The Nature of The Nature of Fiction, Nature’s Fiction, Nature’s

fictionsfictions

Prof. Jørgen Dines Prof. Jørgen Dines JohansenJohansen

presented in Prof. presented in Prof. Posner’s seminar BerlinPosner’s seminar Berlin

June 4 June 4

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Two questions concerning Two questions concerning fictionality:fictionality:

1. What characterizes a fictional 1. What characterizes a fictional universe of discourse?universe of discourse?

2. Why do we have such a strange 2. Why do we have such a strange phenomenon? phenomenon?

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The relation of a fictional universe of The relation of a fictional universe of discourse to an experiential universe of discourse to an experiential universe of discourse:discourse:

1. 1. “once upon a time east of the moon and “once upon a time east of the moon and west of the sun”west of the sun”

2. 2. Yonville-L'Abbay (named after an old Yonville-L'Abbay (named after an old Capuchin abbey of which not even the Capuchin abbey of which not even the ruins remain), is a market-town some ruins remain), is a market-town some twenty miles from Rouen, between the twenty miles from Rouen, between the Abbeville and Beauvais roads. It lies at Abbeville and Beauvais roads. It lies at the foot of a valley watered by the the foot of a valley watered by the Rieule, a little river that runs into the Rieule, a little river that runs into the Andelle after turning three water-mills Andelle after turning three water-mills near its mouth; it contains a few trout near its mouth; it contains a few trout and, on Sundays, the village boys and, on Sundays, the village boys entertain themselves by fishing. entertain themselves by fishing. (Flaubert 1965 [1857]: 49)(Flaubert 1965 [1857]: 49)

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Ten characteristicsof a fictional universe Ten characteristicsof a fictional universe of discourse:of discourse:

(1) A fictional universe is the product (1) A fictional universe is the product of a speech act through which the of a speech act through which the utterer asserts that something is the utterer asserts that something is the case without being held responsible case without being held responsible for asserting that this state of affairs for asserting that this state of affairs can be pointed out and identified can be pointed out and identified neither within a common experiential neither within a common experiential universe nor within a common universe nor within a common historical past. A sort of contractual historical past. A sort of contractual relationship exists between author relationship exists between author and reader that means that this kind and reader that means that this kind of pretense fools nobodyof pretense fools nobody

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BASIS FOR THE DISTINCTION BASIS FOR THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN LIE, INCORRECT BETWEEN LIE, INCORRECT INFORMATION, AND FICTION INFORMATION, AND FICTION

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(2) Because, in the case of fiction, (2) Because, in the case of fiction, the text creates its own universe, the text creates its own universe, its claims concerning elements and its claims concerning elements and relations within its universe must relations within its universe must be accepted unless they are be accepted unless they are contradicted by other claims in the contradicted by other claims in the same text. same text.

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Thus, the validity of its Thus, the validity of its propositions is decided on the propositions is decided on the basis of coherence within this basis of coherence within this particular discursive universe, not particular discursive universe, not by any correspondence with other by any correspondence with other universes. Consequently, the universes. Consequently, the relations of causation and relations of causation and interaction are established interaction are established autonomously by virtue of specific autonomously by virtue of specific textual conventions (causation in a textual conventions (causation in a folk tale is different from that of a folk tale is different from that of a realistic novel).realistic novel).

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(3) Since relations of causation and (3) Since relations of causation and interaction are only valid within the interaction are only valid within the fictional universe, their validity fictional universe, their validity outside this particular universe is—outside this particular universe is—in principle, but not in fact—in principle, but not in fact—accidental. Thus, propositions valid accidental. Thus, propositions valid within a fictional universe of within a fictional universe of discourse have no immediate discourse have no immediate bearing on other universes of bearing on other universes of discourse.discourse.

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THEY ARE IN FACT BECAUSE ALSO THEY ARE IN FACT BECAUSE ALSO FICTIONAL UNIVERSES ARE FICTIONAL UNIVERSES ARE RELATED TO THE BELIEF SYSTEMS RELATED TO THE BELIEF SYSTEMS OF THE HISTORICAL UNIVERSE OF OF THE HISTORICAL UNIVERSE OF ORIGINEORIGINE

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(4) A fictional universe of (4) A fictional universe of discourse is communicable and discourse is communicable and intersubjectively understandable intersubjectively understandable in so far as the fictional text is in so far as the fictional text is conveyed by means of an conveyed by means of an intersubjectively interpreted intersubjectively interpreted semiotic system (e.g., in speech of semiotic system (e.g., in speech of a natural language) or by a text a natural language) or by a text that can be interpreted by being that can be interpreted by being related to such a system.related to such a system.

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JOYCE’S FINNIGAN’S WAKE IS THE JOYCE’S FINNIGAN’S WAKE IS THE REASON FOR THIS POINT. REASON FOR THIS POINT. HOWEVER IT MIGHT BE ARGUED HOWEVER IT MIGHT BE ARGUED THAT LITERATURE IS OFTEN, OR THAT LITERATURE IS OFTEN, OR ALWAYS SONG OR WRITTEN IN A ALWAYS SONG OR WRITTEN IN A DIALECT THAT HASN’T BEEN DIALECT THAT HASN’T BEEN SPOKEN. HOWEVER, ON THE OTHER SPOKEN. HOWEVER, ON THE OTHER HAND, NO CERTAIN LINGUISTIC HAND, NO CERTAIN LINGUISTIC CRITERIA EXIST THAT MAKE IT CRITERIA EXIST THAT MAKE IT POSSIBLE WITHOUT ANY DOUBT TO POSSIBLE WITHOUT ANY DOUBT TO IDENTIFY A TEXT AS FICTIONALIDENTIFY A TEXT AS FICTIONAL

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(5) By being related to (5) By being related to intersubjectively interpreted semiotic intersubjectively interpreted semiotic systems, the fictional universe of systems, the fictional universe of discourse is, at the same time, related discourse is, at the same time, related to common experiences, world views, to common experiences, world views, and kinds of social interactions; all of and kinds of social interactions; all of which can immediately or mediately be which can immediately or mediately be experienced in other ways.experienced in other ways.

HENCE, THERE IS IN FICTION A DRIFT HENCE, THERE IS IN FICTION A DRIFT TOWARDS THE NON-FICTIONALTOWARDS THE NON-FICTIONAL

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(5) By being related to (5) By being related to intersubjectively interpreted intersubjectively interpreted semiotic systems, the fictional semiotic systems, the fictional universe of discourse is, however universe of discourse is, however weird it may be, at the same time, weird it may be, at the same time, related to common experiences, related to common experiences, world views, and kinds of social world views, and kinds of social interactions; most of which can interactions; most of which can directly or indirectly be directly or indirectly be experienced outside fiction .experienced outside fiction .

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(6) Nevertheless, there is a (6) Nevertheless, there is a radical radical limitation of informationlimitation of information concerning concerning a fictional universe of discourse a fictional universe of discourse compared to the abundant wealth compared to the abundant wealth of information available concerning of information available concerning a historical and experiential a historical and experiential universe of discourse.universe of discourse.

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(7) The limitation in the amount of (7) The limitation in the amount of information concerning elements information concerning elements and relations within the fictional and relations within the fictional universe means that its realization universe means that its realization in the imagination through in the imagination through intersemiotic translation allows intersemiotic translation allows individual variations that are all individual variations that are all valid in so far as they do not valid in so far as they do not contradict what is indicated by the contradict what is indicated by the text's syntactic-semantic and text's syntactic-semantic and pragmatic features.pragmatic features.

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(8) Point 7 implies that very many (8) Point 7 implies that very many propositions about a fictional propositions about a fictional universe of discourse can be neither universe of discourse can be neither validated nor falsified. They may, validated nor falsified. They may, however, be made probable or however, be made probable or improbable in relation to a given improbable in relation to a given context.context.

(9) Since a fictional universe is only (9) Since a fictional universe is only accessible through imagination, it accessible through imagination, it allows the recipient no possibility of allows the recipient no possibility of interacting and interfering with interacting and interfering with states of affairs inside it; in states of affairs inside it; in literature that is, it is different in literature that is, it is different in computer games.computer games.

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(10) The limitation mentioned in (10) The limitation mentioned in point 9 is responsible for the point 9 is responsible for the strange relation between a strange relation between a fictional universe of discourse and fictional universe of discourse and its readers. On the one hand, a its readers. On the one hand, a fictional universe is autonomous fictional universe is autonomous and separated from the readers’ and separated from the readers’ world of experience, but on the world of experience, but on the other, its concrete realization is other, its concrete realization is dependent on the selfsame dependent on the selfsame experiential world as it is experiential world as it is represented in the reading subject.represented in the reading subject.

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Why literature?Why literature?Our species spontaneously Our species spontaneously produces mental processes that produces mental processes that are recognized as fictional, are recognized as fictional, namely dreams. By an awake namely dreams. By an awake grown-up dreamer, dreams are grown-up dreamer, dreams are recognized as figments of the recognized as figments of the mind, as small scenarios and mind, as small scenarios and narratives that, in direct or narratives that, in direct or indirect ways, are related to the indirect ways, are related to the experiences of the dreamer.experiences of the dreamer.HENCE, WE ARE INVOLUNTARILY HENCE, WE ARE INVOLUNTARILY FICTION PRODUCERS. FICTION PRODUCERS.

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Dreaming, then, is one source of Dreaming, then, is one source of literature that is innate. Whether literature that is innate. Whether dreams are, as Freud thought, wish dreams are, as Freud thought, wish fulfilments is hotly debated. Here fulfilments is hotly debated. Here the important point is that dreams the important point is that dreams are primarily visual are primarily visual representations of scenarios and representations of scenarios and events that are partly familiar, events that are partly familiar, partly strange and bizarre because partly strange and bizarre because the dreaming mind rearranges the the dreaming mind rearranges the universe as it is known to us when universe as it is known to us when we are awake.we are awake.

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INDEED, NOT ONLY WE, BUT ALL INDEED, NOT ONLY WE, BUT ALL MAMALS SEEM TO DREAMMAMALS SEEM TO DREAM

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Another source of literature is clearly Another source of literature is clearly cognitive and constructive, it is the cognitive and constructive, it is the human mind’s ability to human mind’s ability to generalize and generalize and predict, predict, i.e., to making hypotheses.i.e., to making hypotheses.

The step from predicting what is going The step from predicting what is going to happen next in our experiential to happen next in our experiential world to imagining a fictional world is world to imagining a fictional world is small and it is a step that everybody small and it is a step that everybody takes in early childhood, as soon as takes in early childhood, as soon as children are able to speak; they report children are able to speak; they report that they are imagining things to be that they are imagining things to be otherwise than they in fact are, and the otherwise than they in fact are, and the children know this. children know this.

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Playing: Symbolic play combines Playing: Symbolic play combines two procedures that are also two procedures that are also characteristic of both dreams and characteristic of both dreams and literature: literature: narrativizationnarrativization and and metaphorizationmetaphorization. Very often the . Very often the young child pretend to be young child pretend to be somebody else, or the environment somebody else, or the environment is treated as a metaphor in the is treated as a metaphor in the sense that furniture, for instance, sense that furniture, for instance, is interpreted as representing is interpreted as representing something different, chairs may something different, chairs may represent boats, the carpet may represent boats, the carpet may represent the ocean, etc. represent the ocean, etc.

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In addition to symbolic play, there In addition to symbolic play, there will be playing governed will be playing governed by rulesby rules and playing that consists in and playing that consists in construction modelsconstruction models of existing or of existing or of imaginary objects. Obviously of imaginary objects. Obviously literature uses procedures quite literature uses procedures quite similar to these three kinds of similar to these three kinds of playing:playing:

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11. . It creates symbolic structures on It creates symbolic structures on top of the literal fictional world.top of the literal fictional world.

2. It abides by rules that are either 2. It abides by rules that are either imposed by tradition or self-imposed by tradition or self-imposed imposed

3. A literary universe is a prime 3. A literary universe is a prime example of world making, a example of world making, a complicated construction game.complicated construction game.

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Daydreaming is the creation, in Daydreaming is the creation, in idle motion, of scenarios and idle motion, of scenarios and narratives that are related to the narratives that are related to the wishes and fears of the wishes and fears of the daydreamer, and such dreams are daydreamer, and such dreams are clearly fictional. Daydreaming is clearly fictional. Daydreaming is certainly very far from writing certainly very far from writing literature (for one because literature (for one because daydreams are mostly visual, daydreams are mostly visual, while literature rests on the while literature rests on the struggle with language), but struggle with language), but nevertheless, they share the nevertheless, they share the active use of the imaginationactive use of the imagination

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From the point of view of the producer, From the point of view of the producer, making experiments upon imagined states making experiments upon imagined states of affairs may be beneficial in several of affairs may be beneficial in several respects: respects:

First, in fabricating fictional universes the First, in fabricating fictional universes the author gives himself the possibility of living author gives himself the possibility of living parallel lives, i.e., he overcomes, in a parallel lives, i.e., he overcomes, in a certain sense at least, the limitations to certain sense at least, the limitations to experiencing and acting that his bodily experiencing and acting that his bodily existence imposes upon him. In doing so, existence imposes upon him. In doing so, the author may not only fashion a set of the author may not only fashion a set of fictional identities for himself, he may also fictional identities for himself, he may also receive emotional and intellectual receive emotional and intellectual satisfaction in the company of his satisfaction in the company of his characters.characters.

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Second, there is the pleasure Second, there is the pleasure linked with being in control, linked with being in control, because with regard to the because with regard to the creatures of our own minds, we are creatures of our own minds, we are both omniscient and omnipotent. both omniscient and omnipotent. We literally decide about the fate, We literally decide about the fate, indeed about the life and death, of indeed about the life and death, of our fictional beings. Hence, there our fictional beings. Hence, there is certainly a narcissistic is certainly a narcissistic gratification and fulfilment bound gratification and fulfilment bound up with being an author. up with being an author.

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Third, Third, in creating a fictional in creating a fictional universe, its producer very often universe, its producer very often makes concrete and exemplify a makes concrete and exemplify a state of affairs or a course of state of affairs or a course of events that are supposed to be events that are supposed to be typical of us as species and/or as typical of us as species and/or as historical beings. historical beings.

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The modelling-function of literary The modelling-function of literary fiction highlights literature’s fiction highlights literature’s mimetic, representative and mimetic, representative and cognitive aspects. It explains, at cognitive aspects. It explains, at least partly, why one would turn to least partly, why one would turn to literature for instruction about literature for instruction about relationships in the experiential relationships in the experiential world because it exemplifies typical world because it exemplifies typical scenarios and scripts. However, the scenarios and scripts. However, the main attraction is that what is main attraction is that what is considered typical is embodied in the considered typical is embodied in the actions of characters that have a actions of characters that have a local habitation and a name -and a local habitation and a name -and a fate too.fate too.

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JAAK PANKSEPP CLAIMS THAT ALL JAAK PANKSEPP CLAIMS THAT ALL MAMALS PLAYMAMALS PLAY

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In order to understand and relate to In order to understand and relate to the fictional universe pointed out by the fictional universe pointed out by the text, the reader must use his the text, the reader must use his mental resources to access it. This mental resources to access it. This means he must also invest his general means he must also invest his general knowledge of the ways of the universe knowledge of the ways of the universe he inhabits including his likes and he inhabits including his likes and dislikes, his fears and desires, and his dislikes, his fears and desires, and his values and norms. However, in doing values and norms. However, in doing so he personally fleshes out the text’s so he personally fleshes out the text’s instructions about how to imagine its instructions about how to imagine its universe and relate to its characters universe and relate to its characters and/or to its narrators and implied and/or to its narrators and implied author.author.

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And, like the author, the reader may, in And, like the author, the reader may, in relation to the texts, both create relation to the texts, both create parallel lives by identifying with one or parallel lives by identifying with one or more of the characters or with more of the characters or with narrators, and hence, like the author, narrators, and hence, like the author, he may also receive emotional and he may also receive emotional and intellectual satisfaction in the company intellectual satisfaction in the company of the characters, and the bond of the characters, and the bond between reader and text may be very between reader and text may be very strong and emotional.strong and emotional.

E.G. BOTH DICKENS AND HIS READERS E.G. BOTH DICKENS AND HIS READERS (THE FATE OF LITTLE NELL)(THE FATE OF LITTLE NELL)

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But why But why fiction?fiction?However, while it seems very sensible However, while it seems very sensible to share what has in fact happened, to share what has in fact happened, why, one might ask, are we eager to why, one might ask, are we eager to share what hasn’t happened, something share what hasn’t happened, something that is nothing but a figment of that is nothing but a figment of somebody’s imagination?somebody’s imagination?

First, we are programmed, BY First, we are programmed, BY EVOLUTION, to produce fictional EVOLUTION, to produce fictional universes in dreaming, in playing, in universes in dreaming, in playing, in hypothesizing about the future, and in hypothesizing about the future, and in daydreaming. And some of these daydreaming. And some of these activities are already public activities.activities are already public activities.

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Second, tSecond, the production of fictional he production of fictional universes allows us not only to universes allows us not only to project future changes onto project future changes onto present states of affairs, but also present states of affairs, but also to change the initial conditions, to change the initial conditions, among other things the nature among other things the nature and the ontological status of the and the ontological status of the agents. Both author and reader agents. Both author and reader are related to fictional beings in a are related to fictional beings in a double and contradictory way:double and contradictory way:

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On the one hand, the emotional On the one hand, the emotional systems of both author and reader systems of both author and reader may become alerted by and linked may become alerted by and linked with the fictional characters and with the fictional characters and their fates. And the feeling of their fates. And the feeling of thrill, and despair or joy is valid. thrill, and despair or joy is valid.

On the other hand, however, On the other hand, however, letting disasters happen to letting disasters happen to fictional beings, or just to be an fictional beings, or just to be an onlooker, is still somehow like onlooker, is still somehow like shooting carbon ducks in a gallery. shooting carbon ducks in a gallery.

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Hence, literature enabled us to live Hence, literature enabled us to live parallel lives by identifying with other parallel lives by identifying with other characters and narrators.characters and narrators.

The existence of virtual worlds in The existence of virtual worlds in addition to to our experiential one, addition to to our experiential one, makes also this historical world virtual makes also this historical world virtual in the sense that it points to the fact in the sense that it points to the fact that the actual might have been that the actual might have been otherwise, otherwise,

In this way we are also to make In this way we are also to make experiments with and evaluate our experiments with and evaluate our actual lifeactual life

from the point of view of that which is from the point of view of that which is notnot

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E.G. BOTH DICKENS AND HIS E.G. BOTH DICKENS AND HIS READERS (THE FATE OF LITTLE READERS (THE FATE OF LITTLE NELL)NELL)

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However, because existing within However, because existing within a virtual universe, fiction has a a virtual universe, fiction has a double mode of existence:double mode of existence:

1. mental states and/or fictional 1. mental states and/or fictional courses of events exist within a courses of events exist within a possible universe, and here they possible universe, and here they exist not as hypothetical states, exist not as hypothetical states, but as something that has or is but as something that has or is taking place.taking place.

2. at the same time they may 2. at the same time they may serve as models for changing the serve as models for changing the experiential universeexperiential universe

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FICTION, THEN, HAS FICTION, THEN, HAS SIMULTANEOUSLY REAL VIRTUAL SIMULTANEOUSLY REAL VIRTUAL EXISTENCE AND VIRTUALLY REAL EXISTENCE AND VIRTUALLY REAL EXISTENCE: IT IS MENTAL REALITY EXISTENCE: IT IS MENTAL REALITY AND IT MAY BECOME SOCIAL AND IT MAY BECOME SOCIAL REALITYREALITY

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A Case: StorytellingA Case: StorytellingSugiyama:Sugiyama:

Processing stories gives a Processing stories gives a reproductive advantage over those reproductive advantage over those who are not able to do so, becausewho are not able to do so, because

storytelling lessens the need for first storytelling lessens the need for first hand information acquisition, which hand information acquisition, which may be time consuming and may be time consuming and dangerousdangerous

In contradistinction to narrate and to In contradistinction to narrate and to listen have the following advantages:listen have the following advantages:

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1. demand little energy1. demand little energy

2. reduction of the consummation 2. reduction of the consummation of time and condensing informationof time and condensing information

3. involve normally no risks3. involve normally no risks

4. making it possible to learn and 4. making it possible to learn and profit from the experiences of profit from the experiences of othersothers

5. make it possible to tailoring 5. make it possible to tailoring information to a specific audienceinformation to a specific audience

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But still why fiction?But still why fiction?

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Fictional narrative makes Fictional narrative makes possible:possible:

1. to tailor information to the needs of 1. to tailor information to the needs of senders and receivers even better than senders and receivers even better than factual storiesfactual stories2. to unite the particular with the general, 2. to unite the particular with the general, thus informing about the human condition by thus informing about the human condition by relating an individual caserelating an individual case3. to enhance the morality of the texts3. to enhance the morality of the texts4. to create narratives that make the 4. to create narratives that make the universe meaningfuluniverse meaningful5. to invent stories that are related to the 5. to invent stories that are related to the practices within the lifeworld of the group, practices within the lifeworld of the group, but magnified and made exiting (e.g. but magnified and made exiting (e.g. folktales)folktales)5 . to fashion universes that satisfy the 5 . to fashion universes that satisfy the needs and desires of the audience (even needs and desires of the audience (even against all probability) against all probability) POETIC JUSTICEPOETIC JUSTICE

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Literature and the arts arouse and gratify our Literature and the arts arouse and gratify our emotional as well as cognitive capabilities by emotional as well as cognitive capabilities by transmodal features and structures:transmodal features and structures:

1. repetition1. repetition

2. pattern (recognition)2. pattern (recognition)

3. coherence and cohesion3. coherence and cohesion

4. clarity4. clarity

5. proportion5. proportion

6. balance6. balance

7. contrast7. contrast

8. Elaboration and variation of themes8. Elaboration and variation of themes

9. ingenuity, elaborateness, dexterity, skill9. ingenuity, elaborateness, dexterity, skill

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The features mentioned here are The features mentioned here are precisely those studied by the precisely those studied by the semiotics of art and literaturesemiotics of art and literature

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The adaptionist utility of the arts and The adaptionist utility of the arts and literatureliterature

1.create a virtual/fictional space that 1.create a virtual/fictional space that allows man to experience what allows man to experience what would otherwise impossible, would otherwise impossible, despicable, or dangerousdespicable, or dangerous2. allow experimentation and model 2. allow experimentation and model creation, mentally and/or externallycreation, mentally and/or externally3. Literature creates a common 3. Literature creates a common ground that can be shared among ground that can be shared among the members of a group/society, and the members of a group/society, and hence it may facility social hence it may facility social integration and communal actionintegration and communal action

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4. It allows representation of 4. It allows representation of virtual, including counterfactual virtual, including counterfactual scenarios, that may question scenarios, that may question existing states of affairs and social existing states of affairs and social relationships and valuesrelationships and values

5. hence, an art work may either 5. hence, an art work may either help to strengthen norms, or it may help to strengthen norms, or it may suggest alternative onessuggest alternative ones

6. and it may attempt to provide 6. and it may attempt to provide answers to questions that are answers to questions that are existentially relevant to society and existentially relevant to society and its membersits members

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All above-mentioned adaptionist All above-mentioned adaptionist useful features of the arts and useful features of the arts and literature are dependent on literature are dependent on communication and the kind of signs communication and the kind of signs used for this purpose, i.e. they are used for this purpose, i.e. they are absolutely at the center of semiotic absolutely at the center of semiotic inquiryinquiry

In other words semiotics might In other words semiotics might become a prime provider of analyses become a prime provider of analyses that are much needed, indeed, by that are much needed, indeed, by the adaptionist approach to the adaptionist approach to aesthetics and the study of literatureaesthetics and the study of literature