeamoflightwillenterthepassage,strikingthebackstone,wheretherearecarvingswithcirclesandarcs.Thesemust,onceagain,symbolizeauniqueinterplaybetweensolardeityandthefertilityofthemother.Wenotethattheperiodbetweenthetwodaysroughlycoincideswiththelengthofahumanpregnancy(ninemonths).

ItisatTarathattheroleofsacredkingshiphasbeenbestpreserved.Thenewkinghadtoseekacceptancefromthegods.Forthis,asacredstone,theLiaFail,orStoneofDestiny,hadtocryout,showingthedivinitieshadacceptedthenewruler.ThesacredstonewassaidtohavebeenbroughttoIrelandbytheTuathaDeDanaan.

Thestoneisasomewhatordinary,phallicstandingstone,butthereisatraditionthatlinksitwiththeStoneofDestinythattheScottishkingsusedintheircoronationceremoniesandthatthereforemightalsohaveancientEgyptianorigins,asthelegendstates.Beforewegothere,

though,Irelandisabletoclearlydemonstratehowsacredkingshipandmarryingthelandwenthandinhand,andhowthelandwasdividedinaveryholographicmanner.

ASINIRELAND.SOINEGYPT

TheTempleofJerusalemwasbuiltinthecenteroftheworld,anditwastohousetheArkoftheCovenant.Thetemplerepresentedthecosmology.Thefloor,whichroseinaseriesofterraces,wastheearthorprimevalhill,fromwhichgrewlotusorpapyrusplants,representedbycolumns.Theroofwasthevaultofthesky,withdepictionsofstarsandwingedsundisksontheceiling.Theentrancesection,awidegateorpylon,representedthemountainsbehindwhichthesunrose.

Jerusalemasacenteroftheworldkeptitssacrednesswellintomedievaltimes—ifnotintoourpresentera.ItwasthesacredquestoftheCrusadestoliberateitfromtheMuslims.Jubilees8andEzekielspecificallyidentifyJerusalemasthenaveloftheEarth—wheretheumbilicalcordconnectsthechildwiththemother.ThisrockwascalledinHebrewEbhenShetiyyah,theStoneofFoundation,andwasthefirstsolidthingtobecreated,placedbyGodamidtheas-yet-boundlessfluidoftheprimevalwaters.Legendhasitthatjustasthebodyofanembryoisbuiltupinitsmother’swombfromitsnavel,soGodbuiltuptheearthconcentricallyaroundthisstone,theNaveloftheEarth.Justasthebodyoftheembryoreceivesitsnourishmentfromthenavel,sothewholeEarth,too,receivesthewatersthatnourishitfromthisNavel.

Thecenterofthehumanbody,halfwayupandhalfwaydownitsfront,isthenavel.Forthisreason,andbecauseitwasonceattachedbytheumbilicalcordtoourmaternalsourceoflifeandnourishment,thenavelprovidesanimageofthenotionalworldcenter,thespotontheEarth’ssurfacethroughwhichrunstheuniversalpole.

ForIslam,thisconceptissituatedatMeccawiththeKa’aba,itsfoundationstone.ThesacredstonewassaidtohavebeenbroughttoEarthbyanangeltorecordthedeedsofthefaithful,tobeexaminedhereafterontheDayofJudgment.ThestonewasthesoleobjectfromthepagantemplethattheprophetMuhammadkeptwhenheconvertedtheshrineatMeccaintoanIslamictemple.

StecchiniarguedthathehadfoundacentralmeridianforAncientEgypt.TheestablishmentofthismeridianbisectedtheNileDelta(at31degrees14minutesEast)andallegedlypre-datedthebuildingoftheGreatPyramid.StecchinibuiltuponobservationsfromNapoleon’ssavants,whoobservedwhentheyarrivedinEgyptin1798,thattheGreatPyramidwassituatedattheexactapexoftheNileDeltasuchthatanarccenteredontheGreatPyramiddefinedtheextentoftheDelta,perfectlyenclosingitsouterperimeter.ThenorthernpromontoryoftheDeltaisduenorthofthepyramid.Since,othershaveobservedthattheGreatPyramidsitsintheexactcenterofEarth’slandmass.Thatis,itseast-westaxiscorrespondstothelongestlandparallelacrosstheEarth,passingthroughAfrica,Asia,andAmerica.Similarly,thelongestlandmeridianonEarth,throughAsia,Africa,Europa,andAntarctica,alsopassesthroughthepyramid.Statistically,thepossibilitythatthisisacoincidenceisoneinthreebillion.

In1882,RobertT.BallardpointedoutthattheplacementoftheGreatPyramidwouldhaveallowedtheresidentsoftheNileDeltatoeasilyre-surveytheirfieldseveryyearaftertheannualflood,usingonlyaplumb-line,bysightingontheapexoftheGreatPyramid.HefurtherdemonstratedthatthecombinationofthethreeGizapyramidswouldhaveimprovedthisoperationandprovidedmoreinformationthanasinglepyramidbyitselfcouldhave.

StecchinipointedoutthattheoriginalnamethatwasusedbytheancientEgyptiansfortheircountrywasTo-Mera,“theLandthatwasMeasured.”TheEgyptianswereextremelyconcernedwithdeterminingexactboundariesandareasoflandsurface.TheannualinundationoftheNileerasedallboundarylinesbetweenfields.Herodotus,Plato,Diodorus,Strabo,ClemensofAlexandria,Iamblichus,andothersascribetheoriginofgeometrytochangesthatannuallytookplacefromtheinundation,andtotheconsequentnecessityofadjustingtheclaimsofeachpersonrespectingthelimitsofthelands.TheseGreekauthorswereuniformthattheancientEgyptianswerefarmorescientificallyadvancedthanweoftengivethemcreditfor.

TheEgyptiancenterwheretheomphalosstonewaskeptwasHeliopolis,butitwasnottheonlytownwithabenbenstone,astheEgyptiansacredstoneswerecalled.WhenThebesrosetofame,ithaditsownfoundationstone,keptintheTempleofAmun.Afterthe18thDynasty,ThebesbecameknownliterallyastheHeliopolisoftheSouthandbecamethe“center”ofEgypt.

ItwasthecontroversialPharaohAkhenatenwhowastoestablishathird,newcenterforEgypt:Akhetaten,betweenHeliopolisandThebes.Eachancientcenterwasprecisely172milesfromthenewcapital.TheequidistanceofthetwoplacesissimilartothestoryofthetwodovesofZeus.ItwasAkhenaten’sattempttobalancethepoweroftheoldwiththatofthenew,withsomethingofhisown—aNewEra.Assuch,hepromotedtheroleofaminorcharacteristicofthesun,theAten,thevisibleaspectofthesungodRa,tochiefdeity.

Thestoryofthecreationofthenewcapitalisinteresting,foritshowsushowancientEgyptianswentaboutthesethings.First,asitewasselected,equidistantbetweenHeliopolisandThebes,whichmeansthat,asdidtheCelts,theAncientEgyptiansknewfarmoreabouttheEarth’sgeographythanweofficiallygivethemcredit.Apparently,thesitechosenwasrevealedbyAtenhimself,accordingtoinscriptiononthestela.OneofthepeopleintriguedbythisnewtownwasStecchini:“AkhenatenwantedtoprovethatThebescouldnotproperlyclaimtobethegeodesiccenterofEgyptandthathehadchosen(inAmarna)thegeodesiccenterconformingtoanabsolutelyrigorousinterpretationofmaat,thecosmicorderofwhichthedimensionsofEgyptwereanembodiment.”9

Thenewcitywasthenlaidoutand14boundarystelaewereerected.Thesewereround-toppedstonescarvedoutofsolidrock.Eachboreareliefandahieroglyphicinscriptionthatproclaimedtheking’scommitmenttoRe-Harakthy-Aten.Soherewehavetheprimefunctionsoftownlayout:carefulselectionofasite,thesettingofthetown’sboundary,andonlythendidthebuildingworkbegin.ThesamewaspresentinthebuildingoftheGreatPyramid:selectionofthesite,orientationofthebuildingtothecardinalpoints,andonlythencouldtheconstructionbegin.

Thebenbenorfoundationstonesthemselveswereoftencomparedtoanegg,astheeggisyetanothersymbolofcreation.ThestoryofaneggisalsopresentinEgypt,whereitislinkedwithKematef,theprimordialsnake.Kematefwassaidtohavebeentheself-begotten,orthecreatorofhisownegg.Theserpentwasthereforeseenasthecreatorofthenucleus,theomphalos,takingontheroleofthecreatorgodAtumofHeliopolis.IntheThebancreationmyth,theserpentpersonifiesthesouloftheprimevalisland.ThecoilsofKematefwereseenasthesteppedterracesthatwoundtheirwayaroundtheprimevalhill.Hence,aspiralpathwasbelievedtoascendtheprimevalhill,thepathoftheserpent.Thepresenceofaserpentonthemoundofcreation—paradise—mightthereforethrownewlightontheChristiancreationstoryoftheGardenofEden!

Butthereisanotherconclusion,howeversuggestive,todraw:WasthesacredbenbenstoneofAkhetatentakentoIreland?ThisisdefinitelywhatthestoryofScotaimplied.Thoughthereisnoevidenceforthisotherthanlegendary,ourjourneyhasshownthatthereisaconsistentframeworkbetweenalloftheseplaces,whichshowsthatourancestorssawtheEarthandthelandassacred,andusedthestarsandgeodesytoconformtoitssacrednature.Theyadheredtothenotionthatakingcouldonlyruleoverhiscountryifitwasproperlyaligned.Forthem,thatwasthetruenatureofcivilization:thattheterrestrialrealmwasproperlyorganizedinaccordancewiththeheavens,sothatthepeoplecouldlivegoodlives.Forourancestors,thiscouldonlyoccurbybringingdownthedivineordertoEarth,andthechiefexecutorofthistaskwastheking,whodidsofromthecenterofhiskingdom.ItwashistasktomakeHeavenuponEarth,whichwasinpartahighlytechnicaltask,involvingfindingthecenterofhiskingdom,ataskthehistoricalrecordsrevealmanynationswereabletoaccomplishwithanextraordinaryaccuracy,revealingyetanotherlostknowledgeandscienceourancestorspossessed,severalofthousandsofyearsago.

MuscovitehistorianNikolaiGoncharovmarkedallthecentersofearliesthumancultureonaglobe.Ashedidso,hebegantoseeageometricpatternemerge.ItwasonlyafterGoncharovmetVyacheslavMorozov,aconstructionengineer,andValeryMakarov,aspecialistinelectronics,thathewasabletoextendhisresearchintothis.Intheend,theirfindingswerepublishedin1973

inKhimiyaiZhizn’(ChemistryandLife),thepopularsciencejournaloftheUSSRAcademyofSciencesunderthetitle“IstheEarthaLargeCrystal?”

Theytheorizedthattheearthprojectedfromwithinitselftwogeometricgrids.Theinitialformofthisgridhad12pentagonalslabs,ashapeknownasadodecahedron,examplesofwhichhaveactuallybeenfoundinseveralancientcultures.Thesecondgridwasformedby20equilateraltrangins,creatinganicosahedron.SuperimposingthetwogridsonthesurfaceoftheEarthresultedinmappinganenergystructurethatwaslinkedwiththeearth’stectonicplates.Thelinestracingoutthedualgridcoincidedwithzonesofactiverisingsanddepressionsontheoceanfloors,corefaults,andmid-oceanicridges.Ontheedgesofthepolygonswereregionsofseismicandvolcanicactivity,andmagneticanomalieswerefoundattheverticesofthepolygons.Finally,thenodesofthegridwerecentersofgreatchangesinatmosphericpressure,andhurricanesfrequentlyformedinthoseareas.Mostimportantly,though,thescientistsnotedthattolinethesystemuponthesurfaceoftheEarthsothatallthefactorscouldbecorrelated,thepointtheylocatedas“positionone”wasthatoftheGreatPyramidofGiza.KnowingthatthispyramidindeedsitsinthemiddleoftheEarth’slandmass,thatshouldnotcomeasasurprise.

DoesitcomeasanysurprisethatthedodecahedronwasalsohighonthelistofPlato?Plato’sTimaeusassociatesthefourplatonicsolidswiththefourclassicalelements,addingthat“thereisafifthfigure(whichismadeoutof12pentagons),thedodecahedron—thisGodusedasamodelforthetwelvefolddivisionoftheZodiac.”10Thezodiacisofcourseoneofthecentraltenantsofastronomy,anotherkeypreoccupationofourancestors,andtofindthatPlatomayhavepreservedanancientknowledgethatthestarsandtheEarthwereintimatelylinkedshouldnotcomeasasurprise.Ourancestorswereallabout“asabove,sobelow,”and,basedontheextraordinarylevelofcareanddetailthatwentintochoosingthepositionofsacredcentersaroundtheworld,thiswaspartofaphenomenalframework—oneweareonlybeginningtorediscover.

CONCLUSION

Ithassometimesbeenmyrallyingcrytowardscientiststocomeoutoftheirarmchairsandgointothefield.Alas,whentheydoso,asisinevidenceatGlozel,itisworsethaniftheyhadremainedbehindtheirdesks.Instead,mynewmottoisthatweneedtoabandonthenotionthatwritingmarksthebeginningofcivilization.ItissimplynottrueandalltooconvenientforScience.Toomuchofourhumanpastisnotconsideredasimportantcurrentlybecauseitsitswithin“prehistory.”Thousandsofyearsofcivilization,mostcharteredbyarchaeologists,goingbackto10,000yearsBC,simplydonotreceivetheattentiontheydeserve.

ThetitleofthisbookisTheLostCivilizationEnigma,butoneoftheenigmasiswhySciencesosteadfastlyrefusestoincorporatesomeofthefoundcivilizationsinwhatweknowaboutthesecultures.Somuchofthisbookisnottrulylost;itisexcluded.Onpurpose.Byaconsensusviewembeddedwithinthewallsofacademia,thishasgrownlikeacancer,seenbyeveryoneoutsidethatscientificbowl,butbothunnoticedandoftenreinforcedasbenignandgoodbytheacademicsthemselves.

Instead,civilizationshouldberedefinedashumanity’sdiscoverythattherewasmoretothisrealitythanmeetstheeye—thebirthofencounteringthedivineandincorporatingitwithineveryday’sexistence.

J.W.Dunnestatedthat“therecanbenoreasonabledoubtthattheideaofasoulmusthavefirstariseninthemindofprimitivemanastheresultofobservationofhisdreams.Ignorantashewas,hecouldhavecometonootherconclusionbutthat,indreams,helefthissleepingbodyinoneuniverseandwentwanderingoffintoanother.”1ThisIfeel,wasoneofhumanity’sgreatestdiscoveries.Itwasthestartofhumanity’sgreatestquest,butonethatSciencehasabandoned,severalcenturiesago.

Inthe21stcentury,thereisamajordiscrepancybetweenscienceandreligion.Specifically,theystudyfieldsthataremutuallyexclusive:theworldofhard,physicalmatters,andtheworldofconsciousness.Littleifnoscientificresearchoccursonthesubjectofdreaming,andthereisgenerallynoscientificresearchthatseriouslywantstoexploreotherworldlyrealities.Thelittleresearchthatdoesoccurislargelywithinthebailiwickofthenear-deathexperience(NDE),andthisisoftenexecutedbydoctorswhosepatients’experiencesconvincedthemthatsomethinghappenedatthethresholdofdeaththatwasfarmorecomplexthanSciencebelieves.

Twoeminentdoctors,PeterFenwickandSamParnia,investigatedtheexperiencesof63cardiacarrestvictimsatSouthamptonGeneralHospital(Southampton,UK).Theyconcludedthat

thesepeoplewerehavingtheseexperienceswhenwewouldn’texpectthemtohappen,whenthebrainshouldn’tbeabletosustainlucidprocessesorallowthemtoformmemoriesthatwouldlast[…]Essentially,itcomesbacktothequestionofwhetherthemindorconsciousnessisproducedfromthebrain.Ifwecanprovethatthemindisproducedbythebrain,Idon’tthinkthereisanythingafterwediebecauseessentiallyweareconsciousbeings.If,onthecontrary,thebrainislikeanintermediarywhichmanifeststhemind,likeatelevisionwillactasanintermediarytomanifestwavesintheairintoapictureorasound,wecanshowthatthemindisstillthereafterthebrainisdead.AndthatiswhatIthinkthesenear-deathexperiencesindicate.2

Thepresenceofconsciousnessasavitalingredienttotheuniverse,separatefromthebody,iswhatquantumphysicshasbeentryingtomakehumanityawareofforseveraldecades.Near-deathexperienceshavebeenaroundsincethebeginningofhumanity;wecansafelyassumethis,asdeathhasbeenaroundsincethedawnofhumanity.RaymondA.Moody,PhD,MD,consideredtobethefatherofNDEs,wroteLifeafterLifeonthesubject.HereportedthatthepeoplewhohaveexperiencedNDEsstatethattheexperiencehasdramaticallychangedtheir

lives.Theyhavebecomeanewbeing,andoftenmaterialpursuitsaretradedinformorespiritualgoals.Amajorityofthemhaveapositiveexperience:Theygothroughablacktunnel(gate)toenterintobrilliantwhitelight.There,theymightseedeceasedfamily(ancestors),lightbeings,God,andsoon.AslateasAncientGreece,therewasanentireindustry—liketheElysianMysteries—inwhichpeopleweregiven“controlled”NDEs—chemicallyinducedexperiencesonparwiththeaccidentalnatureofNDEs.

ThisquestdidnotbegininGreece,though.Ifanything,itendedthere.ItwashappeningintheTassilianditwashappeninginthemegalithicmonumentsofwesternEurope.Nodoubt,itwashappeningincaveslikeLascaux,20,000yearsago.Infact,thereisevidencetosuggestitwashappening450,000yearsago.

Europe’soldesthumanskullwasfoundinthelittleFrenchtownofTautavel.OuroldestEuropeanancestorwasburiedinacave.Nearbyhumanremains,datedyoungerbutstilltensofthousandsofyearsago,allshowevidenceofburial.Specifically,thesepeoplewereplacedincaves,whichwereseenasthewomboftheearthandaplacewhereourancestorswouldbeabletoaccessanAfterlife.Asaspecies,wehavebeenconvincedoftherealityofanAfterlifeforhundredsofthousandsofyears.

Theseareexplorationsofarealitythatexistsbeyondthethresholdofwhatweseeandexperienceinoureverydayreality.Inmyopinion,thepursuitofcivilizationwaspreciselytobringsomeofthatotherworldlyrealityintothisone.Thecommondenominatorofallcivilizationsisnotwriting,asSciencewouldsohappilypreferit,butanexpressionofourancestorsthattherewasanotherreality,abelieftheyexpressedinanumberofways:cavepaintings,rockart,templecomplexes,statues,and,indeed,religioustexts.Thatiswhatpropelledcivilization—notwriting.Ifanything,writingwasbutonestepintheprocessofrecordingallofthisinformation,whichatsomepointinourpastexceededourancestors’capacitytokeepitallmemorized.That’swhenwritingbecameimportant.

MichaelTalbot,inTheHolographicUniverse,statesthatNDEsoftendescribegoingthrougha“passagewaytothelandofthedead.”3Hearguesthatthesimilaritiesbetweenthenear-deathexperienceandtheEgyptianBookoftheDeadaremorethancoincidence.TheBookoftheDeadispreciselywhatitsays:abookforthedeadonwhattodowhendead.

SeveralEgyptologistshavespokenabouttheageoftheBookoftheDeadandhowitwasnotaproductofAncientEgypt,butwasmucholder.GastonMasperostated,inthe19thcentury,that“ThePyramidTextscarryussofarintothepastthatIhavenowaytodatethembuttosaythattheywerealreadyoldfivemillenniabeforeourera.Asextraordinaryasthatfiguremayseem[…]thosetextsalreadyexistedbeforetheFirstDynasty,anditisuptous,inordertounderstandthem,toplaceourselvesintheconsciousnessofthosewhowrotethemdownoversevenmillenniaago.”4

Scienceisplayinggameshere.TheFirstDynastyisseenasthedawnoftheEgyptiancivilization.TheEgyptiansconsideredtheBookoftheDeadoneoftheirgreatestaccomplishments,asitdocumentedthejourneyofthesoulintheAfterworld—andtherewasnothingmoreimportanttotheminlifethanaccomplishingthisjourneyindeath.MasperostatesthosetextsexistedbeforetheFirstDynasty.SowhyisthedawnofEgyptiancivilizationstillanchoredinthatFirstDynastybyScience?

Ifthedawnofcivilizationwereextendedbackward,manylostcivilizationswouldbubbletothesurface.Wewouldlearnthatthepathofcivilizationisnotanice,straightlineleadingallthewaytothepresent.Itwouldrevealupsanddowns,especiallywhenwelookatitonaglobalscale.WewouldrealizethattheIndustrialRevolutionwasnotthefirsttimethattheworldasawholebegantoworktogether.Therewasatransoceanicandpan-Europeaneconomyin3000BC.ManconqueredtheAmazoncenturiesago,onlyforthejungletoreclaimitsground.WhenyoupretendthatGreekhistoryonlybeganintheeighthcenturyBC,whenyouridiculePlatowhenhespeaksaboutAtlantis,whenyouattackthelikesofSamOsmanagicwithavengeancethathastobeseentobebelieved,whenyouhidethecarbon-datingresultsoftheGreatPyramid,youcan

pretendcivilizationwaslinear.ButifSciencepurelydidwhattextbookssayscienceshoulddo,acompletelydifferentpicturewouldemerge—onethatshowsusthatcivilizationisolder,morecomplex,andoverallmoreinterestingthanhowitispresentednow.Overall,itwouldteachusoneimportantlesson:

Wewerenotthefirst.

AppendixAWORLDOFLOSTCIVILIZATIONS

NORTHAMERICA

IsleRoyal,MichiganIsleRoyalispartoftheGreatLakes,inthenorthwestofLakeSuperior(Michigan).Itisthefocalpointofaregioninwhich,asearlyas3000BC,majorcopperminingactivitiesoccurred.ArchaeologyhasbeenunabletoidentifywherethecopperwasusedinNorthAmerica.ThelikeliestexplanationisthatitwasexportedtoEurope,whereitwaspivotalintheEuropeanBronzeAge.CopperminingaroundIsleRoyalstoppedatthesametimetheEuropeanBronzeAgeended.

BurrowsCave,IllinoisSomewhereinIllinois,RussellBurrowsdiscoveredacavecontainingancientburials.Burrowsneverrevealedtheexactlocationofthesiteandevenmayhavedynamiteditsentrance,afteryearsofcontroversywhenheannouncedhisfind.Thecaveallegedlycontainshumanremainsingoldensarcophagi,whichsomehaveidentifiedasEgyptiannoblesfromRomantimes.

BiminiCrystal,BahamasThewatersofthecoastofBiminiarelinkedwiththesagaofAtlantisfollowingthediscoveryoftheso-calledBiminiRoadin1968.This0.5-mile-longstretchoflimestoneblocks,nowunderwater,isseenbysomeasevidencethatthislandwasonceabovewater.Nearby,acrystalballwasallegedlyfoundbyDr.RayBrownduringadivein1970.Theso-calledBiminiCrystalwasapparentlythecentralfeatureofalargecrystalconstructionthatBrownfoundunderwater.Since,nofurtherconfirmationoftheunderwaterstructurehasbeenmade,thoughthecrystalexists.

SouthAmerica

MachuPicchu,PeruIn1911,whilesearchingforthecityofVilcabamba,thelastIncarefugeduringtheSpanishConquestoftheIncaEmpire,HiramBinghamdiscoveredthelostcityofMachuPicchu.Consideredoneofthemostbeautifularchaeologicalsitesintheworld,thehilltoptownbuiltbya15th-centuryIncarulerremainedundiscoveredforhundredsofyears,eventhoughitslocationwasnotspecificallyremote.

Akakor,Brazil/Bolivia/PeruJournalistKarlBruggerdescribedtheexistenceofanundergroundcivilizationAkakor,somewhereinBrazil/Bolivia/Peru.Brugger’sinformationcamefromself-proclaimedBrazilianIndianchieftainTatuncaNara.ThoughTantuncaNarawassubsequentlyexposedasafraud,elementsofthestorywereusedinIndianaJonesandtheKingdomoftheCrystalSkull,wherethecivilizationwasreferredtoasAkator.Inrecentyears,however,theAmazonhasbeenidentifiedasthevenueforseverallostcivilizations,whichweredescribedbyearlyexplorersbutsubsequentlydisappeared,theirpopulationskilledbythediseasestheseEuropeanexplorersbroughtwiththem.

Caral,PeruCaral,innorthernPeru,isthesiteofseveralpyramidsthatdatebacktoc.3200BC,making

themforthescientificcommunitytheoldestpyramidseverfound,notjustinAmerica,butworldwide.Caralwasdiscoveredin1948,butittookanotherhalfcenturybeforeits“hills”wereidentifiedasgenuinepyramids,thusrewritingthehistoryofPeru,ifnottheentireworld.

IcaStones,PeruDr.JavierCabreracollectedaseriesofstoneartifacts,showingvariousanomalousdepictions,includingmenusingtelescopesandhumansinteractingwithdinosaurs.ThecollectionwasbroughttoCabrerabylocals,andsomeofthestonesareknowntohavebeenmodernfabrications.Some4,000objects,however,couldbegenuine,thoughevenCabrera’sgreatestsupportersbelievethefinaltruthmayneverbeknownfollowingthedeathofDr.Cabrera.

ElDorado,Ecuador/Peru/BoliviaTheSpanishConquistadorsweretoldofatribalchiefwhocoveredhimselfingolddust,tobecomeElDorado.Soon,ElDoradotransformedintoaplace,aLostCityofGold,andmanywentinpursuitofthewealthandfamethatwouldcometoitsdiscoverer.AmongtheseexplorerswereFranciscoOrellanaandGonzaloPizarro,whodepartedfromQuitoin1541towardtheAmazonBasin.ThoughhefailedtofindElDorado,OrellanadidbecomethefirstpersonknowntonavigatetheAmazonRiverallthewaytoitsmouth.

Paititi,Peru/Bolivia/BrazilPaititiisalegendaryIncalostcity,saidtohavebeenthelastrefugeoftheIncarulers,aswellastheretreatcenterofInkarri,thefounderoftheIncacapital,Cusco.SaidtobeeastoftheAndes,PaititiisnormallysituatedintherainforestsofsoutheastPeru,northernBolivia,orsouthwestBrazil.Dozensofexpeditionshavebeenlaunchedinsearchofit,startingin1925withPercyHarrisonFawcett,whodisappearedwhilelookingforit.

Europe

Glozel,FranceLocatednearVichy,thetinyhamletofGlozelbecamethecenterofinternationalcontroversywhenlocalfarmerEmileFradindiscoveredaseriesofenigmaticengravedstonesin1924.OriginalclaimssuggestedtheartifactswerethousandsofyearsoldandwouldrewriteearlyEuropeanhistory.Since,thestoneshavebeenknowntodatefromvariousperiods,butthesitehasremainedthecenterofextraordinarycontroversy.

Visoko,Bosnia-HerzegovinaSince2005,thesmalltownofVisoko,neartheBosniancapitalofSarajevo,isthefocusofthelargestarchaeologicalexcavationintheworld,followingthediscoveryofaseriesofpyramids.ThePyramidoftheSunandtheMoonarethetallestpyramidsintheworldandlikelytobetheoldest.ThesitesitsintheheartofacivilizationknownasOldEurope,whichwaspresentintheBalkanfromc.6000BCtoc.3500BC.Untiltheirdiscovery,thiscivilizationwasthoughtnottohavebuiltsuchgiantstructures.

HyperboreaHyperboreawasamythicalGreeklocation,abovethe“NorthWinds.”Formillennia,itwasthoughttobefictional.DetailsinvariousGreektextsallowedarchaeo-astronomerstoidentifythesiteofitsmaintemplewithCallanish,amegalithicstonecircleontheScottishHebrideanIsleofLewis.ItunderlinesthattheAncientGreekswereintimatelyfamiliarwiththegeographyofnorthernEurope,farbeyondtheirownshores.

Thera/Santorini,GreeceThevolcanicislandofThera/Santoriniwasthesiteofamajoreruptioninc.1500C.Anumberofprehistorictownsontheislandweresubsequentlyburiedundervolcanicash.Theywereonlyrediscoveredduringarchaeologicalexcavationsin1967.TheeruptionisthoughttohavecontributedtothedemiseoftheMinoanCivilization,locatedontheislandofCrete,southofSantorini.SomehaveidentifiedSantoriniwiththelostislandofAtlantis,butthereisnohardevidencetowarrantthisconclusion.

Sens/Alesia,FranceTheFrenchtownsofSensandAlesiaareboththecenterofaroadnetworkthatdatesbacktoprehistorictimes.TheroadnetworkaroundSenswasdiscoveredbyBelgianhistorianMarcelMestdaghandlinkedwiththelostcivilizationofAtlantis,asthestructuresconformtothedimensionsgivenbyGreekhistorianPlatoforthislostcivilization.TheroadnetworkaroundAlesiawasidentifiedbypoliceofficerXavierGuichard,whosawapan-EuropeannetworkofsitesnamedAlesia(orvariations)androadsthatseemedtopredatetheendofthelastIceAge,c.10,000BC.

Asia

TroyFormillennia,thesiteofTroy,thesitedescribedinamythicalbattleinHomer’sIliad,wasseenasafictionalsetting.In1868,HeinrichSchliemanndugattheTurkishsiteofHisarlik,discoveringaprehistoricsettlementthatheidentifiedwithTroy.ThoughnowacceptedbyarchaeologyasthesiteofTroy,therearevariousdetailsinHomer’saccountthatsuggestanorthernEuropeansettingismorelikely.TheBalticregionandtheareaaroundCambridge,England,arecurrentlystrongcontendersforthesiteofancientTroy.

GöbekliTepe,TurkeyDiscoveredin1994,thesiteofGöbekliTepe,justoutsidethetownof ,isnowtheoldestreligioussiteintheworld,datedtoc.9,500BC.Itisoneofaseriesoftemplecomplexes,allroughlyidenticalinage,inthisregionofsoutheasternTurkey.TheirdiscoveryhaspushedbackthedateofcivilizationinEurasiabyseveralthousandsofyears.

Xi’an,ChinaFormostofthe20thcentury,theexistenceofpyramidsneartheChinesecityofXi’anwasrumored,butnoformalverificationoftheirpresencecouldbeattained.In1994,GermantouroperatorHartwigHausdorfwasabletotakeaseriesofphotographsduringvisitstothesite,confirmingtheirexistence.Since,Chinahasopeneditscountrytotourists,andthousandshavebeenabletovisitthesestructuresthatwerebuiltbytheearliestChineseemperors.Somearesaidtohavebeenburiedwithvasttreasures,whichwasvalidatedwhentheTerracottaArmywasfoundnearby.Manyofthepyramidsthemselves,however,stillawaitfurtherarchaeologicalexcavation.

ShambhalaShambhalaisamythicalkingdomhiddensomewhereinInnerAsia.ItisseenasaBuddhistPureLand,akingdomwheretheinhabitantshaveattainedgreatmagicalpowers.Itslocationisunknown,butthoughttobesomewhereinornearTibet.VariousancientTibetanBuddhisttextsandtraditionsmentionit,andasaresultseveralexpeditionshavebeenlaunchedinsearchofit,especiallybyWesternersintheearlypartofthe20thcentury,whenTibet’sborderswereclosedtoforeigners.SomeoftheseexplorerswerethefirsttoreachtheTibetancapitalofLhasa.

Africa

HallofRecords,EgyptTheHallofRecordsissaidtobelocatedneartheSphinxandGreatPyramidinCairo.AmericanvisionaryEdgarCaycedescribedtheexistenceofthissecretundergroundlocation,statingthat,whenfound(whichwastooccurbeforetheturnofthe21stcentury),itwouldcontainrecordsofAtlantis.Recentdiscoverieshaveshownthereisavastundergroundnetworknearandunderthepyramidcomplex,thoughwhetherthisisrelatedtoCayce’sprophecyremainsspeculation.

Tassilin’Ajjer,AlgeriaTheTassilin’AjjerisamountainrangeintheAlgeriansectionoftheSaharaDesert,knownforitsextensiveexamplesofprehistoricrockart.Theengravingsanddepictions,datingfromc.10,000BCto1200BC,showasceneryandclimatevastlydifferentfromthecurrentharshdesertconditions.Theareawasoncelushwithvegetationandevenhadlakes,allteemingwithlife.Whentheconditionschanged,thepeoplemovedelsewhereandmayhavebeenattheoriginoftheEgyptiancivilization.

Undefined

MuMu,sometimesknownasLemuria,isamythicalcivilizationinAsia,mostoftenplacedintheIndianOcean.ThefirstpersontowriteaboutMuwas19th-centurytravelerAugustusLePlongeon,whoclaimedMuwasattheoriginsoftheEgyptianandMesoamericancivilization,whichheclaimedwerecreatedbyrefugeesfromMu.ThoughLePlongeonlocatedMuintheAtlanticOcean,intheearly20thcenturytravelerJamesChurchwardmovedittothePacific,claimingtohavefoundevidenceforitsexistenceinaseriesofsecretdocumentsinIndiantemplelibraries.Almostacenturylater,thereisnoevidencetosuggestthatthestoryofMuhasanyhistoricalfoundation.

AtlantisPlato’saccountofAtlantis,acontinentthatdisappearedc.12,000yearsago,continuestobeseenaspurelyfictionalbymostarchaeologistsandscientists,eventhoughPlatoandotherGreekcontemporaryauthorsunderlineditshistoricalorigins.LocatedoutsidethePillarsofHercules(thatis,Gibraltar),thelegendarylostcivilizationhasbeenplacedalloverEuropeandAmerica,butremainselusive.ItsmostlikelypositionissomewhereintheAtlanticOcean,whosesealevelwaslowerduringthelastIceAge.

NOTES

Chapter11.Gerard,Glozel,p.18.2.Ibid.,p.42.3.Ibid.,p.18.4.Ibid.,p.31.5.Cordier,TheTravels,p.333.6.Cathie,TheBridge,p.113.7.Page45ofthereportedbook.8.Cathie,TheBridge,p.113.9.Ibid,p.117.10.PrivatecommunicationbetweenHartwigHausdorfandtheauthor,1995.11.Ibid.12.AnthonyHarding.SpeechattheEuropeanAssociationofArchaeologistsconference,

September2008,UniversityofMalta.13.“Aliens.”14.AccordingtomynotestakenduringtheICBP2008ConferenceinSarajevo,whereOleg

Kharoshkinspoke.15.Osmanagic,About,p.15.16.“Bosnian.”17.MarijaGimbutaswroteinTheGoddessesandGodsofOldEurope,p.131.18.“Conclusions.”19.CremoandThompson,Forbidden,p.xxxi.20.Ibid.,p.750.21.Antiquity,Volume67,p.904.22.AtlantisRisingMagazine,No.30,November–December2001,p.20.23.Antiquity,p.238.24.TheForbiddenArchaeologist,Chapter4,quotedat

www.forbiddenarcheologist.com/chapter.htm.

Chapter21.Finley,“Simon,”p.106.2.Strabo,Geography,Book13,chapter1,section27.3.Finley,“Simon,”p.171.4.Colvin,Geographical,p.3.5.Piggott,Ancient,p.126.6.Odyssey,x,190–192.7.Butler,TheIliad,2007,p.294.8.Schulz,Callanish,p.11.9.Armit,TheArchaeology,p.82.

10.Ibid.,p.14.11.Kelley,Milone,andAveni,Exploring,p.184.12.Burl,“Memories.”13.Ibid.14.McKerracher,“WasArthur?”15.Proceedings.16.Ellis,Scota,p.1.17.Marshall,Europe’s,pp.3–4.18.Ibid.,p.4.19.Lhote,TheSearch.20.Ibid.21.Ibid.(Thisisfromthecolorphotosectionofthebook,whichhasnopagenumbers.)22.Ibid.23.“Maltese.”24.Knox,“DoThese?”25.Curry,“Göbekli?”26.“Civilization.”

Chapter31.OlneyDailyMail,July27,1984.2.Flavin,“Falling.”3.Ibid.4.TheChronicle,p.12.5.Ibid,p.13.6.Ibid,p.60.7.Ibid,p.138.Backcover.9.Mann,1491,p.4.10.“TheRoad.”11.Mann,1491,p.20712.Ibid.,p.205.13.Saxena,“TheMother.”14.Cabrera,TheMessage,p.14.15.Ibid.,p.47.16.Ibid.,p.27.17.TheMysteriousOriginsofMan,NBCTV,February1996.18.Cabrera,TheMessage,p.45.19.Ibid.,p.4620.Ibid.,p.4621.VonDäniken,Arrival,p.64.

22.Burgaleta,José.23.Sierra,“First,”page4.24.Ibid.25.Ibid.26.Ibid,page6.27.Wilkins,Secret,p.232.28.PrivatecorrespondencebetweenMariadelCarmenandtheauthor.29.Hearn,“Ancient.”

Chapter41.Gill,“Atlantis.”2.Plato,Timaeus,24a.3.Annas,Plato,p.42.4.Bauval,Secret,p.195.Alsoseewww.robertbauval.co.uk/articles/articles/sc_chapt9.html.5.Privatecorrespondencewiththeauthor.Thesourceaskedforhisnametobewithheld.6.Ibid.7.Ibid.8.SeetheWebsiteoftheAmericanResearchCenterinEgyptatwww.arce.org/main/about/historyandmission.

9.Ibid.10.Ibid.11.Hawass,“Keeping.”12.Hawass,“TheStory.”13.Ibid.14.Hancock,“Information.”15.Hawass,“Keeping.”16.Hawass,“Sphinx.”17.“Egypt.”18.Abdelhadi,“Egypt.”19.Ibid.20.Hancock,“Information.”21.Ibid.22.Ibid.23.PicknettandPrince,TheStargate,p.77.24.Bauval,“Egyptology.”25.Ibid.26.Fromtheprivateblogpoliticalarchaeology.wordpress.com/page/3/.27.Ibid.28.Ibid.29.“EgyptianFlare.”

30.Milson,Peter(ed.),“AgeoftheSphinx”(transcriptofprogramtransmittedon27November1994),BroadcastingSupportServices,London,1994,p.20.

31.Bauval,Secret,p.198.32.Hancock,“Information.”33.Bauval,Secret,p.194.34.Thom,Megalithic,p.43.35.Rolleston,Myths,p.48.36.BulletindelaSociétéd’Anthropologie,Vol4,Issue4,p.38.37.Settegast,Plato,p.9.38.Ibid.39.Ibid,pp.69–70.

Chapter51.“TheMuseum.”2.Ibid.3.Ibid.4.DeSollaPrice,“2,000.”5.Ibid.6.Cic.Natde.2.34-35.7.DeSollaPrice,“2,000.”8.Chatelain,OurCosmic,p.98.9.Ibid,p.99.10.DeSollaPrice,“AnAncient.”11.Freeth,etal.,“Decoding.”12.Ibid.13.“Antikythera.”14.ScientificAmerican,June1959,pp.60–67.15.TheendorsementcanbefoundonthecoverofRobertTemple’sTheCrystalSun.16.Temple,TheCrystal,p.8.17.Ibid.,p.12.18.JournaloftheOpticalSocietyofAmerica,Vol.35,Number5,May1945,p.357.19.Temple,TheCrystal,p.124.20.Ibid.,p.173.21.“TheBiminiWall”(firstairedFebruary1980),partoftheseriesInSearchOf.22.Little,“Dr.Ray.”23.PrivatecorrespondencebetweenArthurFanningandtheauthor.24.Little,“Dr.Ray.”25.SeemybookTheAncientAlienQuestionforadetaileddiscussionofwhytheseskullsare

ancient.

Chapter6

1.Ritter,“DieGoldene.”2.Ibid.3.Ibid.4.PrivatecorrespondencebetweenJackChurchwardandtheauthor.5.Blavatsky,TheSecret,p.249.6.Coonan,“AMeeting.”7.Forsyth,Report,p.61.8.“Taproane,”ChapterXXIV.9.Xianlinetal,Ancient,p.xi.10.Ibid.11.Wilford,“Mummies.”12.Ibid.13.Liu,”Migration.”14.Rudgley,TheLost,frontflap.15.QuotedinDevereux,StoneAge,p.115.

Chapter71.Michell,AttheCentre,p.8.2.Ibid.,p.11.3.Collins,Gods,p.167.4.Britton,TheBeauties,p.463.5.Michell,AttheCentre,p.14.6.Meehan,“TheTraveller’s.”7.Dames,Mythic,pp.206–208.8.Ibid.9.Tompkins,Secrets,p.343.10.Plato,Timaeus.

Conclusion1.Dunne,AnExperiment,p.9.2.Petre,“Soul-Searching.”3.Talbot,TheHolographic,p.247.4.Maspero,Etudes,p.236.

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Index‘AinGhazal,96Achaeanwarriors,67Achilles,72AfricanhistoryandtheTassili,92–93Afterlife,Egyptiansandthe,192–193Agedincum,185Akahim,125–126Akakor,282–283

ErichvonDänikenand,125GreatTempleoftheSunin,125thelegendof,124–129

Akanis,125Akhenaten,176,271Akhetaten,271,272Alesia,246Amarna,176AmericanResearchCenterinEgypt,167–168Anatolia,archeologyof,198AncientEgypt,86,87,89–90,91,92,94,107,132,164,175,178,179,192,194,195,254,269,278,300,306,307,308ancientEgyptians,10,53,89,93,103,104,117,176,181,192,193,221,222,225,270,271AncientGreece,11,162,211,277ancientGreeks,10,178,212,254,285,307AncientRome,234Anglesey,191Annas,Dr.Julia,Atlantisand,163–164Antikythera,201Antikytheradevice,202–203,206,208–210Antony,Marc,122Apucatinti,156–157archaeology,forbidden,55–59Archimedes,204Aristotle,253ArkoftheCovenant,15,220–223,268–269AryanRace,235Aspero,carbondatingof,133astronomy,Egyptiansand,194Aten,271

Atlanteankings,198AtlanticZone,tradingcultureofthe,84Atlantis,15–16,95,161–200,247,288

AncientEgyptand,195ancientEgyptiansand,192–193BiminiCrystaland,213–214BookofDzyanand,228Cyprusand,180dimensionsof,182disappearanceof,179–180Gizaand,196Ile-de-France,189kingsof,198locationof,179Maltaand,180Olymposand,181originsoftheword,179Orionconstellationand,196recreationof,195Sensand,191skepticsof,162Solonand,161Teotihuacanand,197Walhallaand,182–195

Avebury,85,191–192Aztalan,112,113–114Bacon,Roger,212BalikliGöl,95Balkans,culturesofthe,39BalticStates,Troyandthe,67Barakat,Dr.Ali,41,47Bede,Venerable,255Beger,Bruno,233–235benbenstone,272Bergmann,Carlo,93BiminiCrystal,213–220,282BiminiRoad,219Bingham,Hiram,MacchuPicchuand,129–130Blavatsky,Helena,235Boece,Hector,82

Bojic,Merima,43–44BookofDzyan,Atlantisandthe,228BookoftheDead,253,278,279,302Borda,Mark,93–94BosnianKTKtunnels,50Bosnianpyramids,38–44,59BosnianValleyofthePyramids,42,45,53Breck,Simon,82–83Breuil,Abbé,20–21,22Britain,Hyperboreaand,77BritishIsles,theTrojanWarandthe,67–68Bromley,AllanGeorge,207BronzeAgeCelts,245BronzeAge,

magicalstonesandthe,112redatingofthe,39tinandthe,68tintradedinthe,109WesternEuropeandthe,114–115

Brown,Dr.Ray,213–220Brugger,Karl,

Akakorand,124–125murderof,126

BrutustheTrojan,NewTroyand,68BubalusAntiqus,93BurrowsCave,115–123,281

AlexanderHeliosand,122–123deathmaskand,117drawingsinside,115dynamiteexplosionof,118–119goldinside,116–117goldsarcophagusin,116–117,122interiorimageof,116

Burrows,Russell,115–117CabreraDarquea,Javier,138–139Cabrera,Bolivia,139Caesar,Julius,84,185,191Callanish,85

ancestorsand,76eastern-westernrowsof,78

Greekstoriesand,79Hyperboreaand,77importanceof,75Stones,73–74

Callanish’sastronomicalclock,74–75Caral,132–137,283

beginningsof,134–135discoveryof,135Europeanconnectionand,135Gizapyramidsand,133pyramidsof,132

Carnac,85,190Carthaginiantowers,213ÇatalHöyük,94–108cathedrals,StoneAge,250Caucasoidmummies,237Cayce,Edgar,

Atlantisand,165HallofRecordsand,164propheciesof,124

Çayönü,98–99CeltictraditionsinIreland,264–268Celtictribalboundaries,188Charroux,Robert,237Chatelain,Maurice,205–206CherchenMan,237–238ChichenItza,50,225China,theColdWarand,33–34China’sSilkRoad,243–244Chinesepyramids,31–38Christianity,CallanishStonesand,76Chuquipalta,129–130Churchward,James,225–233,237cities,lost,129–131ClemensofAlexandria,270Clément,Benoit,17CleopatraSelene,122–123Cleopatra,122ColdWar,Chinaandthe,33–34computer,world’soldest,201–210

Constantinople,183contact,prehistoricandtransoceanic,115Cook,Warren,BurrowsCaveand,122–123copper,

Aztalanand,114Çayönüand,98–99Cyprusand,180–181ingredientsin,110LakeSuperiorand,114MexicanToltecsand,114originsof,109–110worldeconomyof,115

coppertrade,109–115Corbert,John,132–133Coricancha,the,150–151,153Cornishtinmines,68Cremo,Michael,55–56,58–59

Icastonesand,144theStoneAgeand,248

CroftHill,261–262Cruachain,266crystallenses,210–213crystalskulls,15Cuczo,125Cunliffe,Barry,84–86,94Cyprus,180–181DakhlaOasis,93deSollaPrice,Derek,202,208,211Delphi,257–258Democritus,210Devil’sDyke,68DiodorusSiculus,77–78,270Djedefre’sWaterMountain,93DoggerBank,85–86Doggerland,86Dreyfusaffair,Glozeland,17druids,ceremoniesofthe,186Du-Kumountain,107Dussaud,René,26–28,29–30EasterIsland,227

Egypt,Ancient,87,89,90,91,92,94,107,132,164,175,178,179,192,194,195,254,269,278,300,306,307,308EgyptianAntiquitiesOrganization,172–173EgyptianBookoftheDead,253,278,279,302EgyptianinfluencesatTassili,90Egyptianpaintings,motifsof,92EgyptianRevolution,171–172Egyptians,ancient,10,53,89,93,103,104,117,176,181,192,193,221,222,225,270,271Egyptians,192–194ElDorado,148–160,283Eleusis,254Elysianfields,245–247ElysianMysteries,253,277Epicureanphilosophers,205Etruscans,Herodotusandthe,84Europeanunion,thefirst,80–87Favret,Abbé,22FestivaloftheFlood,Cyprusandthe,181FieldofOfferings,193FifthRootRace,235Flavin,Richard,BurrowsCaveand,118FleamDyke,the,68,69FollowingsofHorus,89Fradin,Claude,17,59Fradin,Emile,17,59

investigationof,26–28photoof,18publishedworkof,19

Fujimara,Shinichi,plantedartifactsof,57GardenofEden,GöbekliTepeand,96Garrod,Dorothy,22–30GatewayoftheSun,137Gaul,Romaninvasionof,185–186Geminus,204–205Gimbutas,Marija,39GizaPlateau,53

controversyofthe,166HallofRecordsandthe,164redgranitefromthe,179samplesfromthe,177

GizaPyramidPlateau,ZahiHawassandthe,172Gizapyramids,Caralandthe,133Gizaunderworld,171Giza,Atlantisand,196Gleave,John,207GliptolithicMan,143Glozel,275,284

authenticityof,21–22controversyat,59controversysurrounding,28Dreyfusaffairand,17excavationsof,16–30thehoaxof,30

Glozelartifacts,forgeriesof,28Glozelregion,writinginthe,19–20GöbekliTepe,94–108,198,247,254,286

biblicalreferencesand,95bonesfoundat,105excavationsof,100flintarrowheadsand,103GardenofEdenand,96shamanisticpotentialof,104T-pillarsand,99–100

GöbekliTepeZiyaret,95–96GobiDesert,237GoldenAgeofEurope,85GordonChilde,Vere,39–40GranPaititi,lostcityof,154,155–159GreatArmy,Vikingsandthe,183–184GreatFishingGodofSefar,91–92GreatPyramidofGiza,45,273GreatPyramid,31,32,33,166,193,195,270,279GreatTempleoftheSun,Akakorandthe,125Greece,Ancient,11,162,211,277Greeks,ancient,10,178,212,254,285,307GulfofMorbihan,190HallofRecords,164,165,287HamiMummy,237HanChinese,242,243Hauck,Günther,TatuncaNaraand,128–129

Hauptmann,Harald,98–99Hausdorf,Hartwig,34–35Hawass,Dr.Zahi,41

Atlantisand,165–166controversyof,178–179GizaPyramidPlateauand,172powerof,167watertestsof,169

HelenofTroy,61–62Heliopolis,271Helios,Alexander,BurrowsCaveand,122–123Herodotus,61,84,270HighCross,259–260Himmler,Heinrich,233–234Hissarlik,Troyand,62–64HoggarMountains,87–88Holberg’sMistake,131Homer,61,72,79Huang,EmperorQinShi,33,37Hy-Brasil,85,86Hyperborea,73–80,284–285Iamblichus,270IcaRiver,floodofthe,142Icastones,138–148,283Ile-de-France,Atlantisand,189Iliad,starsandthe,61,71Incaroads,explorationof,130–131IncanEmpire,125Ireland,Celtictraditionsin,264–268Irwin-Williams,Cynthia,58IsleofLewis,73IsleofWight,258–259IsleRoyal,Michigan,281Ithaca,Homer’s,64Jabbaren,Martiansand,90–91Jacob’sPillar,81Jerfel-Ahmar,105,108Jericho,96,182,198Joseph,Frank,persecutionof,118JurassicLibrary,138–148

Kalhu,211KarahanTepe,106Karanis,211Kematef,coilsof,272Kemp,Barry,Amarnaand,176KingJubaII,123KingPtolemaeusI,123Koslov,PyotrKuzmich,236LakeAtatükDam,99LakeSuperior,copperand,114LakeTiticaca,130,137lenses,crystal,210–213LePlongeon,Augustus,225–233Lewis-Williams,David,95Lhote,Henri,88–90LiaFail,83,268LichfieldCathedral,255LopDesert,238LoulanBeauty,237,238–239Lyonesse,85,86MachuPicchu,125,129,132,159,282MagdalenianCulture,199magicalstones,theBronzeAgeand,112Mahan,JosephP.,BurrowsCaveand,117–118Malta,93–94,180,182Maman,Oscar,31–38Mann,Charles,Incaroadsand,130–131Marai,Mahmoud,93–94Marcellus,204

Martin,Martin,76–77ThomasHenri,211

Mauritania,122–123MAXskull,222–223May,Wayne,BurrowsCaveand,119–120Mayanpyramids,41McCargo’sCove,110MediterraneanSea,Ogygiaand,66Megalithiccultures,crystallensesand,213MegalithicEra,85,190MercadorProjection,196

Meriden,255–263Mestagh,Marcel,183–195Megalithsand,185,186,190Metoniccycle,206,207MexicanToltecs,copperandthe,114MidnightSun,Homerandthe,79MingChinese,236MinongBelt,110Mitchell-HedgesCrystalSkull,222MootHill,80–81Moricz,Juan,Akakorand,125–126Morlet,Antonin,18–30Moseley,Michael,132–133MountSinai,220Mu,225–233,287–288Mycenae,theexistenceof,62NaDromannan,73NaacalLibrary,227–228Naacaltablets,230NahalOren,106,198Naziexpeditions,233–236near-deathexperiences,277Nemedh,264NeoplatonistProclus,162–163NevaliÇori,98–99NewTroy,BrutustheTrojanand,68NewWorld,theoldesttowninthe,132–138NileDelta,270NorteChico,132–136OctaveDuTemple,111Ocucaje,tombsof,143Odyssey,the,61Ogygia,64–65,66OldEurope,39–40

Atlantisand,182objectsfoundin,53Visokoand,44

Olympos,Atlantisand,181omphalosstone,258omphalos,the,257–258

Orion,Atlantisand,196Orion’sBelt,196Osmanagic,Dr.Muris,48Osmanagic,Semir,40–44,47,51Otherworld,voyagetothe,252OuterHebrides,73Paititi,125,155,156,157,158,159,284Paris,PriamofTroy,61–62Peru’sSacredValley,130Petit-Mont,190Pharaoniciconography,94Pharos,Troyand,64Picandet,Adrienne,17PillarsofHercules,161,180Plato,161,189–190,198–200,253,270,274Pleiades,risingofthe,75Plutarch,cluesaboutTroyfrom,64–65PointGlyphadia,201Poseidonius,204prehistoriccontact,evidenceof,115pre-Incaartifacts,139–140pre-Incaburialart,143Pre-PotteryNeolithicAperiod,94–95PrincessScota,79PyramidofCholula,40PyramidoftheDragon,49PyramidoftheMoon,48–50PyramidoftheSun,45PyramidoftheSun,excavationofthe,48–50PyramidoftheSun,imageofthe,46pyramids,

Bosnian,38–44Chinese,31–38criticsoftheBosnian,42imageofChinese,36Mayan,41

PytheasofMassilia,79QueenMoo,225RiverEuphrates,95RiverJordan,ArkoftheCovenantandthe,221

RiverWei,33RobertofGloucester,81RockLake,Aztalanand,113–114rockpaintingsofTassili,88rockpaintings,Sefar,91RoystonCave,256Rydholm,Fred,BurrowsCaveand,122SacredValley,Peru’s,130SaharaDesert,87Santorini,285SargonII,KingofAssyria,211Schäfer,Ernest,233–235Schertz,James,BurrowsCaveand,122Schliemann,Heinrich,61–72Schroder,FredMeyer,31–38SconePalace,80Sefar,91Segalenmission,33Segalen,Victor,33Sekhemkhet,sarcophagusof,177Sekhet-hetep,193Senones,184Sens,285

Atlantisand,191Celsand,188–189imageof,185JuliusCeasarand,191sacredcenterof,187–188Vikingsandthecityof,184

Settegast,Mary,198–200ShadySolis,Ruth,133,136Shambhala,233–234,236,286–287Sirius,193–194SolarDisk,193Solon,161,192Sophocles,253SpanishConquest,151Sphinx,164–165SriEkambaranatha,229,230Stadiatos,Elias,201

Stais,Valerio,201–202StoneAgecathedrals,250StoneAge,248–254StoneofDestiny,80,82–83StoneofScone,80Stonehenge,74,85,191–192,195,246Strabo,212,270StraitofGibraltar,161,180SupremeCouncilofAntiquities,168,170–176Syracuse,Siciliancityof,204Tan-Zoumiatak,humanactivityat,90Tara,originofthename,267–268TarimBasin,mummyatthe,239TarimMummies,244Tassilin’Ajjer,87–88,199,277,287

Africanhistoryandthe,92–93AncientEgyptand,89–90conditionsofthe,89Egyptand,91Egyptianinfluencesat,90rockpaintingsof,88Sefarand,91

TatuncaNara,124–129TaurusMountains,95,106TempleofDemeter,253TempleofJerusalem,268–269Temple,Robert,210–212Teotihuacan,195,196,197TerracottaArmy,36–38Thom,Alexander,192Thompson,RichardL.,55–56Tiahuanaco,195,196TinAbouTekamassif,f90tin,BronzeAgetradingof,68,109Ti-n-Tazarift,89,91Tiryns,theexistenceof,62Tocharianlanguage,242TombofTutankhamun,154–155TopuzovoPoljetunnel,50T-pillars,GöbekliTepeand,99–100

transoceaniccontact,evidenceof,115TroanoCodex,225TrojanWar,63,67–68Troy,285–286

Achillesand,72Ogygiaand,64–65Pharosand,64Scandinaviansettingfor,65searchingfor,61–72theBalticStatesand,67theexistenceof,62theTrojanWarand,63theuniverseand,71–72theWandleburyRingand,70

TuathaDeDanaan,268Tutankhamen’stomb,154–155,202VaysondePradenne,André,21–22Venonae,259–261Viceroy,expeditionofthe,149–150VictoriaFalls,180VikingAge,182–183Vikingterritory,183Vikings,

GreatArmyandthe,183–184questtofindWalhalla,186

Vincaculture,39,53Vinci,Felice,65Viracocha,195–196Visocica,40,41,42,45,47–48Visoko,44,284vonDäniken,Erich,89

Akakorand,125Icastonesand,141Icastoneshoaxand,142Erich,Peruvianfigurinesand,147

vonHagen,Victor,Incaroadsand,130Walhalla,

Atlantisand,182–195Vikingquesttofind,186

WandleburyRing,Troyandthe,70

Ward,Jack,BurrowsCaveand,122–123WatersofChaos,53WesternEurope,theBronzeAgeand,114–115WestminsterAbbey,StoneofDestinyand,80WhiteRock,the,129–130Wilkinson,Toby,91–92Willey,Gordon,132–133WitchesofSubeshi,237Wright,Michael,207–208Xi’an,31–32,34,35–36,286Xianyang,34Xinjiang,241–242YellowRiver,Xi’anandthe,33Zeus,271Zitman,Willem,89,178,195ZuniNativeAmericans,150

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

PhilipCoppens’spublishingcareerbeganattheageof23,whenheeditedthelegacyofthelateBelgianhistorianMarcelMestdagh’sresearchintoEuropeanmegalithsintoamuch-anticipatedsequel.Thatsameyear,healsohelpededitacontroversialnon-fictionthrilleronthetheftofJanVanEyck’sTheAdorationoftheLamb,whichwasmadeintoadocumentarybothforFlemishtelevisionandtheBBC.

OnethingthatsetsCoppensapartfromotherwriters,itisthatheisoftenaheadofthetrends.HewrotethefirstguideinmorethanfourdecadesaboutRosslynChapel—theonlyonetodosobeforeTheDaVinciCodemadethatScottishchapelworld-famousin2003.HealsoresearchedtheoriginsoftheMitchell-HedgesCrystalSkullbeforethe2008IndianaJonesandtheKingdomoftheCrystalSkullmovie,resultinginaseriesofcontroversialarticles,whichevencametotheattentionofTheWashingtonPost.

Amongothers,heistheauthorofTheStonePuzzleofRosslynChapel(2002);TheCanopusRevelation(2004);LandoftheGods(2007);TheNewPyramidAge(2007);andServantsoftheGrail(2009).Mostrecently,hepublishedane-book,2012:ScienceorFiction?,whichaimstobringclarityastowhat2012istrulyallabout,andisthefirsttohaveincorporatedvideo,featuringaninterview-styleconversationwithPhilip.

Philiphasalsocontributedto,orbeenacknowledgedin,thefollowingpublications:Pre-Atlantis(Dutchtitle),coauthorwithMarcelMestdagh(1994);TheTemplarRevelation,byLynnPicknettandClivePrince(1997);TheStargateConspiracy,byLynnPicknettandClivePrince(1999);Saunière’sModelandtheSecretofRennes-le-Château,byAndréDouzet(2001);EGYPT:“ImageofHeaven”—HetSterrenbeeldvanHorus(Dutchtitle),withWimZitman(2006;Dutchedition2000);TheDanBrownCompanion,bySimonCox(2006);RosslynRevealed,byAlanButler&JohnRitchie(2006);TheCygnusMystery,byAndrewCollins(2006);AnAtoZofKingArthurandtheHolyGrail,bySimonCox&MarkOxbrow(2007);Darklore(VolumesI,IIandIII),compiledandeditedbyGregTaylor(2007–2009);UnearthingAncientAmerica,compiledandeditedbyFrankJoseph(2009);andExposed,Uncovered,&Declassified:LostCivilizations&SecretsofthePast,byKirstenDalleyandMichaelPye,editors(2011).

Apartfrombooks,Philipalsodevotesalotofattentiontoessaysandfeaturearticles,whichhaveappearedinmagazinesandanthologiesonallcontinents.HisarticleshaveappearedinForteanTimes,NEXUS,Hera,Fenix,Mysterien,NewDawn,AtlantisRising,AncientAmerican,ParanoiaMagazine,andmore,andhasalargeanddedicatedfollowingontheInternet.HeholdstherecordashavingmostarticlespublishedinNEXUS,amagazinepublishedinmorethan10languages,withnewsstanddistributioninAustralia,GreatBritain,theUnitedStates,Italy,France,andmanyotherEuropeancountries.

Since1995,hehaslecturedonthesubjectintheUnitedStates,GreatBritain,France,Australia,Belgium,andtheNetherlands.Hehasbeenextensivelyinterviewedforradioandtelevision,includingBelgium’sKanaal2andVRTnews,Voyager(RaiDue—Italy),andEdgeMediaTV(UK).HeisalsooneofthekeycontributorsandintervieweesforTheHistoryChannel’smostpopulartelevisionseriesAncientAliens,forthefourthseasonrunning.

Allofthesebooks,articles,andappearanceshavemadehimahouseholdnameinthefieldofalternativescience,whereheholdsauniqueposition,asheisconsideredtobeabelieverbytheskeptics,andaskepticbythebelievers—atestamenttohisinvestigativeknack.

HisWebsiteiswww.philipcoppens.com.HecanbefollowedonFacebookatwww.facebook.com/coppensphilipandonTwitteratwww.twitter.com/philipcoppens.