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The Mozarabs – Their Architecture and Art Introduction The church architecture, sculpture and manuscript illustrations of Spain in the XI, XII and early XIII centuries are derived from many cultural currents. Some of these currents were developed within the Iberian Peninsula; others were brought in by peoples coming from outside Iberia. This article examines one of these, that of the Mozarabs. The article contains a discussion of the styles that were developed by the Mozarabs in art forms and how these were acquired. The article will then provide evidence as to how and where the Mozarab styles were to spread and influence areas beyond their initial area of development. The article will examine, in particular, illustrated manuscripts associated with the Mozarabs and then the churches with the sculptures that decorated them. The term ‘Mozarab’ is intimately associated with part of the population of the Iberian Peninsula that lived following the Muslim invasion of AD 711. However, there is no agreed definition of the term. The word ‘Mozarab’ would appear to have been first used in Latin documents in the early XI century in the Kingdom of León. (1). Although the term has Arabic roots, it is not found in any documents from the period of the Muslim occupation of Spain. The origin of the word is ‘musta’rib’ or ‘musta’rab’; this comes from the root ‘araba’ which means ‘to make oneself similar to the Arabs’. Some historians employ the term ‘Mozarab’ to describe the Christians of Cordoba because they maintained their Christian identity and religion when subjects of the Islamic state. Other historians used the term to describe those emigrants who fled Al-Andalus and who were to settle in the Christian kingdoms that were developing along the North edge of Spain; they were to be particularly associated with the repopulating of the areas newly recovered from the Islamic rulers. Their art is known as ‘arte de repoblación’ in Spanish. These settlers had often absorbed significant elements of Arab culture and they were to be responsible for the introduction of these cultural influences to the art of the Northern Kingdoms. A third context for the term relates to the people who were residing in Toledo at the time of its reconquest by the King of Castile, who were Christian but who were Arabicized, having absorbed a large measure of Arab culture; most wrote and spoke in Arabic; however, a few spoke a Roman language, aljamía, which was an archaic Spanish dialect that was written in Arabic script. The term Mozarab enabled them to be distinguished from the Castilians. In this context, the term was extended to cover those Christians who lived in Al-Andalus under Islamic rule but who were now liberated. The most usual context is that of true Spaniards, vassals of Muslim rulers of Spain for a time, who preserved their Christian religion throughout the succeeding centuries, and who kept up the Latin-Visigoth culture which had existed in Spain prior to the Moorish invasion but who may have adopted some aspects of Moorish or Arab culture. The Foundations Laid by the Visigoths

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The Mozarab style was, in the main, a direct development based on the significant inheritance of the Visigoth style; a continuum based on the substantial foundations created by the Visigoths from whom they were directly descended. The Arabs who overthrew the Visigoths in AD711 were more cultivated and more tolerant than the Visigoths had been towards those of other religions. In general, the new occupiers avoided religious persecution. Christians did die for their faith, but most and particularly those at Cordoba actively sought martyrdom. The Muslims allowed the Christians (and Jews) to continue to practice their faith so long as they paid an additional tax. The stories of religious conflict between Muslim and Christian are largely an XI century rewriting of history to add impetus to the ongoing crusade to re-conquer the peninsula. The animosity between those of the two faiths was mainly the creation of the Pope, Cluny and contingents of soldiers coming from outside Spain. The sharing of the peninsula with a sophisticated people inevitably led to an acceptance of elements of Moslem culture by the Christian population. This resulted in a fusion of Islamic and Christian elements of architecture and art. During the course of the V and VI centuries the Visigoths, invading from the North-east, subdued the Iberian Peninsula, conquering the Sueves, and established the capital of a powerful kingdom at Toulouse in 416. After their own defeat by the Franks in 507, the Visigoths established full control of the Iberian Peninsula along with Septimania, the Mediterranean coastal region of France to the North-east, with a new political and ecclesiastic capital at Toledo. This kingdom was to survive until 710 as a centralised form. In that year it was seriously weakened by an internal quarrel; as the result it was rapidly destroyed by the Moors, who invaded from North Africa in 711. The Visigoths were not builders; the Romano-Hispanics were. The Visigoths seem to have been content to adopt and exploit existing Romano-Hispanic buildings and building styles. It is in the ornamentation of the churches that we will se the more distinctive Visigoth seal. The principal religious and artistic centre before the establishment of Visigoth order was the city of Mérida (between Seville and Salamanca). It was here that, in the last six decades of the VI century, two ‘Greek’ bishops held office, providing a significant indication of connections to the Eastern Mediterranean and Byzantium; it should be remembered that the Byzantine Empire included for a time the coastal strip of what is now Andalusia, an occupation that ended around AD 620. That occupation, however, does not seem to have had significant additional influence on the church architecture of Spain. It had already adopted architectural forms that had their origins in Italy and further East. From the middle of the VI century Toledo was the centre of ecclesiastic power in the peninsula.

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Visigoth Kingdom in AD 500 (left) and AD 700 (right) The Visigoths were Arian Christians; they adopted Catholicism in 586 when the king, Recardo, converted; the indigenous population had long been Catholic. A fragment of a tomb stone found near Seville is evidence of this. It is from the tomb stone of a Visigoth nobleman, Gundebebius; it has a Latin inscription and a small cross.

Visigoth tomb stone fragment from Seville now in the British Museum The Visigoth churches were small buildings, but frequently the plan of the basilica was employed. The remainder had a cruciform plan. The interiors were usually constructed so as to create small pockets that served their liturgical requirements to keep clergy and laity separate and also, where applicable, to separate priests from deacons. Thus there were many with chancel screens and even a barrier at the chancel. An example is to be seen at the VII century chapel of São Gião de Nazaré, in Portugal North of Lisbon. Here there is a barrier which provides very restricted access to the sanctuary area and which would have hidden the activity around the altar from the laity in the nave.

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São Gião de Nazaré, Portugal – Plan and chancel barrier from nave The Visigoth church of Santa Cruz, in Barcelona, had a cruciform plan; it was probably a development of a Paleo-Christian basilica. The little of it that has survived is an element of the large excavated area below the Plaça del Rei and is part of the Museu d’Historia de la Ciutat. The foundations for the columns and for the altar may be seen. These are of re-used capitals and columns of the Roman era.

Barcelona – Base of column in Visigoth church Most Visigoth churches were constructed using roughly hewn stones that were laid without mortar. The arches within them were often horseshoe-shaped, a shape that some suggest they learnt from the Romans; others propose Syrian or Ethiopian origins for the arch. However, the early Syrian churches and those at Aksum and Lalibela, both in Ethiopia, are no older than those in Spain. This horseshoe shape was to be adopted and was to be reproduced in a more exaggerated form by the Moors and their successors. San Juan de Baños is in the form of a basilica with the aisles separated by re-used Roman columns. An inscription records it being built in 661. Santa María de Melque, near Toledo, was built either just before or just after the Moslem invasion of 711. Either way,

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it is very much in the Visigoth style. At one time it had barriers on the East and West sides of the chancel, as we have seen at São Gião de Nazaré. Less usually, it was constructed from large ashlar blocks that were laid without mortar.

San Juan de Baños, Palencia – From South-west (left) and nave from North aisle (right)

Sta María de Melque, Toledo – From the South (left) and interior from West The decoration was usually in the form of bas-relief friezes. These were carved with geometric motifs, scroll-work and Christian symbols. The finest example of this must be at Santa María de Quintanilla de las Viñas. This small church near Burgos built around or soon after 690AD has several bands of bas-relief sculpture on the South side of the apse. The decoration is of birds, vegetation and animals. Whilst there are several motifs that appear to be decorative only, it is probable that some of the motifs were derived from indigenous symbols used by the ancient Iberian-Celts for whom the motifs had a religious significance; in this context the circle provides a typical example, being associated with fire, the wheel having been the tool for creating fire in early society, and as a symbol of light and the sun. Whether that significance was still valid at the time that these

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sculptures were executed we do not know; but it is not unlikely. It is of interest that the same motifs were being used in the Eastern Mediterranean a little before this time. Other motifs were part of the cultural heritage of the Goths, brought from Eastern Europe.

Sta María de Quintanilla de las Viñas – Apse and corner of South transept

Sta María de Quintanilla de las Viñas – Friezes on apse

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Anicia Juliana’s Palace, Istanbul – Pier (before AD 525) (left) Visigoth belt buckle now in Madrid from VIc (right) Inside, at the crossing are two capitals with low relief sculptures; they are set on columns that are from the Roman period. The sculptures do have religious symbolism. The one to the left (which is damaged) shows one (of two) angels holding a disc with the symbol of the Moon. On the other side of the crossing is a similar sculpture of the Sun. These sculptures are of a later date than those on the exterior, dating from the early decades of the X century.

Sta María de Quintanilla de las Viñas – Capitals at the crossing

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Lorsch Gospels – Part of the ivory book cover

Barberini diptych, now Louvre – Top panel The resemblance of the two sculptures to the motif at the top of the ivory book cover of the Lorsch Gospels and the Barberini diptych is striking. The Lorsch ivory was produced by the Court School of Charlemagne and it draws its lineage from Antiquity and the Roman triumphal monuments and was produced about a century before the sculptures. The Barberini ivory is a Byzantine work that was brought to Western Europe in the first decades of the VII century. The top panel has one of the first representations of Christ in such form. Either artifact or one like them might have provided the model for the sculpture at Santa María. An explanation for the Sun and Moon at this church might be that paganism and its symbolism was still very fresh in the minds of people; the ‘Pilgrim Guide’ to Santiago written two hundred years later refers to the continued existence of some pagans in the area. At Algezares, just South-east of Murcia, there once stood a VI century basilica that had a fine chancel screen. Fragments of this and the bases of columns from the same building

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are now in the Museum at Murcia. Amongst the motifs are small spirals that resemble those to be seen on Iberian pottery that dates from the IV to I centuries BC and which are to be found at many sites across Spain. The same pattern was to be used by the XII century workers creating wrought-iron screens across choirs and reinforcing on the doors in the Eastern Pyrenees.

Algezares, now in Murcia – Fragment of VIc chancel screen

Algezares, now in Murcia –VIc column base Murcia – VIc BC Iberian jug The church of San Pedro de la Nave, near Zamora was built in the late VII century, a few decades earlier than Santa María de Quintanilla de las Viñas. This is the most complete and most beautiful church of the period. The plan of this church is based on that of the basilica with a nave and side aisles separated by pillars and horseshoe arches. As with all the other churches of this group, there are two small, flat-ended side-chapels off the transept.

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San Pedro de la Nave – Interior from SW The choir has a frieze of vegetal and geometric motifs around it; these are typically Visigoth in style as can be seen in the illustration of a belt buckle of the period. The choir and crossing have sculptured capitals. In addition to the typical Visigoth motifs of geometric patterns and motifs drawn from nature there are religious scenes on these. These are the works of a second and more inspired hand than the frieze. The motifs resemble those on the friezes of Santa María de Quintanilla de las Viños and some were used to decorate every-day articles. Particularly well-known is the capital with Daniel and the Lions’ Den. But the sculptures include a scene of Abraham’s intended sacrifice of his son, Isaac, and images of saints. All are executed in shallow relief. The right side of the capital of Daniel shows a figure carrying a tray above his head. No doubt that this was intended to be Habakkuk bring food to Daniel but the sculptor was clearly not familiar with the story and it is labelled ‘Filipus Apostolus’. At least nine belt buckles of Frankish/Merovingian origin with strikingly similar images of Daniel in the Lions’ Den have been found in Eastern France and Switzerland. Two are illustrated below, one from Macon, in Burgundy, and the other from Lavigny, Switzerland. All date from not earlier than the first decades of the VI century; they are probably nearly a century older than the sculptured capital at San Pedro. The image on the capital therefore probably originates not from Iberia but from Central or Eastern Europe.

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San Pedro de la Nave – Frieze in choir and capital of Abraham & Isaac

Visigoth belt buckle AD 650-80

San Pedro de la Nave – Capital of Daniel (left) and Habakkuk (right)

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Macon, Burgundy – Belt buckle, VIc Lavigny, Switzerland, (now Lausanne) - Bofflens buckle, VIc

San Pedro de la Nave – Capitals of St Paul (left) and two birds pecking a cone (right) To the North-west of Barcelona the industrial town of Terrassa stands on the site of the ancient town of Egara which, in Visigoth times, was the seat of the local bishop. Parts of three churches from that period have survived. All have undergone some subsequent modification. Santa Maria was the church for the Bishopric; later it had an Augustine Chapter. Sant Miquel, in the middle, was the former Episcopal baptistery, whilst Sant Pere, on the North side, had been initially a funeral chapel before becoming the parish church. Santa Maria retains the original flat ended apse into which a horseshoe shaped choir has been inserted. It may have been attached to the triple nave of a basilica. The present nave and transepts are Romanesque. Recently a fragment of mosaic has been exposed that reveals the paleo-Christian and pre-Christian symbol of the After-life: a peacock. Sant Pere has a tri-lobed apse; the choir within it is a shallow oval in plan. The small early transepts have also survived; the nave is Romanesque; the original may have been in the form for a basilica In the middle of the three stands Sant Miquel. It consists of

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a square building that has three short aisles divided by four thick columns at the corners and two slim columns in between; all have sculptured capitals; most of these are Corinthian in style and are modelled on earlier Roman ones. Two at the Western corners are less elaborate. The use of the Corinthian style capital derived from Antiquity seems to have been common. The great mosque at Cordoba has a fine selection of Corinthian capitals of Visigoth origin that have been re-used. The doorway at Sant Pau, Barcelona has a Visigoth capital of Pyrenean marble that has been re-used; (the capital to the left is a later copy). The floral pattern on the stone above draws on the lineage of the floral motif on the column from the VI century mausoleum at La Alberca, in Murcia.

Sant Pau, Barcelona – Visigoth capital right of door (left) La Alberca, Murcia – Detail of VIc column However, the Visigoth sculptors did not slavishly follow the models from the Roman period; a capital in a museum in Valencia and two in a Barcelona museum are examples. The latter two have a cross on them, a motif that is seen less frequently after the VIII century. Two from the basilica of Algezares, Murcia reveal the same capacity to innovate whilst still drawing on the experiences of the Roman sculptors.

Valencia – VIc Capital (left) and Barcelona – Two VIc capitals (right)

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Algezares, Murcia – Two VIc capitals To the East of the nave at Sant Miquel there is a small horseshoe shaped choir within a polygonal apse. It is above a small crypt. The whole structure is largely in its original form. Because it was thought to have been a baptistery formerly, a central basin was inserted during the restoration in the mid XX century; this has recently been removed. The survival of the baptistery building is notable. It might be compared with the early baptisteries to be found at Poitiers and at Aix-en-Provence. Whilst most authorities assign the early elements of these churches to the Visigoth period some consider that they are later, being built after the end of Moorish occupation. In support of the earlier date it should be noted that the apses of all three show a form of stonework that is associated with Antiquity, namely rows of small, even stones with the rows sometimes separated by tiles or thin bricks. Those parts that are Romanesque are of entirely different construction.

Sant Miquel, Terrassa - Interior Santa Maria – Peacock mosaic

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Sant Miguel – Capitals in nave

Santa Maria (left) and Sant Pere (centre), Terrassa – Details of South of the apse of each and Sant Pere – Detail of South wall of nave (XIIc) (right) All these Visigoth churches are strikingly modest in size when compared with the churches that were appearing at this time in the Eastern Mediterranean. The architecture was similarly modest: there were no examples to compare with the cupolas that were being constructed in Constantinople. This is a reflection on the lack of skilled builders and the poverty of economic resources that were available.

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Whilst all these buildings have been assigned to the period of Visigoth rule by past authorities some doubts have been expressed in recent years. Until there is more substantial evidence to sustain such doubts it would be inappropriate to discuss them further. In the church of San Cebrián de Mazote there is a small sculptured fragment that shows two Roman-like figures. Whilst it is improbable that they are Romans they would almost certainly be Visigoths; it is interesting to note how the Visigoths adopted the dress, short hair and clean-shaven look of the Romans, possibly because the Roman fashion was considered to be superior. The surrounding decoration is typically Visigoth.

San Cebrián de Mazote – VIIc sculptured fragment Christians Living under Islamic Rule in the VIII Century Within fifty years of the Visigoth conquest of Spain and their defeat in Gaul by the Franks they established their new capital at Toledo. By 651 Toledo was the dominant intellectual centre of the kingdom. By the last decades of that century it had secured itself a monopoly on the right to anoint and consecrate the kings. The Toledo church also developed a royal liturgy and put itself at the heart of the kingdom. It was at Toledo that the periodic synods were held which formulated church policy, a policy that had significant influence over the Court and secular matters. In 711, exploiting the weakening of the Visigoths who were divided by bitter internal feuding, the Moors crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and rapidly destroyed the Visigoth state structure and occupied most of the peninsula. In 732, they were established securely enough to be able to project briefly an army North as far as Poitiers, in North-west France. In the North and North-east of Spain two small kingdoms, Navarre and Asturias, retained a toe-hold and over the next two centuries. These, along with another Christian domain, the County of Barcelona, would provide an expanding base from which the ‘Reconquista’ movement would, by the end of the XV century, subdue the last Moorish

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bastions in Granada. Asturias probably did not become fully Christianised until the VIII century.

Al-Andalus in about AD 800 Initially, the Moorish conquerors were tolerant of their Visigoth subjects, who were permitted to carry out their religious beliefs with little hindrance, though they did have to pay a capitation tax. They were, however, not permitted to construct new churches but they were able, particularly in the early period of Islamic rule, to use the existing churches and even to restore them as they fell into disrepair. Therefore those churches which we have looked at from the Visigoth period continued to be used; no doubt there were others from that time that have not survived, too. From 750 this began to change; from the mid IX century the pressure increased on Christians (and Jews) to convert to Islam or go into exile drove many to the latter option. Throughout the period of Islamic rule the Christian church was increasingly isolated and shielded from the developments and changes that were taking place in the Christian kingdoms of the North of Spain and indeed in the wider Church beyond the Pyrenees. Mozarabs in the Northern Kingdoms – The Manuscripts The narrow plain North of the mountains of Asturias provided a haven for a resistance movement against the Muslim invaders to develop. The early decades of this period are poorly recorded. By 791 Alphonso II secured the throne; he was to reign for fifty-two years. He set out to revive the traditions of Visigoth Toledo. The influx from the Islamic Spain and particularly the frontier region which included Toledo would have brought the art, law and learning of the Visigoth past to the small Asturian kingdom. There are few records of the actual migrations to the North, but the Mozarabs were to leave such distinctive marks that it is not difficult to discover where they settled. The Christian rulers of the small Northern states gave them lands where they settled and founded

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monasteries. These settlements were especially numerous in the depopulated frontier areas which the new arrivals were encouraged to settle and recolonise. The actual reasons for the exodus of Mozarabs from the South are not certain. It may have been the result of the increasing pressure and persecution by the Arab rulers. However it is equally plausible that the violent and seemingly endless conflicts between competing Muslim factions, conflicts that would probably have led to the looting of Christian institutions would have provided cause for the exodus. When considering the Mozarab contribution to the architecture and art of Spain it must be remembered that whilst in those areas of Spain that were occupied by the Moors they continued to use the churches built during the period of Visigoth rule. The architectural form of those buildings was designed to fulfill the requirements of the Visigothic rite. Those who fled the Muslim occupation for the Christian lands to the North brought with then that rite which they continued to practice along side the Catholic rite that had been introduced by the Catholic Church to the Northern Kingdoms and which in time would lead to the suppression of the Visigoth rite in most parts of the Peninsula. It is therefore of no surprise that the image of the churches built by the Mozarabs in the North should in many cases be a natural development of the forms used by the Visigoths and, in particular, the basilica. This would not, however, apply to the illumination of manuscripts. The monks brought with them a distinctive style of manuscript illumination. Unfortunately, the origins of this style of manuscript decoration are not known. There are no Visigoth illuminated manuscripts that would allow a comparison. With one exception, none of the small number of surviving Visigoth manuscripts has illustrations; they are decorated with small initials that are sometimes tinted. The exception is a manuscript that originated in Tarragona and which is now in Verona. Known as the Verona Orational, it contains one drawing of a circle of winds with, at its centre, a cross. The highly stylized and schematic architectural designs that are to be found in some of the manuscript must surely be based on those architectural styles to be seen in the churches of the Mozarabs.

Beatus of San Miguel de Escalada Folio 77r (Beatus Pierpoint Morgan)

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Particularly striking in the many churches that they built which have survived are the slim columns that are topped by horseshoe arches. These arches are identical in design to the arches and arcading that is to be found in the Great Mosque of Cordoba, or the Mezquita. (2).

Mezquita, Cordoba There is a surviving manuscript from Seville that was written around AD 900 by or perhaps for Bishop Servandos in Andalucía. It is the Biblia Hispalense. The Canon Table Page, the only one to survive, has distinctly Islamic characteristics in its decoration. Examples of this include the split palmette and half acanthus leaf ornament on the arches and outer columns.

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Biblia Hispalense – Canon Table with detail The magnificently decorated copies of the Beatus de Liébana best exemplify this style. The Beatus de Liébana is the work of a monk from Northern Spain; he was a teacher and advisor to Queen Adosinda, wife of King Silo (774-83) and a sworn enemy of heresy. Beatus died in about 798. His commentary was basically a cut-and-paste of relevant texts from early Fathers, particularly St Augustine. The Beatus manuscripts were, in the main, made for monasteries and are illustrated commentaries on the Apocalypse, part of the Book of Revelations of St John the Divine. The earliest illustrated copy, of which only a fragment survives, dates from AD 776 and the series of copies continued into the XIII century and beyond. In design and form the illustrations are quite unlike any manuscript illustrations that were produced at that period in other Christian centres outside Spain. The illustrated text was to be a major influence on Spanish artists in the coming centuries. The illustrations in the versions differ one from another in some details. Some of the later versions lack the dramatic use of colour that is found in most of the early versions. Bright colour, which was employed in the background in wide, contrasting, horizontal bands, is the dominant impression. This use of colour, however, is absent from Islamic art of the period. Most illustrations give the impression of other-worldliness that is perhaps typical of the mysticism of the medieval period. In the Gerona Beatus the colours are somewhat reminiscent of Oriental pottery. Figures are lacking in life-like quality; only the eyes alert us to the fact that they represent figures that had life. The inclusion of people and objects drawn from the Arab world provide evidence of Islamic influences. The Gerona Beatus provides obvious examples. But these are to be replicated in other copies. The horseman is shown wearing Sassanid dress; the tree needs no further explanation.

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Beatus de Gerona folios 134v and 147v

Morgan Beatus folio 154v (left) Beatus de Fecundus folio 250v (centre) Beatus de Gerona folio 152v (right) The illustrations in the earlier copies frequently contain allusions to Islam and Muslim forms of life-style. For example, an illustration of the Siege of Jerusalem to be found in the Beatus de Seu D’Urgell, which dates from AD 950, shows Jerusalem with a wooden door that has been typically strengthened with iron nails; the door is set into a frame that is almost an exaggerated horseshoe shape. The figures are dressed in the style of the Arabs and their weapons are those of the Arab armies and not those of the Europeans

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dwelling in the North of Spain. In the Beatus of Facundus which dates from 1047 the illustration of the Destruction of Babylon the city is represented by a Moorish house complete with table ware; above is a threatening angel.

Beatus de Seu D’Urgell folio 208v – Siege of Jerusalem (left) Beatus de Facundus folio 234 (right) Another example is provided by the illustration of the Whore of Babylon from the Morgan Beatus. In this the Whore wears a crown that makes clear its association with the Muslim culture: the top edge of the crown has crenellations and there is the half moon that was a sign of Islamic royalty or divinity. The artist has made little attempt to follow the biblical description of the Whore’s dress. Moreover, she is seated on a double cushioned stool that adds to the Islamic association. The whole image is designed to encourage the viewer to link it to Muslim culture in the Peninsula.

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The Morgan Beatus folio 194v – The Whore of Babylon The Arabs were renowned for the quality of their textiles; Cadiz and Seville were particularly important centres and it is probable that examples would have found their way to the Northern kingdoms either through trade or as gifts exchanged between notables. In the Beatus de Silos the illustrations included serried lines of figures wrapped in voluminous robes. The figures have no life-like characteristics but the colourful robes give the scene a cheerful vibrancy. It has been observed that in this illustration Christ is shown in a Heaven made of concentric circles, a reflection of an Arabic idea. (3).

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Beatus de Silos folio 21 A final example comes from the Escorial Beatus. The scene is that of the Last Judgment. However the artist has not followed the normal conventions when painting Christ. Instead of being enthroned or standing, Christ is shown seated cross-legged, a position that was and is common throughout the Near East. Not a distinguishing characteristic for Mozarab art but a point of social interest is the image of the wine press at the bottom of the picture, equipment that was to remain in use until the XX century.

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Escorial Beatus folio 120 – The Last Judgment From about AD 960 the artists working in the Christian kingdoms of Northern Spain were increasingly influenced by styles brought from the Carolingian schools in France and beyond. However examples of design concepts that were of Iberian origin were to continue side by side with the new ones coming from beyond the Pyrenees. The Commentary on Job (Moralia in Job), the work of Gregory the Great, was popular and influential in Spain. A surviving copy written in AD 945 in the monastery of Valeranica has a full page illustration of a peacock. It is a Christian symbol that probably has Roman origins. By the tenth century the popularity of the peacock as a Christian motif had declined. Here its resurrection might be explained by the role of the peacock in celestial and royal settings in the Islamic world. The 960 León Bible ends with the traditional Omega. The illustration has several Islamic patterns, such as the scrolled membranes within the letter; these have split palmettes that are to be seen on Islamic monuments and ivories. The two small figures or attendants are holding cups at a celestial banquet, a

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common Islamic artistic theme. (4). However, the interlace pattern probably was a motif from a Northern scriptorium.

Moralia in Job, 945; folio 3v León Bible of AD 960, folio 514

Ivory pyx from Zamora made 964, now Madrid (detail) (left) and Casket from Medinat al-Zahira made 965, now V & A, London (detail) (right) Mozarabs as Builders We have already noted that the Mozarabs brought with them a rite that was a natural development of the Visigoth rite. This rite influenced the form of church plans. So it was natural that some of the churches built by the Mozarabs in the North should have features that they had brought from the Visigoth churches that had survived during the period of

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Islamic rule in the South and, in particular, the triple aisle of the basilica. With some exceptions these immigrants from the South were rural poor; they had been isolated from the increasingly dynamic developments that were taking place in the Christian lands that lay to the North and East of the Pyrenees. It was improbable that they would have developed any new, inspirational and sophisticate concepts. The Kingdom of León proved to be the principal refuge for the Mozarabs fleeing the Islamic South. There are monastic documents and inscriptions that confirm that a number of important monasteries were founded by immigrant Mozarabs. One of the most important of these was San Miguel de Escalada, which stands to the East of the city of León. It dates from 913 and is perhaps one of the finer Mozarab works. It was built on the site of an earlier Visigoth church that was abandoned when the Moors invaded. It was monks who had allegedly fled the increasing religious persecution in Córdoba who were responsible for the reconstruction. It comprises a church with a triple nave in the form of the basilica with a wooden roof. Each aisle ends with a short, almost circular choir that resembles a mihrab, the central one being slightly wider then the outer two. The central aisle alone is separated from the nave by a tribune supported by two slim columns that form a horseshoe arch; these once contained small screens that would have obscured the view of the choir from the nave. This concept recalls the enclosed chancels of the Visigoth period. Each side chapel has a narrow central window. The aisles are divided by slim columns topped by a capital that is a variant of the Corinthian capital. On these rest horseshoe shaped arches. Along the south side of the exterior of the nave runs a gallery that is of a slightly later date than the church. It is enclosed by columns and Corinthian styled capitals supporting similar horseshoe shaped arches. These arches are very reminiscent of the arches of the mosque at Córdoba but, as we have said, the form pre-dates the Arab invasion and it was familiar to the Visigoths. The Corinthian style of capitals is modelled on those of Antiquity, rather than the lighter and more delicate capitals developed by the Islamic sculptors. There is a narrow frieze with motifs that show no signs of Islamic influence by bear a strong resemblance to the motifs on the frieze on the Visigoth church at Santa María de Quintanilla de la Viñas and San Pedro de la Nave. The overall form along with the style and proportions of the arches are similar to those at San Juan de Baños (see page 4). The three sanctuaries of San Miguel resemble not those at San Juan but those of a church in the amphitheatre at Tarragona for which only the floor plan survives. But despite all these new visual elements, the masonry for the walls was constructed in the same manner as was used for the other Asturian-Leonese churches and not in the Visigoth manner, suggesting that the workmen were of local origin. As in churches around Oviedo, brickwork was used in the upper parts of the walls to reduce the weight.

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San Miguel de Escalada – North aisle and chapel (left) and main nave and tribune (right)

San Juan de Baños – Nave from North-west (left) Capital from Cordoba now in Museo Lazaro Galdiano (Xc) (right)

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San Miguel de Escalada – Gallery from East (left) and capital on South of nave (right)

San Miguel de Escalada – Detail of frieze At the East end of the gallery there is a tympanum over the door to the church. This is a re-used chancel screen that has geometric and vegetative motifs that are part of the Visigoth inheritance. Inside the church are more elements of the screen with similar motifs drawn from the Visigoth heritage. The use of the motifs has a lighter touch than in the Visigoth period. Some of the motifs resemble those to be found in Islamic buildings of the period but lack their delicacy. Thus the screen panels are a reflection of the Visigoth heritage rather than an Islamic one. The interlace was a motif that appeared regularly on X century chancel screens. It was a motif that was well known to Christian and Muslim artists. (5). In San Miguel de Escalada we see the Visigoth styles, the form and the liturgical spaces.

San Miguel de Escalada – Tympanum in South gallery (left) Medinat al-Zabrâ – Marble panel, detail (right) Also founded by monks from Córdoba is the church of San Cebrián de Mazote, in Castille. This dates from not earlier than 940. Despite similarities with San Miguel de Escalada, San Cebrián lacks the screen or barrier between nave and chancel. The capitals on the columns that divide the aisles are all based on the classical Corinthian model and not that developed by the Islamic sculptors. Most unusually, the names of at least ten monks are inscribed on the frames of the windows. This would seem to indicate that some of the monks were engaged as masons on the project. The incorporation of Visigoth

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styles both here and at Escalada (and elsewhere) and these inscriptions seems to be a deliberate attempt to recall the times of a united and prosperous church under the Visigoth rule that preceded the Moslem conquest and to advertise the freedom of the monks to build churches, a right denied to them in Moslem controlled areas.

San Cebrián de Mazote – Interior and nave capital In the North-west corner of Spain, in Galicia and Orense there are several churches that retain elements that survive from the late IX century through to the X century. The widows at San Eufemia de Ambia, in Orense, have characteristic twin openings known as the aljimez form, with a rectangular molding, known as an alfiz molding around their upper half; these features indicate its Mozarab origin and Islamic roots. The small church of San Xes de Francelos has been altered over the centuries. Nonetheless there are still elements that remind us of its Visigoth ancestry as well as touches that are drawn from the Moors.

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San Eufemia de Ambia, Orense (left) San Xes de Francelos – Detail of South door and window (right) High in the mountains to the West of León is the village of Santiago de Peñalba. The church was once part of a small priory founded at the start of the X century and consecrated in 930. The plan is a compact cross. Unlike the previous churches that we have looked at it has a single nave with a rounded chapel at each end that is entered through a narrow horseshoe arch. But the South door with twin horseshoe arches, known as an aljimez door with an alfiz molding that indicates its Mozarab origin of the church and a Visigoth pedigree with the interweaving of some Islamic aspects; a smaller door on the North side has a similar though single arch. Despite some decoration, the Visigoth character of the church is its salient characteristic.

Santiago de Peñalba – South door (left), interior (centre) and North door (right) North-east of Oviedo, is the church of Santianes de Pravia. This has a number of features that suggest an Islamic influence. In particular there are small windows that owe their form to those found in Moorish buildings of the period. However, inside are sculptured plaques that are typical of the Visigoth style.

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Santianes de Pavia – Two windows and part of a sculptured screen from the choir At the East end of the Pyrenees the recapture of Barcelona from the Moors in 801 provided increased security to Christian worshipers. The little church of Sant Julia de Boada, situated between the Pyrenees and Barcelona, was first recorded in 934. It has a single nave and a short apse that is sited off-centre to the South. The South door and the arch at the entrance to the choir both have the familiar horseshoe shape; however, the South door at Sant Julia is of modern construction.

Sant Julia de Boada – from the South and arch at entrance to choir The manuscript illuminations were to leave a small mark on church decoration. Near Berga, in Catalonia, stands the small church of Sant Quirze de Pedret. This church was a Visigoth foundation but in the XII century the choir was frescoed in Mozarab style. These frescos have been lifted and parts are in the museum of Solsona, the rest are in Barcelona.

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Sant Quirze de Pedret – choir frescos, now at Solsona The emphasis of Mozarab influence was in the North-west of Spain because the Kings of León gave the matter of encouraging their immigration and assisted them by providing land and royal support. In the East the influence of the Mozarabs was less evident; the examples of their work that have survived are fewer. The lands of the Count of Barcelona extended North and East along the literal of the Mediterranean towards the Rhone estuary. The Mozarab influences were to follow a similar path. In Roussillon and Languedoc a number of churches remain that show such characteristics that came initially from the Mozarabs but it is unlikely that Mozarabs were involved in the construction of the buildings concerned. In the early part of the XI century the Abbot of St Michel de Cuxa, North of the Pyrenees, was also Abbot of Ripoll and Bishop of Vic, to the South of the Pyrenees. The church at Cuxa retains Mozarab style arches in the nave and the North side chapel. Two small chapels in the hills to the North, near Sournia, that were dependencies of Cuxa, display similar characteristics.

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St Michel de Cuxa – Arch from nave to side aisle. St Michel, Sournia – West door It is possible that copies of the ‘Beatus de Liébana’ were especially influential; several contained illuminations of buildings that had a distinctive Mozarab style. These show details of doorways and sanctuaries in forms that were to be replicated in churches from Asturias to Catalonia and across the Pyrenees into the area once known as Septimania. However, from the IX century the influence of Christians from France and beyond was such that, over time, the styles and character of the Christian churches of the kingdoms of Northern Spain became increase of the rest of Northern Europe. The Asturian kings actively supported the trend; the support of both the Papacy and of Cluny was a driving force in the gradual re-conquest of the rest of Spain. As their influence increased so the Mozarab influenced waned.

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Beatus de Girona (AD 957) Beatus de Urgell (AD 970)

St Martin des Puits, Aude – Entrance from nave to choir The most obvious feature from the Mozarab decorative style that was to be retained by later generations of artisans was a classic modillion of a form to be seen in the mosque at Cordoba. On several churches, such as San Miguel de Escalada and San Millán de la Cogolla, the modillion was to be decorated with the circular motifs that had been frequently used in the Visigoth period.

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Córdoba – Modillions over San Sebastián door to the Mezquita (left) San Miguel de Celanova (right) .

Sta María de Lebeña, San Millán de la Cogolla and Sta María, Sepúlveda – Modillions In the Romanesque period which was to follow, the main entrance to churches was from the West. This was a reflection of the processional aspects of worship for the period. The Mozarab rite did not include the requirement for processions. The doors were small and were placed on the North or South walls of the nave. In all other respects the Mozarab architectural form followed that of the Visigoths; this was a natural result of the Mozarabs to see themselves as the authentic Christian successors to the Visigoths despite the loss of secular power to the Moors. Mozarabs and Toledo The central place that Toledo had in the secular and ecclesiastic life of the Visigoth Kingdom has already been discussed. Following the conquest by the Moors in 711 Toledo rapidly fell to the invaders. During the period of Muslim occupation a substantial

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Christian population remained and continued to practice their religion. However towards the end of the IX century civil strife brought a gradual decline in conditions for the population as a whole and many Christians are thought to have left for the Christian kingdoms of the North. Alfonso VI of Castile took Toledo from the Muslims in 1085. The Hispanic rite had been abolished in Castile following the Council of Burgos in 1080 and it had been the King’s intention to establish the Roman rite in Toledo; he appointed a former Cluny monk, Bernard de Sédirac, as Archbishop of the city. However, the King granted special dispensation to six parishes in the city to continue the use of the old liturgy. In so doing Alfonso seems to have been restoring the rights and privileges that they had enjoyed since the times of the Visigoths.

Four of the six churches given dispensation remain; all are much altered; none resembles the churches state in 1085. San Eulalia, in the West of the city, is a fine example of Mudéjar architecture. Some of the capitals that have been retained date from the Visigoth and Mozarab periods. The former are in the form of Corinthian capitals or they have geometric designs; the latter are only superficially carved. In the choir there is a copy of a Visigoth dated ‘credo’. The church of San Marcos has disappeared; the present church,

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now used as a cultural centre, has no connection to the earlier one. The church of Santas Justa y Rufina was rebuilt in the XVI century after the earlier one was destroyed by fire. The two saints were martyred at Seville by the Islamic authorities. Of the earlier church only a Visigoth pillar to the right of the main door remains. But, intriguingly, there is a small plaque in Arabic on one wall.

Santas Justa y Rufina, Toledo – Visigoth pillar (left) & Arab inscription (right) The church of San Lucas is in a very dilapidate state having been abandoned. Situated on the South-east corner of the original city, it was used as a cemetery church by the Mozarabs. The church of San Sebastián was founded in the early VII century but it was rebuilt in the Mudéjar style. However, as at San Eulalia, a number of Visigoth capitals have survived to be reused. The church of San Torcuato was replaced by a monastery in the XVI century, a monastery that was destroyed by fire in the late XIX century. It can therefore be stated that little of the Mozarab Christian churches that were standing when Alfonso VI re-took Toledo has survived to this day. The few fragments that have are of Visigoth origin. Other small fragments of Visigoth sculpture are to be found on various buildings that post-date the re-conquest of the city. There is no evidence of any structures built by the Christian inhabitants under Islamic rule. This is not surprising given that building by Christians was prohibited.

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San Ginès – Re-used Visigoth stones. The Mozarab population was of sufficient size as to affect the policy of the King towards them, as we have noted. These Mozarabs were in some respects integrated into the Islamic fabric of the country – they spoke and wrote in Arabic; they dressed in a similar manner and they had absorbed some of the cultural features of the rulers. With the advent of Christian rule, many of the Muslim population remained and submitted to Christian rule. In later decades they were required to abandon the Muslim faith. These people were referred to as Mudéjar. They were to have a great influence on the architecture of Spain in the following centuries. The Mudéjar styles were modeled on their own Islamic styles. In Toledo an example has survived. The Mezquita del Luz is a former mosque built in the late X century. It is the only surviving mosque out of the ten that Toledo once had. In the early XII century a rounded apse in the new Mudéjar style was added to the original building making it probably the first building in the new style.

Mezquita del Luz – West end and apse

Concluding Remarks

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The mark left by the Mozarabs on the art and architecture of Spain is somewhat confused. In those areas under Islamic rule, because they were forbidden to build new churches, they were restricted to using those left at the end of the period of Visigoth rule. It is the characteristics of those Visigoth churches that the Mozarabs who moved to the North took with them. In the North, however, the influences coming with the clergy and warriors coming from France and beyond greatly restricted the widespread introduction of Mozarab styles in new churches.

It was in the field of manuscript illustration that the Mozarabs made their most significant impact. The range and drama of the colours used was unlike any seen before or later in Western Europe. However, as with architecture and sculpture, the Mozarab style did not endure; it was soon to be swamped by the torrent of material being introduced from Europe North of the Pyrenees.

In Toledo a community endured that proudly declared its Mozarab origins and heritage; this community was still significant into the XVI century and even today the Mozarab rite is in regular use in the Mozarab chapel in the Cathedral at Toledo as well as in Madrid and Salamanca.

Toledo Cathedral, Mozarab chapel

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Annex Some Churches with Mozarab influence or characteristics Spain Basaran, Aragon Boada, Sant Julià, Catalonia Bobastro, Malaga Helguera, Cantabria Retortillo, Asturias San Cebrián de Mazote, Castile San Eufemia de Ambia, Orense San Juan de la Peña, Aragon (crypt) San Martíño de Pazo, Orense San Miguel de Celanova, Orense San Miguel de Escalada, León San Miguel de Gormaz, Soria San Millán de la Cogolla, Castile San Millán de Suso, Rioja San Román de Hornija, Valladolid San Román de Moroso, Asturias San Tomás de Ollas, León San Xes de Francelas, Orense Sant Quirze de Pedret, Catalonia Sant Vicent de Obiols, Catalonia Santa Cruz de Montes, León Santa María de Cabeza, Malaga Santa María de Melque, Toledo Santa María de Mixós, Orense Santa María de Peñalba, Rioja Santa María de Wamba, Valladolid Santiago de Peñalba, Asturias Santianes de Pravia, Asturias Toledo, San Eulalia, Santas Justa y Rufina, San Ginès & San Sebastian France St Aubin de Fitou, Aude St Martin des Puits, Aude Fourques, St Vincent, Pyrénées Orientales Montauriol, Pyrénées Orientales Sournia, St Michel & Ste Félicité, Pyrénées Orientales St Michel de Cuxa, Pyrénées Orientales

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Notes. 1. ‘Mozarabs in Medieval and Early Modern Spain’, Richard Hitchcock. Ashgate 2008. 2. http://www.green-man-of-cercles.org/articles/the_horseshoe_arch.pdf 3. ‘The Pictorial Arts of the West 800-1200’, C R Dodwell. Yale University Press 1993. 4. ‘Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination’, John Williams. George Braziller 1977. 5. http://www.green-man-of-cercles.org/articles/origins_of_interlace_sculpture.pdf Other references consulted. 1. ‘Art en Espagne – Wisigoth, Asturian, Almoravide & Almohade, Plateresque, Mozarabe, Nasride, Art des Omeyyades de Cordue’. Livres Groupe, Breinigsville USA 2010. 2. ‘Caskets from Cordoba’, John Beckwith. Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, London 1960. 3. ‘Early Medieval Spain’, Roger Collins. St Martin’s Press New York 1995. 4. ‘Guia del Prerrománico’, Jaime Cobreros. Anaya 2005. 5. ‘L’Art Mozarabe’, Jacques Fontaine. Zodiaque 1995. 6. http://www.green-man-of-cercles.org/articles/from_visigoth_to_gothic.pdf 16.11.2010