The Lyric Poets - EMC School...part 1 part 2 Rainy Day in Camp, 1871, Winslow Homer. the metropolitan museum of Art, new York. 4 Unit 4 Slavery and the Civil War 1851 the Women’s

Slavery and the Civil War 1850–1865

A Nation Divided“Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away.” —AbrAhAm LincoLn

The Lyric Poets“The United States themselves are essentially the greatest poem.” —WALt WhitmAn

Unit 4

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Rainy Day in Camp, 1871, Winslow Homer. the metropolitan museum of Art, new York.

4 Unit 4 Slavery and the Civil War

1851 the Women’s rights convention is held in Akron, ohio

1852 Democrat Franklin Pierce wins the presidential election

1854 the Kansas-nebraska Act is passed, escalating hostilities between abolitionists and proslavery Americans

1856 open violence (dubbed “bleeding Kansas” by the press) breaks out between abolitionists and proslavery Americans in the Kansas-nebraska territory

1857 the Supreme court upholds slaveholders’ rights in the Dred Scott case

1852 napoleon iii proclaims a new constitution for the French Second republic and becomes emperor of France; he would be the last of the monarchs

1853 Admiral matthew Perry arrives in Japan, initiating contact with the Western world

1851 herman melville publishes Moby-Dick

1852 harriet beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin becomes a bestseller

1854 henry David thoreau publishes Walden

1855 Frederick Douglass publishes his second autobiography, My Bondage and My Freedom

1855 Walt Whitman publishes the first volume of Leaves of Grass

1856 L. Frank baum, author of The Wizard of Oz, is born on may 15

1858 Stephen c. Foster writes the song “my old Kentucky home”

1859 the first novel by an African-American woman, Our Nig by harriet E. Wilson, is published

1857 France and England declare war on china in the Second opium War

1858 charles Darwin introduces the theory of evolution to the London Linnaean Society

1850 in china, the first clashes of the taiping rebellion occur between imperialist militia and the heavenly Army, beginning one of the bloodi-est civil wars in world history

1850 congress approves henry clay’s compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Act

1850 harriet tubman becomes the official “conductor” of the Underground railroad

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1860 Abraham Lincoln is elected president; in response, South carolina secedes from the Union, followed later by ten other Southern states

1860 Elizabeth cady Stanton argues for women’s suffrage to the new York state legislature

1861 italy unites as a country under Victor Emmanuel, its first king

1862 English and French troops arrive in mexico, beginning the French intervention in mexico

1862 otto Von bismark becomes Prime minister of Prussia

1863 the international red cross forms in Geneva, Switzerland

1865 the Salvation Army starts in Whitechapel, London

1865 Paul bogle leads hundreds of Jamaicans in the morant bay rebellion

1861 the seceded states form the confederate States of America; confederate troops attack Fort Sumter, starting the civil War

1862 Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation

1863 the battle of Gettysburg, the bloodiest of the civil War, is fought July 1–3

1862 Julia Ward howe writes “the battle hymn of the republic”

1862 Ambrose bierce joins the staff of General William babcock hazen, embarking upon a military career that would provide material for many of his short stories

1863 henry Wadsworth Longfellow publishes Tales of a Wayside Inn

1864 John Greenleaf Whittier publishes In War Time

1860 1865

1850 nathaniel hawthorne publishes The Scarlet Letter

1851 Sojourner truth delivers her speech “Ain’t i a Woman?”


AmericAn LiterAture ameriCan literature ameriCan literature ameriCan literature ameriCan literature ameriCan literature ameriCan literature ameriCan lit

AmericAn History ameriCan hiStory ameriCan hiStory ameriCan hiStory ameriCan hiStory ameriCan hiStory ameriCan hiStory ameriCan hiStory ameriCan hiStory

WorLd History World hiStory World hiStory World hiStory World hiStory World hiStory World hiStory World hiStory World hiStory World hiStory World

1850 1855

1865 the civil War ends; Lincoln is assassinated; congress ratifies the thirteenth Amendment, which prohibits slavery

1867 Alaska is purchased from russia for $7.2 million

1868 President Andrew Johnson is impeached; he avoids expulsion from office by one vote in the U.S. Senate

1865 mark twain’s short story The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County is published in the New York Saturday Press

1867 Laura ingalls Wilder is born on February 7

1868 Louisa may Alcott publishes Little Women

1868 W. E. b. Du bois is born on February 23

t r U t H

D a r W i n

b r o W n

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1859 John brown raids harpers Ferry, Virginia; the raid fails and brown is sentenced to death

p e r r y

M a r x

1866 the canadian parliament meets for the first time.

1867 Karl marx publishes the first volume of Das Kapital

1868 Emperor meiji of Japan declares his own restoration to full power, ushering in a dramatic wave of Westernization

7introduCtion6 Unit 4 Slavery and the Civil War

whom they claimed was a runaway. it infuriated prominent northerners who were active in the Underground railroad.

the Kansas–nebraska Act of 1854 allowed these new states to decide the issue of slavery for them-selves. both pro- and antislavery forces rushed to the two states to vote on the issue, which led to bloody fighting between armed bands in Kansas, known as “bleeding Kansas.” in the 1857 Dred Scott decision, the U.S. Supreme court ruled that a slave who had fled to free territory could not sue for his freedom because he was property, not a person; this further fanned the flames of war. Abolitionist John brown’s raid on the arsenal at harper’s Ferry to capture weapons for slaves and his subsequent hanging gave the north a martyr.

secession and the outbreak of civil WarWhen Abraham Lincoln became president in 1860, seven states had already voted to secede from the Union. At this point, the clash was not over slavery but over economic interests. the northern capitalists wanted free land, free labor, free markets, a high protective tariff for their manufactures, and a United States bank—all of which the Southern slave interests opposed. Early in 1861, delegates from throughout the South met in montgomery, Alabama, to form the confederate States of America, choosing Jefferson Davis as their president. When Lincoln attempted to retake federal Fort Sumter in the charleston, South carolina, harbor, four more Southern states seceded, and the most troubled period in American history began.

At the start of the war, the main goal of the north was to restore the Southern states to the Union. the main goal of the South was to establish an indepen-dent nation, which would allow preservation of its way of life. Each side had its strengths and weaknesses. the north had a larger population, an industrial base, railroads, and control of the federal navy; however, having to fight in the unfamiliar South and poor mili-tary leadership were huge obstacles. the South had strong support from the white population, and its forces were led by skilled commanders, reflecting the Southern tradition of military service. the South had a smaller population, however, producing half as much food as the north; in addition, it had fewer factories to manufacture weapons and fewer lines of railroad tracks on which to move troops. the north’s military strategy was threefold: to blockade the Southern ports, to control the mississippi river, and to capture the confederate capital of richmond, Virginia. in contrast, the South planned to hold as much of its territory as possible until the north grew tired of fighting. Southern leaders hoped that Great britain and France would pressure the north for peace in order to regain their cotton supply.

People on both sides expected the war to be over in a short time, but it lasted five years. many of the first major battles were losses for the Union forces,

i n the early years of the nineteenth century, the north and South developed in two different direc-tions. People in the north more frequently lived in

cities and towns than those in the South, working in factories and mills or on small farms. thus, the north became a center for industrial manufacturing and the export of finished goods. to protect its export business, the north favored high tariffs, or fees, on goods from other countries, and saw the federal government as the preeminent authority. the South, in contrast, was almost entirely agricultural, producing rice, tobacco, cotton, and sugar and exporting many of these goods to Great britain. Since it had little industry, the South needed to obtain finished products from elsewhere, and so it opposed high tariffs. Southerners most often worked the land and considered the individual states as having their own authority.

With the invention of the cotton gin in 1793, it became economically feasible to grow the crop for export. As lands in Georgia, Alabama, and mississippi came under cotton cultivation, more and more slaves were needed to work the plantations. Although slave importation had become illegal as early as 1808, smuggling thrived along the unprotected Eastern

coastline due to lax enforcement. As the number of slaves grew, so did the number of rebellions. the largest was in new orleans in 1811, when over 400 slaves revolted, and the most well known was that of nat turner in 1831.

the issue of slaveryEven as the United States was being created, differ-ences arose between northerners and Southerners over the issue of slavery. thomas Jefferson had included a strong antislavery statement in his draft of the Declaration of independence, but it was deleted because of Southern opposition. it was argued that slave owners treated their “valuable property” well, but the reality was unquestionably brutal. Slaves typically worked from sunup to sundown. they lived in squalid shacks and were fed meager portions. in addition, they were forbidden to learn to read and write, sold away from their families, and often whipped for minor offenses.

in the north, the abolitionist movement pushed for ending slavery by law. the abolitionists found a voice in the newspapers of the day, including William Lloyd Garrison’s the Liberator and black-owned papers such as John russwurm’s and Samuel cornish’s Freedom Journal and Frederick Douglass’s the north Star. harriet beecher Stowe’s 1852 novel, Uncle tom’s cabin, also influenced public opinion against slavery. Abolitionists organized the Underground railroad, a system of safe houses and guides for slaves escaping to free states in the north. its most famous “conduc-tor” was harriet tubman, a runaway slave herself.

A series of events exacerbated hostilities between north and South. the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was a concession to the South in exchange for its agree-ment to allow the mexican war territories to enter the Union as nonslave states. it authorized the prosecu-tion of anyone who assisted escaping slaves. the act made it easy for slave owners to recapture slaves who had fled to the north and to pick up any black


“A house divided against itself can not stand.”—AbrAhAm LincoLn

“What to the American slave is your Fourth of July? I answer, a day that reveals to him more than all other days of the year, the gross injustice and cruelty to which he is the constant victim.”

—FrEDEricK DoUGLASS , 1852

2/3 Fraction of the world’s cotton produced by the South in 1850.2,500,000 Slaves in the United States. in 1830. by 1860, the number had reached 4 million.1,000 Slaves who revolted against their Virginia owners in 1800.160 Deaths resulting from an 1831 slave rebel-lion led by nat turner.300 Fugitive slaves led to freedom in the north by harriet tubman.

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which were plagued by poor leadership. During the first three years of the war, President Abraham Lincoln went through three army commanders—mcclellen, burnside, and hooker—while the confederate forces were led by General robert E. Lee throughout the entire war. on the seas, the Union blockade of Southern ports managed to reduce trade by two-thirds, and the battle of the two ironclad warships, the Monitor and the Merrimac, marked the beginning of a new type of naval warfare.

emancipation and the War’s endFacing mounting criticism from the abolitionists, Lincoln finally issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. it freed slaves in the confederate states but not in the slave-holding states that had remained in the Union. the Proclamation galvanized the abolitionists, who pushed congress to enact legis-lation ending slavery; their efforts ultimately resulted in passage of the thirteenth Amendment in 1865. the Proclamation also opened the Union military forces to blacks, and by the war’s end, 200,000 were enlisted in its army and navy.

hoping that a confederate victory in the north would persuade England and France to assist the South, General Lee marched into Pennsylvania on July 1, 1863, where his forces accidentally met those

of General meade outside the town of Gettysburg. the bloody three-day battle resulted in a confederate loss, and coupled with General Ulysses S. Grant’s victory at Vicksburg, which gave the Union complete control of the mississippi, Gettysburg proved a turning point in the war.

Although Lincoln’s hopes for re-election looked dim in early 1864, two more Union victories in mobile bay and Atlanta allowed him to win a second term. but tragically, the war continued for two more years, during which General Sherman cut a swath of destruc-tion across Georgia on his “march to the sea.” Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox court house on April 9, 1865, after losing the confederate capital of richmond.

the war’s end found the South in ruins. because most of the battles had been fought on Southern territory, farmland had been destroyed and rail lines torn up. Essential goods were scarce due to the Union blockade, and food shortages had caused riots in Atlanta and richmond. in both the north and South, citizens of every city and hamlet mourned their dead in the bloodiest war in American history, while their leaders struggled to find ways of bringing the war-torn nation back together.

Lincoln had actually begun planning for the reconstruction period before the war had ended. A moderate politician, his goal was to reunite the nation quickly and without further acrimony; contrary to some in the north, he was not looking for revenge but rather healing. tragically, Lincoln would not live to see the rebuilding of the nation. he was assassinated on April 14, 1865, just five days after Lee’s surrender.

“My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy Slavery.”

—AbrAhAm LincoLn, AUGUSt 1862

hile the american poetic tradition was naturally influenced by its european ancestors, nineteenth-century poetry underwent a significant change as a result of industrialism and the Civil War. a modern consciousness was emerging, and it produced a new literature. Whereas earlier poets described the world in sentimental terms, a new generation addressed life’s realities.

Walt Whitman and emily dickinson were key figures in this new generation of poets. Both observed and wrote about everyday life, producing primarily lyric poetry, which expresses the emotions of the speaker. Both also broke with traditional forms to lay the foundation for a truly american approach to poetry. although Whitman and dickinson lived nearly identical life spans, they were opposites in terms of lifestyle and personality. Whitman was a public figure and something of a spokesperson for his time. dickinson, on the other hand, lived a quiet life among a small circle of family and friends; few people even knew of her poetry during her lifetime.

Whitman’s legacy as a poet lies in his use of free verse: poetry that does not use regu-lar rhyme, meter, or stanza division. his work is characterized by long, rambling lines that imitate the natural patterns and rhythms of speech. in contrast, emily dickinson is known for an economy of expression; she created vivid, concrete images with carefully chosen, sometimes idiosyncratic words. She also experimented with language, defying conventions of punctuation, capitalization, and grammar.

The Lyric Poets

7 States to secede before Lincoln’s inauguration (South carolina, mississippi, Virginia, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana).623,000 Soldiers who died during the civil War, many more from disease than from battle wounds; yet after the war, the nation’s popula-tion was higher than before due to immigration.15 billion minimum estimated cost in dollars of the civil War.3,500 Photographs of civil War events taken by matthew brady and his colleagues.

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The Second Minnesota Regiment at Mission Ridge, 1906, Douglas volk. minnesota State capitol, St. Paul.W

11part 2 the lyriC PoetS10 Unit 4 Slavery and the Civil War

Also look for the pattern of ideas and images that hold the poem together. many poets use figurative language—writing or speech that is meant to be under-stood imaginatively instead of literally—to help readers to see things in new ways. types of figurative language include hyperbole, metaphor, personification, simile, and understatement. neruda uses personification when he says of Whitman, “he made me see how the high mountain tutors us.” in “because i could not Stop for Death—” Dickinson personifies death as a polite gentleman: “he knew no haste.” the entire poem is an extended metaphor, in which Death is characterized as a carriage driver and the speaker of the poem as his passenger. Whitman uses hyperbole when he claims, “the narrowest hinge in my hand puts to scorn all machinery.”

sound DevicesPoets use a variety of sound devices to create and enhance meaning. Repetition is a writer’s intentional reuse of a sound, word, phrase, or sentence. Writers often use repetition to emphasize ideas or, especially in poetry, to create musical effects; a refrain is found in many lyric poems. Alliteration is the repetition of an initial consonant sound, as in “the cow crunching” and “a mouse is a miracle.” Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in stressed syllables that end with differ-ent consonant sounds. An example is the repetition in Dickinson’s “because i could not stop for Death” of the long a sound: “We passed the fields of Gazing Grain—.”

Digging deeper, you can analyze the grammar, syntax, and punctuation of the poem. Dickinson’s poetry displays two idiosyncratic features: her use of dashes and her use of capital letters to stress certain words. Dickinson also frequently uses enjambment, continuing a statement beyond the end of a line, rather than the end-stopped line of verse, in which both the sense and the grammar are complete at the end of the line. She writes, “because i could not stop for Death—/he kindly stopped for me—” rather than retaining the grammatical unit of the sentence.

in Whitman’s poetry, you will find plenty of evi-dence of the experimental method through which he tried to express the dynamic character of a nation and an era. Literary critics have noted that his stanzas form a wavelike pattern, in which lines expand and contract. Whitman also incorporated into his poems catalogs, or lists of items, as you will see in the excerpt from “Song of myself.”

Meter and rhythmMeter is a regular rhythmic pattern in poetry. A poem’s meter creates rhythm, the pattern of beats or stresses in a line of verse or prose. rhythm can be reg-ular or irregular. the metrical pattern is determined by the number of beats, or stresses, in each line. Stressed and unstressed syllables are divided into rhythmical units called feet.

Poetrythe poem DefinedPoetry is a major genre of literature and includes nar-rative, dramatic, and lyric poems. it features imagina-tive language that is carefully chosen and arranged to communicate experiences, thoughts, and emotions. Poetry differs from prose in that it compresses mean-ing into fewer words and often uses meter, rhyme, and imagery. Although conventional poetry adheres strictly to meter and rhyme, much modern and contemporary poetry has an innovative, experimental quality.

A lyric poem is a highly musical type of poetry that expresses the emotions of a speaker. in form, the lyric usually relies on a regular metrical pattern or a combination of patterns. Lyric poems can be contrasted with narrative poems, which have storytell-ing as their main purpose. Lyric poems also can be contrasted with dramatic poems, which rely heavily on dramatic elements such as monologue (speech by a single character) and dialogue (conversation involving two or more characters).

the themes of lyric poetry are as varied as love and loss, war and peace, and religion and nature. Some lyric poems are elegies, mourning the dead in the manner of Walt Whitman’s “o captain! my captain!” which was composed after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Another lyric form is the ode, a poem on a serious theme, usually with varying line lengths and complex stanzas.

lyric poetry in americathe lyric poems of Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson were written in an era when Romanticism was slowly giving way to Realism in literature. As chilean poet Pablo neruda’s “ode to Walt Whitman” implies, Whitman tried to see what was extraordi-nary about humanity. he still nurtured the idealism of a romantic, but he broke with poetic conven-tions, paying little attention to strict meter and form. Dickinson’s strong connection to nature marks her as a fellow romantic, but the sentiment in her work is undercut by a strong sense or realism. this, along

with her experimental use of form, demonstrate her modern consciousness.

much of Whitman’s poetry explores his individual-ism in relation to society; in his “Preface” to Leaves of Grass, he proclaims, “the United States themselves are essentially the greatest poem.” to celebrate the nation, Whitman composed his Leaves of Grass as a “lyric-epic,” an open form characterized by free verse, what he called his “language experiment.” Dickinson, on the other hand, examines the self and its sensitive response to all it encounters. She writes, “i find ecstasy in living—the mere sense of living is joy enough.”

elements of the poemForm and structureForm refers to the organization of the parts of a poem. You can look at poetic form broadly, asking yourself questions such as What type of poem is this? is it a lyrical ode, an elegy, or perhaps an example of free verse? next, you can analyze the poem’s struc-ture–how the author has arranged the lines on the page. Some poems have a continuous form; most, however, are divided into stanzas, which are similar to the paragraphs of prose. the stanza, a group of lines in a poem, varies in average length from two to eight lines.

Examining a stanza, you will notice the presence or absence of a fixed meter and rhyme scheme. the rhyme scheme is the pattern of end rhymes, or rhym-ing words at the ends of lines of verse. Even poems without exact end rhyme may include slant rhyme, in which the rhyming sounds are similar but not iden-tical, or internal rhyme, the use of rhyming words within lines.

“If I read a book [and] it makes my whole body so cold no fire can ever warm me I know that is poetry. If I feel physi-cally as if the top of my head were taken off, I know that is poetry.”

—EmiLY DicKinSon,

ninEtEEnth-cEntUrY PoEt

poetryread the poem aloud. many of the elements

of poetry—including rhythm, meter, and sound devices—are best realized by reading a poem aloud. Doing so will let you hear and feel how the language is used, which is key both to understanding and appreciating poetry.

visualize. because poems often contain sensory details, they lend themselves to visualization. create images in your mind, using your senses to see, hear, smell, feel, and taste the poem.

Make inferences. Unlike other types of writing, poetry doesn’t allow much room for explanation. to understand a poem, make inferences, or put together the clues given in the poem with your own prior knowledge.

ask questions. As you read a poem, write down the words and phrases you don’t understand. Also jot down questions you may have about imagery, form, rhyme, or other elements. Discuss your questions with your classmates and/or teacher.

compare and contrast. the possibilities for comparing and contrasting poems are wide and varied. Doing so can help you better understand poetic forms, figurative language, themes, historical context, and authors and also identify what you like and dislike in poetry.

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Understanding literary Forms

D i c k i n s o nW H i t M a n


Walt Whitman (1819–1892) is considered by many to be the greatest of all American poets. the son of a Long island farmer who turned carpenter and moved his family to brooklyn in 1823, Whitman left school at age eleven to work as an office boy. by twelve he was working in the printing office of a newspaper. by fifteen he was on his own. in his mid-teens he contributed pieces to a manhattan newspaper and attended debating societies. After working as a journeyman printer, Whitman returned home where he taught school and continued to work on newspapers.

Later in his life, Whitman held various newspaper positions, including reviewer of books, musicals, and theater events. As a newspaper man he got to know the people of all classes. he purposefully placed himself at the cen-ter of the political battles over slavery, territorial expansion, the mexican War, sectionalism, free trade, states’ rights, worker strife, and the new market econ-omy. he believed in the idea of using poetry as a form of political action. Always self-taught, Whitman began to write full time. his rise to fame was slow and at times his poetry drew harsh criticism. ralph Waldo Emerson was one of the few intellectuals to praise Whitman’s work, writing him a famous congratulatory letter. in an 1882 review in the New York Examiner one critic said: “Walt Whitman is a great poet—in his own estimation, and in that of critics who make up in noise what they lack in numbers.”

During the civil War, Whitman worked as a volunteer hospital nurse in Washington, an experience that made him well loved by the American pub-lic. Drum-Taps and “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard bloom’d” are the two great products of Whitman’s wartime years. Among his best work after the war are his prose collections Specimen Days and Democratic Vistas, where he scorned an America “canker’d, crude, superstitious and rotten”—a nation he esteemed had failed all the common laborers and favored the wealthy. Whitman worked in several government departments until he suffered a stroke in 1873. he spent the rest of his life in camden, new Jersey, where he continued to write poems and articles. he was a major influence on later poets, inspiring them to experiment with metrical structure as well as subject matter.

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build backgroundliterary context Unconventional in both content and technique, Leaves of Grass is probably the most influential volume of poems in the history of American literature. it is the book of poetry for which Walt Whitman is best known.

Whitman spent his entire life revising and adding to Leaves of Grass, produc-ing at least nine editions. he released the first edition, containing just twelve poems, on July 4, 1855, after having designed the cover and typesetting most of the book himself. he then released two larger editions in 1856 and 1860 and another edition containing civil War poems in 1865. the final volume edited by Whitman, containing over 300 poems, was published in 1892, the year of his death.

Although Leaves of Grass proved to be a commercial failure, critics generally recognized Whitman as a bold new voice in poetry. ralph Waldo Emerson called the book “the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom America has yet con-tributed.” Some, however, did not like Whitman’s use of free verse in long rhyth-mical lines with a natural, organic structure.

the 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass is the only one for which Whitman wrote a preface, or introduction. in it, he presented many of his opinions and beliefs, hoping to enlighten the American people and regenerate the ideals of the American republic. At that time, the United States was a young nation and just beginning to establish an identity separate from that of Europe. the follow-ing excerpt highlights Whitman’s passion for American democracy and the com-mon man and woman. Although written in prose format, the preface is lyrical, or musical, in style and contains elements of free verse.

“i hear America Singing” is one of the most famous poems from Leaves of Grass. it, too, celebrates the common man and woman. in this poem, Whitman salutes working-class people who take pride in their occupations. the poem is written in free verse and contains examples of Whitman’s evocative word choice.

reader’s context What makes the United States a great country? Why are you proud to be an American?

analyze literature: romanticism and Free verseWhitman writes within the tradition of romanticism, a literary and artistic movement of the eighteenth and nine-teenth centuries that placed value on emotion or imagina-tion over reason, the individual over society, and freedom over authority. As you read the Preface to Leaves of Grass and “i hear America Singing,” look for elements of romanticism.

Free verse is poetry that does not use regular rhyme, meter, or stanza division. it may contain irregular line breaks and sentence fragments and tends to mimic the rhythm of ordinary speech. As you read “i hear America Singing,” notice how it differs from conventional poetry.

preview vocabularystalwart, 000teeming, 000nonchalance, 000mason, 000robust, 000

from Preface to Leaves of GrassA Preface by Walt Whitman

from “I Hear America Singing” A Poem by Walt Whitman

noted Works

Leaves of Grass (1855–1891, nine editions; poetry)

Drum Taps; Sequel to Drum Taps (1865; poetry)

Democratic Vistas (1871; prose)

Memoranda During the War (1875; prose)

Specimen Days (1882; prose)

November Boughs (1888; poetry)

B e f o R e R e A d i n g

“I sound my barbaric yawp over the roofs of the world.”

—From Leaves of Grass


Leaves offrom Preface to merica does not repel the past or what it has produced under its forms or amid other politics or the idea of castes or the old religions … accepts the lesson with calmness … is not so impatient as has been supposed that the slough still sticks to opinions and manners and literature while the life which served its requirements has passed into the new life of the new forms … perceives that the corpse is slowly borne from the eating and sleeping rooms of the house … perceives that it waits a little while in the door … that it was fittest for its days … that its action has descended to the stalwart and well shaped heir who approaches … and that he shall be fittest for his days.

he americans of all nations at any time upon the earth, have probably the fullest poetical nature. the united States themselves are essentially the greatest poem. in the history of the earth hitherto the largest and most stir-ring appear tame and orderly to their ampler largeness and stir. here at last is something in the doings of man that corresponds with the broadcast doings of the day and night. here is not merely a nation but a teeming nation of nations. here is action untied from strings necessarily blind to particulars and details mag-nificently moving in vast masses. here is the hospitality which forever indicates heroes… . here are the roughs1 and beards and space and ruggedness and nonchalance that the soul loves. here the performance disdaining the trivial unapproached in the tremendous audac-ity of its crowds and groupings and the push of its perspective spreads with crampless and flowing breadth and showers its proflic and splendid extravagance. one sees it must indeed own the riches of the summer and winter, and

15From Preface to LeavesofGrass

need never be bankrupt while corn grows from the ground or the orchards drop apples or the bays contain fish or men beget children upon women.

ther states indicate themselves in their deputies … but the genius of the united States is not best or most in its executives or legislatures, nor in its ambassadors or authors or colleges or churches or parlors, nor even in its newspapers or inventors … but always most in the common people. their manners, speech, dress, friendship—the freshness and candor of their physiognomy2—the picturesque looseness of their carriage … their deathless attachment to freedom—their aversion to any-thing indecorous or soft or mean—the practical acknowledgment of the citizens of one state by the citizens of all other states—the fierceness of their roused resentment—their curiosity and welcome of novelty—their self-esteem and wonderful sympathy—their susceptibility to a slight—the air they have of persons who never knew how it felt to stand in the presence of superiors—the fluency of their speech—their delight in music, the sure symptom of manly tenderness and native elegance of soul … their good temper and open handedness—the terrible significance of their elections—the President’s taking off his hat to them, not they to him—these too are unrhymed poetry. it awaits the gigantic and generous treatment worthy of it.

1. roughs. People accustomed to living in the wilds2. physiognomy. outward appearance or features that provide

clues to a person’s character

non • cha • lance ( ) n., a state of being seemingly unconcerned, “coolness” stal • wart ( ) adj., brave, hardyteem • ing ( ) adj.,overflowing, abounding

Grassby Walt Whitman

in the 1855 Preface, Whitman boasts that America is unique from other nations. Do you agree with his assessment? Why or why not?i R R o R s &

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Dramathe poetry of Walt Whitman is featured in the1989 film Dead Poets Society, the story of a high school English

teacher at a boys’ prep school who inspires his students to love poetry and have the courage to express themselves. the students refer to their

teacher as “captain” in reference to Whitman’s poem “o captain! my captain!” which was written in tribute to President Abraham Lincoln. near the end of the movie, the students recite the poem in defiance of the school administration and in sup-port of their teacher, who is about to be dismissed. robin Williams was nominated for an Academy Award for his portrayal of the teacher.

h u M A n i t i e s c o n n e c t i o n

compAring LiterAture

analyze literature: romanticism and Free verseWhich elements of romanticism did you find in “i hear America Singing”? Do you think that laborers in the nineteenth century were as content as Whitman portrays them? Why or why not?

What elements of free verse are included in the Preface to Leaves of Grass? Why is “i hear America Singing” an example of free verse?

extendWriting optionscreative Writing imagine that you are part of the cre-ative team at an advertising agency. Your firm has been hired to create an ad campaign promoting American workers. Your part of the effort is to write a jingle: a short, catchy poem or verse, often set to music. recall jingles you have heard on radio or television. Good jingles stay in people’s minds. in writing your own jingle, keep it simple. try it out on family and friends.

critical Writing Write a brief essay editorial on why you are happy to be living in the United States. You might submit your editorial to your local newspaper to be published in its Fourth of July or Labor Day edition.

lifelong learningWrite a Job Description Since 1937, the United States has had official poet laureates. imagine that you have been asked to help select the next one. Find out what a poet laureate does and how he or she is chosen (see the humanities Focus on page 000). Learn about the accom-plishments of previous poet laureates. then write a job description, including qualifications for the position and duties and responsibilities.

collaborative learningMake a timeline At least nine editions of Leaves of Grass were published during Whitman’s lifetime. Working with two or three classmates, make a timeline showing the year of publication for each major edition. next to each year, note what was happening in the United States at the time. Also include photos of Whitman and histori-cal events. Present your completed timeline to the class.

refer to text reason with text

1a. in the Preface to Leaves of Grass, to what does Whitman compare the United States? hat message does Whitman convey through his catalog, or list, of workers?

2a. consider that neither literacy nor voting rights were universal in the United States in 1855. Who is the audience for Whitman’s work?

3a. in “i hear America Singing,” how many different workers does Whitman include? how are the workers alike? how are they different?

4a. According to Whitman in his Preface, what advantages does America have that other nations may not?

5a. in “i hear America Singing,” what message does Whitman convey through his catalog, or list, of workers?

1b. Why does Whitman believe that Americans have a poetical nature?

2b. Why is he trying to persuade them concerning the worth of the common man and woman?

3b. When Whitman celebrated the diversity of the American workforce, do you think he had workers of different races and eth-nicities in mind as well? Why or why not?

4b. iconsider that in 1855, America was divided on the issue of slavery. Was Whitman justified in portraying the United States in such positive tones? Explain.

5b. make a list of workers that Whitman might celebrate if he were writing his poem today.

Understand find meaning

apply use information

analyze take things apart

evaluate Make judgments

create Bring ideas together

A f t e R R e A d i n g


by Walt Whitman

ma son ( ) n., a skilled worker in brick and stonero • bust ( ) adj., full of health and strength, vigorous


i hear america singing, the varied carols i hear;those of mechanics—each one singing his, as

it should be, blithe and strong;the carpenter singing his, as he measures his

plank or beam,the mason singing his, as he makes ready for

work, or leaves off work;the boatman singing what belongs to him in

his boat—the deckhand singing on the steamboat deck;

the shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench—the hatter singing as he stands;

the wood-cutter’s song—the ploughboy’s, on his way in the morning, or at the noon intermission, or at sundown;

the delicious singing of the mother—or of the young wife at work—or of the girl sewing or washing—each singing what belongs to her, and to none else;

the day what belongs to the day—at night, the party of young fellows, robust, friendly,

Singing, with open mouths, their strong melodious songs

SingingAmericaI Hear

in his poem “i hear America Singing,” Whitman praises common laborers. today we might call them blue-collar workers. Do you value this type of work? Would you like to do this kind of work? Why or why not?

I r r o r S &

W

W I N D o W S

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What belief did Whitman and brady share regarding their art? how did they demonstrate this belief in chronicling the civil War?

1. daguerreotype. an early photograph produced on a silver or a silver-covered copper plate; named for its inventor, J. m. daguerre 2. quotidian. daily, ordinary, commonplace

the poet Walt Whitman and the photographer Matthew brady were contemporaries. they both started their careers in new York city, and they both lived in Washington, D.c., during the civil War. brady photographed Whitman for his photo gallery of influential Americans.

Whitman and brady shared similar ideas about how they might use their art to tell the story of the civil War. in fact, Whitman and brady might have collaborated on a civil War book, with Whitman supplying poems such as “by the bivouac’s Fitful Flame” and with brady supplying the photos. As you read thomas hampson’s biographical article on matthew brady, try to identify the artistic bond between the two men.

i n f o R M A t i o n A l t e x t c o n n e c t i o n


america’s most sought-after portrait pho-tographer, who numbered eighteen

Presidents among his sitters, matthew Brady’s historical legacy rests not only on the “Gallery of illustrious americans” he recorded, but also on his work as a pioneer of photo journalism in america. his classic black and white images of the Civil War remain one of the most powerful studies ever of the horrors of armed conflict.

after the introduction to america of the daguerreotype1 in 1839, matthew Brady estab-lished his own studio in new york City’s lower Broadway in 1844. to this studio came Walt Whitman, who thought Brady “a capital artist,” whom he loved to engage in discussions about the relationship between photography and poetry and the function the photograph could have in shaping the democratic experience. Poet and photographer shared the belief that history might best be preserved through realistic imag-es—not only of people, but also of events.

Surely the most sweeping and scar-ring drama america would experience in the 19th century was that of the Civil War. Brady immediately recognized the opportu-nity the war afforded his lens for preserv-ing history and shaping attitudes. Beginning with the Battle of Bull run in 1862, Brady organized twenty teams of photographers to cover the subsequent major engagements of the war: at mechanicsville, Fair oaks, the seven day Battles, Sharpsburg, Fredricksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, the Wilderness, and Cold harbor. though the enterprise would nearly bankrupt him, Brady and his crews pro-duced over 3,500 Civil War photographs.

23“matthew Brady (1823–1896)”

“And so goodbye to the war. I know not how it may have been to others. To me the main interest was in the rank and file of the armies, both sides, and even the dead on the field. . . The points illustrat-ing the latent character of the American young were of more significance than the political interests involved. Future years will never know the seething hell of countless minor scenes. The real war will never get in the books, perhaps must not, and should not be. The whole land, North and South, was one vast hospital, greater (like life’s) than the few distor-tions ever told. Think how much, and of importance, will be—has already been—buried in the grave.”

—From WALt WhitmAn’S Drum Taps DrUm tAPS

(SEt bY nED rorEm in War Scenes)

23

civil War chroniclesBrady’s subject matter focused less on the actually shooting—his crew generally moved behind the troop lines—and more on the quo-tidian2 aspects of war: the protagonists—sol-diers and generals—their camp life, their work building bridges, digging trenches, and fortifying positions, their exchanges in liv-ing and dying. in Brady’s chronicle3 the war, itself, is a curiously elusive character. What his lens captures, instead, are the results of war: the ravages on man and landscape, the toll taken on human faces, human bodies, and in human hearts. as Walt Whitman, who had nursed the soldiers in the battlefield hospitals of Washington and virginia, would write in drum taps: “the real war will never get in the books.” it was this war which Brady document-ed so brilliantly: the rending conflict which cut down youth in their flowering, which pitted brother against brother, and which resulted in the highest loss of human life this nation has ever experienced in battle. among Brady’s most famous images are his photographs of lincoln and Gettysburg. together with Whitman’s words they have inspired several contemporary song cycles, among them ned rorem’s War scenes and John adams’ the Wound dresser.

after the Civil War Brady, his name and his images having become household words, returned to private practice as a portraitist. his stunningly perceptive images, such as his 1867 study of Whitman, foreshadowed the work of the late 19th century painters of realism, among them thomas eakins and John Singer Sargent.

refer and reason1. For what is matthew brady famous? What is

the difference between a photographer and a photo journalist? Why is brady considered a photo journalist?

2. besides preserving history, what did brady want to accomplish with his civil War photos? compare brady’s civil War photos to current-day television news broadcasts from war zones. how might the effect on the American public be similar?

3. Give examples of the types of war scenes brady photographed. Look for an example of photo journalism in a current newspaper or magazine. in particular, look for a photo story related to war. What difference does it make to the audience to see pictures as well as read words?

3. chronicle. an accounting of historical events arranged in order of time

t e x t t o t e x tc o n n e c t i o n

1. daguerreotype. an early photograph produced on a silver or a silver-covered copper plate; named for its inventor, J. m. daguerre

2. quotidian. daily, ordinary, commonplace

b r a D y

matthew brady (1823–1896)

Web Article on matthew brady for the PbS Series: thomas hampson, I Hear America Singing

i can’t recall my age, or ifi was in the vast streaming South,1

or on some forbidding coastlinewhere seagulls wheeled & cried . . .But i touched a hand that day,& it was Walt Whitman’s hand.and barefoot i walk the earth,i wade through tenacious dewin the grasslands of Whitman.throughout my entire childhood,my companion was that handwith dew on it, the timberof its patriarchal pine,the expanse of its prairie,its mission of articulate peace.

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and Walt did not disdainall the gifts of the earth,the capital’s surfeit of curves,the purple initial of learning,but taught me to be americano,& raised my eyes to books,toward the treasure that we find

chilean poet pablo neruda (1904–1973) has been called the “Walt Whitman of South America.” Like Whitman, neruda was a prolific writer, publishing thirty-five volumes of poetry in his native Spanish that have since been translated into most languages. Whitman and neruda both are considered “grassroots poets,” or poets who speak for the common people. Just as Whitman gave identity to north America, neruda voiced the identity of South America. both poets wrote on similar themes of nature, love, civil war, and religion.

neruda, who was born twelve years after the death of Whitman, often spoke of Whitman’s profound influence on his life. in a 1966 speech in new York city, neruda said, “For my

part, i, who am now nearing seventy, discovered Walt Whitman when i was just fifteen, and i hold him to be my greatest creditor. i stand before you feeling that i bear with me always this great and wonderful debt which has helped me to exist.” the poem “ode to Walt Whitman,” written in the mid 1950s, expresses neruda’s gratitude to his mentor and contains literary allusions, or references, to specific Whitman poems. neruda received numerous awards in his lifetime, including the nobel Prize for Literature in 1971.

1. South. temuco, a wilderness region in southern Chile where neruda grew up

ten • a • cious ( ) adj., clinging, not easily removedpa • tri • ar • chal ( ) adj., of or referring to a man who is a founder or fatherar • ti • cu • late ( ) adj., clear, well spokendis • dain ( ) v., scorn, have contempt forsur • feit ( ) n., abundance

by Pablo neruda

24 Unit 4 Slavery and the Civil War “ode to Walt Whitman”

For the last hundred yearsthe wind has passed overyour germinating grasslandwithout consuming your vision.But now your country is cruel—full of persecution, tears,prisons & lethal weapons,uncivil wars that nonethelesshaven’t crushed the grass of your book,living source of originality.and ay!, those who murdered lincoln,who now lie in that bed,have dismantled the fragrantlilac of his memorial5

& put a throne in its place,splattered with blood & misfortune.your voice, that’s still singing

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2. engirthed. Surrounded by, encompassed by3. stoker. Person who shovels coal into a furnace4. acacian. of or pertaining to the acacia tree, a tree originally

native to north america and known for its strength and dura-bility

5. lilac of his memorial. Whitman’s poem “When lilacs last in the dooryard Bloom’d,” his tribute to the assassinated president abraham lincoln

gal • li • vant ( ) v., gallop, run lightheartedlydis • in • ter ( ) v., dig up, especially a human body that has been burieda • based ( ) adj., lowered in rank, office, prestige, or esteembar • dic ( ) adj., of or relating to a poet; Shakespeare is known as “the bard”cu • po • la ( ) n., small structure built on top of a roof

literature oftheA m e r I C A S

inside a kernel of wheat.engirthed2 by the clarityof the plains, he made me seehow the high mountain tutors us.From the subterranean echohe fetched it all in for me,whatever he could harvestgallivanting through the alfalfa,on the days he passed in the kitchenor at the bend of the river.But not just earth by itselfwas brought into the lightby the work of his shovel:he disinterred humanity.and the slaves who were abasedalong with him, balancingthe black dignity of their stature,went on to conquer happiness.

to the stoker,3 down belowin the boiler room, Walt senta basket of strawberries,& each corner of his citywas visited by his verse,verse like a strip of clean flesh,the beard of a true fisherman,the solemn supple gaitof his acacian4 legs.

Passing among the soldiers—his bardic silhouette.night nurse, camerado,he knew painful, rasping breath,& he waited with the dawnfor life’s silent return.

Breadmaker supreme!Prime old brother of my roots!Cupola of the conifers!

Walt WhitmanOde to

W H i t M a n


in the suburban stations, onthe unloading docks at night . . .your word, that’s still splashinglike dark water . . .and your people, black, white,poor & simple, like all peoplestill not forgettingthe tolling of your bell6 . . .

reason and extend

1. What does neruda say Walt sent to the stoker? Why would this gift be unusual? What idea about Whitman is neruda conveying?

2. neruda begins his poem by speaking about Whitman. Look for the spot in the poem where neruda begins speaking to Whitman. What might be the reason for this shift in focus?

3. how does neruda describe his first encounter with Whitman’s poetry? Where did he often read the poet? can you think of a favorite author from childhood? Why did you like this author?

Writing options1. Write a tribute to someone who has influenced your

life or taught you something important. the person may be living or dead, famous or unknown. tell how you became acquainted with the person and why he or she has been important in your life.

2. in 1952, Pablo neruda stayed in a villa on the island of capri. his visit was fictionalized in the 1994 italian movie il Postino (the Postman). Watch the movie with a group of classmates, and discuss what you learned about neruda’s life, poetry, and ideas. Write a sum-mary of this information.

they congregate & singbeneath the magnitudeof your spacious life.they walk among the peoplewith your love. they caressthe pure developmentof fraternity on earth.

6. tolling of your bell. refers to the custom of ringing a church bell upon the death of a person

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apply the skillexercise aWork with a partner to break apart each word below. Using the list above and examples of familiar words that contain the same parts, come up with a possible meaning for the entire word. then check the meaning of the word and its parts in a dictionary.

1. submission 4. inviolate2. inestimable 5. effectual3. avert

exercise b As you have learned, prefixes, suffixes, and word roots are the building blocks of the English language. Work with a partner to see how many other words you can build using the parts (prefixes, suffixes, or word roots) of the word listed below. For each word listed, choose one part to use as a base for forming other words. try to select a mix of prefixes, word roots, and suffix-es, so that you have practice using these various parts.

1. disrespectful 4. reconciliation2. gracious 5. obtain3. deceive

27

in “ode to Walt Whitman,” Pablo neruda pays homage to his literary hero. based on your reading of this poem, what do you think influenced neruda more: Whitman’s writing style or his themes? Explain.

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W i n d o W si R R o R s &

vocabUlary in action

on yoUr oWnbecause word roots, suffixes, and prefixes can be combined in various ways, new words are constantly being added to the English language using these parts. For example, Webster’s dictionary recently added the word biodiesel, a combination of the word root diesel and the prefix bio-, meaning “fuel that is similar to diesel fuel and is derived from usually vegetable sources.” below are a number of words that have been invented using various prefix-es, suffixes, and word roots. You will not find these words in any dictionary, but use what you have learned about word roots, prefixes, and suffixes to write possible definitions for these words. Use a dic-tionary for help with the meaning of various word parts if necessary.

1. autoawakenable 4. omnidivertant2. retrojectist 5. subhydroportation3. philodictous

Word PartsUnderstand the conceptthe parts of a word that contain meaning are called morphemes. morphemes can be either free or bound. Free morphemes can stand alone as words. For example, the last three words in Patrick henry’s Speech in the Virginia convention, “give me death,” are free morphemes.

bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to make words. Prefixes, suffixes, and word roots are bound morphemes. compound words are words made up of two free morphemes. henry repeatedly used the word gentlemen in his speech. this is an example of a compound word.

however, many of the words that henry uses are made up of word roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Word roots are word parts that cannot stand alone. Prefixes are groups of letters that attach to the beginning of a word. Suffixes are groups of letters that attach to the end of a word. Although they are unable to stand alone, word roots, prefixes, and suffixes all have meaning.

the more meanings of prefixes, suffixes, and word roots you know, the more easily you can figure out unfamiliar words in your reading. the word parts below occur in one or more of the vocabulary words from Patrick henry’s speech.

Meaning examples

Prefix

a- from avert

in- not insidious, inestimable

sub- under subjugation, submission

Word Root

-vert- turn avert

-mit- send submission

suffix

-sion, -tion action or subjugation, submission process

-able capable of formidable, inestimable

-al, -ual of or martial relating to

analyzing literatUre

Psychological Criticism

A critic using the psychological lens is like a detective searching for clues to the workings of human nature. the literary text becomes a storehouse of symbols, some obvious, some hidden. the critic applies psycho-analytic concepts to the elements of setting, character, conflict, symbol, tone, and mood. the approach is similar in many ways to the kind of close reading you would give any literary text, but the point of attack and the language are more specific.

overview of psychological criticismthe language of psychological criticism comes from the studies of Sigmund Freud and carl Jung, two nineteenth-century Europeans who created the frame of reference for modern psychology. Freud and Jung studied the unconscious, the buried material in the human psyche. they explored the use of symbols in speech, in dreams, and in literature. Freud once said that it was the poets and the philosophers, not he, who had discovered the unconscious. both Freud and Jung believed that conflicts within a person were caused by deep fears and desires. When a person cannot act on these feelings, perhaps because they are inappropriate, he or she may develop an emotional disorder.

Perhaps the most popularized of Freudian theo-ries is the Oedipal complex. Freud named his theory after oedipus, a figure of classical Greek tragedy, who unwittingly killed his father and married his mother. oedipus became Freud’s vehicle for understanding the central conflict of childhood. the concept of the oedipal complex, although modified by later interpret-ers, is still considered valid by many psychologists.

Jung developed the theory of archetypes, images and patterns with universal significance, such as the hero, the mother, the fool, and the warrior. his theory of the masculine and feminine parts of the psyche has also influenced literary theory. he believed that a healthy person is in touch with both parts of the personality.

application of psychological criticismthe usefulness of the psychological approach for understanding literature becomes clear when it is applied to a text such as Edgar Allan Poe’s “the Fall

of the house of Usher.” in analyzing this work according to psychological theory, consider the follow-ing elements.

setting and Mood the fictional setting contains a wealth of symbolic

detail that establishes the story’s mood. notice the narrator’s first impressions of the ancient mansion:

minute fungi overspread the whole exterior, hanging in a fine, tangled web-work from the eaves. yet all this was apart from any extraordinary dilapidation. no portion of the masonry had fallen; and there appeared to be a wild inconsistency between its still perfect adaptation of parts, and the crumbling con-dition of the individual stones. in this there was much that reminded me of the specious totality of old woodwork which has rotted for years in some neglected vault, with no disturbance from the breath of the external air. Beyond this indication of extensive decay, however, the fabric gave little token of insta-bility. Perhaps the eye of a scrutinizing observ-er might have discovered a barely perceptible fissure, which, extending from the roof of the building in front, made its way down the wall in a zigzag direction, until it became lost in the sullen waters of the tarn.

a n a l y z e note how Poe foreshadows the ultimate disintegration of the family manor, the narrator noticing “a barely perceptible fissure” running down the front of the building. Which other details give the overall impression that the physical house of Usher is decaying? how does this description highlight the story’s theme of disintegration and create a mood of fear?

characterization next, consider roderick Usher, the central character of Poe’s gothic tale of mental breakdown. Usher’s anxiety is revealed by his odd, disheveled appearance and mannerisms and his rapid mood swings. the narrator describes his tone as sometimes marked by “overdone cordiality” and other times by a “sullen” quality. here Usher is directly characterized:


psycHological criticisMWrite an essay that answers this question: how does the physical disintegration of the house of Usher parallel the condition of its inhabitants? Use details from the story to illustrate the concept of disintegration.

Writing aboUt

p o eF r e U D J U n g

39analyzinG literature

he suffered much from a morbid acuteness of the senses. the most insipid food was alone endurable; he could wear only garments of certain texture; the odors of all flowers were oppressive; his eyes were tortured by even a faint light; and there were but peculiar sounds, and these from stringed instruments, which did not inspire him with horror.

a n a l y z e consider how Poe’s direct and indirect characterization of roderick Usher might lead read-ers to see him as a hypochondriac, a person who imagines he is sicker than he really is. Which details in the quotation above would lead you to make this diagnosis? Which other descriptions heighten this impression of instability? Finally, how does the author’s tone determine your reaction to Usher’s sufferings?

Motivation and conflict in analyzing a character, consider the type of con-flict that drives him or her. is the conflict internal or external? Are the character’s motivations conscious or unconscious? For instance, roderick Usher inters his sister in a vault in the mansion, rather than arrange a proper burial. notice the vagueness of his explanation for doing so:

having informed me abruptly that the lady madeline was no more, he stated his inten-tion of preserving her corpse for a fortnight (previously to its final interment) in one of the numerous vaults within the main walls of the building. the worldly reason, however, assigned for this singular proceeding, was one which i did not feel at liberty to dispute. the brother had been led to his resolution, so he told me, by consideration of the unusual character of the malady of the deceased, of certain obtrusive and eager inquiries on the part of her medical men, and of the remote and exposed situation of the burial ground of the family.

a n a l y z e Does this reason seem valid? Which psychoanalytic theories could you use in order to explain roderick Usher’s extraordinary behavior upon the apparent death of his sister?

Metaphor and symbol “the Fall of the house of Usher” is full of metaphors and symbols. For example, the narrator perceives the mansion as human-like, with its “vacant and eye-like windows.” this metaphor is extended throughout the story, becoming more sinister in its implications. consider the relationship of this house to the genera-tions that have inhabited it. Why do these forefathers oppress the mind of roderick Usher, the last surviving male heir of the family? in what sense is the house a symbolic prison for Usher and his sister madeline?

a n a l y z e notice how Poe embeds the legend of “mad trist,” the dragon slayer, into the main narra-tive. mad trist is an oedipal figure who must fight his way past a forbidding hermit in order to make his conquest. What might this tale suggest about how roderick Usher has lived his own life? What part has madeline apparently played over the years?

c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e

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“Petals”A Poem by Amy Lowell

“mid-Day” A Poem by hilda Doolittle

c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g

40 Unit 4 Slavery and the Civil War 41part 2 the lyriC PoetS

life is a streamon which we strewPetal by petal the flower of our heart;the end lost in dream,they float past our view,We only watch their glad, early start.

Freighted with hope,Crimsoned with joy,We scatter the leaves of our opening rose;their widening scope,their distant employ,We never shall know. and the stream as it flowsSweeps them away,each one is goneever beyond into infinite ways.We alone stayWhile years hurry on,the flower fared forth, though its fragrance still stays.

freight • ed () v., loaded crim • son • ed ( ) v., redenedem • ploy () n., use

by amy lowell

Petalsbuild backgroundliterary context Amy Lowell and hilda Doolittle (known as h.D.) were the pri-mary women writers of the imagist movement. Lowell actually became one of the leaders of the movement after meeting Ezra Pound in England and embracing his principles of imagism. Lowell then served as something of a mentor to h.D., partic-ularly in promoting her work and that of other imagist poets in the United States. Women writers of the day had difficulty being recognized and were often spoken for by men. in fact, Pound submitted the first of h.D.’s poems for publication.

Women’s unique perspectives are represented in the works of both Lowell and h.D. Amy Lowell’s poem “Petals” (19XX) compares life to a stream into which flower petals are dropped and carried away. in hilda Doolittle’s poem “Mid-day” (1916), the speaker compares her thoughts to a tree dropping seed pods. both of these melancholy poems use figurative language to compare human experience to nature.

reader’s context can you think of something in nature that reminds you of your life or your mood?

Meet the authorsamy lowell (1874–1925) was born in brookline, massachusetts, into one of boston’s wealthiest families. While she understood the importance of being a Lowell, temperamentally, she was miscast for the role assigned her by gender. She wasn’t allowed to attend college, so she educated herself by reading extensively. She managed to have an independent life, which was rare for a woman of her day, because she had the money to support herself. Lowell’s desire to contribute to public life found its outlet when, at the age of thirty-eight, she launched her literary career

by publishing her poetry in A Dome of Many Coloured Glass. She soon adopted the imagist style, becoming its chief spokesperson. Lowell won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1926, one year after her death.

Hilda Doolittle, or H.D. (1896–1961), was born in bethlehem, Pennsylvania. As a young woman, she attended bryn mawr college and befriended Ezra Pound and marianne moore, both American poets, before going to live in England in 1911. in England, she met up with Pound again, and he introduced her to the literary circles in London; there, she also met Amy Lowell. h.D. published her first poems, in the imagist style, in Poetry magazine in 1913. After World War ii, she suffered a mental breakdown but remained a prolific writer until she died in 1961. While

she was best known as an imagist poet, h.D. also wrote fiction and nonfiction and even had roles in some early films.

compare literature: speaker and Moodthe speaker is the character who speaks in, or narrates, a poem—the voice assumed by the writer. the speaker and the writer are not always the same person, however. try to identify the speaker in each of these poems. how they are alike and different?

Mood, or atmosphere, is the emotion created in the reader by part or all of a literary work. the writer can evoke in the reader an emotional response—for instance, fear, discomfort, long-ing, or anticipation—by working carefully with descriptive lan-guage and sensory details. Pay attention to the mood of each of these poems, again looking for similarities and differences between the two.

preview vocabularyfreighted, 000crimsoned, 000employ, 000assert, 000anguished, 000perish, 000

B e f o R e R e A d i n g

in “Petals,” the speaker says of the scattered leaves, “of our opening rose, their distant employ, We shall never know.” What is the speaker saying about life? how do you think the speaker feels about it?

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c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e ▲ ▲A f t e R R e A d i n g


Mid-Day by hilda doolittle

the light beats upon me. i am startled—

a split leaf crackles on the paved floor— i am anguished—defeated.

a slight wind shakes the seed-pods— my thoughts are spent

as the black seeds. my thoughts tear me,

i dread their fever. i am scattered in its whirl.

i am scattered like the hot shrivelled seeds.

the shriveled seeds are split on the path—

the grass bends with dust, the grape slips

under its cracked leaf: yet far beyond the spent seed-pods, and the blackened stalks of mint, the poplar is bright on the hill,

the poplar spreads out, deep-rooted among trees.o poplar, you are great among the hill-stones,

while i perish on the path among the crevices of the rocks.

an • guish • ed () adj., extremely anxious, tormented per • ish ( ) v., to die


compare literature: speaker and Moodidentify the speaker in each poem. What does the poem reveal about him or her? Find specific words and phrases in the poem to support your opinion. in what ways are the two speakers similar and different? With which speak-er do you most identify? Why?

how would you describe the mood of each poem? Explain your answer, again using examples from the selection for support. What feeling are you left with at the end of each poem?

extend the textWriting optionscritical Writing Write a short comparison and contrast essay in which you discuss how nature imagery is used to create mood in “Petals” and “mid-Day.” compare the imagery, the mood, and the ideas you think each author want you to carry away from her poem. You may organize your essay by discussing one poem at a time, or you may use a point-by-point organization, comparing specific aspects of the two poems. Share your essay with the class.

creative Writing Write a poem in which you use an image from nature to express your mood today. in your poem, try to use vivid images without expressly referencing yourself or your emotions, in keeping with the imagist style.

speaking and listening author Dialogue When hilda Doolittle lived in Europe, she met and became friends with Amy Lowell. Use the internet and the library to learn more about these two poets. imagine their first meeting. What would they have talked about? Write and perform a skit in which you and a classmate act out this conversation.

refer to text reason with text

1a. in “Petals,” to what does the speaker compare life? Why not?

2a. in the second stanza of “mid-Day,” to what does the speaker compare herself?

3a. in “Petals,” how do the flower petals start their journey?

4a. in “mid-Day,” what does the speaker dread?

5a. What happens to the speaker in the last stanza of “mid-Day”?

1b. What do you think the flower petals represent?

2b. What is another possible metaphor for the speaker’s state of mind?

3b. Predict what happens to the flower petals on their journey.

4b. is the poet’s use of imagery an effective way to illustrate the speaker’s feelings? Why or why not?

5b. compare the speaker’s state of mind in “mid-Day” with that of the speaker in “Petals.”

Understand find meaning

apply use information

analyze take things apart

evaluate Make judgments

create Bring ideas together

c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g L i t e r A t u r e c o m p A r i n g


i R R o R s &

W

W i n d o W s

am dekanawidah and with the Five nations1 confederate lords i plant the tree of the Great Peace. i name the tree the tree of the Great long leaves. under the shade of this tree of the Great Peace we spread the soft white feath-ery down of the globe thistle2 as seats for you, adodarhoh,3 and your cousin lords.

We place you upon those seats, spread soft with the feathery down of the globe thistle, there beneath the shade of the spreading branches of the tree of Peace. there shall you sit and watch the council fire of the confedera-cy of the Five nations, and all the affairs of the Five nations shall be transacted at this place before you.

roots have spread out from the tree of the Great Peace, one to the north, one to the east, one to the south, and one to the west. the name of these roots is the Great White roots and their nature is peace and strength.

if any man or any nation outside the Five nations shall obey the laws of the Great Peace and make known their disposition to the lords


No Nee Yeath Tan No Ton, King of the Generath, 1710. Johannes Verelst. Private collection.

the iroquois constitution, dating from the fif-teenth or sixteenth century, joined together several peoples who lived on the shores of the Great Lakes into the iroquois League, or iroquois confederacy. initially, the iroquois League included the mohawk, oneida, onondaga, cayuga, and Seneca. in the 1700s, the tuscarora joined the confederacy, mak-ing it the League of Six nations. tradition holds that the league was begun by Dekanawidah, a huron man who was known as “the Great Peacemaker” and by hiawatha, an onondaga who lived among the mohawks. the goal of the league was to put an end to war among its members, and the iroquois constitution established rules to keep the peace. the constitution was not written down but became a part of the iroquois’s oral tradition. the words of the iroquois constitution are ascribed to dekanawidah, a visionary diplomat about whom little is known. People remembered the constitution with the aid of small beads made of shell, known as wampum.

ing them, and they shall make an address and offer thanks to the earth where men dwell, to the streams of water, the pools, the springs and the lakes, to the maize and the fruits, to the medicinal herbs and trees, to the forest trees for their usefulness, to the animals that serve as food and give their pelts for clothing, to the great winds and the lesser winds, to the thun-derers, to the sun, the mighty warrior, to the moon, to the messengers of the Creator who reveal his wishes and to the Great Creator who dwells in the heavens above, who gives all the things useful to men, and who is the source and the ruler of health and life.

then shall the onondaga lords declare the council open. . . .

all lords of the Five nations’ Confederacy must be honest in all things. . . . it shall be a serious wrong for anyone to lead a lord into trivial affairs, for the people must ever hold their lords high in estimation out of respect to their honorable positions.

When a candidate lord is to be installed he shall furnish four strings of shells (or wam-pum) one span in length bound together at one end. Such will constitute the evidence of his pledge to the confederate lords that he will live according to the constitution of the Great Peace and exercise justice in all affairs.

When the pledge is furnished the speaker of the council must hold the shell strings in his hand and address the opposite side of the coun-cil fire and he shall commence his address say-ing: “now behold him. he has now become a confederate lord. See how splendid he looks.” an

of the confederacy, they may the roots to the tree and if their minds are clean and they are obedient and promise to obey the wishes of the confederate council, they shall be welcomed4 to take shelter beneath the tree of the long leaves.

We place at the top of the tree of the long leaves an eagle who is able to see afar.

if he sees in the distance any evil approach-ing or any danger threatening he will at once warn the people of the confederacy.

the smoke of the confederate council fire shall ever ascend and pierce the sky so that other nations who may be allies may see the council fire of the Great Peace. . . .

Whenever the confederate lords shall assemble for the purpose of holding a council, the onondaga lords shall open it by expressing their gratitude to their cousin lords and greet-

45From the iroquoiS ConStintution

Iroquoisf r o m t h e

inDepenDent reaDing

1. Five Nations. the mohawk, oneida, onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes. these tribes formed the iroquois Confederacy.

2. globe thistle. Plant that grows round, blue or white flower heads

3. Adodarhoh. Chief confederate lord of the onondaga, on whose land the council fire was lit

4. they shall be welcomed. the tuscarora tribe joined the Confederacy in 1722.

con • fed • er • a • cy (k@n fe> d3r @ s7) n., people or groups united for common purposedis • po • si • tion (dis p9 zi> sh@n) n., state of mind, general nature

con • fed • er • a • cy (k@n fe> d3r @ s7) n., people or groups united for common purposetrans • act (tranz akt>) v., carry on, conduct, or complete businessdis • po • si • tion (dis p9 zi> sh@n) n., state of mind, general nature

IC o n S t i t u t i o n

4. they shall be welcomed. the tuscarora tribe joined the Confederacy in 1722.

The smoke of the confederate council fire shall ever ascend

and pierce the sky so that other nations

who may be allies may see the

council fire of the Great Peace.

actions shall be marked with calm deliberation. in all of your deliberations in the confederate council, in your efforts at law making, in all your official acts, self-interest shall be cast into oblivion. Cast not over your shoulder behind you the warnings of the nephews and nieces should they chide you for any error or wrong you may do, but return to the way of the Great law which is just and right. look and listen for the welfare of the whole people and have always in view not only the present but also the coming generations, even those whose faces are the ground-the unborn of the future nation.

address may then follow. at the end of it he shall send the bunch of shell strings to the opposite side and they shall be received as evidence of the pledge. then shall the opposite side say:

“We now do crown you with the sacred emblem of the deer’s antlers, the emblem of your lordship. you shall now become a mentor of the people of the Five nations. the thickness of your skin shall be seven spans-which is to say that you shall be proof against anger, offen-sive actions and criticism. your heart shall be filled with peace and good will and your mind filled with a yearning for the welfare of the peo-ple of the confederacy. With endless patience you shall carry out your duty and your firm-ness shall be tempered with tenderness for your people. neither anger nor fury shall find lodge-ment in your mind and all your words and


reason and extend1. consider all the references to nature in the iroquois

constitution. Analyze what the descriptions of nature reveal about the iroquois people’s relationship with nature.

2. Dekanawidah was known as “the Great Peacemaker.” Using evidence from the iroquois constitution, evalu-ate whether or not he establishes a confederacy, or group of nations, that has the means necessary to keep the peace.

3. imagine that you and other students have been ship-wrecked on an island and have to organize a govern-ment of your own. Work with other students to form a constitution establishing the basic laws and political structure of your new country. Which elements of this selection from the iroquois constitution would you incorporate into your government? Which types of behavior not included in this excerpt would you regu-late by law?

Writing options1. the writer of the iroquois constitution uses the sym-

bol of a tree to describe the confederacy of the Five nations. Write your own descriptive paragraph to share with the class in which you describe our current government using your own symbol. You might com-pare our government to another form of nature, or you might choose a metaphor from your own surroundings.

2. compare and contrast the ideas in the iroquois constitution with those of the constitution of the United States. how might the iroquois constitution have influenced the creation of the American constitution?

47

speaking & listening WorksHop

Your presentation will be evaluated on these elements:

content

❏ clear chronology— beginning, middle, and end

❏ strong opening and closing sentences

❏ vivid description

❏ simple vocabulary and sentence structure

Delivery and presentation

❏ appropriate volume, pace, and enunciation

❏ effective tone, intonation, and stress

❏ effective nonverbal expression

s&l rUbric

Deliver a Narrative Presentation

People are entertained by watching television, going to movies or plays, and listening to audio books. in this lesson, you will prepare and present a story, or narrative, to your classmates. try to make the narrative as interesting as some of the other forms of entertainment you know.

1. select a story Select a simple story, such as a fairy tale, a ghost story, or an urban legend. reread the story until you can retell it using your own words.

2. Map out the story Find the beginning, the middle, and the end of your story. Find the climax, the high point of suspense in the plot. Decide on a good first line and last line, and memorize each one. make your own plot diagram like the one below to map out your story. Fill in the box next to each part of the story with a brief sentence about what happens at that point. Write your first line and your last line in the appropriate boxes. note: not all parts of the plot diagram need to receive equal treatment in your story. For example, the fall-ing action need not be more than a sentence or two.

3. add Details be sure that in your retelling, you include a few colorful details that will suggest the setting and establish the mood. For example, you might mention the hooting of owls or the salty taste of seawater. A chart of sensory details like the one below may help you decide which details to add to your story.

4. think about Mood and tone is the story silly and humorous or dark and spooky? is the message serious or lighthearted? What tone of voice should you use when telling the story?

5. practice tell the story often—by yourself in front of a mirror or with a friend. Keep the following tips in mind:

❏ choose your words and structure your sentences so that your audience can follow the story.

❏ Use appropriate intonation; that is, recite the piece in either a singsong voice or a monotone, depending on the mood you want to set.

❏ Decide which parts of the story to stress, and find the best way of doing that—for example, by pausing or by raising your voice.

❏ record your story and play it back. Are you speaking too fast? too softly? is the story missing anything? make any additional changes you need and practice until it feels comfortable.

6. present the narrative Finally, present your narrative to the class, using facial expressions and gestures to bring the story to life. try to tell the story without the aid of any notes. remember, it’s not the exact words of your story that matter— it’s the way you tell it


i R R o R s &

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W i n d o W s

con • fed • er • a • cy (k@n fe> d3r @ s7) n., people or groups united for common purposetrans • act (tranz akt>) v., carry on, conduct, or complete business

38 Unit 3 The civil war and reconsTrucTion 39XXXX

Writing WorksHop

38 Unit 4 Slavery and the Civil War 39

Draft your bodyin the body, keep drawing in your readers by slowly revealing your subject’s story. this is information that you already mapped out in the Prewrite stage.

review your notes and the order in which you planned to present them. Develop each paragraph by sequencing details in a storylike fashion. Each detail should tie into the overall message you are trying to depict, as proposed in your organizing statement.

Draft your conclusionFinally, write the conclusion for your profile. the con-clusion should gratify readers with a sense of comple-tion and a fuller understanding of the person you profiled.

3 revise

evaluate your DraftExchange profiles with a classmate to evaluate each other’s work. Does the profile do its job in presenting the person to you? What works well, and what can be improved?

Start by looking at the content and organization. make sure the introduction, body, and conclusion fit together to create the picture you laid out in your organizing statement. Every paragraph should relate clearly to it, and every paragraph should flow into the next. Use the revision checklist on page 000 to help you evaluate. make notes directly on the essay about changes to be made.

Also consider the pace at which you present details about your subject. Pacing is especially impor-tant when writing a narrative-type piece. Follow the advice of post-romantic composer Gustav mahler, who said, “if you think you’re boring your audience, go slower not faster.”

next, check each sentence for mistakes. make sure you have correctly used the concepts outlined in the Language, Grammar, & Style workshops in this unit. Again, use the revision checklist to assess the writing. hone the language, checking for clarity and specificity.

revise for content, organization, and styleread the comments you and your partner made on your draft, and implement applicable comments as you revise your draft.

proofread for errorsnow look for remaining mistakes, using proofreader’s symbols to mark any you find. (See Language Arts handbook 0.0 for a list of proofreader’s symbols.) to complete the assignment, print out a final draft and read it aloud before turning it in—this will help you slow down to catch things you might normally not see.

Writing Follow-Uppublish and present● readers interpret pieces differently. read your pro-

file to your class and see if they can guess what your organizing statement was. What might have caused the differing views?

● Submit your profile for publication in a “community interest” section of a newspaper or journal.

reflecthow do you think your profile subject would feel about how you chose to present him or her? think how you would feel about reversing roles. Would you rather be the observer or the observed? Why?

Create a Profile

assignment Plan, write, and revise a profile

purpose to introduce one aspect of a person

audience An acquaintance of the profile subject

While most of us will never face the hardships expe-rienced by the authors in this unit—recovering from slavery like booker t. Washington or fighting to keep a country together like Abraham Lincoln—even the most seemingly ordinary person has a story to tell. often, we assume we know someone, but we really have no idea how fascinating that person’s life is until we stop to ask.

For this assignment, you will create a profile using a combination of narration, biography, and oral history. A profile is not meant to tell someone’s life story but rather to focus on one aspect of his or her life. how do you want this person to come across to readers

1 prewrite

select your topicSince everyone has a story, anyone can be the subject of a profile. come up with a list of people you would like to get to know better. choose whomever you think will be most willing to answer your questions.

gather informationto write a profile, you will need to interview your sub-ject. come up with a list of questions you would like him or her to answer, but also be attuned to opportu-nities during the interview to ask more questions you had not thought of. take good notes. You may need to quote your subject in the profile.

a successful profile:

❏ has an introduction that presents the person in an intriguing way

❏ develops a body that’s a detailed account of one aspect of the person’s life

❏ ends with a conclusion that gives the account closure

Writing rUbric

organize your ideasreview your notes. have you taken down all of the essential details? Do you have enough information to produce an accurate, absorbing account?

Since this piece is about someone’s life, organiz-ing the information using either a narrative structure (organized like a story, with an introduction, building action, climax, and resolution) or a chronological structure (sequenced according to time) will probably work best. however, you should reveal the details in whatever way will maintain readers’ interest.

Write your organizing statementthis sentence will not appear in your profile but will instead function as a device to help you focus your piece. What is the overall message you want to por-tray about your subject?

2 Draft

Write your essay by following this three-part frame-work: introduction, body, and conclusion.

Draft your introductionthe introduction of a profile presents your subject in a compelling way, perhaps by starting in the middle of your subject’s story at a tense moment. Doing so will grab readers’ attention from the start.

WhatGreatWritersDoreaders should feel invested in your piece, so you will need to make your person’s story appealing. As h. L. mencken, an early twentieth-century journalist, remarked, “Therearenodullsubjects,...onlydullwriters.”

introduction invoke readers’ curiosity from the very first sentence.

body continue creating interest by using con-crete details and effective storytelling.conclusion Leave readers satisfied by offering closure.

content and organization

❏ is the introduction engrossing, enticing read-ers to read on?

❏ Does the body effectively imply the message stated in your organizing statement, each paragraph working with the next to create a full story?

❏ Does the conclusion leave readers feeling as though they know your subject?

language, grammar, & style

❏ Are all irregular verbs conjugated correctly? (page 000)

❏ Do you properly apply adjectives and adverbs? (page 000)

❏ Are your modifiers placed next to the things they modify? (page 000)

❏ Do your phrases (gerund, infinitive, and participial) receive proper verb treatment? (page 000)

revision cHecklist

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The Lyric Poets - EMC School...part 1 part 2 Rainy Day in Camp, 1871, Winslow Homer. the metropolitan museum of Art, new York. 4 Unit 4 Slavery and the Civil War 1851 the Women’s