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The Necklace of Clear Understanding: An Elucidation of the System of Mind and Mental

Functions

by

Tshe-mchog-gling yongs-'dzin, Dka’-chen Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan

Translated by James Apple, Constance Kassor, and John Dunne

Edited by John Dunne and Constance Kassor

DRAFT AS OF 9/1/08

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Table of Contents ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................................................................iv Editor’s Remarks.............................................................................................................................................v

1 The Individual Nature and Division of Mind and Mental Functions ................................ 3 1.1 The Mind............................................................................................................................ 3 1.2 Mental Functions ............................................................................................................... 9

1.2.1 The Five Omnipresent Mental Functions (kun 'gro lnga, pañcasarvatraga) ............. 9 1.2.1.1 Feeling (tshor ba, vedanā) ...............................................................................................................9 1.2.1.2 Recognition ('du shes, saṃjñā) ......................................................................................................12 1.2.1.3 Intention (sems pa, cetanā) ............................................................................................................14 1.2.1.4 Contact (reg pa, sparśa) .................................................................................................................16 1.2.1.5 Attention (yid la byed pa, manaskāra) ...........................................................................................16

1.2.2 The Five Mental Functions for a Determined Object (yul nges pa, pratiniyataviṣaya) 17

1.2.2.1 Aspiration ('dun pa, chanda)..........................................................................................................17 1.2.2.2 Orientation (mos pa, adhimokṣa)...................................................................................................19 1.2.2.3 Mindfulness (dran pa, sṃrti) .........................................................................................................19 1.2.2.4 Concentration (ting nge 'dzin, samādhi) ........................................................................................21 1.2.2.5 Wisdom (shes rab, prajñā) .............................................................................................................23

1.2.3 The Eleven Virtuous Mental Functions (dge ba, kuśala) ......................................... 23 1.2.3.1 Faith (dad pa, śraddhā) ..................................................................................................................24 1.2.3.2 Shame (ngo tsha, hrī).....................................................................................................................26 1.2.3.3 Embarrassment (khrel yod pa, apatrāpya) .....................................................................................27 1.2.3.4 Non-attachment (ma chags pa, alobha) .........................................................................................27 1.2.3.5 Non-hatred (zhe sdang med pa, adveṣa) ........................................................................................27 1.2.3.6 Non-ignorance (gti mug med pa, amoha) ......................................................................................28 1.2.3.7 Diligence (brtson 'grus, vīrya) .......................................................................................................31 1.2.3.8 Pliancy (shin tu sbyangs pa, praśrabdhi) .......................................................................................35 1.2.3.9 Conscientiousness (bag yod, apramāda)........................................................................................35 1.2.3.10 Equanimity (btang snyoms, upekṣa)............................................................................................36 1.2.3.11 Non-harm (rnam par mi 'tshe ba, avihiṃsā) ................................................................................37 1.2.3.12 [Closing Remarks on Virtuous Mental Functions] ......................................................................38

1.2.4 The Six Fundamental Afflictions (rtsa nyon drug, ṣaḍmūlakleśa)........................... 42 1.2.4.1 Attachment (‘dod chags, rāga).......................................................................................................42 1.2.4.2 Anger (khong khro, pratigha) ........................................................................................................43 1.2.4.3 Pride (nga rgyal, māna) .................................................................................................................44 1.2.4.4 Ignorance (ma rig pa, avidyā)........................................................................................................46 1.2.4.5 Doubt (the tshom, vicikitsā) ..........................................................................................................48 1.2.4.6 Afflicted views (lta ba, dṛṣṭi) .........................................................................................................48

1.2.4.6.1 View that the transitory aggregates [constitute a Self] ..........................................................48 1.2.4.6.2 Extreme views........................................................................................................................50 1.2.4.6.3 Conception that false views are supreme...............................................................................51 1.2.4.6.4 The conception that ethics and ascetic vows are supreme .....................................................51 1.2.4.6.5 Wrong views..........................................................................................................................52

1.2.5 The Twenty Secondary Afflictions (nye nyon, upakleśa)......................................... 54 1.2.5.1 Wrath (khro ba, krodha) ................................................................................................................55 1.2.5.2 Enmity (khon du ’dzin pa, upanāha) .............................................................................................56 1.2.5.3 Hypocrisy (‘chab pa, mrakṣa)........................................................................................................56 1.2.5.4 Malice (‘tshig pa, pradāsa) ............................................................................................................57 1.2.5.5 Jealousy (phrag dog, īrṣyā)............................................................................................................57 1.2.5.6 Stinginess (ser sna, mātsarya)........................................................................................................58 1.2.5.7 Trickery (sgyu, māyā)....................................................................................................................58

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1.2.5.8 Deceit (g.yo, śāṭhya)......................................................................................................................59 1.2.5.9 Arrogance (rgyags pa, mada).........................................................................................................60 1.2.5.10 Hostility (rnam par ‘tshe ba, vihiṃsā) .........................................................................................60 1.2.5.11 Shamelessness (ngo tsha med pa, āhrīkya)..................................................................................61 1.2.5.12 Non-embarrassment (khrel med pa, anapatrāpya) .......................................................................61 1.2.5.13 Sluggishness (rmugs pa, styāna)..................................................................................................62 1.2.5.14 Agitation (rgod pa, auddhatya)....................................................................................................63 1.2.5.15 Nonbelief (ma dad pa, āśraddhya) ...............................................................................................63 1.2.5.16 Laziness (le lo, kausīdya) ............................................................................................................64 1.2.5.17 Carelessness (bag med pa, pramāda) ...........................................................................................64 1.2.5.18 Forgetfulness (brjed nges pa, muṣitasmṛtitā)...............................................................................65 1.2.5.19 Non-wisdom (shes bzhin ma yin pa, asaṃprajanya) ...................................................................65 1.2.5.20 Distraction (rnam par g.yeng ba, vikṣepa)...................................................................................65

1.2.6 Four Variable Mental Functions (gzhan ‘gyur bzhi, caturanyathābhava) ............... 67 1.2.6.1 Drowsiness (gnyid, middha)..........................................................................................................67 1.2.6.2 Regret (‘gyod pa, kaukṛtya)...........................................................................................................68 1.2.6.3 Reflection (rtog pa, vitarka)...........................................................................................................69 1.2.6.4 Analysis (dpyod pa, vicāra) ...........................................................................................................69

2 A Summary of the Important Points and their Application to Practice.......................... 73 Bibliography..................................................................................................................................................78 List of Principle Indian Sources ....................................................................................................................78 List of Principle Indigenous Tibetan Sources ...............................................................................................84 Secondary Sources ........................................................................................................................................87 Endnotes........................................................................................................................................................92

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ABBREVIATIONS

ACIP Asian Classics Input Project AK Abhidharmakośakārikā AKBh Abhidharmakośabhāṣya AS Abhidharmasamuccaya (Pradhan's edition) BCA Bodhicaryāvatāra BHSD Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary, Edgerton, F BSOAS Bulletin of the School of African & Oriental Studies (London) DN Dīgha Nikāya JIABS Journal of the International Association for Buddhist Studies JIP Journal of Indian Philosophy LRC Lam rim chen mo of Tsong-kha-pa LVP La Vallée Poussin French translation of AK MA Madhyamakāvatārakārikā MCB Melanges Chinoise et Bouddhiques MSA Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra MVB Madhyāntavibhāga Pk Peking edition of the Tibetan Tripiṭika PSP Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa PV Pramāṇavārttika RGS Ratnaguṇsaṃcayagathā ŚBh Śrāvakabhūmi SBS Subhāṣitasaṃgraha Śgs Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra

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Editor’s Remarks

The text translated here, The Necklace of Clear Understanding: An Elucidation of the System of Mind and Mental Functions (Sems dang sems byung gi tshul gsal bar ston pa blo gsal mgul rgyan), is one of the best known works of the prolific author and teacher, Tshe-mchog-gling yongs-’dzin Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan (1713-1793).1 As its title suggests, the text offers a clear and straightforward explanation of the complex system of mind (sems, Skt. citta) and mental functions (sems byung, Skt. caitta) found in the Abhidharma literature. The text is particularly helpful to the practitioner, not only for its clarity, but also for its strong emphasis on the relationship between practice and the study of mind and mental functions.

Members of the FPMT have long noted several problems of expression and accuracy in an earlier work,2 and at the request of the FPMT International Office, John Dunne and James Apple of the University of Wisconsin-Madison have agreed to re-translate it in its entirety. To arrive at the best possible translation, James Apple prepared an initial draft that is under review by John Dunne. John Dunne has completed his review and re-translation of the first half of the text, which stops at the end of the section on the eleven virtuous mental functions (1.2.3, p.42). Readers may feel confident that this portion of the translation is a considerable improvement over the earlier work. While the second half of the present translation has not yet been corrected, readers may still find it useful. The final version will be available by January, 2002.

The translators would like to thank Merry Colony of the FPMT International Office for her support in facilitating the grant that supported this work. We would also like to thank Yangsi Rinpoche of the Deer Park Buddhist Center, Oregon, Wisconsin. His comments and clarifications have proven most helpful, especially for John Dunne’s corrections. Ms. Erin Ehmen has also provided helpful editorial suggestions.

To aid in the preparation of the translation’s final version, members of the FPMT are requested to send comments, corrections, and suggestions to John Dunne via email (jddunne@facstaff.wisc.edu). We look forward to hearing from you.

[2] At all times I pay homage and take refuge at the feet of the reverend, holy Lama who is inseparable from the supreme protector Mañjughoṣa. I pray that he may look after me at all times with great compassion.

Through his compassion he has completed the two accumulations; through his great love he has cleared away the darkness that obscures and knows all dharmas; that which he has clearly seen he makes clear to beings; to that unexcelled refuge, the Lord of Sages, I bow.

Since he bestows only love to all beings, in all three times he is always renowned as “Maitreyanātha” to him, the Conqueror’s regent, Ajitanātha (mi pham mgon), [3] I make obeisance with a deeply respectful mind.

Those who, having been prophecized by the Sugata himself, clarified the excellent systems of extensive deeds and profound view, are renowned as “Great Charioteers.” To those Six Ornaments and Two Supreme Ones of Jampudvīpa, I pay homage.

In this country surrounded by snow-capped mountains, he made the thousand petalled forest of Sūtras, Mantras, and commentaries bloom anew. He is as worthy of praise as the sun that is the Conqueror; to him, Lama Manjugoṣa, I bow.

By merely seeing the light rays of his activities, the mind's eye for seeing the excellent path is brightened; [4] may the light that is the reverend teacher, shining like the sun, always abide in the lotus anthers of my heart.

Although others may not benefit from a discourse by one such as myself, I am briefly writing in accordance with the Abhidharma texts, in order to increase familiarity of my own mind with a lucid exposition, and because I have been encouraged by others.

In this regard, intelligent individuals are not satisfied by merely acquiring food and clothing

until they have died in this world; rather, they reflect upon the meaning of future lives, thinking,

“How will it be in the next world?” These intelligent ones should consider, “[Beings] cycle

helplessly through the three realms of saṃsāra since beginningless time and continually

experience uninterrupted suffering—what is the root of this?” When one thinks in this way, it is

necessary to understand that these sufferings of cyclic existence do not occur causelessly or from

a cause that is not concordant with them; rather, they arise from their own causes: karma and

afflictions. The protector Nāgārjuna states:3

As long as one grasps onto the aggregates, for that long there is self-grasping. [5] If there is self-grasping there is also karma, and due to that there is rebirth.”

And he says:4

The root of saṃsāra is mental conditioning. Therefore, the wise do not create conditioning.5 In this way, the unwise are agents; the wise are not because of seeing reality.

And Ācārya Āryadeva states:6

Consciousness (rnam shes) is the seed of cyclic existence and objects are its domain.

Ācārya Candrakīrti also says:7

The mind itself establishes the manifold world of beings and world of inanimate things. It is said that all the entire world is born from karma.

And Ācārya Vasubandhu says:8

The variegated world is produced from karma.

And:9

The root of cyclic existence is the six latent defilements.

Many such statements have been made [by these and other teachers].

Likewise, the Bodhicaryāvatāra says:10

The Teacher of Reality himself has taught, "In this way, all fears and innumerable sufferings arise from the mind."

And:11

Those who do not know this secret of the mind, the supreme essential point of the dharma, [6] wander aimlessly in vain, although they wish to attain happiness and destroy suffering. Therefore, I should manage and guard my mind well.

And:12

From evil actions come suffering, anxiety, various fears and separation from what one desires.

By performing delightful13 virtue, wherever one goes one will be honored, due to that merit, with a gift (yon) of fruit.14

Although evildoers may desire happiness, wherever they go, due to their evil

deeds, the weapons of suffering smite them.

Abiding in the hearts of lotuses, expansive, sweet-smelling, and cool, with splendor produced by the sustenance of the Conqueror's melodious voice, their beautiful forms emerging from lotuses blossoming in the Sage’s rays of light, before the Conqueror [the virtuous] become Children of the Sugata due to their virtuous deeds.

Screaming in agony as his entire skin is ripped away by the servants of Yama, his body bathed in copper molten by an intensely hot fire, pierced by blazing swords and spears, his flesh dropping off in a hundred pieces, he collapses to the blazing iron ground in consequence of his many unvirtuous deeds.

It has been stated, not just once, but again and again in the sūtras and tantras along with

their commentaries that all of saṃsāra, the inanimate world and the animate beings, arises by

virtue of its own causes, karma and afflictions. [7] Likewise, it has been said that, in regard to

the three vehicles, all the excellent qualities of their paths and spiritual levels and the resultant

buddhahood’s field and life, along with its enlightened activity, occur only from their own cause,

a wholesome virtuous mind. Therefore, the root of the whole of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa is

established to be the mind itself.

Hence, since it is crucial to understand the manner of the mind and mental functions, here I

have written a brief presentation of mind and mental functions in two parts: (1) the individual

natures and classifications of mind and mental functions; and (2) a summary of the important

points and their application to practice.

1 The Individual Nature and Division of Mind and Mental Functions

First, (1.1) mind will be explained and then (1.2) mental functions will be explained.

1.1 The Mind

Concerning the distinction between mind and mental functions, the Madhyāntavibhāga

states:15

That which sees an object is consciousness. That which sees the distinctive qualities of that object is a mental function.

The Abhidharmakośa accordingly says:16

Consciousness is a distinct, informing awareness.17

Awareness of the mere nature (ngo bo) of an object is mind. Taking [that main mind’s]

perception of that object as its basis, that which engages with the object through [the cognition’s]

qualities, such as its function, [construed as] other-exclusions (gzhan gyi ldog pa),18 is called a

mental function. Omniscient Rgyal-tshab [dharma rin-chen] says:19

A primary [awareness], such as sensory consciousness apprehending form is called [in the Kośa] “a distinct, informing awareness” of the object. [8] As [the Kośa] stated, [the fact of being a primary mind apprehending form] does not depend upon producing a determinative cognition;20 rather, it is distinguished [as a primary mind] merely by virtue of perceiving form. As for the [cognition’s] accompanying mental functions, taking that perception of form as the basis [from which the qualities are abstracted], one should know them in terms of, for example, a function, such as directing the mind toward the object, and in terms of [other] various distinctions such as the [cognition’s quality of] not forgetting an object previously apprehended. Therefore, the primary mind is an awareness distinguished by merely being a perception of the object itself; it does not need to be posited in terms of other distinctions. A mental function is an awareness that, taking the perception of the object itself as its basis, engages with the object through qualities, such as the outcome of its function, that are other-exclusions.

One may wonder whether the mind and mental functions are essentially identical or

different. The Abhidharmakośa states:

Mind and mental functions are necessarily together.21

Accordingly, the primary mind and its attributes, the mental functions, arise together at the

same time; not being essentially distinct (ngo bo tha dad), they are essentially identical (ngo bo

gcig pa). Moreover, both the primary mind and accompanying mental functions are essentially

identical, and five aspects of their association are said to be equivalent. Hence, it is incorrect to

assert that mind and mental functions are not simultaneous, that they are essentially distinct, or

that their perceptual objects (dmigs yul) are defined (’jog pa) separately. Moreover, to explain

this more clearly, when one produces a memory of an object that is form, the mind as a primary

factor and its accompanying [function], memory, correspond in perceiving the object, form;

nevertheless, they are defined (’jog pa) separately. To define them separately, [9] the awareness

of the mere nature of the object is called “mind,” while [the awareness] is called “memory” in

terms of the aspect that is the function of not forgetting. It is not the case that their natures are

distinct, as in a pillar and a vase. The above explanation is made according to how it is taught in

[Rgyal-tshab's] Mngon pa kun las btus pa'i rnam bshad chos mngon rgya mtso'i snying po

(Essence of the Abhidharma Ocean: A Commentary on the Abhidharmasamuccaya).

In the Tshad ma rigs rgyan [Ornament of Reasoning on Valid Cognition], [rGyal-ba dGe-

’dun rGya-mtso says] that primary mind is defined as that which is equivalently associated, in

terms of five equivalent associations, with its attendant mental functions. He also says that a

mental function is defined as that which is equivalently associated, in terms of five equivalent

associations, with its primary mind.

Concerning the interpretation of these five equivalent associations, there are two

explanations: one in the Abhidharmakośa and one in the Abhidharmasamuccaya. Of these two,

the explanation in the Abhidharmakośa (2.34d) is as follows: their basis is equivalent; their

perceptual object (dmigs pa; Skt. ālambana) is equivalent; their aspect is equivalent; their time is

equivalent; and their substance is equivalent. The meaning of each is as follows. Mental

functions also depend upon the faculty that the mind depends upon; therefore, their basis is

equivalent. The object perceived by the mind is also the one perceived by the mental functions;

therefore, their perceptual object is equivalent. When mind arises such that it possesses an image

(rnam pa; Skt. ākāra) such as blue, the mental functions also arise such that they possess an

image such as blue; therefore, their image is equivalent. Mind and mental functions arise, abide,

and cease simultaneously; therefore, their time is equivalent. [Primary] minds [10] of the same

type are distinct; likewise, [each] mental functions of the same type, such as sensation, are

distinct. Therefore, their substances are equivalent.

The explanation in the Abhidharmasamuccaya regarding the five equivalencies is as

follows: their substance is equivalent; their perceptual aspect is equivalent; their nature is

equivalent; their time is equivalent; and their realm and level are equivalent.

Equivalent substance means that, as an attribute of one primary mind, only one

corresponding mental function of the same type, such as feeling, can occur; two substantially

different mental functions of the same type cannot occur.

Equivalent perceptual object and image (dmigs rnam; Skt. ālambanākāra) and concomitant

nature mean the following: equivalent in that they perceive a single perceptual object, [mind and

mental functions] are equivalent in being afflicted or unafflicted in terms of their perceptual

object and image. If a primary mind is afflicted, the mental functions which are the attributes of

that [primary mind] are also afflicted; likewise, if a primary mind is uncontaminated, the mental

functions which are the attributes of that [primary mind] are also uncontaminated.

Equivalent time means that the primary mind and the mental functions that are the attributes

of that [primary mind] arise, abide, and perish simultaneously.

Equivalent realms and levels means: if a primary mind is a mind of the desire realm

(kāmadhātu), the mental functions of the form (rūpa) and formless (ārūpya) realms cannot be

attributes of that [primary mind]; likewise, for a mind of the form realm, a desire realm mental

function cannot be its attribute. A mental function that is an attribute of a primary mind [11]

must belong to the realm to which that primary mind belongs.

As for the mind, the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa states:22

What is consciousness? It is that which discriminates an object.

And the Abhidharmakośa states:23

Consciousness is a distinct, informing awareness.

The Omniscient Rgyal tshab [dharma rin chen] also says that the definition of mind is: an

awareness that is distinguished by [its] awareness of the mere nature of an object. The

interpretation of the Tshad ma rigs rgyan is as described above.

Concerning the categorization of consciousness, there are the six divisions of consciousness.

The Abhidharmasamuccaya says:24

What is consciousness? There are six groups of consciousness: the visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and mental consciousnesses. What is visual consciousness? It is a distinct, informing awareness perceiving a form in dependence on the eye. What is auditory consciousness? It is a distinct, informing awareness perceiving sound in dependence on the ear. What is olfactory consciousness? It is a distinct, informing awareness perceiving smell in dependence on the nose. What is gustatory consciousness? It is a distinct, informing awareness perceiving taste in dependence on the tongue. What is tactile consciousness? It is a distinct, informing awareness perceiving touch in dependence on the body. What is mental consciousness? It is a distinct, informing awareness perceiving a thing (dharma) in dependence on the mind.

[12] There appear to be many differences that should be distinguished among the higher

and lower philosophical systems regarding the way to posit the three conditions for the six

engaging consciousnesses ('jug shes); nevertheless, I will not elaborate here.

Even though the “storehouse consciousness” (ālayavijñāna) and “afflicted mind”

(kliṣṭamanovijñāna) are discussed in the texts of Asaṅga and his brother [Vasubandhu], here I

wish to present merely the common recognition of mind and mental functions as an essential

element for understanding the way karma and afflictions bind one to saṃsāra in the context of

reflecting on the faults of saṃsāra [pertaining to] the truth of arising. This is in the section

concerning the person of an intermediate [spiritual purview] who is cultivating the meditations

(dmigs rnam skyong ba) on the stages of the path to awakening. Nevertheless, the question of

whether the storehouse consciousness exists or not is an especially great and unique difficult

point among the upper and lower philosophical systems. Furthermore, Asaṅga and his brother

[Vasubandhu], when distinguishing interpretable and definitive scriptures, follow the

Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra; they posit the storehouse consciousness and thus state that all things are

the nature of mere mind. The protector Nāgārjuna and his son [Āryadeva], when distinguishing

interpretable and definitive scriptures, follow the Samādhirājasūtra and the

Akṣayamatinirdeśasūtra; they do not accept the storehouse consciousness and, classifying the

sūtras which do teach the storehouse consciousness as having an interpretable intention, they

conclude that all things are merely imputed by conceptual thought. Accordingly, in the noble

land of India, [13] the Mahāyāna contains two well-known systems of the Great Charioteers.

However, there is no difference between them in regard to generating the altruistic mind of

enlightenment, practicing the six perfections, and so on; the distinction between them occurs in

terms of philosophical view. Although there are differences [in the views of their respective

systems], from their own perspective, the views of these Great Charioteers, Nāgārjuna and

Asaṅga, are not superior or inferior [to each other]. Rather, the Conqueror himself predicted in

many sūtras that, in accord with the understandings of the disciples to be trained, two ways of

elucidating the Conqueror's intention would appear.

Thus, the unique essential points [of Asaṅga and Vasubandhu’s system are] the way to posit

the storehouse consciousness as it is found in the texts of Asaṅga and his brother [Vasubandhu],

and the proof through that essential point that all things are of the nature of mere mind, and so

on. If one wishes to know these essential points in detail, one should understand them by looking

carefully at the texts of Asaṅga and his brother [Vasubandhu] as well as the elegant writings of

the venerable omniscient [Tsong-kha-pa]. If you wish to understand the uncommon essential

points of the protector Nāgārjuna's thought then you should do so by carefully looking over the

eloquent elucidations so difficult to find in these three worlds, namely, the works of the

venerable omniscient [Tsong-kha-pa], such as both the great commentaries on the Prajñāmūla

and Madhyamakāvatāra and the greater and lesser special insight [sections found in his

corresponding Lam rim texts].

1.2 Mental Functions

In regard to the explanation of mental functions, the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa describes the

nature of mental functions:25

What are the [14] qualities that arise from the mind? Whatever qualities are equivalently associated with thought.

When these mental functions are classified there are fifty-one: five omnipresent states such

as feeling and so on; five states, such as interest and so on, for a determined object; eleven

virtuous states such as faith and so on; six fundamental afflictions such as attachment and so on;

twenty secondary afflictions such as anger and so on; four variable states such as regret and so

on. In this way the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa states:26

Five are omnipresent (sarvatraga); five have a determined object (pratiniyataviṣaya); eleven are virtuous (kuśala); six are afflictions (kleśa); the others are secondary afflictions (upakleśa); four are variable (anyathābhava).

1.2.1 The Five Omnipresent Mental Functions (kun 'gro lnga, pañcasarvatraga)

The five omnipresent27 mental functions are: feeling (vedanā), recognition (saṃjñā),

intention (cetanā), contact (sparśa), and orientation (manaskāra).

1.2.1.1 Feeling (tshor ba, vedanā)

The nature of feeling is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya:28

What is the defining characteristic of feeling? It has the characteristic of experience; it is that experience in the form of which the maturation of the results of virtuous or non-virtuous karma is experienced.

Here, what is experienced in feeling is called "matured [result]"; this is stated for the

purpose of understanding that all feelings of happiness or suffering arise within us only as the

matured result of karma. Furthermore, the Lam rim chen mo states:29

The infallibility of our actions means that, whether we are ordinary individuals or [15] Noble beings, any pleasure occurring as pleasant feelings—even just the pleasant sensation from a cool breeze experienced by those born in hell—arises from previously accumulated virtuous karma. It is not possible for happiness to arise from non-virtue. Also, any suffering occurring as unpleasant feelings—even just an unpleasant feeling that has arisen in the mental continuum of an Arhat—occur from the accumulation of non-virtuous karma. It is not possible for suffering to occur from virtuous karma. The Ratnāvalī states:30

From nonvirtue comes all suffering, likewise all negative rebirths. From virtue come all positive rebirths, and the happiness within all births.

Therefore, happiness and suffering do not occur without a cause nor do they occur from inappropriate causes such as Primal Essence,31 Īśvara, and so forth. Rather, in general, happiness and suffering come from virtuous and non-virtuous karma, and the various particular forms of happiness and suffering arise distinctly, without even the slightest conflation, from various particular instances of these two types of karma. Attaining certain knowledge of this regularity (nges pa), or non-deceptiveness, of karma and its effects is called "the correct view of Buddhists" and is praised as the foundation of all positive32 dharmas.

The three types of feeling are pleasant feelings, unpleasant feelings, and neutral feelings.

[16] Furthermore, the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa says:33

What is feeling? It is three kinds of experience: pleasure, suffering, and that which is neither suffering nor pleasure; pleasure is that which one desires to meet again if [the original feeling] stops; suffering is that from which one desires to be free when it occurs; a feeling that is neither pleasure nor suffering is one for which neither of these two desires occurs when the feeling arises.

These three types of feeling also have six aspects when categorized in terms of occurring

through either a physical or mental basis. There are thus three physical feelings and three mental

feelings. The three physical feelings are physically pleasant feelings, physically unpleasant

feelings, and physically neutral feelings. The three mental feelings are mentally pleasant

feelings, mentally unpleasant feelings, and mentally neutral feelings.

As for the distinction between physical and mental feelings, feelings that occur as attributes

of the five forms of sense consciousness are called "physical feelings"; feelings that occur as

attributes of mental consciousness are called “mental feelings.”

Well then, what is the reason for saying that “physical feelings” are feelings that occur in

association with the visual consciousness? The Catuḥśataka (6.10, k.135) states:

Just as the tactile faculty covers the whole body, likewise delusion is everywhere.

Since the tactile faculty pervades the whole body from head to toe, feelings that arise as

attributes of the four other sensory consciousnesses [17], such as the eye consciousness and so

forth, are called "physical feelings."

Also, when these six feelings are divided into two [categories]—turbulent (zang zing dang

bcas pa) and unturbulent—there are twelve types. One may wonder about the meaning of

“turbulent feelings” and “unturbulent feelings.” “Turbulent feelings” are feelings that are

equivalently conjoined with craving for the contaminated appropriative aggregates; “feelings

which lack turbulence” are feelings that are concurrent with the wisdom that directly realizes

selflessness.

One might then think, “Well, [using this classification] one can speak of ‘an unturbulent,

unpleasant feeling,’ but how can an unpleasant feeling occur for those who have the wisdom that

directly cognizes selflessness?”

There are many such cases. For example, in the Vinayāgama ('dul ba lung), it says that even

Arhats who have abandoned grasping at the self experience unpleasant feelings such as

headaches due to the maturation of previous karma.

Furthermore, when classified according to their bases, there are six feelings: feelings arising

from conjunct contact of the eye;34 feelings arising from conjunct contact of the ear; feelings

arising from conjunct contact of the nose; feelings arising from conjunct contact of the tongue;

feelings arising from conjunct contact of the body; and feelings arising from conjunct contact of

the mind. Since the threefold classification of pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral applies to each

one of these six, [18] there are also eighteen types of feeling. I will stop now because if I were to

write in detail identifying each one of these feelings I am afraid this essay would be too long.

One may classify feelings according to that which is to be abandoned and that which is an

antidote; there are thus two kinds: feelings that serve as a basis for longing (zhen pa, gredha) and

feelings that serve as a basis for renunciation (mngon par 'byung ba, naiṣkramya). Feelings that

serve as a basis for longing are feelings that are equivalently conjoined with craving for sensuous

things. Feelings that that serve as a basis for renunciation are, for example, those feelings that are

equivalently conjoined with the mental consciousness that, having turned away from the desire

for sensuous things, is included in the actual state (dngos gzhi, Skt. maula) of the first

concentration.35

This twofold classification of feeling is stated so that one might understand the way that

feeling can induce craving and the way that, in reliance upon the actual state of concentration

one, can become free of attachment to feeling. If one wishes to understand in detail the way that

these [two kinds of feeling function], one should learn by carefully examining the upper and

lower Abhidharma [i.e., Abhidharmakośa and Abhidharmasamuccaya]. Also, one should learn

from the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment (byang chub lam gyi rim pa) how to prevent the

three feelings of pleasure, pain, and indifference from becoming the cause of the three poisons.

1.2.1.2 Discrimination ('du shes, saṃjñā)

The nature of discrimination is stated in the Abhidharmasamuccaya:36

What is the defining characteristic of discriminattion? It has the character of knowing through conjunction. It has the nature of that grasping of a mark (mtshan ma; Skt. nimitta) or idea (bkra ba)37 through which one posits a convention for the object of seeing, hearing, analyzing or determinate knowing.

[19] As is stated here, it is an awareness that, [when] the object, sense faculty, and

awareness are conjoined, apprehends the unique mark of an object.

Also, the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa says:

What is discrimination? It is what apprehends the mark of an object.

Discrimination has two types: apprehending [an object’s] mark and apprehending [its] idea.

Apprehending a mark means to apprehend the unique mark of an object that appears to non-

conceptual consciousness. Apprehending an idea means to apprehend the unique mark of an

object that appears to conceptual consciousness.

The bases for either of these two types of discrimination are seeing, hearing, analysis and

determinate consciousness. The meaning of these is as follows. Concerning seeing, one posits a

convention for an object that is directly seen; in terms of hearing, one posits a convention on the

basis of hearing trustworthy words; concerning analyzing, one posits a convention in regard to

an object that is ascertained in dependence on a logical mark; and in terms of determinate

knowing, one posits a convention for an object that has been directly ascertained.

The Abhidharmakośa explains the two [types of discrimination] to be the apprehension of a

mark in relation to an object and the apprehension of a mark in relation to a convention.

Apprehending a mark in relation to an object means to apprehend it through distinguishing the

object’s various particularities, such as blue, yellow, and so on. Apprehending a mark in relation

to a convention means to apprehend it through distinguishing the convention’s various

particularities, as when one thinks, “This is a man; this is a woman.”

[20] Further, discrimination has six types when classified in terms of its basis:

discrimination arising from conjunct contact of the eye; discrimination arising from conjunct

contact of the ear; discrimination arising from conjunct contact of the nose; discrimination

arising from conjunct contact of the tongue; discrimination arising from conjunct contact of the

body; and discrimination arising from conjunct contact of the mind.

Also, there are six types classified in terms of perceptual object: discrimination with signs;

discrimination without signs; limited discrimination; extensive discrimination; immeasurable

discrimination; and discrimination with the thought, “There is nothing at all.”

The first, discrimination with signs, also is of three kinds: discrimination that is skilled in

the relation between names and referents; discrimination that observes conditioned things [as]

impermanent and so on; and discrimination that clarifies the perceptual object and [its] aspects.

The second, discrimination without signs, is also threefold; its three kinds are the opposite

are the opposites of the aforementioned three types of discrimination that have signs.

The third, limited discrimination, refers to discriminations that are within the mental

continuum of an ordinary individual in the desire realm who has not obtained the actual state of

concentration; it is also a discrimination focused on sensuous objects.

The fourth, extensive discrimination, refers to discrimination focused on the form realm and

the discrimination within the mental continuum of a form realm being.

The fifth, immeasurable discrimination, [21] refers to discriminations that focus on the

perceptual spheres (āyatana) of infinite space (ākāśānantyāyatana) and infinite consciousness

(vijñānānantyāyatana).38

The sixth, discrimination of nothing whatsoever, are discriminations that focus on the

perceptual sphere of nothingness (ākiñcanyāyatana).39

1.2.1.3 Intention (sems pa, cetanā)

The nature of intention is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya:40

What is intention? It is mental karma (yid kyi las; Skt. mānasakarma) that conditions the mind; it has the function of causing the mind to engage with what is virtuous, non-virtuous, or neutral.

That which is called "intention" is a mental function that makes the mind with which it is

equivalently conjoined to be drawn or incited toward an object. This is said to be the most

important of all the mental functions; that is, it is said that any mind or mental function engages

with an object due to this mental function. For example, just as iron is helplessly drawn to a

magnet, likewise, the mind helplessly becomes involved with an object due to this mental

function, intention.

When classified in terms of its basis, intention is of six types: intention arising from

conjunct contact with the eye; intention arising from conjunct contact with the ear; intention

arising from conjunct contact with the nose; intention arising from conjunct contact with the

tongue; intention arising from conjunct contact with the body; and intention arising from

conjunct contact with the mental faculty (yid, manas).

Intention is mental karma, and generally there are two types of karma: intended karma [22]

and intention-karma. The Abhidharmakośa states:41

Karma is intention and that produced by intention; intention is mental karma; bodily and verbal karma are produced by intention.

Intended karma has two types: bodily activity and verbal activity. Furthermore, although

they are unlimited, it is said that a summary of the most important forms are the seven corporal

and verbal karmic activities and [engagement in] the ten paths of karmic activity under the

influence of a motivation. Accordingly, the Abhidharmakośa states:42

If roughly summarized, it is said that there are ten paths of karma suitably associated with virtue or non-virtue.

Furthermore, karma is of three kinds: virtuous, non-virtuous, and neutral. And karma is also

of three types: meritorious, non-meritorious, and immutable. In this regard, it is especially vital

to carefully understand various points, such as: how to identify these karmas; the manner in

which their effects are established; the difference between projection and completion; the

difference between [karma that is] definitely experienced and [karma that is] not definitely

experienced; and in terms of karma that will definitely be experienced, the difference between

karma that you will experience in the life that it was accumulated (mthong chos; Skt.

dṛṣṭadharma) and karma that you will experience after being reborn. Although it is crucial to

understand these points, I will not elaborate here since I am concerned that this text will become

too long. Those who have strength of intellect should learn these points by carefully looking at

the Abhidharmakośa and its commentary composed by the supreme scholar Vasubandhu and the

stainless and eloquent writings of the revered, omniscient [Tsong-kha-pa]. [23]

1.2.1.4 Contact (reg pa, sparśa)

The nature of contact is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:43

What is contact? It is what distinguishes the transformation of the sensory faculties due to the conjunction of the triad; its function is to provide a basis for feeling.

Contact is an awareness that, after the triad—object, faculty and consciousness—are

conjoined, distinguishes an object in accord with whatever feeling is to be experienced, be it

happiness and so forth. Here, "transformation of the sensory faculties" means the following: due

to contacting an attractive form (yid du 'ong ba), the eye-faculty transforms into a cause of

attachment to the pleasurable feeling; as in this example, contact also, by distinguishing an

attractive form, transforms into a cause of a pleasurable feeling. Contact is explained in that way.

This [mental function] also has six types when classified in terms of its basis: conjunct contact of

the eye, conjunct contact of the ear, conjunct contact of the nose, conjunct contact of the tongue,

conjunct contact of the body, and conjunct contact of the mind.

1.2.1.5 Attention (yid la byed pa, manaskāra)

Attention is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:44

What is attention? It is the focusing of the mind [on the object]; it has the function of holding the mind onto the perceptual object.

It is an awareness that directs the mind with which it is equivalently conjoined toward a

distinctive perceptual object. The difference between intention and attention is that intention

draws the mind to the object in a general way; [24] while attention orients the mind toward a

Deleted: orientation

distinctive object.

Concerning the reason for describing these five mental functions—feeling and so forth—as

omnipresent, they are called such because they are mental functions that accompany all

[primary] minds. Furthermore, if any of the five omnipresent mental functions are missing, the

experience of an object will not be complete. If there is no feeling then there will be no

experience; if there is no discrimination then there will be no apprehension of the object’s unique

mark; if there is no intention, [the mind] will not be directed toward an object; if there is no

orientation then [the mind] will not be focused on a distinctive perceptual object; if there is no

contact then there will be no basis [for feeling, etc.]. Therefore, for a full experience of an object

it is necessary that all five of the omnipresent mental factors be present.

1.2.2 The Five Mental Functions for a Determined Object (yul nges pa, pratiniyataviṣaya45)

The five mental functions for a determined object are interest ('dun pa, chanda), inclination

(mos pa, adhimokṣa), mindfulness (dran pa, sṃrti), concentration (ting nge 'dzin, samādhi), and

wisdom (shes rab, prajñā).

1.2.2.1 Interest ('dun pa, chanda)

The nature of interest is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:46

What is interest? It is the desire to be endowed with this or that [attribute] of a desired thing; its function is to provide a basis for making a diligent effort.

It is an awareness that, focused upon some intended thing, pursues it.

The way that interest provides the basis for diligent effort is explained in the

Madhyāntavibhāga:47

The basis, that which is based on it, its mark, and its effect.

The Lam rim chen mo also states:

If one does not delight in the cultivation of concentration, and if one is unable to

stop the laziness that delights in the factors not conducive to its practice, then from the very beginning one will not be disposed to practicing concentration; [25] and even if one obtains concentration one time, it will quickly deteriorate because one is unable to maintain it. Therefore, it is crucial to put an end to laziness at the very beginning. Regarding this, when one obtains physical and mental pliancy that is abundant with joy and happiness, one no longer becomes tired of applying oneself to the virtuous all the time, day and night; when this state is attained, laziness is overcome. In order to generate pliancy, one must be able to continuously practice diligence in the [cultivation of] concentration, which itself causes pliancy. And to produce that ability, one must continually have the powerful will that seeks [to obtain] concentration. To cause that interest, one must have firm faith that is delighted at the sight of concentration’s good qualities. Therefore, at the onset one should cultivate again and again the faith that thinks about the pleasurable qualities of concentration. When this sequence of steps is examined on the basis of practice, they are very clearly and definitively seen to be the case. Hence, one should consider them to be a true essential point [for developing concentration].48

As a proof for this point, [Tsong-kha-pa] cites the above verse of the Madhyāntavibhāga,

which says "basis, etc." He then comments on its meaning:49

The basis is interest; it is the basis for effort. That which is based on it is effort or diligence. Interest’s cause is confident faith in good qualities. The result of effort is pliancy.

When these methods are carefully considered, they are particularly important as an essential

point of practice, as the venerable omniscient [Tsong-kha-pa] said. Indeed, the Great Charioteers

have stated that such methods are in a fixed sequence on the path; if one introspectively and

carefully considers those methods, [26] without leaving them at the level of mere words, one will

gain certainty about those methods. However, one might be happy to leave them as mere words,

and one might understand them to be any old text or just something to debate about; doing so,

one would toss them away when one practices. Those who understand them in this fashion will

have no way to be gain certainty about these methods. Leave alone the notion that the good paths

that please the Conquerors will arise in their minds—these persons do not have the chance even

to begin thinking about those paths.

As for the classification of interest, there are three kinds: the interest that desires to obtain or

meet [something or someone]; the interest that desires not to be parted [from something or

someone]; and the interest that seeks [something]. There are many types of interest that seeks

[something], such as the interest that seeks desires, or a [philosophical] view, and so forth.

1.2.2.2 Orientation (mos pa, adhimokṣa)

The nature of orientation is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:50

What is orientation? It is what holds onto a determined thing in the way that it has been determined. Its function is irremovability.

It is an awareness that apprehends the object that has been determined by its valid

cognition,51 thinking, "It is only like this and not otherwise." In this regard, its specific function

is stated: "its function is irremovability.” This means that, when one has firm orientation toward

the object that has been determined by the orientation’s [primary mind], something else cannot

pull one away from the object.52 For example, in the context of taking refuge, one considers the

difference between the Buddhist Teacher and non-Buddhist teachers, and one investigates,

thinking, “Which is an infallible refuge?” Doing so, one definitively determines that only the

Teacher, the Buddha, is an infallible refuge. [27] In addition, through a valid cognition one also

definitively determines that the Dharma taught by the Buddha and the communities of those who

correctly practice that Dharma are also infallible refuges. Doing so, one becomes firmly involved

with these lasting refuges; no longer able to be guided by heretics and so on, one is counted as a

Buddhist. On the basis of this, all white [virtuous] karmas increase. Furthermore, the

Bodhicaryāvatāra states:53

The Sage has stated that orientation is the root of all that is virtuous. In turn, its root is constant meditation on the matured results.

1.2.2.3 Mindfulness (dran pa, sṃrti)

The nature of mindfulness54 is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:55

What is mindfulness? It is the mind’s not forgetting of an entity to which it is

Comment [CK1]: remove ?? from text

acquainted. Its function is non-distraction.

It is an awareness that has three distinctions. These three distinctions are: (1) a distinction in

terms of its object, which is a thing with which [the mind] is acquainted; (2) a distinction in

terms of its aspect, which is non-forgetfulness focused on the object; and (3) a distinction in

terms of its function, which is non-distraction. Since mindfulness is not produced concerning a

thing with which [the mind] is not already acquainted, its distinction in terms of its object is that

the mind is already acquainted with it. Even though the mind is already acquainted with the

object, there is no mindfulness [i.e., memory] of an object if it is not presently appearing to the

mind. Thus, mindfulness is called the mind’s “not forgetting” [of that object]. Since mental

stability (sems gnas) will further improve through relying on distinctive mindfulness, its

functional distinction is that it has the function of non-distraction.

The fact that mindfulness has three special qualities is extremely important in the context of

both sūtra and tantra. The protector Nāgārjuna states:56

King, the Sugata taught that mindfulness of the body is the only path to walk. Hold tight to [mindfulness] and protect it, for when mindfulness deteriorates, all dharmas will be ruined.

And the Bodhicaryāvatāra says:57

Though learned, faithful, and diligent, many are befouled by offences because they are flawed by their lack of alertness (shes bzhin; Skt. samprajanya).

Though they have amassed meritorious deeds, they end up in an evil realm, plundered by the thief that is lack of awareness, which follows their loss of mindfulness.

This band of robbers, the afflictions, seeks an opportunity; when it has found one, it plunders one’s merit and destroys one’s rebirth in a good realm.

Therefore, mindfulness should never be allowed to leave its post at the mind’s door; if it does leave, one should put it back, remembering the torments of lower rebirths.

Because they accompany their teacher, mindfulness comes easily to those fortunate people who practice respectfully due to their guru’s instructions and out

of fear.

All the virtuous qualities of the various spiritual levels and paths increase through reliance

upon mindfulness and discriminating alertness, and any of the accomplishments of concentration

mentioned in the sūtras and tantras are necessarily achieved through [29] this distinctive state,

mindfulness. Therefore, this practice of devoting oneself to mindfulness is extremely important

for those who wish to practice wholeheartedly. Accordingly, the Bodhicaryāvatāra states:58

Let me lose my possessions, my honor, my body and life; let me lose any other good thing, but never the mind.

I beseech with folded hands those who wish to guard their minds: even if your life depends on it, stay mindful and alert.

1.2.2.4 Concentration (ting nge 'dzin, samādhi)

The nature of concentration is stated in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:59

What is concentration? It is one-pointedness of mind upon an entity under examination;60 its function is to provide a basis for knowledge.

It is the one-pointedness of mind that, focusing on a designated entity, is continuously

placed [on that entity]. Concerning the distinction of concentration’s object, it says that it is a

“designated entity.” It is called “designated” because, when cultivating concentration, one holds

the mind to an object of observation (dmigs pa) that is designated by the mind. Furthermore,

although there appear to be many varieties of concentration’s focal object, it is said that one may

summarize them in four [categories]: the focal object for the purification of behavior; the focal

object for the purification of afflictions; the pervasive focal object; and the focal object of the

wise. Also, the object of the wise is said to be of endless [varieties], including focus on the [five]

aggregates, focus on the [eighteen] elements, focus on the [twelve] sense spheres, focus on

interdependent origination, and so forth. [30]

This method [of focusing on sense objects and such] seems to clearly teach the

contemporary system of some persons who, contradicting the terminology of the Conqueror’s

scriptures, practice “staring” meditation focused on a form appearing to visual consciousness.

Nevertheless, Ārya Asaṅga has clearly stated that concentration is not produced in sensory

awareness but is rather produced only in mental awareness. He has also stated that

concentration’s focal object is not a form appearing to sensory consciousness but rather that it is

only a mental object designated by the mind.

Well then, one might think, "Is it definitely necessary that an object of concentration to be a

real (yang dag pa) object?" That is not the case. Whether the object be real or mistaken, if one

repeatedly cultivates internal attention to it, one will have a clear appearance and nonconceptual

[experience] of that object. The Pramāṇavārttika states:61

Therefore, that which one meditatively cultivates, whether it be real or unreal, will result in a clear, non-conceptual cognition when that meditation is perfected.

Concerning the distinctive function of concentration, it is said to be the function of

providing a basis for knowledge. This means that, having relied upon a state of quiescence

(śamatha) which is the mind’s inward concentration, one achieves special insight (vipaśyana)

focused on [entities] as they are and as numerous as they are through analysis by analytical

wisdom (so sor rtog pa'i shes rab).

The Bodhicaryāvatāra states:62

Realizing that special insight fully endowed with quiescence destroys the afflictions, [31] one should first seek quiescence; one does so through the delight that is unattached to the world.

Also, the Vinayāgama repeatedly states the procedure whereby training in concentration is

produced in dependence on moral conduct, and training in wisdom (shes rab) is produced in

dependence on concentration. Accordingly, those who wholeheartedly wish for liberation should

regard these great texts as supreme quintessential instructions.

1.2.2.5 Discernment (shes rab, prajñā)

Discernment’s nature is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:63

What is discernment? It is the analysis of the qualities of an entity under examination; it has the function of excluding doubt.

Discernment is an awareness that analytically distinguishes the faults and good qualities of

things under examination. Objects under examination by discernment are of three kinds:

virtuous, non-virtuous, and indeterminate; it analytically distinguishes the faults and good

qualities of these [kinds of entities]. There are four types of reasoning used to analyze faults and

virtuous qualities: functional reasoning, relational reasoning, logical reasoning, and reasoning

from the nature of things. If having examined [an entity] through these four forms of reasoning,

one gains certainty [about it], then doubt will be overcome. Hence, discernment’s distinctive

function is stated, “It has the function of excluding doubt.” With these points in mind, the

venerable omniscient [Tsong-kha-pa] stated:

“Through the four forms of reasoning one fully and correctly examines, day and night, the meaning of what one has heard; [32] doing so, may one eradicate doubt with the analytical understanding that arises from contemplating the point to be contemplated.”

The reason for saying that these five mental functions, intention and so forth [have] a

determined object is that these mental functions apprehend [an object] through apprehending

separate, distinctive qualities of the object; therefore, it is said that [they have] a “distinctively

determined object.”

1.2.3 The Eleven Virtuous Mental Functions (dge ba, kuśala)

There are eleven virtuous mental functions: faith (dad pa, śraddhā), shame (ngo tsha,

hrī), embarrassment (khrel yod pa, apatrapā), non-attachment (ma chags pa, alobha), non-hatred

(zhe sdang med pa, adveṣa), non-ignorance (gti mug med pa, amoha), diligence (brtson 'grus,

vīrya), pliancy (shin tu sbyangs pa, praśrabdhi), conscientiousness (bag yod, apramāda),

equanimity (btang snyoms, upekṣa), and non-harm (rnam par mi 'tshe ba, avihiṃsā).

1.2.3.1 Faith (dad pa, śraddhā)

The nature of faith is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:64

What is faith? It is confidence, clarity, and desire in regard to the existence, excellent qualities, and capacities [of someone or something]. Its function is to providing a basis for aspiration.

It is an awareness in the form of either confidence, clarity, or desire, which serves as the

direct antidote for lack of faith. Faith is of three kinds: clear faith, confident faith, and longing

faith.

The first [is called] clear faith because when one sees the virtuous qualities of virtuous

things such as the Three Jewels and so forth, one's mind becomes clear. As for being called

"clear," when one places a water-purifying gem [33] into murky water, immediately the murky

water becomes clarified. Likewise, when this faith arises in one’s mental continuum, the mind’s

murkiness is clarified, and it becomes possible for the virtuous qualities of realization to arise in

the mental continuum. The second is [called] confident faith: when one contemplates the

dependently co-originated nature of cause and effect and so forth as taught by the Conqueror one

gains confidence. The third, longing faith, is as follows: having contemplated the Noble’s Four

Truths, one becomes sure that suffering and origination are both what one should abandon, and

that cessation and the path are what one should obtain; then, one understands that if one makes

the proper effort, one will indeed be able to obtain them; knowing this, one has the faith that

thinks, for example, “I should definitely obtain them.”

Here we have identified merely some basic instances of the three [types] of faith; not all

[instances] are exhaustively explained thereby.

These days, in our world, enjoyment and faith are spoken of [as if] they were the same thing.

One might say that to enjoy beer is to have a [kind of] faith in beer, but enjoyment and faith are

nevertheless not the same thing. Faith is a mental function that is naturally virtuous, while

enjoyment has both virtuous and non-virtuous aspects.

To explain this more carefully, there are four alternatives: that which is enjoyment and but

not faith; that which is faith and not enjoyment; that which is both; and that which is neither. The

first, that which is enjoyment but not faith is, for example, enjoyment of one’s son or wife, and

enjoyment of the inappropriate, such as drinking beer and eating afternoon meals. [34] The

second, that which is faith but not enjoyment is, for example, faithful confidence and deep fear

about the disadvantages of samsaric suffering. That which is both faith and enjoyment is to have

both joyful faith and deep trust confidence on the basis of contemplating the virtuous qualities of

spiritual friends and the beneficial qualities of the cause and effect of virtuous actions. That

which is neither faith nor joy is, for example, anger, suffering, and so on.

Along these lines, one might wonder whether enjoyment and devotion are the same or not.

Again, in the world we speak as if they were the same, but in actuality, they are not the same. To

enjoy a spiritual friend is faith. Respect for a spiritual friend is what causes one to feel shame

and a sense of cherishing [him or her]; [these are feelings that arise] when one contemplates his

kindness. Hence, when [enjoyment and respect] arise in the mind, they are as different mental

functions. With this in mind, the venerable omniscient [Tsong-kha-pa] has been so gracious as

to repeatedly advise that in order to wholeheartedly practice, one must rely upon a wise spiritual

friend and become learned in the scriptures. However, but when these great textual systems are

explained to today's foolish individuals, who are intellectually bankrupt and inferior in their

merit, [35] they become frightened and flee, like a poisonous snake that catches the scent of

musk or a small child frightened that catches a glimpse of the surging ocean. Those who realize

that the works of the great, accomplished masters from the noble land of India are central

essential teachings appear like stars during the daytime.

Here, the statement that the function of faith is "to provide a basis for will," means, as

explained above, that diligence is the cause of all virtuous qualities, and to generate diligence it

is necessary that one has the will to pursue an aim. Since the confident faith that comes from

seeing virtuous qualities is necessary in order to generate will, the scriptures along with their

commentaries repeatedly praise faith as the basis of all virtuous qualities. In this way, the

Ratnolkādhāraṇi also states:65

Faith is the forerunner, like a mother, it gives birth; it is the protector and increaser of all virtuous qualities. Expeller of fear, it saves one from [the four] raging streams;66 it points the way to the city of happiness.67 Faith is unstained, and it makes the mind clear. It eliminates arrogance and is the root of respect. Faith is wealth, a treasure, and the best foundation. It is the root cause for gathering virtue, like a hand.

And also the Daśadharma[sūtra]68 states:

Faith is the supreme of vehicles, whereby the leaders emerge [from the world]. Therefore, the intelligent devote themselves to following faith. Virtuous qualities do not arise in the faithless men, [36] just as green sprouts do not come from seeds scorched by fire.

Thus, all virtuous qualities follow after faith and even the statement in the

Śikṣāsamuccaya,69 "having made firm the foundation of faith,” teaches that faith is the

foundation of all paths. Even the Great protector Nāgārjuna emphatically teaches that faith is the

foundation of all paths. With this in mind, the venerable omniscient [Tsong-kha-pa] has stated in

the topical headlines (sa bcad) of the Gradual Stages to Enlightenment that "the foundation is

training in faith" and "the root of all well-being is confident faith."

1.2.3.2 Shame (ngo tsha, hrī)

Shame is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:70

What is shame? It is to avoid wrongful actions in regard to oneself and has the function to provide the basis for abstaining from evil conduct.

It is to refrain from wrongful behavior on account of oneself.

1.2.3.3 Embarrassment (khrel yod pa, apatrāpya)

Embarrassment is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:71

What is embarrassment? It is avoiding what others consider to be wrongful actions and has the function of doing just that. It is to refrain from wrongful behavior on account of others.

The difference between shame and embarrassment is that, despite their similarity in

avoiding wrongful conduct, when one comes close to engaging in wrongful conduct, it avoids

that having considered that "This should not be part of my doing." Embarrassment means that,

when one comes close to engaging in wrongful conduct, one avoids it on account of others,

thinking, "This is not suitable since others will reprimand me." [37] The primary object of this

restraint concerns the restraint [that one experiences] when one is afraid that one's gurus,

teachers and such will be embarrassed [about one’s actions]. In terms of its functions, [the text]

says, "It has the function of providing a basis for the restraint of wrongful behavior." This means

that shame and embarrassment are definitely necessary for restraining the wrongful deeds of

body, speech, and mind. If there is not any self-respect and embarrassment then one is unable to

restrain from any wrongful behavior. And if there is not any fear about the maturation of one's

own actions and no fear that the guru, teacher, and others will become ashamed, then there is no

way to stop wrongful conduct.

1.2.3.4 Non-attachment (ma chags pa, alobha)

Non-attachment is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:72

What is non-attachment? It is non-attachment to existence and the necessities of existence. Its function is to provide a basis for non-involvement in wrongful conduct.

It is an awareness that is fed up [with cyclic existence] and is not attached to it.

1.2.3.5 Non-hatred (zhe sdang med pa, adveṣa)

Non-hatred is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:73

What is non-hatred? It is the absence of malevolence in regard to living beings, to suffering, and the conditions of suffering. Its function is to provide a basis for non-involvement in wrongful conduct.

It is a mental function in which there is no intention to inflict suffering and which prevents

the arising of hatred focused on any one of the three objects toward which it might arise.

1.2.3.6 Non-confusion (gti mug med pa, amoha)

Non-confusion is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:74

What is non-confusion? [38] It is analysis and understanding through [karmic] maturation, scriptures, or realization. It has the function to provide a basis for the non-involvement in wrongful conduct.

It is analytical wisdom which, whether it comes from a cause obtained through birth or

through practice, has the ability to counteract delusion.

These three mental functions [i.e., non-attachment, non-hatred, and non-ignorance] are like

the root of all virtuous action, the method for stopping all wrongful conduct, and even the

essence of all the paths. All paths and stages are for the purpose of eliminating the three poisons

along with their imprints, and all wrongful conduct definitely comes from one or another of the

three poisons. Hence, the function of these [three states] is said “to provide a basis for non-

involvement in wrongful conduct.

The varieties of these [mental functions] are limitless because, under the broadest

categorization, they include all the paths and stages.

Furthermore, non-attachment can be explained as follows: being without attachment to this

life, one turns away from this life and strives for future lives—this is directed at the state of mind

of the limited person; being without attachment to all the abundance of saṃsāra, one utterly

rejects desire—this is directed at the state of mind of the middling person; and being without

attachment to both saṃsāra and Nirvāṇa, one seeks unlocated Nirvāṇa—this is directed at the

state of mind of the great person. If non-attachment is explained in this fashion, one would have

to explain all of the scriptures relation to it, and how could one do so? Just a little is taught here

for those who have discernment. [39] Likewise, the same also applies for non-hatred and non-

ignorance.

Here, non-ignorance is analytical wisdom, and it can be acquired by birth or through

practice. Wisdom acquired by birth, since it does not occur in relation to the conditions of this

life but through the maturation of previous actions, it is said to be free from maturation. Wisdom

acquired through practice is that which comes from study, contemplation, and meditative

cultivation.

The focus of one’s learning with the wisdom that arises from studying is the Conqueror's

scriptures along with their commentaries. The Teacher's scriptures have twelve divisions:

discourses (sūtra, mdo'i sde), hymns and praises (geya, dbyangs kyis bsnyad pa'i sde),

predictions of buddhahood (vyākaraṇa, lung du bstan pa'i sde), verses (gāthā, tshigs su bcad pa'i

sde), aphorisms (uddāna, ched du brjod pa'i sde), pragmatic narratives (nidāna, gleng gzhi'i sde),

biographical narratives (avadāna, rtogs pa brjod pa'i sde), narratives of former events as

examples (itivṛttaka, de sta bu byung ba'i sde), narratives of former births (jātaka, skyes pa'i

rabs kyi sde), expansive discourses (vaipulya, shen tu rgyas pa'i sde), miracle narratives, and

(adbhūtadharma, rmad du byung ba'i sde), teachings in profound doctrines (upadeśa, gtan la

dbab pa'i sde). If I were to carefully explain which of these teachings are most important and

identify each one of them this essay would become too long, so I will not write about these

divisions here.

The twelve divisions of scriptures can be condensed in to nine divisions according to Ācārya

Candrakīrti. He condenses them into nine through construing the four types of narrative into one.

These nine [divisions] can again [40] be condensed into three: the Sūtra collection, the Vinaya

collection, and Abhidharma collection. The primary subject matter of these three collections is

the three trainings. To be specific, the primary subject matter of the Vinaya collection is the

training in morality; the primary subject matter of the Sūtra collection is the training in

meditative equipoise; and the primary subject matter of the Abhidharma collection is the training

in wisdom.

Again, the Abhidharmasamuccaya teaches that the three trainings are equally taught in the

Sūtra collection; the training in morality and training in meditative stabilization are taught in the

Vinaya collection, and the training in wisdom is taught through the Abhidharma collection. The

intention here is that if one observes the prescriptions and proscriptions of the Vinaya in

dependence on mindfulness and alertness, then that [preservation of morality] itself, by being

able to completely stop laxity (bying ba, laya) and excitation (rgod pa, auddhatya), will become

the supreme means of generating meditative equipoise. These days, it is extremely rare that these

kinds of stages of the path even come to mind.

Thus, seek to study thoroughly the three collections along with their commentaries, which

are the object of one’s study. And through repeated analysis by the four types of reasoning,

become certain of the meaning of what one has studied.

The Great Charioteers maintain that, on every path, one should practice by means of

analytical meditation and stabilizing meditation on that very meaning about which one has

gained the certainty that arises from contemplation. Therefore, it is right for those who are

intelligent [41] to engage in such a practice of the path that pleases the Conquerors. But some

cast away the holy cause of discriminating wisdom, namely, thorough study; then like sheep they

follow foolish, idiotic imbeciles. Without thinking of anything, they abide in a relaxed and

expansive state of mind, and they haughtily pretend that doing so is ‘having a good mind,’

‘practicing dharma,’ ‘engaging in practice,’ and so on. If one behaves in this fashion, one wastes

good embodiment with its opportunities and devastate others who share one’s situation; it even

becomes a strong condition for the decline of the Teaching. Therefore, those who wish to do

themselves so good should wholeheartedly develop the will to practice analytical wisdom, as

described above. Thus, the Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā states:75

How will millions upon millions of blind men, who are without a guide, ever enter the city without knowing even the road to it? Without wisdom, the other five perfections are blind; guideless, they cannot reach enlightenment. When wisdom takes hold of one, one gains sight and will obtain the name of this.

And the honorable Maitreya [in the Uttaratantra] also states:76

Conceptuality concerning the three spheres [of agent, action, and object] is considered to be the obscuration to knowledge. Concepts such as greed and so on are considered to be the afflictive obscuration. Except for wisdom, there is no other cause that eliminates these obscurations. Therefore, wisdom is best. Its basis is learning, and therefore, learning is supreme.

And Ācārya [42] Āryasūra says:

Those blinded by lack of learning do not know how to meditate. Lacking it, what are they to contemplate?

Therefore, one should strive to learn. With that as a cause, one contemplates and then meditates; thereby, vast wisdom will arise.

The profound scholar Vasubandhu also states:

As one who has properly studied and contemplated, apply yourself to meditation.

Such statements are made repeatedly in the scriptures along with their commentaries.

1.2.3.7 Joyful Effort (brtson 'grus, vīrya)

Joyful effort (brtson 'grus, vīrya) is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:77

What is joyful effort? It is a mind that is energetically enthused about being armored, applying oneself, not being discouraged, not stopping, and not being satisfied. It has the function of completing and fully accomplishing the virtuous.

A mind that energetically delights in virtue is joyful effort. In this way Ācārya Vasubandhu

states:

What is joyful effort? It is an antidote for laziness and it is a mind that is energetically enthused about virtue.

Also, the Bodhicaryāvatāra states:78

What is joyful effort? It is energetic enthusiasm for virtue.

Presently in the world, there are those who call every effort, “joyful effort.” But the above

scriptural citations show that efforts for the purpose of only this life, such as farm work, are not

joyful effort. Joyful effort is said to be energetic enthusiasm for virtue. Efforts made about the

plans and activities of just this life are the opposite of diligence, and such effort is called

“attachment to bad activities.” [43]

The Lam rim chen mo classifies joyful effort as threefold: armored joyful effort, joyful effort

for collecting virtuous qualities, and joyful effort for accomplishing the sake of sentient beings.

The Abhidharmasamuccaya says that there are five types: armored joyful effort, applied joyful

effort, undiscouraged joyful effort, unstoppable joyful effort, and insatiable joyful effort.

The first, armored joyful effort, means that, before engaging in virtuous activity, one straps

on the great armor that consists of that intention whose prerequisite is the mind’s energetic

enthusiasm [for virtue]. Regarding this, the Pāramitāsamāsa states:79

Suppose that a day is as long as saṃsāra, from beginning to end, and that a year is made up of those days. Consider, then, an extremely long eon made up of those years and a span of such eons equal to the number of drops of water in the ocean. If having generated but one awakening mind, I would need to practice even for that long so as to collect each of the other collections, then in this manner, due to my compassion, I would not be weary; I would achieve holy enlightenment without being discouraged. Do not think of one’s own suffering when cycling in saṃsāra, and produce that immeasurable and strong armor: for the compassionate one who has taken the hero’s vow, this is the first true practice.

The second, applied joyful effort, means that the mind is energetically enthused if one

practices by applying oneself. It is of two kinds: continual application and serious application.

[44]

The third, undiscouraged joyful effort, produces delight when one engages in virtuous

activity by not holding one back with thoughts such as, “How is such possible for the likes of

me?” The Jātakamāla states:80

Depression does not help to relieve anxiety, so do not be overwhelmed by distress. If you are firm in your skill for accomplishing what needs to be accomplished, even great difficulties will be easily transcended. Therefore, discard depression and distress and achieve your purpose with an appropriate method of action. If you are invigorated with the firm splendor of skill, you hold the accomplishment of all aims in your hand.

The fourth, unstoppable joyful effort, is as follows: when one engages in a virtuous action,

the mind’s energetic enthusiasm brings that action to its completion such that other conditions

cannot change [the fact that one will complete the action]. Furthermore, the venerable teacher

[Tsong-kha-pa] says:

When you wear the armor of firm and unstoppable joyful effort, the virtuous qualities of scriptural knowledge and realization will increase like the waxing moon. All your activities will be meaningful. Whatever activity one has begun will be brought to completion just as one wishes. Understanding this, the Conqueror’s children employ the vigorous joyful effort that eliminates all laziness.81

The fifth, insatiable joyful effort, is the effort that seeks higher qualities without being

satisfied by some trifling virtue. Furthermore, if one takes a subtle ancillary aspect of the path

[45] as primary and then casts away other [aspects of the path], doing so will greatly hinder the

placement [in one’s mind] of imprints for the path in its entirety. Therefore, it is crucial that one

has an understanding of the structure of the path in its entirety. Thus, the Lam rim chen mo says:

Ārya Asaṅga has repeatedly stated that even though one may thoroughly understand the method of training in the extensive, it is necessary to have two [qualities]: one must not be discouraged, and one must not be satisfied with some trifling good qualities. These days, the following [two types of events] appear to happen. [First,] whether it is a spurious or an actual good quality, if one attains just some portion of it, one might think, “I have crossed over to a high level of the path!” Thinking this, one would be satisfied by having developed just that partial good quality. [Second], someone skilled in the essential points of the path, interprets, “Even though that is a partial good quality, just by having it one has not gotten anywhere.” Making this interpretation, one is very discouraged and It thus seems very rare that one, being dissatisfied with partial good qualities, seeks higher distinctive qualities instead. It also seems very rare that one does not become discouraged, even though one must develop oneself in infinite areas of training.

In regard to the function of joyful effort, it was said above, “It has the function of

completing and fully accomplishing the virtuous.” This means that all that is virtuous depends

upon joyful effort. Along these lines, [46] the Adhyāśayasaṃcodanasūtra says:

Whatever is done in this world and whatever is done beyond this world is not difficult to gain for one who employs joyful effort. Hence, through the power of joyful effort, what wise person would ever become tired? Those who have engaged with the awakening of the Buddha see the faults of sloth and torpor and thus always persevere in the exertion of joyful effort. I have urged them to do this.

And the Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra [XVI, 65-66]82 states:

Among the host of virtues, joyful effort is supreme, since one obtains that [host of virtues] in dependence on that [joyful effort]. Through joyful effort [practitioners] instantly have a delightful situation [in this life]; through it, they also obtain all transcendent and worldly accomplishments. Through joyful effort, they obtain the desired enjoyments of existence, and through joyful effort they reach powerful purity. Through joyful effort they are liberated, passing beyond the perishable aggregates. Through joyful effort they awaken to supreme enlightenment.

In this way, all virtuous qualities follow upon joyful effort, so the practice of producing

joyful effort is extremely important. Concerning that practice, if understood through a careful

analysis of the Abhidharma citations given above, the methods for producing joyful effort are

extremely extensive. Nevertheless, intellectually inferior persons such as I find it difficult to

understand [how to produce joyful effort] just on the basis of those [scriptural citations], so one

should proceed as in the manner presented in the Omniscient Lord [Tsong Kha pa]’s Lam rim

chen mo, where [he says that] it is crucial to understand the following: the benefits of joyful

effort; the disadvantages of not employing it; [47] the way it stops what is contrary to it, namely,

the laziness of procrastination, the attachment to bad actions, and discouragement; how to

establish joyful effort’s supporting conditions, which are four powers—the power of will, the

power of resoluteness, the power of joy, and the power of abandonment. Although it is crucial to

understand all this, I cannot write about them all here. You should learn them by carefully

examining the Bodhicaryāvatāra and the Lam Rim Chen Mo.

1.2.3.8 Pliancy (shin tu sbyangs pa, praśrabdhi)

Pliancy is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:83

What is pliancy? Since it stops physical and mental deficiency, it is physical and mental fitness. Its function is to clear away all obscurations.

It is an awareness that leaves a trait behind such that the mind is fit to be directed toward a

virtuous focal object for as long as one wishes, and it is an awareness that stops physical and

mental rigidiy. Pliancy has two types: physical pliancy and mental pliancy. Physical pliancy

means that by the power of concentration the deficiency and incapacity of the body are purified;

[the body] feels light like carded cotton, and it is fit to be directed as one wishes toward virtuous

activity. Mental pliancy means that, by the power of concentration, [the mind] is free of

deficiency; the mind has the fitness to engage without obstruction with its focal object.

Moreover, the Lord Lama [Tsong-kha-pa] states:

Concentration is the king that rules the mind. When you place it, it is immovable like the king of mountains. [48] When you employ it, it engages with all virtuous objects of observation, and it induces the great pleasure of physical and mental fitness.84

Here, the statement means that its function is to clear away all obscurations means: Through

the force of pliancy, all mental and physical deficiency is purified, and if one obtains pliancy,

then by internally directing oneself toward concentration, concentration will increase more and

more. Through just that increased [concentration], the pleasure of pliancy will increase, and

through just that increased [pliancy], concentration increases even more. Therefore, pliancy is

very powerful for the removal of obscurations.

1.2.3.9 Conscientiousness (bag yod, apramāda)

Conscientiousness is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:85

What is conscientiousness? Based on diligent non-attachment, non-hatred, and non-ignorance, it is what develops all virtuous qualities and protects the mind from contaminated qualities. Its function is the accomplishment of all the

mundane and super mundane excellence.

It is a state of mind that, based on the joyful effort which avoids the influence of negative

mental functions, accomplishes virtue and protects the mind from contamination. In this regard,

the Bodhisattvabhūmi mentions five [types]: conscientiousness with regard to the past,

conscientiousness with regard to the future, conscientiousness with regard to the present,

conscientiousness with regard to previous [conscientious action], and conscientiousness that

occurs with activity. The Omniscient Lord [Tsong-kha-pa] explains:86

In order, they are as follows: (1) to correct, in accord with the dharma, faults done in the past; [49] (2) to earnestly determine that one will behave in that fashion [i.e., in accord with the dharma] in the future; (3) to behave in that fashion even now without forgetting to do so; (4) to be very disciplined, thinking, “Surely I should behave in such a fashion that no faults occur, just as I am behaving now”; and (5) in dependence on that [discipline], to behave consistently in that fashion.

Since it has been said that its function is to provide a basis for achieving all the mundane

and supermundane excellence, it is especially important as the basis for all the paths and stages.

In this way, the protector Nāgārjuna further states:87

The Sage has stated that conscientiousness is the way of immortality and that the lack of conscientiousness is the way of death. Therefore, to increase virtuous qualities, constantly and seriously practice conscientiousness.

1.2.3.10 Equanimity (btang snyoms, upekṣa)

Equanimity is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:88

What is equanimity? Based on diligent non-attachment, non-hatred, and non-ignorance, it is contrary to afflictive mental functions; it is mental evenness, mental passivity, and effortless mental abiding. Its function consists in not providing an occasion for afflictions to occur.

Depending on the methods for one-pointed, internal placement of the mind on a focal object,

[50] one gradually practices the nine mental stages. When one achieves the ninth stage, the mind

abides effortlessly [in a stable state] without any need to make the effort of applying an antidote

for laxity and excitation. This effortless abiding of the mind is equanimity.

Generally, there are the three types of equanimity—the mental condition89 [called]

equanimity; the neutral feeling [called] equanimity; and the immeasurable90 [called] equanimity.

Among these, we are discussing here the mental condition [called] equanimity.

With respect to this, it is necessary to thoroughly understand how, on the first stage, one

applies the mind to the focal object and employs the antidotes to laxity and excitement. [One

needs to know these issues for each stage] on up to the way [at the eighth level] to improve the

focus on the focal object and apply the antidotes to laxity and excitement. [One also needs to

know] in the end [on the ninth stage], how one achieves one-pointed concentration, the criteria

for not needing to be careful about laxity and excitation, the way one attains equanimity, and so

on. Since one needs to know all this in detail, one should learn it from the stages on the path to

enlightenment [literature] itself.

It is said that the function of equanimity “consists in not providing the occasion for

afflictions to occur.” This means that, when one obtains the ninth mental stage, it is easy to

reverse the manifest afflictions of the desire realm; one is not able to express the difference

between excitation and laxity at the time of meditative equipoise.

1.2.3.11 Non-harm (rnam par mi 'tshe ba, avihiṃsā)

Non- Harm is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:91

What is non-harm? It is a compassionate mental function that is in part a form of non-hatred. Its function is not to be hurtful.

Non-harm is patient forbearance that, without any harmful intention, focuses on suffering

beings and thinks, “If they could only be free of that [suffering]!” [51] This abandoning of harm

to sentient beings, i.e., non-harm, is the essential meaning of the Conqueror’s scriptures. As it

has been stated:

Forbearance is the best austerity; the Buddha has said, “Forbearance is supreme nirvāṇa.” If, having renounced the world, one harms or injures another, then one

is not a monk (śrāmaṇera).

Even in the context of the procedure for taking Vinaya vows, it is stated how important it is to

definitely have a water strainer so as to avoid harming the beings in the water [that one uses]; it

is important because one must definitely avoid harm to others along with any basis [for harming

them]. And when stating personal instructions, one is given the firm instruction to maintain the

four qualities of a monk:

Even if one is abused, one should not abuse in return. Even if one is angered, one should not retaliate with anger in return. Even if one is struck, one should not strike back. Even if one’s faults are exposed, one should not expose the faults of others.

When those who have insight analyze and understand these spiritual qualities, they will be able

to understand that abandoning violence is the essence of the teaching.

1.2.3.12 [Closing Remarks on Virtuous Mental Functions]

One might wonder whether the virtuous mental functions are nothing but the eleven stated

here. Well, in general, virtuous [mental functions] are said to be of five kinds: those that are

virtuous by nature, virtuous by connection, virtuous by secondary connection, virtuous due to

motivation, and virtuous because of the ultimate. The eleven stated above—namely, faith and so

on—are called “virtuous by nature.” They are called such because, without depending on

anything else such as a motivation, [52] they arise as virtuous just as a result of coming into

existence. Hence, in this context, I have taught the eleven primary virtuous mental functions. As

for the “virtuous connection,” they are minds and mental functions that are equivalently

conjoined through the five equivalencies with those eleven, namely, faith and so on. The

“virtuous by secondary connection” are virtuous imprints (bag chags; Skt. vāsanā). The

“virtuous due to motivation” are, for example, corporeal and vocal karmic actions motivated by

faith. The “virtuous because of the ultimate” is explained to be suchness. That is, if one

meditates focused on suchness, then all obscurations are purified; therefore, it is given the name

of “virtuous”; it is not actually virtuous.

The aforementioned virtues can also be classified in terms of their context; they are states

that are; virtuous because acquired by birth; virtuous because of practice; virtuous because done

in a [sacred] presence; virtuous because beneficial; virtuous because protective; virtuous because

of [being] an antidote; virtuous because of completely pacification; and virtuous because of a

homogenous cause.

That which is “Virtuous because acquired through birth” is, for example, the faith that arises

upon merely being born due to latent propensities of previous lives; it is not related to

habituation in this life. That which is “Virtuous due to practice” is, for example, the desire to

obtain Buddhahood that arises in dependence on four conditions: relying on a spiritual friend in

this life, listening to the sacred dharma, contemplating and attending to it properly, and

practicing dharmas that are conducive to obtaining nirvāṇa. That which is “virtuous because

done in a [sacred] presence” is, for example, [53] the activity of bowing and making offerings

having visualized a distinctive field of merit. That which is “virtuous because it is beneficial” is,

for example, activity that matures beings by means of the four ways of gathering disciples (bsdu

ba bzhi). That which is “virtuous because it protects” is the distinct, wholesome karmic activity

that enables one to obtain high rebirths and definite liberation. That which is “virtuous because it

is an antidote” is the virtuous activity that possesses the distinctive power that directly destroys

unharmonious factors, which are to be abandoned. That which is “virtuous that completely

pacifies” is explained, for example, to be the truth of cessation. Accordingly it is taught:

Through virtue, one is free of attachment; through virtue one is liberated from the lower realms; it is uniquely, ultimately supreme; it is the pacified dharma.

That which is “virtuous because of homologous cause” constitutes the five types of

supernatural knowledge92 and ten powers of a Buddha93 that arise due to attaining the truth of

cessation. The aforementioned virtues are either actual or metaphorical, as is appropriate.

In the same way, the non-virtuous are said to be of five kinds: those that are non-virtuous by

nature, non-virtuous by connection, non-virtuous by secondary connection, non-virtuous due to

motivation, and non-virtuous because of the ultimate.

The “non-virtuous by its very nature” are most of the afflictions (kleśas) and secondary

afflictions (upakleśas). The “non-virtuous by relation” refers to the minds and mental functions

that are equivalently conjoined with these afflictions. The “non-virtuous by secondary

connection” refers to non-virtuous imprints. The “non-virtuous due to motivation” are the

activities of body and speech that are motivated by these afflictions. [54] The “non-virtuous

because of the ultimate” means everything included in saṃsāra. Regarding this, although

saṃsāra is that in terms of which Noble Beings (ārya) develop the motivation to arise [from it],

it is called “non-virtuous because of the ultimate.” Nevertheless, there is no certainty that

everything included in saṃsāra is non-virtuous. Also, with regard to the aforementioned non-

virtues, there seem to be many instances where one must distinguish between the actual and

metaphorical.

The non-virtuous can also be classified according to its circumstances: non-virtuous

acquired by birth; non-virtuous because of practice; non-virtuous because of action in the

presence [of others]; non-virtuous because causing harm; non-virtuous because protective; non-

virtuous because of contrary factors; and non-virtuous because of impediments.

The “non-virtue acquired by birth” is, for example, compulsively engaging in killing others

through merely being born with latent propensities acquired in previous lives. When debating

about the wording of such [statements], one might object that one can maintain that the action of

killing, for example, is non-virtuous, but one cannot claim that, for example, engaging in taking

life is non-virtuous. Nevertheless, the classification of the virtuous and non-virtuous discussed

here has not been put forward as some essential step for [learning] the refutations made by

today’s young minds. Rather, I have written them down as an essential step in recognizing the

object and aspects of the virtuous and non-virtuous when one practices the stages of the path to

awakening. Not believing in mere words, it is right to direct the mind inward. [55]

The “non-virtuous because of practice” is, for example, the faulty activity via the three

doors [of body, speech, and mind] that occurs through relying on non-virtuous friends, listening

to spurious dharma, thinking incorrectly about it, and then meditating on it. The “non-virtuous

because of action in the presence [of others]” is, for example, making offerings of blood to idols

by following those who have been deceived by misguided friends in the belief that harming is

religious activity. The “non-virtuous because causing harm” is, for example, activity through

body, speech, and mind that harms sentient beings. The “non-virtuous because protective” is, for

example, the completing and projecting karma, which is only the result of suffering. The “non-

virtuous because of contrary factors” is, for example, wrong views that obstruct the arising of an

uncontaminated path. The “non-virtuous because of impediments” is, for example, wrong views

that impede all that is virtuous.

Likewise there is also that which is “indeterminate.” This ranges from that which is

indeterminate by nature up to that which is indeterminate through a similar cause. Moreover,

with regard to virtue and non-virtue, there is that which appears to be virtuous, although it is not

virtuous; and there is that which appears to be non-virtuous, even though it is virtuous. Since

there are so many such issues to be explained, [I] will not elaborate here. If one wishes to

thoroughly understand [this], then one should look at the Abhidharma texts.

The Noble Seven Jewels94 bestow [56] all good things in this life and the next; if, having found them, one throws them away and instead strives for the meaningless, like one laboriously winnowing husks, then, Oh my, what crap!

The eye of intelligence that distinguishes the path from what is not the path is obscured by the dirty water of foolish, stupid words. Someone claims to walk the

path and its spiritual levels by using the fake staff of spurious dharma? How laughable!

Listen, intelligent and eager friends! If you seek the jewel that intensifies one’s intention to accomplish the two aims, then follow the Supreme Navigator, [Tsong-kha-pa] blo-bzang [grags-pa], and dive into the wish granting ocean of the Sage’s teaching.

Thus some intermediary verses have been composed.95

1.2.4 The Six Fundamental Afflictions (rtsa nyon drug, ṣaḍmūlakleśa)

The six fundamental afflictions are these afflicted views: attachment (‘dod chags, rāga),

anger (khong khro, pratigha), pride (nga rgyal, māna), ignorance (ma rig pa, avidyā), doubt (the

tshom, vicikitsā), and afflicted views (lta ba, dṛṣṭi).

Regarding these, the general defining characteristic of afflictions in general is explained

in the Abhidharmasamuccaya: as follows:96

This is the definition of an afflicted mental function: it arises with the characteristic of perturbation (rab tu ma zhi ba, apraśānta), and arising in that fashion, it perturbs the mental continuum.

It is an awareness that perturbs the mental continuum when it arises.

I will now explain the nature of each [of the six] individually.

1.2.4.1 Attachment (‘dod chags, rāga)

Attachment is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:97

What is attachment? It is attachment for things of the three realms and it has the function of producing suffering.

It is a mental function that is obsessed with a contaminated entity through seeing it as

delightful by means of its own nature. Regarding this, the Venerable Omniscient [Tsong-kha-pa]

states: [57]

Attachment focuses on an external or internal object that is beautiful and attractive and then craves it. For example, just as it is difficult to remove grease that has soaked into a cotton cloth, likewise it is difficult to stop attending to an object that one yearns for and is fixated on.98

Attachment can be categorized into three: desire-realm attachment, form-realm attachment,

and formless-realm attachment. The Abhidharmakośa explains as twofold: desire-realm

attachment and attachment for existence; attachment for existence is explained through grouping

the two types of attachment within the upper realms into one.

Desire-realm attachment is desire and craving through perceiving the five sense pleasures

such as form, sound, and so forth. The grouping of attachment within the two upper realms and

calling it ‘attachment for existence’ is for the purpose of reversing the erroneous view that the

path to liberation (mokṣmārga) consists of meditative attainments (samāpatti) within the form

and formless realms. The statement that its function ‘is to produce suffering’ is for the purpose of

understanding that, since the root of all suffering within the three realms of saṃsāra is birth

connected to saṃsāra itself, the principal cause of birth within saṃsāra is attachment – craving

itself. [58]

1.2.4.2 Anger (khong khro, pratigha)

Anger is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:99

What is anger? It is malevolence in regard to sentient beings, to suffering, and to the conditions of suffering. Its function consists in providing a basis for discomfort (asparśavihāra, BHSD: 85) and malicious conduct.

It is a hostile attitude that desires to cause harm to, and cannot endure the three objects of

anger. The three objects that give rise to anger are sentient beings, one’s own sufferings, and

situations that occur from these sufferings. According to the Ratnāvalī, the basis for malevolence

is said to be ninefold:100

Malevolence comes from nine causes—it is the intent to harm others on the part of one who is concerned about some misfortune with regard to oneself, one’s friends, or one’s enemies in the three times.

With regard to that the Lam-rim chen mo states:101

Anger is malevolence in relation to objects such as sentient beings, suffering, and

bases of suffering such as weapons, thorns, and so forth. It is an abusive mind that intends to harm those objects.

The function of anger causes discomfort to happiness in this life and produces immeasurable

suffering in future lives. Therefore, the Bodhicaryāvatāra states:102 [59]

When hatred embraces a tormented mind, one does not experience peace, nor obtains happiness or delight, nor goes to sleep.

Those whom one honors with wealth and respect, and also one’s dependents, even they wish to slay the master who has hatred.

Even relatives are disenchanted with him. Even though he gives, he is not honored. In brief, there is no sense in which someone prone to anger is well off.

The Jātakamālā also states:103

If one is discolored by the fire of anger, even wearing ornaments will not allow one to appear beautiful. Even if one goes to sleep on a comfortable bed, a mind with the sharp pain of anger will be miserable.

One forgets the benefit that was done for him, and tormented by anger one travels the unwholesome path. One’s fame and achievements will decline. Even prosperity fades like the waning moon.

Although supported by dear friends, through anger one’s human endowment will tumble into the abyss. One’s intelligence degenerates thinking of benefit and harm, these contradictory thoughts will lead to confusion.

In becoming habituated to negative actions through anger, one will experience suffering for hundreds of years in the lower realms. Even an enemy who goes to great lengths to manifest great harm could not do more than this.

1.2.4.3 Pride (nga rgyal, māna)

Pride [60] is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:104

What is pride? It is a puffed up attitude based on the [false] view of the transitory aggregates (satkāyaḍṛṣṭi). Its function is to provide a basis for disrespect and suffering.

It is a mental function that has an inflamed attitude that thinks whatever suitable wealth or

quality is a basis for arrogance. Here the Lam rim states:105

Pride is based on the [false] view of the transitory aggregates and is an inflated attitude based on any external or internal circumstance that is high or low, good

or bad, which partakes of the special aspect of superiority.

The statement, “based on the [false] view of the transitory aggregates” is accordingly

taught because all occurrences of pride arise based on the instinctual grasping at an “I” which

thinks, “I am.” Pride has seven divisions: pride (nga rgyal, māna); excessive pride (lhag pa’i nga

rgyal, atimāna); pride beyond pride (nga rgyal las kyang nga rgyal, mānātimāna); pride of

thinking, “I am” (nga’o snyam pa’i nga rgyal, asmimāna); pride of conceit (mngon pa’i nga

rgyal, abhimāna); pride of inferiority (cung zad snyam pa’i nga rgyal); and false pride. (log pa’i

nga rgyal, mithyāmāna).

The first, pride, is an inflated attitude in which one thinks, “I am distinctly more superior

than underlings like these.” Excessive pride is an inflated attitude in which one thinks, “I am

distinctly more superior than my peers.” Pride beyond pride is an inflated attitude in which one

thinks, “I am most distinctly superior compared to others who are distinctly superior.” The pride

which thinks, “I am” is an inflated attitude in which one thinks, having investigated the

appropriating aggregates, “I am.” Pride of conceit [61] is an inflated attitude in which one thinks,

“I have achievements,” even though one has not attained anything. Pride of inferiority is an

inflated attitude in which one thinks, “I am small and inferior compared to those who are

distinctly superior.” False pride is to think that one has obtained virtuous qualities while lapsing

into a situation of going astray. An example is claiming that one has attained good qualities

when one is possessed by a demon. Also, the Vinayāgama states, “to feel proud about what is

actually a matter of shame…” Thus it teaches, for example, that, having given up the Vinaya

code, desiring to gain honor, one associates with householders and conceitedly thinks he is

helping others.

These [definitions] are arranged according to what is taught in the Abhidharmakośa but are

similarly explained in the Ratnāvalī (5.6-12):106

Pride is sevenfold; I will explain each of them (below).

Concerning these, the (first) is called ‘pride’— it is where one thinks of oneself as even inferior to the inferior, equal to the equal, or greater than or equal to the inferior.

’Presumptive pride’ is for one to presume that one is equal to someone who is better. If one presumes oneself to be even better than one’s betters, then this is ‘pride beyond pride,’ thinking oneself to be even loftier than the lofty. It is exceedingly bad, like developing sores on top of your boils.107

These five empty [aggregates] are called ‘the appropriated.’ When through confusion one apprehends them as “I,” it is called the pride of thinking “I am.”

To presume that one has attained a result that one has not attained is to have pride of conceit. The wise know that boasting about one’s negative deeds is false pride. [62]

Deriding oneself, thinking, “I cannot manage,” is the pride of inferiority. Such are the seven forms of pride, in brief.

Because of its disrespect for those who have virtuous qualities, pride has the function of

obstructing any new attainment of dharma, both scriptural and realizational. It causes lower

realm rebirths in future lives, and even if one takes rebirth as a human, it serves as a cause to be

born within a low caste or as a servant. Therefore, [pride] generates undesirable [circumstances]

in both this life and future lives. In this way, the Ratnāvalī states:108

Arrogance leads to a low caste; jealousy brings about homeliness. From anger comes a bad complexion and stupidity, since one will not question the wise. These are the effects when one is [reborn as] a human, but prior to all of them there is a bad rebirth.

The Lam rim states:109

Pride in this life is the greatest hindrance in developing the path and in future lives is the cause for becoming a servant and so forth; it must be abandoned.

1.2.4.4 Ignorance (ma rig pa, avidyā)

Ignorance is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:110

What is ignorance? It is is the lack of knowledge with respect to the three realms of existence. Its function consists in providing a basis for the occurrence of the afflictions, doubt, and the erroneous ascertainment of things.

This confusion is a mental state that obscures the nature of things. This confusion is a

mental function that obscures the nature of thtings. This ignorance, as a mental function, is

explained as a confusion that does not understand, and as a mind that apprehends [its objects]

incorrectly. Among these two [definitions], the exposition in the Abhidharmasamuccaya

explains it [to be] a misknowing mental function. [63] The explanation in the

Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa by Ācārya Vasubandhu agrees with Asaṅga; thus both brothers’

assertions concur. However, Ācārya Dharmakīrti asserts that it is the confusion that apprehends

incorrectly. Therefore, although there are two views with respect to ignorance – the position of

an incorrect apprehension or of a mind that does not realize [its object] – all equally assert that

the principal antidote of ignorance is the sublime wisdom that realizes selflessness.

When ignorance is categorized it is twofold: an ignorance that is confused about cause and

effect, and an ignorance that is confused about the nature of emptiness. Ignorance that is

confused about cause and effect accumulates the karma that leads to the lower realms, and the

ignorance that is confused about the nature of emptiness accumulates the karma that makes one

cycle in higher rebirths. The statement that its function “consists in providing a basis for the

occurrence of the afflictions, doubt, and erroneous ascertainment of things” means: Other

afflictions occur dependent upon ignorance, and dependent upon them karma occurs; dependent

upon karma all sufferings of saṃsāra occur. Therefore, all afflictions and faults occur dependent

upon ignorance. The Pramāṇavārttika states:

One who sees a self will always cling to an ‘I’; this will lead to a lust for pleasures, and that lust obscures faults [of those things that are imagined to bring pleasure].111

It also says:

All types of flaws are born from the view that the transitory aggregates [constitute a self]. [64] Ignorance (avidyā) is that. From that comes anger and so on. Because of that, confusion is said to be the fundamental cause of (nidāna) flaws.”.112

All defilements have confusion as their root, and that confusion is the view that the transitory aggregates [constitute a Self].113

The venerable teacher [Tsong-kha-pa] likewise states:114

Ignorance is the root of all the adversities of the world, which are dispelled by seeing the dependent origination you taught.

In summary, this ignorance is the root of saṃsāra that leads one throughout the three

realms. Since it is the basis for all karma and afflictions, ignorance is taught as the first of the

twelve limbs of dependent origination.

1.2.4.5 Doubt (the tshom, vicikitsā)

Doubt, is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:

What is doubt? It is the uncertainty of truths; its function is to provide a basis for not becoming involved with virtuous things.115

It is a mental function that oscillates between two extremes concerning the four truths,

cause and effect, and so forth. This doubt obstructs all virtuous activities and especially obstructs

perceiving the truth. Since this will be reversed when one sees the truth, it is taught as a fetter

that is abandoned through [the path of] seeing.116

1.2.4.6 Afflicted views (lta ba, dṛṣṭi)

There are five afflicted views: the view that the transitory aggregates [constitute a real Self]

(‘jig tshog la lta ba, satkāyadṛṣṭi); extreme views (mthar lta, antargrāhadṛṣṭī); the conception

that views are supreme (lta mchog ‘dzin, dṛṣṭiparāmarśa); the conception that ethics and ascetic

vows are supreme (tshul khrims dang brtul zhugs mchog ‘dzin, śīlavrataparāmarśa), and wrong

views (log lta, mithyādṛṣṭi).

1.2.4.6.1 View that the transitory aggregates [constitute a Self] The false view that the transitory aggregates [constitute a Self] is explained in the

Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:

What is the false view of thte transitory aggregates? [65] It is any acceptance, assertion, idea, inclination, or point of view which considers to be true the idea of ‘self’ or ‘belonging to a self’ with regard to the five appropriated aggregates. Its function consists in providing a basis for all sorts of opinions.117

It is an afflicted discernment that grasps onto the idea of “I” and “mine” through perceiving

the five appropriated aggregates. There is a reason for calling this a ‘false view that the transitory

aggregates [constitute a Self],’ as the Lam rim states:118

Regarding this, since ‘perishing’ means impermanent and ‘collection’ (i.e., the aggregates) means manifold, the locus of this view is merely an impermanent and manifold thing. However, one applies the term ‘false view that the transitory aggregates [constitute a Self]’ for the purpose of teaching that ‘a permanent and singular person does not exist.’

Here, the understanding of the terms “acceptance” and so forth are explained in the

Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows: “acceptance,” since there is apprehension with regard to a

perverted object; “assertion,” since one is concerned about that perverted object; “idea,” since

one has investigated that object; “inclination,” insofar as one has an attraction to that object;

“view,” since one perceives that object. The false view towards the transitory aggregates has the

function of providing a basis for all sorts of wrong views. Accordingly, the Saptakumārāvadāna

teaches:

When and where will I cease to desire the pleasures of existence and remove the false view toward the transitory aggregates that is the mother of all views?

When classifying the subdivisions of this false view toward the transitory aggregates, [66]

the view that the transitory aggregates [constitute a Self] is divided into twenty. There are twenty

forms of the false view toward the transitory aggregates by classifying [each of the five

aggregates] through four divisions, such as: viewing the self as form; the self as possessing form;

the self as being form; and the self as being in form. Likewise, the same divisions apply to the

four remaining aggregates of feeling, discrimination, mental formations, and consciousness.

Likewise the Suhṛllekha (49) also states:

It has been taught that “form is not the self; the self does not possess form; the self does not reside within form; and form does not reside within the self.” Understand the remaining four aggregates to likewise be empty.

Furthermore, the Madhyamakāvatāra states:

Form is not the self; the self does not possess form; the self is not ‘in’ form; nor is form ‘in’ the self. All the aggregates are to be understood according to these four alternatives, and this is accepted as the twenty views toward a self.119

These [aspects] are the lofty peaks situated on the massive mountain of the false view toward the transitory aggregates. They and the self are instantly destroyed by the vajra-bolt like realization of selflessness.120

The twenty views toward the transitory aggregates are concisely taught as the two forms of

grasping at “I” and “mine.” If one wishes to thoroughly understand the characteristics of these,

then one should learn them from the Abhidharmasamuccayabhāṣya and [Tsong-kha-pa’s]

Dgongs pa rab gsal commentary on the Madhyamakāvatāra.

1.2.4.6.2 Extreme views Extreme views (mthar lta, antargrāhadṛṣṭī) are explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as

follows:

What is the view that grasps onto extremes? It is some acceptance, assertion, understanding, concept, or point of view that [67] considers as true the idea of eternality or annihilation with regard to the five appropriated aggregates Its function is to impede emergence [from saṃsāra] by means of the middle path.121

This is an afflicted discrimination which grasps onto eternality or annihilation by perceiving

a self that is apprehended by the false view of the transitory aggregates. The manner of grasping

onto eternality or annihilation by these [extreme views] is explained in the Lam rim chen mo as

follows:

The view that grasps onto extremes is an afflicted discrimination which views a self that is apprehended by the false view of the transitory aggregates, as either permanent, or as annihilated, since there is no transmigration in future lives.

Therefore, since this wrong view causes one to fall into the extremes of eternalism and

annihilationism, it is the principal obstacle to traversing the middle path that is free from the

extremes of eternality and annihilation.

1.2.4.6.3 Conception that false views are supreme The conception that false views are supreme (lta mchog ‘dzin, dṛṣṭiparāmarśa) is explained

in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:

What is the conception that false views are supreme? It is some acceptance, assertion, understanding, concept, or point of view that considers views that have the aggregates that perpetuate cyclic existence as their basis to be supreme, distinctly superior, and perfectly true. Its function is to provide a basis for adherence to bad views.122

This is an afflicted discrimination that apprehends views as supreme based on perceiving the

aggregates, and is a basis for all other wrong views. [68] Here, the terms ‘supreme’ and so forth

are as follows: one apprehends it as ‘supreme’ when one arrogantly assumes it to be excellent;

one apprehends it as the ‘foremost’ when one apprehends that there is nothing else better than

this; one apprehends it as ‘superior’ when it is distinctive from others; and one apprehends it as

‘perfectly true’ when one apprehends that there is nothing similar to it. Here, the Lam rim states:

The belief that views are supreme is as follows: It is based upon one of the three wrong views: the view that the transitory aggregates [constitute a Self], annihilationism, or eternalism. It is an afflicted discrimination which, based on observing the aggregates of the one who holds the view, apprehends [that way of viewing them] to be superior.

Its function is said to provide a basis for adhering to wrong views; It establishes latent

propensities which are not free from wrong views now and in the future.

1.2.4.6.4 The conception that ethics and ascetic vows are supreme The conception that ethics and ascetic vows are supreme (tshul khrims dang brtul zhugs

mchog ‘dzin, śīlavrataparāmarśa) is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:

What is the conception that ethics and ascetic vows are supreme? It is some acceptance, assertion, understanding, concept, or point of view that considers ethics and ascetic vows—where the locus for those ethics and rituals are the five aggregates—to be true, pure, just, and conducive to emancipation. Its function is to provide a basis for weariness in fruitless activities.123

It is an afflicted discrimination of the view of pure liberation, based on viewing the

aggregates which arise from such conduct, which views the ethics that are totally accepted

through poor views and ascetic vows, such as acts of body and mind like wearing animal skins.

[69] Here, the Lam rim states:

The conception that ethics and ascetic vows are supreme is as follows. It concerns the ethics of celibacy (’chal tshul spong ba’i tshul ’khrims) and ascetic vows that require restrictions concerning clothing, behavior, and activities of body and speech. Based upon these, it is an afflicted discrimination that, focused upon the aggregates of those who [espouse such disciplines], holds that those [disciplines] will purify one’s misdeeds, liberate one from the afflictions, and definitely make one arise out of saṃsāra.

It is said that “its function is to provide a basis for weariness in fruitless activities.” This is

obvious.

1.2.4.6.5 Wrong views Wrong views (log lta, mithyādṛṣṭi) are explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:

What are wrong views? They are some acceptance, assertion, understanding, concept, or point of view that deprecates cause, effect, and action, and that wrongly cognizes perishing entities to be existent. It has the function of cutting off the roots of virtue, holding the roots of non-virtue to be superior, and providing a basis for engaging in non-virtue and not engaging in virtue.124

It is an afflicted discrimination that views the cause and effect of actions and previous and

future lives as non-existent. Here, the Lam rim states:

Wrong view is an afflicted discrimination that deprecates the possibility of past and future lives, action’s relationship to cause and effect, and/or apprehends Īśvara or the Fundamental Principle as the cause of living beings. [70]

When classifying wrong view there are four types: wrong view that deprecates causes,

wrong view that deprecates effects, wrong view that deprecates actions, and wrong view that

deprecates existent entities.

Deprecation of causes is to view good actions, wrong actions, and so forth as non-existent.

Deprecation of effect is to view the maturation of virtuous or wrongful actions as non-existent.

The deprecation of action is to view father, mother, previous and later worlds, and so forth as

non-existent. Deprecation of existent entities is to view the attainment of Arhatship and so forth

as non-existent.

Generally, although there are many wrong views, since the wrong view which deprecates

the cause and effect of actions and [the relationship] between previous and later worlds severs all

roots of virtue, it is taught as the worst of all wrong views.

Along these lines, if the five types of [false] views are abbreviated, they may be grouped

into two views: those that superimpose (sgro ‘dogs) and those that deprecate (skur ‘debs). If one

categorizes subdivisions within these five there are: the twenty false views concerning the

transitory aggregates, sixty-two wrong views, the fourteen indeterminate views, so on infinitely.

The sixty-two wrong views are taught in the Brahmajālasūtra. Here, if I present each one in

detail, it will take too long, so I will not explain them further.

The fourteen indeterminate views are: the four views which are based upon the extreme of

the past, the four which are based upon the extremes of the future, the four based upon nirvāṇa,

and two views which are based upon the body and life-force. [71]

The four which are based upon the extreme of the past are: views that the self and world are

permanent, impermanent, both [permanent and impermanent] and neither [permanent nor

impermanent].

The four which are based upon the extremes of the future are the views that the self and the

world have an end [i.e. not eternal], do not have an end [i.e., eternal], are both [eternal and not

eternal], and are neither [eternal nor not eternal].

The four that are based upon nirvāṇa are the views that a tathāgata, from his death onward,

will appear, will not appear, [will] both [appear and not appear], and [will] neither [appear nor

not appear].

The two which are based upon the body and life-force are the two views that the body and

life-force are either identical or are different.

These views are accepted by those who follow Sāṃkhya (grangs can pa), Cārvāka (rgyang

‘phen pa), Nirgrantha (gcer bu pa), and Vātsīputrīya (gnas ma bu pa). Here, I will mention only

the names of these views; if one wishes to thoroughly understand the particulars of each one and

the manner in which they occur, then one should do so by resorting to the precious sūtras and the

Mādhyamika texts, which comment upon the sūtras’ intention.

These views are called ‘indeterminate’ not because they are indeterminate as to whether

they posit virtue or non-virtue, but because these followers of the Sāṃkhya and so forth, start

with the premise of a self of the person. When they [Sāṃkhya and so forth] question whether the

self and the world are permanent, impermanent, and so forth [72], they are not taught the

selflessness of the person. [The Buddha’s] intention here is that they are unsuitable as vessels for

teaching selflessness, and with the intention that they are unsuitable for extraordinary teachings

because there is not a special basis, these questions are called ‘indeterminate questions,’ since

[the Buddha] did not make a reply. In this way, the Ratnāvalī states:125

When asked whether the world has an end, the Victor remained speechless. Because of that, the profound dharma was not explained to unsuitable recipients. Due to that [reason] itself, wise ones know that the Omniscient One is omniscient.

1.2.5 The Twenty Secondary Afflictions (nye nyon, upakleśa)

The twenty secondary afflictions are: wrath (khro ba, krodha), enmity (khon du ’dzin pa,

upanāha), hypocrisy (‘chab pa, mrakṣa), malice (‘tshig pa, pradāsa), jealousy (phrag dog,

īrṣyā), stinginess (ser sna, mātsarya), trickery (sgyu, māyā), deceit (g.yo, śāṭhya), arrogance

(rgyags pa, mada), hostility (rnam par ‘tshe ba, vihiṃsā), shamelessness (ngo tsha med pa,

āhrīkya), non-embarrassment (khrel med pa, anapatrāpya), sluggishness (rmugs pa, styāna),

agitation (rgod pa, auddhatya), nonbelief (ma dad pa, āśraddhya), laziness (le lo, kausīdya),

carelessness (bag med pa, pramāda), forgetfulness (brjed nges pa, muṣitasmṛtitā),

inattentiveness (shes bzhin ma yin pa, asaṃprajanya), and distraction (rnam par g.yeng ba,

vikṣepa).

1.2.5.1 Belligerence (khro ba, krodha)

Belligerence is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:126

What is belligerence? This is a hostile attitude that is associated with anger when the chance to cause harm is near at hand. Its function is to provide a basis for taking up weapons, punishment, etc., and preparing to injure.

It is a hostile attitude that desires to harm, through striking and so forth, when [73] any one

of the nine loci for a hostile attitude is close at hand.

The nine loci for a hostile attitude are the three thoughts of, “one has harmed me, one is

harming me, one will harm me”; the three thoughts of “one has harmed my relatives, one is

harming my relatives, one will harm my relatives”; and the three thoughts of “one has been

helpful to my enemy, one is being helpful to my enemy, one will be helpful to my enemy.”

These nine are explained as the nine loci for a hostile attitude. The source quote of these is

according to the previous citation.

If one wonders what the distinction is between anger and wrath in the context of anger being

a primary affliction (nyon mong) and wrath being a secondary affliction (nye nyon mong), anger

is a hostile attitude and intolerant mind when one of the three fields of objects appears as an

object of observation; wrath is an excessive increase of anger when the chance for harm is near

at hand, and is a very disturbed state of mind that desires to cause physical harm and so forth. In

the section that articulates anger, the Abhidharmasamuccaya explains it as “a hostile attitude

with regard to three qualities.” In the section on wrath [the text] explains, “when the chance to

cause harm is near at hand” that “taking up weapons and so forth” occurs. In the section on anger

in the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa, it explains it as “a hostile attitude towards sentient beings;” and

in the section that explains the secondary affliction of wrath, it is “a locus for immediate harm.”

[74] When reflecting upon what has been stated in these texts of Asaṅga and his brother

[Vasubandhu], one may wonder whether they agree or not according to the above explanation.

At any rate, since it is especially difficult [topic] to understand, the intelligent should thoroughly

investigate the matter further. It is completely understood as anger providing a basis for harming

others.

1.2.5.2 Enmity (khon du ’dzin pa, upanāha)

Enmity is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:127

What is enmity? It is not letting go of aversive thoughts through association with anger that underlies it. Its function is to provide a basis for impatience.

It is a mind that, in a relentless stream of anger, desires to return harm for harm. It is

completely understood as the apprehension of enmity providing a basis for impatience.

In regard to these two mental functions the Ratnāvalī explains:128

Anger is mental agitation; enmity follows from it.

1.2.5.3 Concealment (‘chab pa, mrakṣa)

Concealment is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:129

What is concealment? It is the concealing of faults when one is justly accused in part due to delusion. Its function consists in providing a basis for having a lack of remorse.

It is a mind which desires to conceal faults through the force of delusion when a spiritual

friend, etc., or some other individual speaks of one’s faults with the desire to be of benefit. With

this hypocrisy that does not accept one’s own faults, even small faults will greatly increase; [75]

it serves as a cause of not being remorseful or happy. It has the function of throwing one into

lower rebirths in the future.

Comment [CK2]: Shar gnyer ba

Comment [CK3]: other terms???

1.2.5.4 Malice (‘tshig pa, pradāsa)

Malice is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:130

What is malice? It is a hostile attitude that belongs to the category of anger and is preceded by wrath and enmity. It has the function of providing a basis for fierce and abusive words, for increasing that which is not meritorious, and being a state of unease.

It is a mind which desires to say insulting words due to hateful thoughts through the

influence of wrath and enmity without regard for acknowledging and having remorse for one’s

faults when those faults have been pointed out by someone else.

Regarding this, the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa explains that one “casts hatred by abusive

words”; the Ratnāvalī, (5.3d) by stating that “malice is the craving for negativity,” explains that

[malice] is to not forsake craving for negativity. But the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyavyākhyā

explains that malice is produced from apprehending negativity as excellent and regarding views

as supreme. Through this one engages in many negative actions like harsh words and so forth,

and by producing much non-meritorious karma, in this life one will not experience happiness,

and in future lives the maturation [of that karma] will produce unhappiness.

1.2.5.5 Jealousy (phrag dog, īrṣyā)

Jealousy is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:131

What is jealousy? It a disturbed state of mind associated with hatred that cannot tolerate other’s excellent qualities on account of being overly attached to fame and fortune. [76] It has the function of making the mind unhappy and making one uncomfortable.

It is a disturbed state of mind that cannot tolerate other’s excellence due to the force of one’s

attachment to fame and honor. This [mental function] produces great unpleasantness in both this

world and the next. In this life there is unhappiness and in the future one will be propelled into

lower rebirths.

1.2.5.6 Avarice (ser sna, mātsarya)

Avarice is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:132

What is avarice? It is an ever-grasping mind for material things associated with attachment due to being overly attached to fame and fortune. Its function is to provide a basis for not letting go of material things.

It is a grasping that is unable to let go of material things through the force of attachment to

fame and fortune. This [mental function] produces much unpleasantness in both this life and the

next. The Candrapradīpasūtra states:

If the childish are attached to this body which is rotting away, or even to this life which is unsteady and helpless, like an illusion or dream,

Then they do extremely inappropriate things and come under the power of nonvirtue. The fools depart on the Lord of Death’s carriage and then go to hell with furious minds.

Also, the Sgo mtha’ yas pa sgrub pa’i gzungs states:

Those beings who quarrel grasp onto the basis of that [quarrel]; in this way, if they were to abandon their craving for that and overcome their attachment, they would become powerful.

So forth and so on such sayings are unlimited.

1.2.5.7 Pretence (sgyu, māyā)

Pretence is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:133

What is pretence? [77] It is the demonstration of unreal qualities through being overly attached to fame and fortune, associated with attachment and delusion. Its function is to provide a basis for a perverse livelihood.

Through the force of being overly attached to fame and fortune, although one does not have

virtuous qualities one pretends to have them, just like a hypocrite who, even though his own

mind is not at all tamed, appears to be peaceful and trained with the intention of deceiving

others. In this way, the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa explains, “to deceive others is to display what

is not true;” the Lam rim also explains it in the same way. The statement that “[pretence]

provides the basis for a perverse livelihood” means that there is no better means of leading a

perverse livelihood than being hypocritical in one’s appearance to others.

There are five perverse lifestyles: hypocrisy, flattery, soliciting, expropriating, and

calculated generosity. Hypocrisy means, as explained above, through pretending to have the

virtuous qualities that one does not have, one has a contrived outwardly demeanor in one’s

appearance to others. Flattery means that one speaks smoothly by using words agreeable to the

thoughts of others for the sake of fame and fortune. Soliciting means, in desiring to obtain

another’s property, one at first flatters them and then praises what they own. Expropriating

means to exclaim the faults of others, such as great stinginess and so forth, in order to gain

something. Calculated generosity means that with a concern for wealth, one brags about what

one has obtained previously in front of others by saying, “I was blessed in such and such a way

by this respectable great person.” [78]

In brief, since wandering for alms from village to village on account of being attached to

wealth is not keeping in accord with the precepts of training and is taught as a perverse

livelihood, if you do not wish to lead a perverted life, then you must cast away the opinions of

others and protect without hypocrisy the precepts in a place of solitude.

1.2.5.8 Dissimulation (g.yo, śāṭhya)

Dissimulation is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:134

What is dissimulation? This is to hide faults, in association with attachment and delusion, through being overly attached to fame and fortune. Its function is to provide an obstacle to acquiring good advice.

It is the intent to conceal one’s faults from others through the force of being attached to

fame and fortune. Nowadays, people like us, having concealed our faults, if we are able to keep

them from being noticed by others, we become sly and clever. Bud from a dharmic perspective,

we are just deceiving ourselves. One should repeatedly be mindful with regard to this matter

based on the teaching of the Bodhicaryāvatāra:135

Comment [CK4]: check Sanskrit on this

The Buddhas and Bodhisattvas have unobstructed vision in all directions. Every single thing is before them. I constantly stand before them.

Meditating in this way, one should remain possessed of shame, respect, and fear.

Since these two, deceit and trickery, obstruct the acquisition of good advice in this life and

produce various undesirable situations, such as not acquiring good advice and not meeting

spiritual friends of the Mahāyāna in future lives, [79] they both are enumerated among the four

evil deeds in the Kaśyapaparivarta.

1.2.5.9 Arrogance (rgyags pa, mada)

Arrogance is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:136

What is arrogance? It is joy in satisfaction associated with attachment that comes from seeing one’s own marks of long life or [some other] contaminated excellence on the basis of health and youth. Its function is to provide a basis for all the primary and secondary afflictions.

It is a puffed up mind which is full of happiness and joy on account of experiencing health,

pleasure, abundance, and so forth. This [mental function] is the root of non-conscientiousness

because of producing all afflictions. The Adhyāśayasaṃcodanasūtra states:

This [mental function] arrogance is the root of all non-conscientiousness. Never belittle an inferior bhikṣu or you will not obtain liberation for an eon. This is the orderly procedure in this teaching.

The Suhṛllehkha likewise states:

Look upon the arrogance from greatness of family, physical appearance, learning, youthful health, and authority as enemies.

1.2.5.10 Hostility (rnam par ‘tshe ba, vihiṃsā)

Hostility is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:137

What is hostility? It is [a mental function] associated with anger, that lacks loving kindness, compassion, and mercy. It has the function of inflicting harm.

It is the the desire to inflict harm without loving kindness for sentient beings. [80] Here, the

synonyms beginning with lack of loving kindness and so forth are explained from the

Comment [CK5]: check sanskrit

commentaries which say that the desire to inflict harm by oneself is ‘lack of loving kindness’;

the desire to cause others to inflict harm is ‘lack of compassion’; and to rejoice in seeing or

hearing others act in such a way is ‘lack of mercy’. The function of this [mental function] is

understood.

1.2.5.11 Shamelessness (ngo tsha med pa, āhrīkya)

Shamelessness is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:138

What is shamelessness? It is [a mental function] associated with attachment, hatred, and delusion in which one does not refrain from wrongdoing. It has the function of supporting all the primary and secondary afflictions.

It is a state of mind that does not refrain from wrongdoing on account of oneself or an

ideology. For example, when a bhikṣu is in a situation where he might have to drink alcohol and

refrains from doing so, thinking, “This will intoxicate [me]; it is not for me to do,” he refrains

from wrongdoing, and this is understood as self-respect. The opposite of that is shamelessness.

1.2.5.12 Non-embarrassment (khrel med pa, anapatrāpya)

Non-embarrassment is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:139

What is non-embarrassment? Associatted with attachment, aversion, or confusion, it is not being ashamed of others due to one’s wrongdoing. It has the function of supporting all primary and secondary afflictions.

It is a state of mind that does not recoil from wrongdoing on account of others. [81]

Moreover, when one is about to engage in wrongdoing, thinking, “the teachers, i.e., the deities

who are aware of their own and others’ intentions, become embarrassed, and other persons will

think poorly of me. That would not be right,” one shrinks away from the wrongdoing on account

of what others will think.

In this way the Ratnāvalī states:140

Shamelessness is lack of restraint with regard to oneself; non-embarrassment is lack of restraint with regard to others.

The Bodhisattvabhūmi also states:

Self-respect is when a Bodhisattva, about to engage in a negative activity, realizes that it is not suitable for him or her to do so. Embarrassment is that very restraint in fear and respect to others.

Both shamelessness and non-embarrassment are the support of all afflictions and the cause

of all faults. If one does not wish to restrain from wrongdoing, then one will be unable to protect

[oneself from] wrongdoing. Therefore, both shamelessness and non-embarrassment occur as

concomitant with unwholesome mental functions from both the upper and lower Abhidharma

texts. Although there appears to be much more to be explained with regard to this, I will not

elaborate other than merely this [explanation given] here.

1.2.5.13 Dullness (rmugs pa, styāna)

Dullness is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:141

What is dullness? It is unsuitable activity of the mind that is associated with delusion. Its function is to support all primary and secondary afflictions.

[82] It is an unsuitable active mental function in which physical and mental heaviness

become associated with delusion. Moreover, the Ratnāvalī states:142

Dullness is a state of inactivity due to physical and mental heaviness.

The Abhidharmakośavyākhyā (2.26, LVP 161) also states:

What is dullness? It is heaviness of body and heaviness of mind. It is unsuitable physical activity and unsuitable mental activity.

It is also explained in this way in the Lam rim. The statement, ”its function is to support all the

primary and secondary afflictions” means, in dependence upon dullness, all afflictions will

increase. In this way also, the Adhyāśasaṃcodānasūtra states:

Whosoever rejoices in sleep and dullness, will become very disturbed in the world, like when phlegm, wind, and bile become predominant in one’s body.

Whosoever rejoices in dullness and sleep will be like when [one eats] bad food the belly becomes impure, one’s body becomes heavy, discolored, and unhappy; and one’s words will not be clear.

Comment [CK6]: add footnote of Sanskrit from bhodhisattvabhumi

And,

Whosoever rejoices in dullness and sleep will become dull and have diminished interest for the dharma. Childish, they will degenerate from all virtuous qualities, their brightness will dim, and they will go into darkness.

1.2.5.14 Agitation (rgod pa, auddhatya)

Agitation is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:143

What is agitation? It is a restless mental function associated with physical desire that engages with attractive things. [83] Its function is to obstruct meditative equipose.

It is a mental function that engages with craving and goes after previously experienced

desirable qualities. Regarding this, the Ratnāvalī states:144

Agitation is a lack of physical and mental tranquility.

Likewise, the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa also states:

What is agitation? It is the untranquil mind.

The meaning of these is taught in the Lam rim:

Its observed object is an attractive and bright object. The aspect of its observation is an untranquil mind and an involvement via craving for the object, by being associated with attachment. Its activity is to obstruct the mind from settling on its object of observation.

All occurrences of the mind becoming involved with something are not held to be agitation.

Agitation is an aspect of attachment; there are many instances when the mind engages with an

object by way of other afflictions which are not attachment, and since there are virtuous objects

of observation that are not afflictions, even though they are distracted mental functions, all

instances of distraction are not [necessarily] agitation.

1.2.5.15 Faithlessness (ma dad pa, āśraddhya)

Faithlessness is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:145

What is faithlessness? Associated with delusion, it is the lack of trust, [84] absence of faith, and lack of desire in the mind for the dharma. It has the function

of providing a basis for laziness.

It is in opposition to faith and is included as a part of delusion. This has three divisions:

faithlessness which is a lack of trust in actions and their results and is discordant with faith of

conviction (yid ches kyi dad pa); nonfaith which lacks a joyful mind and enthusiasm for the

virtuous qualities of the three jewels and so forth, that is discordant with faith of inspiration

(dang ba’i dad pa); and nonfaith which does not desire to seek out liberation and so forth, that is

discordant with faith of longing (mngon ‘dod kyi dad pa). Its function is easy to understand.

1.2.5.16 Laziness (le lo, kausīdya)

Laziness is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:146

What is laziness? It is an uninspired mind associated with delusion that depends upon the pleasures of sleeping, resting, and reclining. Its function is to interfere with the practice of virtuous things.

It is a mind uninclined toward virtue on account of the desire for sleep and so forth.

Laziness causes virtuous things in all directions to deteriorate. The Smṛtyupasthāna states:

The sole basis for the afflictions is laziness. That which has even some laziness is nothing.

1.2.5.17 Carelessness (bag med pa, pramāda)

Carelessness is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:147

What is carelessness? It is not cultivating virtuous qualities and not protecting the mind from contaminated things, based on attachment, aversion, ignorance and laziness. [85] It has the function of providing a basis for increasing non-virtue and decreasing virtue.

It is a relaxed state of mind that does not protect the mind from the accumulation of

afflictions and faults. In this regard, the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa states:

What is carelessness? It is not cultivating virtue and protecting the mind from afflictions that are due to attachment, aversion, ignorance, and laziness.

Its function is easy to understand.

1.2.5.18 Forgetfulness (brjed nges pa, muṣitasmṛtitā)

Forgetfulness is explained form the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:148

What is forgetfulness? It is recollection that possesses a resemblance to afflictions. Its function is to provide a basis for distraction.

It is an awareness that has forgetful and unclear thoughts with regard to virtue on account of

recollecting an afflictive object of observation. Likewise, since the Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa

explains that forgetfulness is an afflicted recollection, forgetting virtuous thoughts in an unclear

manner is said to be “forgetfulness.” Since afflicted objects of observation that have pleasant or

unpleasant characteristics and so forth do not arise as an object of awareness, they cannot be

similar to or thought of as forgetfulness. [To say that] forgetfulness provides a basis for

distraction means that afflicted objects of observation supported by afflicted recollection cause a

distracted mind. [86]

1.2.5.19 Non-discernment (shes bzhin ma yin pa, asaṃprajanya)

Non-discernment is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:149

What is non-discernment? It is a discriminating awareness that is concordant with afflictions and thereby engages the activities of body, speech, and mind inattentively. It has the function of providing a basis for downfalls.

It is an afflicted discriminating awareness that inattentively engages with activities of the

three doors [of body, speech, and mind] that is discordant with wisdom. [Stating that] this non-

wisdom provides a basis for downfalls is explained accordingly in the Bodhicaryāvatāra:150

Although many are learned, possessing faith, and absorbed in effort, they are troubled with downfalls due to the fault of lacking wisdom.

1.2.5.20 Distraction (rnam par g.yeng ba, vikṣepa)

Distraction is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:151

What is distraction? It is the proliferation of mental aspects that are associated with attachment, hatred, and delusion. It has the function of obstructing freedom

from attachment.

It is a mind that becomes distracted from its object of observation due to the force of

afflictions. The Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa explains it as the proliferation of mental aspects for the

five sense pleasures. If one thinks that there is no distinction between this [distraction] and

agitation that was explained above, agitation is a proliferation for pleasant objects previously

known and is associated with attachment; since distraction is associated with the three poisons

[i.e., attachment, hatred, and delusion] and becomes disturbed with any suitable object,

[distraction and agitation] are dissimilar.

There are six kinds of distraction [87]: natural distraction, external distraction, internal

distraction, distraction with regard to signs, distraction through inappropriate actions, distraction

through attention. Natural distraction is explained as the five sensory faculties. This is called

such because, if any of the five sensory faculties arise when one is concentrated in meditative

equipoise, one is removed from that concentration. External distraction is the proliferation of

thoughts of unestablished sense pleasures when ones takes part in the virtues derived from

hearing, reflecting, and meditation. It is called such because there is proliferation of perverted

objects of observation while not staying with virtuous objects of observation. Internal distraction

is a craving to experience excitation or laxity in absorption at the time of concentrated meditative

stabilization. The reason for calling these ‘internal distractions’ is because they are the principal

hindrances to cultivating inner concentration. Distraction with regard to signs means that when

one trusts other individuals who say, “This is absorption”, one thinks how nice it would be to

make effort in virtuous activities. Distraction through inappropriate actions means that, based

on taking up the negative tendencies of the view toward the transitory aggregates and pride, there

are arrogant thoughts which grasp onto ‘I’ and ‘mine,’ at the arising of feelings when engaging

in virtuous [activity]. Distraction through attention is like giving up the absorption of the fourth

Deleted: since the mind is distracted from concentration by being taken out of concentration when at the time of concentrated meditative stabilization any one of the five sensory faculties are activated.

Deleted: , there is proliferation of thought for the five sensory pleasures which does not focus on virtue

concentration for the lower absorption of the third concentration, [88] or like giving up the

practice of the Mahāyāna in order to practice in the Hīnayāna. These kinds of distraction

explained here provide a general enumeration of distractions, but all [kinds] are not to be

ascertained as actually being primary or secondary afflictions. The first is indeterminate and the

last one is grouped within virtue. The actual [mental functions of] distraction that are secondary

afflictions are such as external distraction and internal distraction, which have been explained

here. Intelligent persons who are subtle and learned must analyze this in detail.

In this way, these twenty, from wrath to distraction, are called ‘secondary afflictions’

because they are proximate or associated with the primary afflictions. Furthermore, they should

be understood individually as to their relation and so forth, for instance, whether wrath is close

to enmity and anger. Such things are clearly identified with the scriptures quoted many times

previously.

1.2.6 Four Variable Mental Functions (gzhan ‘gyur bzhi, caturanyathābhava)

There are four Variable mental functions: drowsiness (gnyid, middha), regret (‘gyod pa,

kaukṛtya), reflection (rtog pa, vitarka), and analysis (dpyod pa, vicāra).

1.2.6.1 Drowsiness (gnyid, middha)

Drowsiness is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:152

What is drowsiness? In dependence upon drowsiness as its cause, the mind is agreeable with virtue, non-virtue, the undetermined, the timely, the untimely, the appropriate, and the inappropriate, and is associated with delusion. It has the function of providing a basis for losing sight of what must be done.

It is a mental function in which the sensory organs that engage with objects helplessly turn

inward in dependence upon such causes as heaviness of body, little strength, fatigue, and

fogginess. [89] Here, the statement “timely and untimely” is elaborated by the Protector

Nāgārjuna (Suhṛllekha 39):

Righteous beings! During the day and even during the night, the time after sunrise and sunset, even while asleep, let the time not be fruitless. Do not let mindfulness slip away during those times.

The time to sleep is during the night; since the time during the forenoon, afternoon, and

daytime is not the time for sleep, [this] is the time to assiduously strive in virtuous activities. It is

taught in this way for the sake of understanding the method.

With respect to the statement “appropriate and inappropriate,” sleeping during the night with

the wish to increase the body’s performance of virtue is “appropriate,” and sleep that is disturbed

by afflictions, even if it is during the night, is “inappropriate.” The reason for this can be

understood from the texts quoted above.

Its function is explained as ”losing sight of what must be done” because sleep has two

aspects: virtuous and non-virtuous. The non-virtuous aspect, afflicted sleep, causes one to fall

away from virtuous deeds. The virtuous aspect of sleep is explained in detail in the

Yogacārabhūmi. I will not write about it for fear that the sources have too many words.

1.2.6.2 Regret (‘gyod pa, kaukṛtya)

Regret is explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:153

What is regret? It is to apprehend virtue, non-virtue, the undetermined, timely, untimely, appropriate, and inappropriate on account of anything to be done intentionally or unintentionally. [90] It is associated with delusion. It has the function of obstructing the stability of the mind.

Regret arises from repeatedly impressing upon the mind what is undesirable on account of

thinking about whether what is to be done is appropriate or inappropriate or of actions induced

through the insistence of others.

Regret also has three aspects: virtuous, non-virtuous, and undetermined. Regret for

previously done negative actions is on the virtuous side, and regret that arises from meritorious

activities is on the non-virtuous side. To regret little about the situation of work which may

benefit or harm others, and so forth is undetermined regret.

The statements “timely and untimely,” and “appropriate and inappropriate” mean that in a

situation where there can be a correction, regret is appropriate, and in a situation where there

cannot be a correction, regret is inappropriate. Moreover, appropriateness for regret in a situation

where there can be correction is like the necessity of confessing with regret for previous

downfalls for which the karmic maturation has not yet been established. Regret where there

cannot be correction is like the situation of being born in a lower realm where the karmic

maturation has already been established: since the life of a blind mind or cripple is in a situation

where karmic maturity has already been established, it cannot be reversed. [91] Therefore, if one

carefully examines these citations from the Abhidharmasamuccaya, it will manifest as a

marvelous method of generating certainty with regard to the stages of the path.

1.2.6.3 Reflection (rtog pa, vitarka)

and

1.2.6.4 Analysis (dpyod pa, vicāra)

Reflection and analysis, are explained in the Abhidharmasamuccaya as follows:154

What is reflection? It is a coarse mental operation, dependent upon intention or intellect, which conceptualizes what has been searched for. What is analysis? It is a precise mental operation, dependent upon intention or intellect, which conceptualizes individual investigation. The function of these two is to provide a basis for states of comfort or discomfort.

Reflection is to seek out merely the rough nature of a thing associated with a name. Analysis

is to examine through precise discernment.

The Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa also states:

What is reflection? It is mental discussion that thoroughly seeks out something. It is a coarse mental operation that is a particular aspect of intention and the intellect. What is analysis? It is a mental discussion that analytically investigates and accordingly is a precise mental operation.

The two brothers [Asaṅga and Vasubandhu] appear to agree on this explanation. The

Deleted: mentally discusses what has been sought out by the mind

Deleted: mentally discusses what has been reflected upon

statement that the activity of both reflection and analysis is “to provide a basis for comfort and

discomfort” means that both reflection and analysis have a virtuous and non-virtuous aspect. The

virtuous aspect of both reflection and analysis should be understood as providing a comfortable

basis for happiness since it produces pleasant results, and the non-virtuous aspect of both

reflection and analysis [92] should be understood as providing a basis of unhappiness since it

produces unpleasant results.

Moreover, precise analysis and reflection upon the subject of selflessness with the intention

to renounce saṃsāra and so forth is the virtuous aspect, and precise analysis and reflection upon

pleasant or unpleasant objects that are thoroughly taken up with desire, anger, and so forth is the

non-virtuous aspect. Analysis and reflection on the path of preparation and so forth that occur in

situations that do not have either virtuous or non-virtuous intentions are within undetermined

aspect.

These four – drowsiness, regret, reflection, and analysis – are called ‘variable’ because they

become virtuous, non-virtuous, or undetermined according to the level and quality of the

intention which gives rise to it. Generally, afflictive drowsiness, regret, reflection, and analysis

obstruct every aspect of virtue; mostly they obstruct the three trainings [of morality,

concentration, and wisdom.]

Five obscurations are taught in the sūtras and mentioned by the Protector Nāgārjuna

(Suhṛllekha 44):

Agitation and regret, malice, drowsiness and dullness, desire-craving, and doubt: recognize these five obscurations as the thieves who steal the wealth of virtue.

These five obscurations, drowsiness and so forth, are in general said to obscure all aspects of

virtue and especially the three trainings. These five obscurations are counted as five because

agitation and regret are counted as one obscuration; [93] drowsiness and dullness are counted as

one obscuration; malice, desire-craving, and doubt are counted individually.

Furthermore, desire-craving and malice primarily obscure the trainings in morality.

Drowsiness, dullness, agitation, and regret primarily obscure the trainings in concentration.

Doubt, reflection, and analysis primarily obscure the training in wisdom. Also, these five

obscurations are said to obscure morality and meditative stabilization in the

Abhidharmasamuccaya. It is explained in the Saṃvaraviṃśaṭīka that only meditative

stabilization is obscured. In brief, the basis of explaining these are thoroughly articulated in the

upper and lower Abhidharma (i.e., Abhidharmakośa and Abhidharmasamuccaya), and since

there appear to be many enumerations of explanation in other texts, I am unable to write about

them all here.

Now then, one may wonder how it is that dullness, which occurs in the section on secondary

afflictions, and drowsiness, which occurs in the section on variable mental functions, can be

counted together as one in the section on the five obscurations. Likewise, one may wonder how

it is that agitation, which occurs in the secondary afflictions section, and regret, which occurs

among the variable mental functions, are counted together as one. Generally, dullness and

drowsiness are not the same; since dullness is associated with delusion, and drowsiness can

either be virtuous or non-virtuous, dullness is said to be a secondary affliction and drowsiness is

said to be a variable mental function. In the same manner, [94] with regard to agitation and

regret, since agitation is associated with attachment and regret may either be virtuous or non-

virtuous, agitation is a secondary affliction and regret is taught as a variable mental function.

They are construed as one in the scheme of the five obstructions and taught as a single

obscuration because they are produced by the same cause, abandoned by the same antidote, and

agree in their function.

That they are produced from the same cause means that both dullness and drowsiness come

from eating too much food, from an unhappy mind, from mental weakness, from relishing things,

and so forth. Both agitation and regret are produced from indulging in sense desires, recreation,

laughing, and from imagining that one will not die. That the same antidote abandons them means

that both dullness and drowsiness are clarified by illuminating awareness and agitation and

regret are clarified by mentally apprehending an inner object of observation. That they agree in

their function means that since both dullness and drowsiness cause laxity within the mind, they

obstruct meditative stabilization and obstruct clarity with regard to specific objects of

observation. Both agitation and regret agree in their function to obstruct single-pointed stability.

In this way, this explanation has merely identified the primary afflictions, secondary

afflictions, and the four variable mental functions. However, since I have been unable to write

here on the very important extensive points that must be known – the distinctions concerning the

individual nature of each [mental function], the manner in which they are produced from certain

causes, the manner of each individual object of observation, concomitance, enumeration, and

whether they are virtuous, non-virtuous, or undetermined, both the way in which although it may

be an undetermined [mental function] the obscuration is not undetermined and although not an

obscuration the way in which a [mental function] is undetermined, [95] the manner of the object

of observation for each fault and the way they are abandoned by certain antidotes, the manner in

which [obscurations] are abandon by the mundane path and the distinctive manner of

abandonment by the supermundane path, in what manner abandonment takes place for the

abandonments among each specific path within the supermundane path’s abandonment process,

the distinctions between path of seeing abandonments and path of cultivation abandonments, and

the distinctions between how afflictive obscurations and obscurations to knowledge are

abandoned – one must understand by carefully examining the Muni’s stainless scriptures, the

general textual systems of the Great Charioteers which articulate his intention – in particular,

these processes in the texts of the two brothers Asaṅga [and Vasubandhu] which have

extensively been cited here, and the stainless eloquent explanations of the second Buddha Je

Rinpoche [Tsong-kha-pa blo-bzang grags-pa]. Some verses:

In the prison of existence since beginningless time, strongly bound by a thousand karmic chains, tortured by hundreds of pains and unbearable sufferings, the enemies that harm are definitely the afflictions themselves.

It is they who are the intolerable thieves that torture us so that we do not rest a single moment and who steal the slightest happiness and prosperity we have in the monastic solitude of this dismal thicket of existence.

Alas! Who is more foolish than the person who takes this enemy since beginningless time deep into his heart as his dear friend and who holds as his enemy beings in the six realms [96] that have been one’s kind parents?

Hey! It is better for intelligent and discerning people to take deep into their hearts the wish-fulfilling gem that cherishes one’s kind parents and tears out from the heart the enemy of the afflictions.

2 A Summary of the Important Points and their Application to Practice

Second, to give a summary of the important points and the manner of applying this in

practice: when one understands the structure of mind and mental functions then it is important to

use this knowledge as a means for training one’s own mental continuum. Otherwise, it is of little

use, for it only starts arguments with others, only lets one talk much for the sake of winning over

others to one’s own side, and one becomes devoted to compiling enumerations. As the

Samādhirājasūtra states:

Although I have explained the teaching well in every respect, if you, from studying it, do not put it into practice, it will be like a great medicine for disease held only in one’s [hand], being unable to heal one’s sickness.

The Adhyāśayasaṃcodanasūtra states:

The bark of sugarcane does not have any flavor. The joyful flavor dwells inside. By eating the bark, a person will not be able to find the delicious tasting sweets.

In this way, words are like the bark and to think about the meaning of words is like the [joyful] flavor. Therefore, you should abandon delight in words and think

about the meaning with constant conscientiousness.

Like this, having become knowledgeable in distinguishing what is virtuous and non-virtuous

as stated above, at the time of being solely absorbed in experiencing the stages of the path to

enlightenment, while repeatedly examining one’s own mental continuum to identify the primary

and secondary afflictions previously explained, [97] through identifying these afflictions when

they arise, one can immediately apply the antidote and overcome them. As the Bodhicaryāvatāra

states:155

In brief, this alone is the definition of awareness: the observation at every moment of the state of one’s body and one’s mind.

The Protector Nāgārjuna states: (Suhṛllekha 17)

Know that the mind is just like a painting drawn on water, sand, or stone. Among these, those who have afflictions are like the first, the best and those who desire the Dharma are like the last.

And the words of dGon-pa-ba:

To eliminate afflictions, you must know the afflictions’ faults, their characteristics, their remedies, and the causes for their arising. After you have recognized their faults, regard them as defective and consider them enemies. If you do not recognize their faults, you will not understand that they are enemies. Therefore, it is said that you should reflect on this, following what is taught in the Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra and Bodhicaryāvatāra, and study Abhidharma texts as well in order to understand the characteristics of the afflictions. At the least, study Vasubandhu’s Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa. Once you know the primary and secondary afflictions, then when any attachment, anger, and such arises in one’s mental continuum, one can identify it – thinking, “This is that; now it has arisen” – and fight the affliction.

The moment a mental affliction occurs within the mental continuum, it should be identified

by thinking, “This is it”. Then by examining the causes and conditions which produced it and the

object of observation to which it is related, it is known as a fault and held as an enemy who

descends upon one’s weaknesses; it must be overcome with its antidote. [98] As the spiritual

friend Phu-chung-ba states:

Even if I am conquered by the afflictions, I shall escape from under the floor.

The venerable omniscient [Tsong-kha-pa] explains:

An ordinary enemy, even if stopped one time, will come out to another object after he has regained his strength, but afflictions are different from this type of opponent. Afflictions, once removed from one’s mental continuum, having no other object to go to, will not return again. Nevertheless, since we do not strive to remove the afflictions, they return.

We transmigrate under the influence of the afflictions, whichever affliction we do not know.

Even if we did know, since our striving and remedy is weak, they return. Yet if the remedy’s

strength is increased, we will definitely be able to abandon them. As the venerable omniscient

[Tsong-kha-pa] states:

When afflictions have been identified, they should carefully be discerned and one should attentively contemplate their faults and the benefits in being free from them. When afflictions raise their heads one must repeatedly shoot arrows at them. Further, whatever afflictions occur through contacting one’s mental continuum, immediately perceive them as an enemy and fight them. Take them over so they do not appear first. If done improperly, there will be no cure, and there will be nothing that can be done about it.

The Bodhicaryāvatāra states:156

An ordinary enemy, even if banished from a place, returns from there having acquired ability, acquiring support from another place. [99]

Afflictions are abandoned by the eye of wisdom; where are they cast out from my mind? Where will it stay and destroy me? I make no effort because my mind is dull.

In brief, the saying of the spiritual friend dGon-pa-ba relates:

What else is there other than to watch over one’s mind day and night?

And, as dGon pa ba said to sNe’u zur pa,

Ye-[shes]-bar, if, tomorrow or the next day, someone were to ask all your disciples, “What are you practicing as the core of your personal instructions?” they would answer that it was to attain superknowledges or a vision of their chosen deity. However, they should answer, “It is becoming more and more definite about the causes and effects of karma and, consequently, keeping purely whatever vows I have assumed….” Therefore, you should understand this to indicate that the statement “attainments which result from meditation” refers to the achievement of a slight reduction in afflictions such as ignorance.

Deleted: Even if banished, an enemy may acquire retinue and support in another country, and return from there with gathered strength. But there is no such resort for this enemy, the afflictions.

Deleted: Based in my mind, where might it go once cast out? Where might it stay and work towards my destruction? I make no effort simply because my mind is dull. The afflictions are weaklings to be subdued by the eye of wisdom. ¶

At all times, in meditation sessions and in between them, one should apply the remedy to

whichever afflictions have arisen through repeatedly examining one’s own mind; this is the most

important and very essence of all virtuous activities. Likewise, one should make effort in all the

ways of [distinguishing between which mental functions] should arise and those that should not,

and increasing [those mental functions] that should arise, through repeatedly relying upon

mindfulness and alertness157 which apprehends the proper manner of relying on the spiritual

friend, along with the virtues of faith and so forth, and attentively considers the necessary

procedures of how to generate [those mental functions] in whichever situation of virtuous

activity.

May we always be protected at all times by the Lord of Sages [, the Buddha,] a wish-fulfilling tree who is the only nourisher among beings together with the gods, who extinguishes all the afflictions of beings by sprinkling the camphor of the three vehicles that arise from the flowers of his [thirty-two major and eighty minor] auspicious marks. At the peak of his branches the expansive activity of his six perfections extensively grants cool joyful shade that is beneficial to limitless beings and blossoms ever more radiantly from the trunk of his jeweled mind that arises from the golden ground of pure renunciation. [100]

The supreme erudite and accomplished guides, renown in Jambudvīpa as the six ornaments and two supreme ones,158 descended a rain of happiness and benefit in the Land of Noble Beings with many jewels that expanded thoughts for the three vehicles from the treasure mine of the Sage’s scriptures, an abode difficult to reach for inferior beings, who are darkened with difficulties in understanding the profound and are disturbed by waves of various interpretable and definitive [teachings].

The protector with the name of Matibhadra (Tsong-kha-pa), by the compassion of all the Conquerors everywhere, clarified, like the sun, all the views and expositions of the Great Charioteers here in this northern country.

Those who perform wrong actions become friends of ghosts. They are obstructed by thick clouds of ignorance, the murk that degenerates this dark age. Their minds become inflated through perceiving [wrong actions] as supreme.

I am born in the end times because of inferior merit, and my mind’s eye is totally unclear because of inferior mental training. Therefore, whatever I have not explained here or have wrongly explained, I confess to the wise.

My mind’s eye has been polluted by the charnel ground of impatience, my heart

torn by the demons of the eight worldly concerns, I am not only made contemptible, but even wrathful by them, and there is nothing I can do about it. [101]

May I and all beings, through this virtuous [endeavor], be accepted by the true spiritual friends of the supreme vehicle and become one who can apprehend all the profound and extensive teachings.

May I become like the supreme spiritual teacher Mañjuśrī in liberating all beings without exception and gain the courage of not abandoning kindness to others in difficult circumstances that must be carefully examined.

With regard to the composition of this text, The Necklace of Clear Understanding: An

Elucidation of the Manner of Mind and Mental Functions: I took up the subject in relation to the

repeated urging of those like the great scholar Blo-bzang bzang-po, one who is prolific in the

study of sūtra and tantra, and those seeking meaning. I studied a little bit with regard to the path

concerning these doctrines and principles of the precious Conqueror’s teaching from the kind

presence of the venerable omniscient Blo-bzang ye-she dpal-bzang-po and from the kind

presence of both the venerable, great accomplished master spiritual teacher Blo-bzang rnam-

rgyal and the lord over all the teaching known as Bhaṭṭhāraka Maitreya, I received the special

instructions on the stages of the path to awakening. I, Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan, composed this text

based on the root text and commentary to the Abhidharmasamuccaya and decorated it with the

eloquent articulations of the venerable Tsong-kha-pa and his disciples in the solitude of Brka-

shis bsam-gtan-ling temple on the border of Nepal and Tibet.

May [the benefit from] even this [work], by every means of the precious Muni’s teaching,

increase.

Bibliography The sources listed here include not only those cited in the texts, but also materials consulted to

clarify the meaning of the text. Indian sūtras and śāstras are listed in Sanskrit alphabetical order

by title in the first section; Tibetan commentaries are listed in Tibetan alphabetical order by

author in the second section; secondary works by modern writers are listed alphabetically by

author in the third section. “Pk,” standing for “Peking edition,” refers to the Tibetan Tripiṭaka

(Tokyo-Kyoto: Tibetan Tripiṭaka Research Foundation, 1956).

List of Principle Indian Sources

Akṣayamatinirdeśanāmamahāyānasūtra. Translated by Surendrabodhi, Ye shes sde. Blo gros mi zad pas shus pa shes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. Translated by Jens Braarvig. Akṣayamatinirdeśasūtra. The Tradition of Imperishability in Buddhist Thought.Oslo: Solum, 1993.

Adhyāśayasaṃcodananāmamahāyānasūtra. Number 25 within Mahāratnakūṭadharmaparyāyaśatasāhasrikagrantha. Pk 760, Vol. 22. Translated by Jinamitra, Surendrabodhi, Ye shes sde. ‘Phags pa lhag pa’i bsam pa bskul pa shes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo.

Abhidharmakośakārikā by Vasubandhu. Edited by V.V. Gokhale. “The Text of the Abhidharmakośakārikā of Vasubandhu.” Journal of the Bombay Branch, Royal Asiatic Society 22 (1946): 73-102; 23 (1947): 12. Translated by Jinamitra, Dpal brtsegs. Chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi tshig le’ur byas pa. Pk 5590, Volume 115.

Abhidharmakośabhāṣya by Vasubandhu. Translated and annotated by Louis de La Vallée Poussin. L’Abhidharmakośa de Vasubandhu. Nouvelle éd. anastatique présentée par Étienne Lamotte. Bruxelles: Institut belge des Hautes êtudes chinoises, 1971, 6 tomes. (MCB, XVI). English translation by Leo M. Pruden, Volumes I to IV, Asian Humanities Press, Berkeley, 1989. Translated by Jinamitra, Dpal brtsegs. Chos mgnon pa’i mdzod kyi bshad pa. Pk 5591, Volume 115.

Edited by P. Pradhan. Abhidharmakośabhāṣya of Vasubandhu. Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1967. Reprint 1975. (Tibetan Sanskrit Works Series, Vol. VIII.) Compiled by A. Hirakawa. Index to the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya. Part I: Sanskrit-Tibetan-Chinese. Part II: Chinese-Sanskrit. Part III: Tibetan-Sanskrit. Tokyo: Daizo Shuppan, 1973-1978, 3 volumes.

Abhidharmakośabhāṣyavyākhyā by Yaśomitra. Edited by Swami Dwarikadas Shastri. Abhidharmakośa & Bhāṣya of Ācārya Vasubandhu with Sphuṭārthā Commentary of Ācārya Yaśomitra. Bauddha Bhāratī Series, No.5 Vārāṇasī: Bauddha Bhāratī, 1971, 4 volumes. Translated by Viśuddhisiṃha, Dpal brtsegs. Chos mgnon pa’i mdzod kyi ‘grel bshad. Pk. 5593, Volume 116.

Abhidharmasamuccaya of Asaṅga. Fragments edited by V.V. Gokhale. “Fragments from the Abhidharmasamuccaya of Asanga.” Journal of the Bombay Branch, Royal Asiatic Society 23 (1947): 13-38. Edited by Pralhad Pradhan. Abhidharmasamuccaya. Santiniketan: Visvabharati, 1950. Translated by Jinamitra, Śīlendrabodhi, Ye she sde. Chos mngon pa kun las btus pa. Pk. 5550, Volume 112.

Abhidharmasamuccayabhāṣya by Jinaputra. Edited by Nathmial Tatia. Abhidharmasamuccayabhāṣya. Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1976. Translated by Jinamitra, Śīlendrabodhi, Ye she sde. Chos mngon pa kun las btus pa’i bshad pa. Pk. 5554, Volume 113.

Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra. Edited by U. Wogihara; includes Abhisamayālaṃkāra-ālokā. Edited by P.L. Vaidya. Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā, with Haribhadra's commentary called Āloka. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, #4. Darbhanga, India, 1960.

Avaivartacakranāmamahāyānasūtra. Translated by Jinamitra, Dānaśīla, Munivarma, Ye shes sde. ‘Phags pa phyir mi ldog pa’i ‘khor lo shes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. Pk 906, Vol. 36

Kāśyapaparivartanāmamahāyānasūtra. Number 43 within Mahāratnakūṭadharmaparyāyaśatasāhasrikagrantha. Pk 760, Vol. 22. Translated by Jinamitra, Śīlendrabodhi, Ye shes sde. ‘Phags pa ‘od srung gi le’u shes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. Edited in the original Sanskrit in Tibetan and in Chinese by Baron A. von Staël-Holstein. The Kaçyapaparivarta: a Mahayanasutra of the Ratnakuta. Tokyo: Meicho-Fukyu-Kai, 1977.

Catuḥśatakaśāstrakārikānāma by Āryadeva. Translated by Sūkṣamjāna, Nyi ma grags. Bstan bcos bzhi brgyad pa shes bya ba’i tshig le’ur bya pa. Pk 5246, Vol. 95. Edited Tibetan and Sanskrit fragments along with English translation by Karen Lang. Āryadeva’s Catuḥśataka: on the Bodhisattva’ Cultivation of Merit and Knowledge. Indiske studier 7. Copenhagen: Akademisk, 1986. English translation by Geshe Sonam Rinchen and Ruth Sonam. Yogic Deeds of Bodhisattva: Gyel-tsap on Āryadeva’s Four Hundred. Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow Lion, 1994.

Triśaraṇasaptati by Candrakīrti. Edited, translated and annotated by Per K. Sorenson. The Septuagint on the Three Refuges. Wien: Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien, Universität Wien, 1986.

Daśadharmakasūtra Number 9 within Mahāratnakūṭadharmaparyāyaśatasāhasrikagrantha. Pk 760, Vol. 22. Translated by Jinamitra, Surendrabodhi, Ye shes sde. ‘Phags pa chos bcu pa shes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo.

Jātakamāla by Āryaśūra Translated by Vidyākarasiṃha, Mañjuśrīvarman. Skyes pa’i rabs kyi rgyud. Pk5650, Vol. 128. Translated from the Sanskrit by Peter Khoroche. Once the Buddha was a Monkey: Ārya Śūra's Jātakamāla. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989. Translated by Marie Musaeus-Higgins. Jātakamāla: Garland of Birth Stories. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 2000.

Pāramitāsamāsanāma by Āryaśūra. Translated by Vairocanarakṣita. Pha rol tu phyin pa bsdus pa shes bya ba. Pk 5340, Vol. 103. Translated and edited by Carol Jean Meadows. Āryasūra’s Compendium of the Perfections: Text, Translation and Analysis of the Pāramitāsamāsa. Bonn: Indica Verlag, 1986.

Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa by Vasubandhu. Translated by Viśuddhasiṃha, Devendrarakṣita. Phung po lnga’i rab tu byed pa. Pk 5560, Vol. 113. Edited by Santibhiksu Sastri. “Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa of Vasubandhu.” Indian Historical Quarterly, 1956: 368-385; Kelaniya, 1969. Translated and annotated by Jean Dantinne. Le Traité des Cinq Agrégats: (Pañcaskandhaprakarana de Vasubandhu). Bruxelles: Institut Belge des Hautes Études Bouddhiques, 1980.

Pramāṇavārttikālaṃkāra by Prajñākaragupta. Translated by Skal ldan rgyal po, Blo ldan rgyal po. Revised by Kumaraśrī, ‘Phags pa shes rab. Tshad ma rnam ‘grel gyi rgyan. Pk 5719, Vol. 132. Partial translation and analysis by Motoi Ono. Prajñākaraguptas Erklärung der Definition gültiger Erkenntnis: (Pramāṇavārttikālaṃkāra zu Pramāṇavārttika II 1-7). Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2000.

Pramāṇavārttikakārikā by Dharmakīrti. Translated by Subhūtiśrīśānti, Dge ba’i blo gros. Tshad ma rnam ‘grel gyi tshig le’ur bya pa. Pk 5709, Vol. 130. Sanskrit edited by Dwarikadas Shastri. Pramāṇavārttika of Āchārya Dharmakīrti. Varanasi, India: Bauddha Bharati, 1968. Translated by Masatoshi Nagatomi (chaper 2.) “A Study of Dharmakīrti’s Pramāṇavārttika: An English Translation and Annotation of the Pramāṇavārttika, Book I.” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1957.

Bodhi[sattva]caryāvatāra by Śāntideva (zhi ba lha, eight century) Translated by Sarvajñadeva, Dpal brtsegs. Revised by Dharmaśrībhadra, Rin chen bzang po, Śākya blo gros, Sumatikīrti, Blo ldan shes rab. Byang chub sems dpa’i spyod pa la ‘jug pa. P5272, Vol. 99 English translation: Kate Crosby and Andrew Skilton. The Bodhicaryāvatāra. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996

Brahmajālasūtra Tshang pa’i dra ba’i mdo. Pk1021, Vol. 40.

Madhyamakāvatārakārikānāma by Candrakīrti. Translated by Kṛṣṇapaṇḍita, Tshul khrims rgyal ba. Revised by Tilakakalaśa, Pa tshab nyi ma grags. Dbu ma la ‘jug pa shes bya ba’i tshig le’ur byas pa. Pk 5261, Vol. 98. Tibetan edited by Louis de la Vallée Poussin. Madhyamakāvatāra par Candrakīrti. Bibliotheca Buddhica, 9. Osnabrück, Germany: Biblio Verlag, 1970. English translation by C.W. Huntington, Jr. with Geshé Namgyal Wangchen. The Emptiness of Emptiness: An Introduction to Early Indian Mādhyamika. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989.

Madhyāntavibaṅga by Maitreyanātha. Translated by Jinamitra, Śīlendrabodhi, Ye shes sde. Dbus dang mtha’ rnam par ‘byed pa. Pk 5522, Vol. 108. Edited by Gadjin Nagao. Madhyāntava-vibhāga-bhāṣya. Tokyo: Suzuki Research Foundation, 1964. Edited by Chandradhar Sharma. Ārya Maitreya’s Madhyānta-vibhāga-shāstra. Jabalpur: Shrimate Shanti Sharma, 1963. Edited by Susumu Yamaguchi. Madhyānta-vibhaṅga. Nagoya: Hajinkaku, 1934 and 1939.

Edited by Nathmal Tatia. Madhyānta-vibhābhaga-bhāṣyam. Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute (Tibetan Sanskrit Works Series, #10), 1967. Translated by Th. Stcherbatsky. Madhyāntavibhāga of Vasubandhu. St. Petersburg: Bibliotheca Buddhica XXX, 1936; reprint Tokyo: 1977, 1983. Translated by Stefan Anacker. Seven Works of Vasubandhu. Delhi: Motilal Banardidass, 1984.

Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra by Maitreyanātha. Edited by E.H. Johnston and T. Chowdhury. The Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra, Patna: Bihar Research Society, 1950. Translation by E. Obermiller. “Sublime Science of the Great Vehicle to Salvation, Acta Orientalia, 9 (1931): 81-306. Translation by J. Takasaki. A Study on the Ratnagotravibhāga, Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1966.

Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā by Maitreyanātha. Translated by Śākayasiṃha, Dpal brtsegs. Theg pa chen po’i mdo sde’i rgyan gyi tshig le’ur byas pa. Pk 5521, Vol. 108.

Ratnāvalī (Rājaparikathāratnāvalī) by Nāgārjuna. Translated by Jñānagarbha, Klu’ii rgyal mtshan. Revised by Kanakavarman, Nyi ma grags. Rgyal po la gtam bya ba rin po che’i phreng ba. Pk 5658, Vol. 129. Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese edited by Michael Hahn. Nāgārjuna’s Ratnāvalī. Vol. 1. The Basic Texts (Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese). Bonn: Indica et Tibetica Verlag, 1982. Translated by John Dunne and Sara McClintock. The Precious Garland: An Epistle to a King. Boston: Wisdom, 1997. Translated by Giuseppe Tucci. “The Ratnāvalī of Nāgārjuna.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1934): 307-325; (1936): 237-252, 423-435. English translation of 223 stanzas (chap. 1, 1-77; chap. 2, 1-46; chap 4, 1-100).

Ratnakūṭa. Mahāratnakūṭadharmaparyāyaśatasāhasrikagrantha. Translated by various Tibetan and Indian scholars, see individual sūtra titles. Dkon brtsegs. Dkon mchog brtsegs pa chen po’i chos kyi rnam grangs le’u stong phrag brgya pa. Pk 760, Vols. 22-24.

Ratnaguṇasamcayagāthā. Translation by Edward Conze. The Accumulation of Precious Qualities. New Delhi, International Academy of Indian Culture, 1962. Sanskrit and Tibetan text edited by E. Obermiller. Prajñāpāramitā-ratnaguṇasamcayagāthā: photomechanic reprint with a Sanskrit-Tibetan-English index by Edward Conze. ‘s-Gravenhage: Mouton, 1960.

Edited with an introd., bibliographical notes, and a Tibetan version from Tunhuang by Akira Yuyama. Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasamcayagāthā. Publisher: New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976.

Ratnolkānāmadhāraṇimahāyānasūtra Translated by Surendrabodhi, Ye shes sde. Dkon mchog ta la la’i gsungs shes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. Pk 472, Vol. 11.

Yuktiṣaṣṭikāvṛtti by Candrakīrti. Translated by Cristina Anna Scherrer-Schaub. Yuktiṣaṣṭikāvṛtti: Commentaire á la Soixantaine sur le Raisonnement ou du Vrai Enseignement de la Causalité par le Maítre Indien Candrakīrti. Bruxelles: Institut Belge des Hautes êtudes Chinoises, 1991.

Yogacaryābhūmau bodhisattvabhūmi by Asaṅga. Translated by Prajñāvarman, Ye shes sde. Rnal ‘byor spyod pa’i sa las byang chub sems dpa’i sa. Pk 5538, Vol. 110. Edited by Vidhusekhara Bhattacharya. The Yogācārabhūmi of Ācārya Asaṅga. Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1957. Edited by Nalinaksha Dutt. Bodhisattvabhūmi. Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute, Tibetan Sanskrit Works Series 7, 1966. Edited by Unrai Wogihara. Bodhisattvabhūmi. Leipzig: 1908 & Tokyo: Seigo Kenkyūkai, 1936.

Vajracchedikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa rdo rje gcod pa shes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. Pk 739, Vol. 21. Edited and translated with introduction and glossary by Edward Conze, Vajracchedikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra. Rome, 1957. Translated and explained by Edward Conze. Buddhist Wisdom Books, containing The Diamond Sutra and The Heart Sutra. London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1958.

Vinayottarāgamaviśeṣāgamapraśnavṛtti. Translated by Kalyāṇamitra. ‘Dul ba lung bla ma’i bye brag lung shu ba’i ‘grel pa. Pk 5618, Vol. 123.

Vimalakīrtinirdeśasūtra. Translated by Chos nyid tshul khrims. Dri ma med par grags pas bstan pa shes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. Pk 843, Vol. 34. Translated by Étienne Lamotte. English translation by Sara Boin-Webb. Vimalakīrtinirdeśasūtra. The Teaching of Vimalakīrti. London: The Pali Text Society, 1976, reprint 1994.

Saṃdhiniromocananāmamahāyānasūtra. ‘Phags pa dgongs pa nges par ‘grol pa shes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo. Pk774, Vol. 29.

Edited and French translation by …tienne Lamotte. Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra. Louvain: Université de Louvain, 1935. English translations by John C. Powers. Wisdom of the Buddha: Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra. Berkeley, Calif.: Dharma Publishing, 1995.

Saṃvaraviṃśakavṛtti by Śāntirakṣita. Translated by Vidyākarasiṃha, Mañjuśrīvarman. Sdom pa nyi shu pa’i ‘grel pa. Pk 5583, Vol. 114.

Samādhirājasūtra. Sarvadharmasvabhāvasamatāvipañcatasamādhirājasūtra. Translated by Śīlendrabodhi, Dharmatāśīla. Ting nge ‘dzin rgyal po’i mdo. Chos thams cad kyi rang bzhin mnyam pa nyid rnam par spros pa ting nge ‘dzin gyi rgyal po’i mdo. Pk 795, Vol. 31-32. Sanskrit edited by P.L. Vaidya. Samādhirājasūtram. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, 2. Darbhanga, India: Mithila Institute, 1961. Partial English translation (of chapters 8, 19, and 22) by K. Regamey. Three Chapters from the Samādhirājasūtra. Warsaw: Publications of the Oriental Commission, 1938.

Saptakumārikāvadāna by Guhyadatta. Gshon nu ma bdun gyi rtogs pa brjod pa. Pk 5648, Vol. 127.

Suhṛllehkha by Nāgārjuna. Translated by Sarvajñadeva, Dpal brtsegs. Bshes pa’i spring yig. Pk 5410, Vol. 103.

Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra. Translated and annotated by Étienne Lamotte. English translation by Sara Boin-Webb. Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra. The Concentration of Heroic Progress. An Early Mahāyāna Buddhist Scripture. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press in association with The Buddhist Society, 1998.

List of Principle Indigenous Tibetan Sources

A mchog Rinpoche Blo bzan mkhyen rab rgya mtsho. “Introduction.” Lotsaba chen po'i bsdus don bzhugs so = Commentary on the Abhisamayālaṃkāra by Rnog Lotsaba Blo-ldan-´ses-rab; with an introduction by the 81st abbot of Shar-rtse Grva-tshan, 4th A-mchog Rinpoche Blo-bzan-mkhyen-rab-rgya-mtsho and David P. Jackson. Dharamsala, H.P.: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 1993.

A-tsa Sprul-sku Bstan-'dzin-zla-grags. Mahātmā Conkhāpā (Sumatikīrti) jī kā vyaktitva evam krtitva = Mnyam med Tsong-kha-pa chen po'i rnam thar dang mdza rjes phyogs bsdus dwan ba'i sgo 'byed. Sāranātha, Vārānasī: Kendrīya Ucca Tibbatī Sikshā Samsthāna, 1996.

mKhas grub dge legs dpal bzang po (1385-1438). Rje btsun bla ma tsong kha pa chen po’i no mtshar rmad du byun ba’i rnam par thar pa dad pa’i jug nogs zhes bya ba’i bzhugs so. Vārānasī: K. Lhundup and Lama Samdup, 1966. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi 'grel pa don gsal ba'i rnam bśad rtogs par dka' ba'i sngang ba (= rtogs dka'i snang ba). (gSung ‘bum, t. ka) Sa lam gyi rnam gzhag theg pa gsum gyi mdzes rgyan in The Collected Works dkon mchog ‘jigs med dbang po (New Delhi: Nga wang Gelek Demo, 1972)

rGyal tshab dar ma rin chen (1364-2432). Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi rtsa ba 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i rnam bshad snying po'i rgyan (=rnam bshad nying po'i rgyan). (Sung 'bum, t. kha)

rNam gyal dbang chen (contemporary). Dbu sems kyi lta ba dang tshad mar sgrub pa'i le'u'i snying don, mngon rtogs rgyan gyi tshig don bcas gsal bar bstan pa'i legs bshad utpala'i gru char. Bras spung blo gsal gling dpe mdzod khan, Karanataka, 1996.

Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo (The Extensive Tibetan-Chinese Dictionary). Beijing: National Minorities Press, mi rigs dpe skrun khang, (one volume), 1998.

Tsong kha pa blo bzang grags pa (1357-1419). Khams gsum chos kyi rgyal po tsong kha pa chen po’i gsung ‘bum. Collected Works. Dge ldan gsung rab mi nyams rgyun phel series 79-105, published by Ngag dbang dge legs bde mo, 1975-79. Drang nges legs bshad snying po = The Essence of Eloquent Speech on the Defintive and Interpretable. Mundgod, District North Kanara, Karnataka, India: SOKU Publication, 1991. Dbu ma la ‘jug pa’i rnam bshad dgongs pa rab gsal. Sarnath: Gelupa Students Union, 1973. Dbu ma rtsa ba’i tshig le’ur byas pa shes rab ces bya ba’i rnam bshad rigs pa’i rgya mtsho. Va na mtho slob dge ldan spyi las khang nas, 1975. Lam rim chen mo. Skye bu gsum gyi nyams su blang ba’ii rim pa thams cad tshang bar ston pa’ii byang chub lam gyi rim pa. Pk 6001, Vol. 152. Also: Dharamsala, India: Tibetan Cultural Printing Press, 1964. Also: Delhi: Ngawang Gelek, 1975. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i rgya cher bsad pa legs bshad gser phreng zes bya ba bzugs so (=Legs bshad gser phreng). Volume 1, Sarnath: Lama Thuptan Jungnes, 1970. Also: Collected Works, 1977, Volumes 26+27, gSung 'bum lHa sa edition, v. tsa and tsha.

Tshe mchog gling Ye shes rgyal mtshan, 1713-1793. Byang chub lam gyi rim pa'i bla ma brgyud pa'i rnam thar. Biographies of the eminent gurus in the transmission lineages of the teachings of the graduated path: being the text of Byang chub lam gyi rim pa'i bla ma brgyud pa'i rnam par thar pa rgyal bstan mdzes pa'i rgyan mchog phul byung nor bu'i phreng ba. New Delhi: Ngawang Gelek Demo, 1970-1972. Sems dang sems byung gi tshul rnam par bshad pa’ii sdom tshig rin po che’ii phreng ba. Collected works. Volume 16. 1974: 103-124. Sems dang sems byung gi tshul gsal bar ston pa blo gsal mgul rgyan. Collected Works. Volume 16. 1974: 1-101. Translated in this text. Gsung ‘bum. The Collected Works of Tshe-mchog-gling yongs-‘dzin ye-shes-rgyal-mtshan. Volumes 1-24. New Delhi: Tibet House, 1974.

Se ra rje btsun Chos kyi rgyal mtshan, (1469-1546). Bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dan bcas pa'i rnam bsad rnam pa gnis kyi dka' ba'i gnad gsal bar byed pa legs bsad skal bzan klu dban gi rol mtsho zes bya ba. Bylakuppe: Se-ra Byes Grwa-tshan, 1980. Dge 'dun nyi su'i mtha' gcod: Rje-btsun Chos-kyi-rgyal-mtshan-dpal-bzan-po'i gsun rtsom dri ma med pa mkhas pa'i mgul rgyan zes bya ba bzugs so. Sbag-sa: Se-ra Byes Grwa-tshan, 196?.

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Endnotes

1 For more information, see the entry at the Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center <http://www.tbrc.org/search.php3?do=single&resource=P105>.

2 Guenther, Herbert V. and Leslie S. Kawamura (1975) Mind in Buddhist Psychology. Emeryville, CA: Dharma Publishing.

3 Ratnāvalī 1.35: skandhagrāho yāvad asti tāvad evāham ity api / ahaṃkāre sati punaḥ karma janma tataḥ punaḥ // Cf. Hahn, 1982: 14; Dunne/McClintock, 1997: 14.

2 MMK. 26.10: 'khor ba'i rtsa ba 'du byed de / de phyir mkhas rnams 'du mi byed / de phyir mi mkhas byed po yin / mkhas min de nyid mthong phyir ro / Sanskrit differs (De Jong, 1997:40): saṃsāramūlaṃ saṃskārān avidvān saṃskaroty ataḥ / avidvān kārakas tasmān na vidvāṃs tattvadarśanāt // "The root of saṃsāra is mental formations, hence the unwise make formations. The unwise are agents; therefore, the wise are not because of seeing reality." The Tibetan corresponds to the Sanskrit only in Buddhapālita's commentary to the MMK.

5 The term “mental condition” is a translation of ’du byed (Skt. saṃskāra), the fourth of the five aggregates. This term has two senses: 1) the mental functions occurring in this group (and by extension, feeling and recognition) are the result of karmic conditioning; and 2) these mental functions also contribute to the production of further karmic conditioning.

6 Catuḥśataka, 14.25ab (verse 350): srid pa'i sa bon rnam shes te / yul rnams de yi spyod yul lo / [yul la bdag med mthong na ni / srid pa'i sa bon 'gag par 'gyur //]. Suzuki, 1994: 360.

7 MA 6.89a-c: sems nyid kyis ni sems can 'jig rten dang / snod kyi 'jig rten shin tu sna tshogs 'god / 'gro ba ma lus las las skyes par gsungs / [sems spangs nas ni las kyang yod ma yin //], Poussin, (reprint) 1970: 190, Huntington, 1989: 167. SBS, 393: sattvalokam atha bhājanalokaṃ cittam eva racayaty aticitram / karmajaṃ hi jagad uktam aśeṣaṃ karma cittam avadhūya ca nāsti / Note based only on the Sanskrit term jagad (Tib. ’gro ba), one would translate that last phrase, “It is said that the entire world is born from karma.” 8 AK. 4.1a: las las 'jig rten sna tshogs skyes / Skt. karmajaṃ lokavaicitryaṃ / 9 AK. 5.1a: srid pa'i rtsa ba phra rgyas drug / Skt. mūlaṃ bhavasyānuśayāḥ ṣaḍ / 10 BCA, 5.6: yasmād bhayāni sarvāṇi duḥkhāny apramitāni ca / cittād eva bhavantīti kathitaṃ tattvavādinā // 6 // Tib. reads

tathā (’di ltar) for yasmād. 11 BCA, 5.17-18ab: duḥkhaṃ hantuṃ sukhaṃ prāptuṃ te bhramanti mudhāmbare / yair etad dharmasarvasvaṃ cittaṃ guhyaṃ

na bhāvitaṃ // 17 // tasmāt svadhiṣṭitaṃ cittaṃ mayā kāryaṃ surakṣitam / Note that the Sanskrit leads to a slightly different translation: “Those who do not develop this mind, which is recondite and contains the whole sum of dharmas, wander the compass in vain trying to attain happiness and destroy suffering. Therefore, I should manage and guard my mind well.” See Crosby/Skilton (1998: 35). Note also that ms. don po mchog is preferable to the Derge reading (10b7), gtso bo mchog.

12 BCA, 7.41-45. See Crosby/Skilton (1998: 70-71) for an interpretation based on the Sanskrit, which differs markedly from a natural reading of the Tibetan: duḥkhāni daurmanasyāni bhayāni vividhāni ca / abhilāṣavighātāś ca jāyante pāpakāriṇām // 41 // manorathaḥ śubhakṛtāṃ yatra yatraiva gacchati / tatra tatraiva tatpuṇyaiḥ phalārgheṇābhipūjyate // 42 // pāpakāri-sukhecchā tu yatra yatraiva gacchati / tatra tatraiva tatpāpair duḥkhaśastrair vihanyate // 43 // vipulasugandhiśītalasaro-ruhagarbhagatā madhurajinasvarāśanakṛtopacitadyutayaḥ / munikarabodhitām bujavinirgatasadvapuṣaḥ sugatasutā bhavanti sugatasya puraḥ kuśalaiḥ // 44 // yamapuruṣāpanītasakalacchavir ārtaravo hutavahatāpavidrutakatāmraniṣikta-tanuḥ / jvaladasiśatkighātaśātitamāṃsadalaḥ patati sutaptalohadharaṇīṣv aśubhair bahuśaḥ // 45 //

13 Here, “delightful” renders yid la bsams pa (Skt. manoratha). See Mahāvyutpatti 6334. 14 Gyaltsab (1973:149) interprets this verse to mean: “By doing the virtue that one has considered—i.e., motivated by a mind of

abandonment (spang sems)—one will be honored, due to that virtuous merit, with the excellent qualities of ripened [karmic] fruit in whatever place of rebirth one goes to.”

15 MVB, 1.8: de la don mthong rnam par shes / de yi khyad par sems las byung / Skt. tatrārthadṛṣṭir vijñānaṃ tadviśeṣe tu

caitasāḥ / . 16 AK. 1.16a: rnam shes so sor rnam rig pa / Skt. vijnānaṃ prativijñaptiḥ 17 Note that AKBh ad cit. renders “distinct” (so sor; Skt. prati-) to mean that it occurs for distinct objects. 18 An “other-exclusion” (gzhan gyi ldog pa; Skt. anyavyāvṛtti), sometimes translated as “isolate,” is a quality constructed through

the conceptual exclusion of what is other than that quality. For example, “impulsion” (g.yo bar byed pa; ceṣṭā) is a quality constructed through the exclusion of what is not impulsion.

19 Mngon pa kun las btus pa'i rnam bshad legs par bshad pa'i chos mngon rgya mtsho'i snying po, ACIP @015b : nges na sems pa gang zhe na / sems mngon par 'du byed pa yid kyi las de zhes pa dang / dran pa gang zhes na / 'dris pa'i dngos po la sems kyi brjod pa med pa zhes sogs gtso bo gzung 'dzin dbang shes lta bu / yul la so sor rnam rig pa'o /

20 Here, a determinative cognition (nge shes; Skt. niścaya ) is one that has a correct, conceptual apprehension of the object; for example, upon sensing form, the subsequent conceptual cognition, “that is form,” is a determinative cognition.

21 AK 2.23ab (1975: 54): cittaṃ caittāḥ sahāvaśyaṃ.... 22 Dantinne, 1980: 24. 23 AK 1.16a (1975: 11): vijñānaṃ prativijñaptiḥ / 24 AS, Rahula, 17, Pradhan, 12: vijñānaṃ katamat / ṣaḍ vijñānakāyāḥ / cakṣurvijñānaṃ śrotraghrāṇajihvākāyamanovijñānam /

cakṣurvijñānaṃ katamat / cakurāśrayā rūpālambana prativijñāptiḥ / śrotavijñānaṃ katamat / śrotrāśrayā śabdālambanā prativijñaptiḥ / ghrāṇavijñānaṃ katamat / ghrāṇāśrayā gan / kāyāśrayā spraṣṭavyālambanā prativijñaptiḥ / manovijñānaṃ katamat / manaāśrayā dharmālambanā prativijñaptiḥ /

25 PSP, 1980: 7. 26 PSP, 1980: 9. 27 Dantinne, 1980: 65-66, f.n.86: (Ta tch'eng kouang wou yun louen, Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇavaibhāṣya, T 1613, 851 C, 1:

“Because thought indistinctively penetrates all the virtuous (kuśala) and nonvirtuous (akuśala), these [mental functions] are called ‘omnipresent’ (sarvatraga).”

28 AS, Rahula, 3, Pradhan, 2: kiṃ lakṣaṇā vedanā / anubhavalakṣaṇā vedanā / nānāvidhānāṃ śubhāśubhānāṃ karmaṇāṃ phalavipākaṃ pratyanubhavanty anenety anubhavaḥ / .

29 LRC, 2000: 210. 30 Ratnāvalī 1.21: aśubhāt sarvaduḥkhāni sarvā durgatayas tathā / śubhāt sugatayaḥ sarvāḥ sarvajanmasukhāni ca // Hahn,

1982: 10; Dunne/McClintock, 1997: 14. 31 In Sāṃkhya theism, the world is created out of "fundamental nature" (rang bzhin, prakṛti), also known as "primal essence"

(gtso bo, pradhāna), by the supreme deity Īśvara (dbang phyug). See Sopa, 1989: 159. 32 Literally, “white” (dkar po). 33 Dantinne, 1980: 6; AKBh, 1975: 10: trividho 'nubhavo vedanāskandhaḥ / sukho duḥkho 'duḥkhāsukhaś ca / sa punar

bhidyamānaḥ ṣad vedanākāyāḥ cakṣuḥsaṃsparśajā vedanā yāvan manaḥsaṃsparśajā vedaneti / 34 For the term “conjunct contact” (’dus te reg pa; Skt. saṃsparśa), see AK3.30bc and AKBh ad cit. Here, the term ’dus

translates the Skt. prefix saṃ-; AKBh takes saṃ- to refer to the prefix in sannipāta (’dus te ’byung ba), which means “conjunction.” It used to describe the conjunction of object, sense faculty, and consciousness that occurs in perception.

35 Cf. AS ( Pradhan,4-5): vedanāskandhavyvasthānaṃ katamat / ṣaḍvedanākāyāḥ / cakṣuḥsaṃsparśajā vedanā śrotaghrāṇajihvākāyamanaḥ saṃsparśajā vedanā / evaṃ ṣaḍvedanā kāyāḥ vā duḥhā aduḥkhāsukhā vā / punaḥ sukhā kāyikī vedanā duḥkhā kāyikī vedanā aduḥkhāsukhā kāyikīvedanā sukhā caitasikī vedanā duḥkhā caitasikī vedanā aduḥkhāsukhā caitasikī vedanā sukhā sāmiṣavedanā duḥkhā sāmiṣavedanā aduḥkhāsukhā sāmiṣavedanā sukhā nirāmiṣavedanā duḥkhā nirāmiṣavedanā aduḥkhāsukhā nirāmiṣavedanā punaḥ sukhā gredhāśritavedanā duḥkhā gredhāśritavedanā aduḥkhāsukhā gredhāśritavedanā sukhā naiṣkramyāśritavedanā duḥkhā naiṣkramyāśritavedanā aduḥkhāsukhā naiṣkramyāśritavedanā ca / ....(5) gredhāśritavedanā katamā / paṃcakāmaguṇatṛṣṇāsaṃprayuktā vedanā / naiṣkramyāśritavedanā katamā / tattṛṣṇāviprayukta vedanā / See also Rahula, 1971: 5-6.

36 AS, 1950: 2: kiṃlakṣaṇā saṃjñā / saṃjānanālakṣanā saṃjñā / saṃjñānanādharmapratibimbodgrahaṇa (svabhāvā) yayā dṛṣṭaśrutamatavijñātān arthān vyavaharati / Sanskrit differs slightly.

Deleted: mental state

37 The term bkra ba literally means “that which gives off light.” It translates Skt. pratibimba, “image.” Here, the latter term may

be related to the notion of a pratibhā as the holistic “flash” that later, in the work of Dignāga (possibly based upon Bartṛhari), represents the meaning of a term or phrase.

38 The perceptual spheres of infinite space (ākāśānantyāyatana) and infinite consciousness (vijñānānantyāyatana) are classified within mental objects (dharmāyatana) among the twelve perceptual spheres (āyatana). Mental objects incorporate all that can be considered mentally cognizable. Infinite space and infinite consciousness also represent the fifth and sixth of the Eight Liberations (aṣṭavimokṣa, rnam grol rgyad). Briefly, the eight liberations (aṣṭavimokṣa) correspond to eight levels of concentration that aid in overcoming all bodily and non-bodily factors. It consists of 1) cognitions of internal and external forms; 2) cognition of external forms but not internal; 3) cognition of the beautiful ; 4) attainment of the state of limitless of space; 5) attainment of the state of limitless consciousness; 6) attainment of the state of nothingness; 7) attainment of the state of neither perception nor non-perception ; 8) cessation of perception and feeling (nirodha samāpatti). See AK8.32-34 and AKBh/V ad cit.; DN, II:71.

39 Ye-she rgyal-mtshan bases the preceding discussion of recognition and its divisions from the AS (5): saṃjñāskandhavyavasthānaṃ katamat / ṣaḍ saṃjñākāyāḥ / cakṣusaṃsparśajā saṃjñā / śrotraghrāṇajihvākāyamanaḥ-saṃsparśajā saṃjñā yathā sanimittam api saṃjānāti animittam api api mahadgata pramāṇam api nāsti kiṃcid ity ākiṃcanyāyatanam api saṃjānāti / sanimittasaṃjñā katamā / avyavahārakuśalasyānimittadhātusamāpannasya bhavāgra-samāpannasya ca saṃjñā sthāpayitvā yāvad anyā saṃjñā / animittasaṃjñā katamā / ya sthāpitā saṃjñā / parīttā saṃjñā katamā / yayā kāmadhātuṃ saṃjānāti / mahadgatā saṃjñā katamā / yayā rūpadhātuṃ saṃjānāti / apramāṇasaṃjñā katamā / yayā ākāśānantyāyatanaṃ vijñānānantyāyatanaṃ saṃjānāti / akiñcana saṃjñā katamā / yayā ākiñcanyāyatanaṃ saṃjānāti /

40 AS (1950: 5-6): cetanā katamā / cittābhisaṃskāro manaskarma / kuśalākuśalāvyākṛteṣu cittaprareṇakarmikā / 41 AK, 4.1cd (1975: 192): [karmajaṃ lokavaicitrayaṃ /] cetanā tatkṛtaṃ ca tat / cetanā mānsaṃ karma / tajjaṃ vākkāyakarmaṇī

/ 42 AK, 4.66b-d (1975: 238): tadaudārikasaṃgrahāt / daśakarmapathā uktā yathāyogaṃ śubhāśubhāḥ / 43 AS (1950: 6): sparśaḥ katamaḥ / trikasannipāte indriyavikāraparicchedaḥ / vedanāsanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ / 44 AS (1950: 6): manaskāraḥ katamaḥ / cetasa ābhogaḥ / ālambanacittadhāraṇakarmakaḥ / 45 According to Dantinne (1980: 66) the Tibetan and Sanskrit equivalents of this term are yul so sor nges pa = pratiniyataviṣaya.

Cf. Index to Abhidharmakośa (1973: 247). Note that the common translation, “object determining,” is incorrect because nges pa (pratiniyata) is here a past participle, not a verbal noun.

46 AS (1950: 6) chandaḥ katamaḥ / īpsate vastuni tattadupasaṃhatā kartṛkāmatā / vīryādānasanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ / 47 MVB, 4.5a-b: āśrayo 'thāśritas tasya nimittaṃ phalam eva ca / 48 Lam rim chen mo (ACIP, #5392, @317): dang po la gsum / sems dmigs pa la gtod pa'i sngon du ji ltar bya ba dang / dmigs pa

la gtod pa'i dus su ji ltar bya ba dang / dmigs pa la gtad pa'i 'og tu ji ltar bya ba'o / dang po ni / ting nge 'dzin bsgom pa la mi spro zhing de'i mi mthun phyogs la dga' ba'i le lo 'gog ma nus na dang po nas ting nge 'dzin la 'jug tu mi ster zhing lan cig thob kyang rgyun 'thud mi nus pas myur du nyams par 'gyur ro / de'i phyir thog mar le lo 'gog pa gnad du che'o / de la lus dang sems dga' bdes rgyas pa'i shin tu sbyangs pa thob na nyin mtshan kun tu dge ba la sbyor ba la skyo dub mi 'byung bas le lo ldog go / de bskyed pa la shin sbyangs bskyed pa'i rgyu ting nge 'dzin la brtson 'grus rgyun ldan du rtsom nus pa dgos so / de bskyed pa la ting nge 'dzin la don du gnyer ba'i 'dun pa drag po rgyun ldan pa dgos so / de'i rgyur ni ting nge 'dzin gyi yon tan mthong bas yid 'phrog pa'i dad pa brtan po dgos pas thog mar ting nge 'dzin gyi yon tan sems pa'i dad pa yang dang yang du bsgom par bya'o / 'di dag gi go rim ni nyams su blangs nas bltas na ches shin tu gsal bar nges (@318a) pas gnad dam par bzung ste /

49 Ibid, @318a: [dbus mtha' las / gnas dang de la gnas pa dang / rgyu dang 'bras bu nyid du'o zhes gsungs so / ] de la gnas ni 'dun pa ste rtsol ba'i gnas so / gnas pa ni rtsol ba'am brtson 'grus so / 'dun pa'i rgyu ni yon tan la yid ches pa'i dad pa'o / rtsol ba'i 'bras bu ni shin tu sbyangs pa'o /

50 AS (1950: 6): adhimokṣaḥ katamaḥ / niścite vastuni yathāniścayaṃ dhāraṇā / asaṃhāryatākarmakaḥ / 51 Here, “its valid cognition” (rang gi tshad ma) means “the valid cognition with which it is equivalently conjoined” (rang dang

mtshungs par ldan pa’i tshad ma). 52 The text appears to be corrupt. ??? “Pha rol phyin pa bas (las?) de las gzhan du smyur mi nus pa’i don de” 53 BCA (7.40): kuśalānāṃ ca sarveṣāṃ chandaṃ mūlaṃ munir jagau / tasyāpi mūlaṃ satataṃ vipākaphalabhāvanā / 54 The term dran pa (Skt. smṛti) is often translated as mindfulness, but it is also the literal term for “memory.” This latter sense of

the term is important for understanding the explanation given below.

55 AS (1950: 6) smṛtiḥ katamā / saṃsmṛte vastuni cetaso ’saṃpramoṣo ’vikṣepakarmikā / 56 Suhṛllekha, vrs. 54 (Engle, 1979: 89). 57 BCA 5.26-30: aneke śrutavanto ’pi śrāddhā yatnaparā api / asaṃprajanyadoṣeṇa bhavanty āpattikaśmalāḥ // 26 //

asaṃprajanyacaureṇa smṛtimoṣānusāriṇā / upacityāpi puṇyāni muṣitā yānti durgatiṃ // 27 // kleśataskarasaṃgho ’yam avatāragaveṣakaḥ / prāpyāvatāraṃ muṣṇāti hanti sadgatijīvitam // 28 // tasmāt smṛtir manodvārān nāpaneyā kadācana / gatāpi pratyupasthāpyā saṃsmṛtyāpāyikīṃ vyathāṃ // 29 // upādhyāyānuśāsanyā bhītyāpy ādarakāriṇām / dhanyānāṃ gurusaṃvāsāt sukaraṃ jāyate smṛtiḥ // 30 // Crosby /Skilton 1998: 36.

58 BCA 5.22-23: lābhā naśyantu me kāmaṃ sakāraḥ kāyajīvitam / naśyatv anyac ca kuśalaṃ mā tu cittaṃ kadācana // 22 // cittaṃ rakṣitukāmānāṃ mayaiṣa kriyate ’ñjaliḥ / smṛtiṃ ca saṃprajanyaṃ ca sarvayatnena rakṣata // 23 // Cf. Crosby /Skilton 1998: 36. Skt. has “with every effort” in place of “even if your life depends on it.”

59 AS (1950: 6) samādhiḥ katamaḥ / upaparīkṣye vastuni cittasyaikāgratā / jñānasanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ / 60 Emend Ms. btags pa → brtags pa, ex conj.

61 PV 3.185: tasmād bhūtam abhūtaṃ vā yad yad evābhibhāvyate / bhāvanāpariniṣpattau tat sphuṭākalpadhīphalam // 62 BCA, 8.4: śamathena vipaśyanāsuyuktaḥ kurute kleśāvināśam ity avetya / śamathaḥ prathamaṃ gaveśaṇīyaḥ sa ca loke

nirapekṣayābhiratyā / For the last line Skt. more naturally reads, “…through not relying on delight in the world.” 63 AS (1950: 6): prajñā katamā / upaparīkṣye eva vastuni dharmāṇāṃ pravicayaḥ / saṃśayavyāvarttanakarmikā / 64 AS (1950: 6): śraddhā katamā / astitvaguṇavattvaśaktatveṣv abhisaṃpratyayaḥ prasādo 'bhilāṣaḥ /

chandasaṃniśrayadānakarmikā / 65 The following citations are found in the Śikṣāsamuccaya (1961: 4): śraddha purogata mātṛjanetrī pālika vardhika

sarvaguṇānām / kāṅkṣavinodani oghapratāraṇi śraddha nidarśani kṣamapurasya / 66 "Liberator from [the four] raging streams" (chu bo rnams las sgrol, oghapratāraṇi), the four floods or four raging streams

(ogha) refer to the raging streams of sensuous desire (kāmaugha), desire for existence (bhavaugha), false views (dṛṣṭyogha), and ignorance (avidyaugha). See AKBh.5.37(1975: 307), BHSD (1972: 158). Raging streams are synonymous with the ties (grantha) and outflows (āsrava).

67 Śikṣāsamuccaya (1961: 4), citing the Ratnolkadhāraṇī: śraddha anāvilacittaprasādo mānavivarjitagauravamūla / śraddha nidhānadhanaṃ caraṇāgraṃ pāṇi yathā śubhasaṃgrahamūlam //

68 Śikṣāsamuccaya (1961: 6), citing the Āryadaśadharmasūtra: śraddhā hi paramaṃ yānaṃ yena niryānti nāyakāḥ / tasmāc chraddhānusāritvaṃ bhajeta matimān naraḥ / aśrāddhasya manuṣyasya śuklo dharmo na rohati / bījānām agnidagdhānām aṅkuro harito yathā //

69 Śikṣāsamuccaya (1961: 6): śraddhāmūlaṃ dṛḍhīkṛtya.../ 70 AS (1950: 6): hrī katamā / svayam avadyena lajjanā / duścaritasaṃyamasanniśayadānakarmikā / 71 AS (1950: 6): apatrāpyaṃ katamā / parato 'vadyena lajjanā / tatkarmakam eva / 72 AS(1950: 6): alobhaḥ katamaḥ / bhave bhavopakaraṇeṣu vā anāsaktiḥ duścaritāpravṛttisanniśriyadānakarmakaḥ / 73 AS(1950: 6): adveṣaḥ katamaḥ / sattveṣu duḥkhe duḥkhasthānīyeṣu ca dharmeṣv anāghātaḥ / duścaritāpravṛttisanniśraya-

dānakarmakaḥ / 74 AS (1950: 6): amohaḥ katamaḥ / vipākato vāgamato vādhigamato vā jñānaṃ pratisaṃkhyā / duścaritāpravṛttisanniśriya-

dānakarmakaḥ / 75 RGS, vii.1-2a: jātyandhakoṭiniyutany avināyakānām mārge akovidu kuto nagarapraveśe / vina prajñā pañca imi pāramitā

acakṣū avināyakā na prabhavanti spṛśetu bodhiṃ // 1 // yatrāntare ‘smi bhavate pragrahīta prajñā tatu labdhu cakṣu bhavatī imu nāmadheyaṃ /

76 Uttaratantra, 5.14-15: trimaṇḍalavikalpo yas taj jñeyāvaraṇaṃ matam / mātsaryādivipakṣo yas tat kleśāvaraṇaṃ matam // 14 // etatprahāṇahetuś ca nānyaḥ prajñām ṛte tataḥ / śreṣtā prajñā śrutaṃ cāsya mūlaṃ tasmāc chrutaṃ param // 15 //

77 AS (1950: 6): vīryaṃ katamat / kuśale cetaso ’bhyutsāḥ sannāhe vā prayoge vā alīnattve vā avyāvṛttau vā asantuṣṭau vā / kuśalapakṣaparipūrṇapariniṣpādanakarmakam /

Deleted: sh

78 BCA (7.2): kiṃ vīryaṃ kuśalotsāhas…/ 79 Pāramitāsamāsa, iv.5,6,8 (Meadows, 1986: 208): saṃsārakoṭyor ubhayoḥ samānaiḥ prayāmasārair divasair yadi syuḥ /

saṃvatsarās tatpracayātidīrghaiḥ kalpaiḥ samudrodakabindutulyaiḥ // 5 // utpādayeyaṃ yadi bodhicittam ekaikam etena parākrameṇa / saṃbhāraśeṣaṃ cinuyāḥ tathāpi bhūyaḥsamutsāritakhedadainyaḥ // 6 // saṃsāraduḥkhaṃ svam acintayitvā saṃnāhadārḍhyaṃ yad acintyam evam / ādyaṃ samādānam idaṃ vadanti vīravratānāṃ karuṇātmakānām // 8 // These same verses are quoted by Tsong-kha-pa in the Lam rim chen mo: (ACIP S5392@ 277a) phar phyin bsdus pa las kyang / snga phyir 'khor ba'i mtha' dang mnyam tsham du / rgya che ring ba'i nying dang mtshan gyur la / de 'dra bsags pas lor gyur (@277b) dus ring ba'i / bskal pa rgya mtso'i chu thigs grangs snyed kyis / byang chub mchog gi sems gcig skye 'gyur la / de 'dra'i rnam pas tshogs gzhan re re zhing / bsgrub dgos gyur kyang snying rjes skyo ba med / byang chub dam pa sgyid lug med par bsgrub / 'khor tshe rang gi sdug bsngal sems btang zhing / go cha brtan pa dpag yas de bskyed na / brtul zhugs dpa' bo snying rje'i ngang can la / yang dag blangs pa dang po yin par brjod / ces gsungs pa'ang go cha'i brtson 'grus so / Cf. Wayman, 1991: 173.

80 The translation given here attempts to reconcile the Tibetan and Skt., which nevertheless remain divergent on some points. Story of Supāraga (1959: 94) 14.10-11: nāpatpratīkāravidhir viṣādas tasmād alaṃ dainyaparigraheṇa / dhariyāt tu kāryapratipattidakṣāḥ kṛcchrāṇy akṛcchreṇa samuttiranti // 10 // viṣādadainyaṃ vyavadhūya tasmāt kāryāvakāśaṃ kriyayā bhajadhvam / prājñasya dhairyajvalitaṃ hi tejaḥ sarvārthasiddhigrahaṇāgrahas taḥ // 11 //

81 Lam rim bsdus don (a.k.a Lines of Experience), vrs. 18: mi ldog brtan pa’i brtson ’grus go bgos na / lung rtogs yon tan yar ngo ’zla bzhin ’phel / sbyor lam thams cad don dan ldan par ’gyur / gang brtsams las kyi mtha’ rnams yid bzhin ’grub / de ltar shes nas le lo kun sel ba’i rlabs chen brtson ’grus rgyal sras rnams kyis brtsam /

82 MSA (16.65-66): vīryaṃ paraṃ śuklagaṇasya madhye tanniśriyas tasya yato ’nulābhaḥ / vīryeṇa sadyaḥ susukho vihāro lokottarā lokagatā ca siddhiḥ // 65 // vīryād avāptaṃ bhavabhogam iṣṭaṃ vīryeṇa śuddhiṃ prabalām upetāḥ / vīryeṇa satkāyam atītya muktā vīryeṇa bodhiṃ paramāṃ vibuddāḥ // 66 //

83 AS (1950:6): praśrabdhiḥ katamā / kāyacittadauṣṭulyānāṃ pratiśrabdhoḥ kāyacittakarmaṇyatā / sarvāvaraṇaniṣkarṣaṇkarmikā /

84 Lam rim bsdus don (a.k.a Lines of Experience), vrs. 19: bsam gtan sems la dbang bsgyur rgyal po ste / bzhag na g.yo med ri yi dbang po bzhin / btang na dge ba'i dmigs pa kun la 'jug / lus sems las su rung ba'i bde chen 'dren /

85 AS (1950:6): apramādaḥ katamaḥ / savīryakān alobhādveṣāmohān niśritya yā kuśalānāṃ dharmāṇām bhāvanā sāsravebhyaś ca dharmebhyaś cittārakṣā / sa ca laukikalokottarasampattiparipūraṇapariniṣpādanakarmakaḥ /

86 Byang chub sems dpa'i tshul khrims kyi rnam bshad byang chub gzhung lam bzhugs so (ACIP, S5271@17b): [bag yod pa ni / sngon gyi mtha' dang phyi ma'i mtha' dang dbus kyi mtha' dang ldan pa dang snga nas bya ba dang lhan cig rjes su spyod pa'i bag yod pa lnga ste / ] de dag kyang rim pa ltar 'das pa'i dus su nyes pa rnams chos bzhin du phyir bcos pa dang / ma 'ongs pa'i dus su yang de ltar byed par nan tan du sams pa dang da ltar yang brjed pa med par de ltar byed pa dang / bdag ji lta ji ltar spyod cing gnas na pa mi 'byung ba de lta de ltar spyod cing gnas na ci ma rung snyam du rab tu sgrim par byed pa dang / de la brten nas de lta de ltar spyod cing gnas pa'o /

87 Suhṛllekha, verse 13. 88 AS (1950: 6): upekṣā katamā / savīryakān alobhādveśāmohān niśritya yā saṃkliṣṭvihāravairodhikī cittasamatā cittapraśaṭatā

cittasyānābhogāvisthitatā / saṃkleśānavakāśasanniśrayadānakarmikā / 89 The term “mental condition” is a translation of ’du byed (Skt. saṃskāra), the fourth of the five aggregates. This term has two

senses: 1) the mental functions occurring in this group (and by extension, feeling and recognition) are the result of karmic conditioning; and 2) these mental functions also contribute to the production of further karmic conditioning.

90 There are four immeasurables in classic Buddhist thought: love, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. 91 AS (Rahula, 9; Pradhan 6-7): avihiṃsā katamā / adveṣāṃśikā karuṇatā / aviheṭanakarmikā // 92 The five supernatural knowledges are: miraculous transformation; the divine eye; the divine ear; memory of previous

existences; knowledge of other beings’ thoughts.” See Tshig mdzod chen mo, 691. 93 Tshigs mdzod chem mo, 1191: stobs bcu / de bzhin gshegs pa'i stobs bcu ste / gnas dang gnas ma yin pa mkhyen pa'i stobs

dang / las kyi rnam smin mkhyen pa'i stobs / mos pa sna tshogs mkhyen pa'i stobs / khams sna tshogs mkhyen pa'i stobs / dbang po mchog dman mkhyen pa'i stobs / thams cad du 'gro ba'i lam mkhyen pa'i stobs / bsam gtan rnam thar ting 'dzin snyoms 'jug sogs mkhyen pa'i stobs / sngon gnas rjes dran mkhyen pa'i stobs / 'chi 'pho dang skye ba mkhyen pa'i stobs / zag pa zad pa mkhyen pa'i stobs bcas bcu /

94 Noble Seven Jewels are “faith, ethical behavior, learning, generosity, self-respect, embarrassment, and discernment.” See Tshig mdzod chen mo (1777): 'phags pa'i nor bdun.

95 On the function of intermediary stanzas see K. Mimaki, “Sur le role de l’antaraśloka ou du saṃgrahaśloka.” Indianisme et

Bouddhisme, Mélanges offerts á Mgr Étienne Lamotte (Louvain-la-Neuve: 1980): 233-244. 96 AS (Rahula, 70; Pradhan, 43): yo dharma utpadyamāno ’praśāntalakṣaṇa utpadyamānena yena kāya

cittaprabandhāpraśamapravṛttiḥ / idaṃ kleśalakṣaṇam / 97 AS (Rahula, 9; Pradhan, 7): rāgaḥ katamaḥ / traidhātuko ’nunayaḥ / duḥkhasaṃjananakarmakaḥ / 98 Lam rim chen mo (ACIP 5392@ 151b): ’dod chags ni / phyi'am nang gi yul sdug pa yid du 'ong ba la dmigs nas rjes su chags

pa ste / dper na ras la snum zhugs pa dbyung dka' ba bzhin du / 'di yang rang gi dmigs pa la zhen cing mched pa ni dmigs pa de dang (@152a ) dbral dka' ba'o /

99 AS (Rahula, 9; Pradhan, 7): pratighaḥ katamaḥ / sattveṣu duḥkhe duḥkhasthānīyeṣu ca dharmeṣv āghātaḥ / asparśavihāra-duścaritasanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ /

100 Ratnāvalī 5.31: vyāpādo navahetūtthā parasyānarthacetanā / ātmamitrā[]pakṣeṣu trikālyānarthaśaṅkinaḥ // Cf. Hahn, 1982: 144; Dunne/McClintock, 1997: 77.

101 Skyes bu gsum gyis nyams su blang ba'i byang chub lam gyi rim pa 'brin po sa bcad kha skong dang bcas pa bzhugs so / “Tsong-kha-pa’s Lam rim chung ba with topical headings by Khri byang Rinpoche” (1968: 170-171 [fol.85b-86a]): khong khro ba ni / sems can rnams dang sdug bsngal dang mtshon dang tsher ma sogs sdug bsngal (f.086a) gyi gnas rnams la dmigs nas kun nas mnar sems pa sems rtsub mo yul de rnams la gnod pa bya bar sems pa'o /

102 BCA 6.3-5. The Sanskrit translates slightly differently: manaḥ śamaṃ na gṛhṇāti na prītisukham aśnute / na nidrāṃ na dhṛtiṃ yāti dveṣaśalye hṛdi sthite // [3] pūjayaty arthamānair yān yo ’pi cainaṃ samāśritāḥ / te ’py enaṃ hantum icchanti svāminaṃ dveṣadurbhagam // [4] suhṛdo ’py udvijanto ’smād dadāti na ca sevyate / saṃkṣepān nāsti tatkiṃcit krodhano yena susthitaḥ // [5] Cf. Crosby/Skilton (1998: 50)

103 Story of Cuḍabodhi (1959: 133) 21.29-33: na bhāty alaṃkāraguṇānvito ‘pi krodhāgninā saṃhṛtavarṇaśobhaḥ / saroṣaśalye hṛdaye ca duḥkhaṃ mahārhaśayyāṅkagato ‘pi śete // 29 // vismṛtya cātmakṣamasiddhipakṣaṃ roṣāt prayāty eva tad utpathena / nihīyate yena yaśorthasiddhyā tāmisrapakṣendur ivātmalakṣmyā // 30 // roṣeṇa gacchaty anayaprapātaṃ nivāryamāno ’pi suhṛjjanena / prāyeṇa vairasya jaḍatvam eti hitāhitavekṣaṇamandabuddhiḥ // 31 // krodhāc ca sātmīkṛtapāpakarmā śocaty apāyeṣu samāśatāni / ataḥ paraṃ kiṃ ripavaś ca kuryus tīvrāpakāroddhat ‘pi // 32 // antaḥ sapatnaḥ kopo ‘yaṃ tad evaṃ viditaṃ mama / tasyāvalepaprasaraṃ kaḥ pumān marṣayiṣyati // 33 //

104 AS (Rahula, 9; Pradhan, 7): māna katamaḥ / satkāyadṛṣṭisanniśrayeṇa cittasyonnatiḥ / agauravaduḥkhotpattisanniśraya-dānakarmakaḥ /

105 Skyes bu gsum gyis nyams su blang ba'i byang chub lam gyi rim pa 'brin po sa bcad kha skong dang bcas pa bzhugs so / “Tsong-kha-pa’s Lam rim chung ba with topical headings by Khri byang Rinpoche” (1968: 171 [fol.86a]): nga rgyal ni / 'jig lta la brten te phyi 'am nang gi mtho dman dang bzang ngan la dmigs nas sems khengs pa ste / mtho ba'i rnam pa can du 'jug pa'o /

106 Unless otherwise noted I have followed the Tibetan of Ye-she rgyal-mtshan. The Sanskrit from Ratnāvalī 5.6bd-12 is: mānaḥ punaḥ saptavidhas taṃ vakṣyāmi prabhedataḥ (6bd) / tatrābhimanyamānasya hīnād dhīnaṃ samāt samam / hīnād vādhikam ātmānaṃ samād vā māna ucyate // 7 // yo ‘dhamas tulyam ātmānaṃ viśiṣṭād abhimanyate / so ‘timāno viśiṣṭebhyo viśiṣṭaṃ yo ‘bhimanyate // 8 // mānātimāno yo ‘tyarthaṃ samucchraye samucchrayaḥ piṭako vātisaṃrabdho gaṇḍopari samutthitaḥ // 9 // yad upādānasaṃjñeṣu skandheṣv eteṣu pañcasu mohād aham iti grāhaḥ so ‘smimāna udāhṛtaḥ // 10 // abhimāno yad aprāpte phale prāptābhimānatā / pāpakarmakriyā ślāghyā mithyā mānaṃ vidur budhāḥ // 11 // niṣprayojana evāham iti yā [tv ātmanin]danā / so ’dhamo māna ity ete saptāpy uktāḥ samāsataḥ // 12 // Cf. Hahn, 1982: 134-136; Dunne/McClintock, 1997: 74.

107 I have included in the translation all of verse 5.8 (Hahn 1982: 134-135) as Ye-she rgyal-mtshan has only 5.8a,d and skips 5.8b-c.

108 Ratnāvalī 1.17cd-1.18: stambhena duṣkulīnatvam īrṣyayā // 17 // krodhād durvarṇatā maurkhyam apraśnena vipaścitām / phalam etan manuṣyatve sarvebhyaḥ prāk tu durgatiḥ // 18 // Cf. Hahn, 1982: 8; Dunne/McClintock, 1997: 11.

109 Lam rim chen mo (ACIP, #5392, @181a): nga rgyal ni 'dir lam skye ba'i gegs kyi mchog phyi mar bran la sogs pa'i rgyu yin pas spang ste /

110 AS (Rahula, 10; Pradhan,7): avidyā katamā / traidātukam ajñānam / dharmeṣu mithyāniścayasaṃkleśotpatti-sanniśrayadānakaramikā /

111 PV 2.217cd-218ab: yaḥ paśyaty ātmānaṃ tatrāsyāham iti śāsvataḥ snehaḥ / snehāt sukheṣu tṛṣyati tṛṣṇā doṣāṃs tiraskurute // 112 PV 1.223-224a: sarvāsāṃ doṣjātīnāṃ jātiḥ satkāyadarśanāt / sā ‘vidyā tatra tatsnehas tasmād dveṣādisambhavaḥ // 223 //

moho nidānaṃ doṣāṇām ata evābhidhīyate // 224a //

113 PV 2.213ab: tan mūlāś ca malāḥ sarve sa ca satkāyadarśanam / 114 Tsong-kha-pa’s Rten ‘brel bstod pa legs bshad snying po, verse 2. See also Rten 'brel bstod pa legs bshad snying po /

Pratītyasamutpādastutisubhāsitahṛdayam of Ācārya Tsonkhāpā translated by Gyaltsen Namdol, Ngawang Samten. (Sarnath: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies) 1982: 2.

115 AS (Rahula, 10; Pradhan, 7): vicikitsā katamā / satyeṣu vimatiḥ / kuśalapakṣāpravṛtti sanniṣrayadānakarmikā / 116 “Fetter abandoned through the path of seeing” (mthong spang kun sbyor, darśanaprahānasaṃyojana). Traditionally, there are

three fetters removed on the path of seeing (darśanamārga): doubt, [false] view towards the perishable aggregates, and holding morality and ascetic vows as supreme.

117 AS (Rahula, 10; Pradhan, 7): satkāyadṛṣṭiḥ katamā / pañcopādānaskandhān ātmataḥ ātmīyato vā samanupaśyato yā kṣāntī rucirmatiḥ prekṣā dṛṣṭiḥ / sarvadṛṣṭigatasanniśrayadānakarmikā //

118 Lam rim chen mo (ACIP S5392@ 152a): de la 'jig pa ni mi rtag pa dang tshogs pa ni du ma yin pas 'dis gang la lta ba'i gzhi ni mi rtag pa dang du ma'i chos tsam yin gyi / rtag pa dang gcig pu'i gang zag ni med do / zhes bstan pa'i phyir du 'jig tshogs la lta ba zhes ming btags so /

119 MA 6.144; SBS (394-395): rūpaṃ nātmā rūpavān naiva cātmā rūpe nātmā rūpam ātmany asac ca / skandhān evaṃ viddhi sarvāṃś caturdhā viṃśatyaṃśā eta iṣṭāḥ svadṛṣṭeḥ / Cf. Huntington 1989: 175.

120 MA 6.145; SBS (395): etāni tāni śikharāṇi samudgatāni satkāyadṛṣṭivipulācalasaṃsthitāni / nairātmyabodha vidāritātmā bhedaṃ prayāti sahasaiva tu (sahy yair ) dṛṣṭiśailaḥ // Cf. Huntington 1989: 175.

121 AS (Rahula, 10; Pradhan, 7): antagrāhadṛṣṭiḥ katamā / pañcopādānaskandhān śāśvatato vā ucchedato vā samanupaśyataḥ yā kśāntī rucirmatiḥ prekṣā dṛṣṭiḥ / madhyamā pratipanniryāṇaparipanthakarmikā /

122 AS (Rahula, 10; Pradhan, 7): dṛṣṭiparāmarśaḥ katamaḥ / dṛṣṭiṃ dṛṣṭyāśrayāṃś ca pañcopādānaskandhān agrataḥ śreṣṭato viśiṣṭataḥ paramataś ca samupaśyato yā kṣāntī rucirmatiḥ prekṣā dṛṣṭiḥ / asatdṛṣṭyainiveśasanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ /

123 AS (Rahula, 10; Pradhan, 7): śīlavrataparāmarśaḥ katamaḥ / śīlaṃ vrataṃ śīlavratā(śrayāṃ)ś ca pañcopādānaskandhān śuddhito muktito nairyāṇikataś ca samanupaśyato yā kṣāntī rucirmatiḥ prekṣā dṛṣṭiḥ / śramavaiphalya-sanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ /

124 AS (Rahula, 10; Pradhan, 7): mithyādṛṣṭiḥ katamā / hetuṃ vā ’pavadataḥ phalaṃ vā kriyāṃ vā sad vā vastu nāśyataḥ mithyā ca vikalpayato yā kṣānti rucirmatiḥ prekṣā dṛṣṭiḥ / kuśalamūlasamucchedakarmikā / akuśalamūladṛḍatā-sanniśrayadānakarmikā / akuśale pravṛttikarmikā kuśale cāpravṛttikarmikā vā //

125 I have translated this quote according to the Tibetan of Ye shes rgyal mtshan. Sanskrit and Hahn’s version slightly differ. See Ratnāvalī 1.73cd-74: antavān iti lokaś ca pṛṣṭas tūṣṇīṃ jino ’bhavat // 1.73 // sarvajña iti sarvajño budhais tenaiva gamyate / yenaitad dharmagāmbhīryaṃ novācābhājane jane // 74 // Cf. Hahn, 1982: 30-31; Dunne/McClintock, 1997: 20.

126 AS (Rahula, 11; Pradhan, 8): krodhaḥ katamaḥ / pratyupasthite apakāranimitte prati[ghāṃ]śikaś cetasa āghātaḥ / śastrādānadaṇḍādānādisaṃrmbhasanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ //

127 AS (Rahula, 12; Pradhan, 8): upanāhaḥ katamaḥ / tat ūrdhvaṃ pratighāṃśika eva vairāśayasyānutsargaḥ / akṣānti-sanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ /

128 Ratnāvalī 5.3ab: krodhaś cittaprakopo ’sminn upanāho ’nu[bandhakṛt]/ Cf. Hahn, 1982: 132-133; Dunne/McClintock, 1997: 73.

129 AS (Rahula, 12; Pradhan, 8): mrakṣaḥ katamaḥ / samyakcoditasya mohāṃśikā avadyapracchādanā / kaukṛtyāsparśa vihārasanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ /

130 AS (Rahula, 12; Pradhan, 8): pradāśaḥ katamaḥ / pratighāṃśikaḥ krodhopanāhapūrvaṅgamś cetasa āghātaḥ / ucca-pragāḍapāruṣyavacanasanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ apuṇyaprasavakarmakaḥ asparśavihārakarmakaś ca /

131 AS(Rahula, 12; Pradhan, 8): īrṣyā katamā / lābhasatkārādhyavasitasya parasaṃpattiviśeṣe dveṣāṃśikaḥ a[marṣa]kṛtaś cetasa vyāroṣaḥ / daurmanasyāsparśasvihārakarmakaḥ /

132 AS (Rahula, 12; Pradhan 8): mātsaryaṃ katamat / lābhasatkārādhyavasitasya pariṣkāreṣu rāgāṃśiś cetasa āgrahaḥ / asaṃlekhasanniśrayadānakarmakaṃ /

133 AS (Rahula, 12; Pradhan, 8): māyā katamā / lābhasatkārādhyavasitasya rāgamohāṃśikā abhūtaguṇasaṃdarśanā / mithyājīvasanniśrayadānakarmikā /

134 AS (Rahula, 12; Pradhan, 8-9): śāṭhyaṃ katamat / lābhasatkārādhyavasitasya rāgamohāṃśikā bhūtadoṣavimālanā / samyakavavādalābhaparipanthakaram

135 BCA (5.31-32): buddhāś ca bodhisattvāś ca sarvatrāvyāhatekṣaṇāḥ / sarvam evāgratas teṣāṃ teṣām asmi puraḥ sthitaḥ //

31// iti dhyātvā tathā tiṣhṭet trapādarabhayānvitaḥ / buddhānusmṛtir apy evaṃ bhavet tasya muhurmuhuḥ // 32 // 136 AS (Rahula, 12; Pradhan, 9): madaḥ katamaḥ / ārogyaṃ vāgamya yauvanaṃ vā dīrghāyuṣkalakṣaṇaṃ vā sāsravāṃ

saṃpattiṃ rāgāṃśikan nandīsaumanasyam / sarvvakleśopakleśasanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ / 137 AS (Rahula, 12; Pradhan, 9): vihiṃsā katamā / prati[ghāṃśikā nirghraṇatā niṣkaruṇatā nirdayatā / niheṭanakarmikā / 138 AS (Rahula, 12; Pradhan, 9): āhrīkyaṃ katamat / rāgadveṣamohāṃśikā svayam avadyenālajjanā / sarvakleśopakleśa-

sāhāyyakarmakaṃ / 139 AS (Rahula, 12-13; Pradhan, 9): anapatrāpyaṃ katamat / rāgadveṣamohāṃśikā parato’vadyenālajjanā / sarvvakleśopakleśa-

sāhāyyakarmakam / 140 Ratnāvalī 5.5ab: ahrīkatānapatrāpye svapareṣām alajjane / / Cf. Hahn, 1982: 132-133; Dunne/McClintock, 1997: 73. 141 AS (Rahula, 13; Pradhan, 9): styānaṃ katamat / mohāṃśikā cittākarmaṇyatā / sarvakleśopakleśasāhāyyakarmakam / 142 Ratnāvalī 5.32ab: styānaṃ yat kāyamanasor gurutvād apakarmatā / / Cf. Hahn, 1982: 132-133; Dunne/McClintock, 1997: 77 143 AS (Rahula, 13; Pradhan, 9): auddhatyaṃ katamat / śubhanimittam anusarato rāgāṃśikaś cetaso’vyupaśamaḥ / śamatha-

paripanthakarmakam / 144 Ratnāvalī 5.32cd: middhaṃ nidrāndhyam auddhatyaṃ kāyacittāpraśāntatā // Cf. Hahn, 1982: 132-133; Dunne/McClintock,

1997: 77 145 AS (Rahula, 13; Pradhan, 9): āśraddhyaṃ katamat / mohāṃśikaḥ kuśaleṣu dharmeṣu

cetaso’nabhisaṃpratyayo’prasādo’nabhilāṣaḥ / kausīdyasanniśrayadānakarmakam / 146 AS (Rahula, 13; Pradhan, 9): kausīdyaṃ katamat / nidrāpārśvaśayana sukhallikām āgamya mohāṃśikaś cetaso’nabhyutsāhaḥ

/ / 147 AS (Rahula, 13; Pradhan, 9): pramādaḥ katamaḥ / sakausīdyān rāgadveṣamohān niśritya kuśalānāṃ dharmāṇām abhāvanā

sāsravebhyaś ca dharmebhyaś cetaso’ nārakṣā / akuśalavṛddhikuśparihāṇisanniśrayadānakarmakaḥ / 148 AS (Rahula, 13; Pradhan, 9): muṣitasmṛtitā katamā / kleśsaṃprayuktā smṛtiḥ / vikṣepasanniśrayadānakarmakā / 149 AS (Rahula, 13; Pradhan, 9): asaṃprajanyaṃ katamat / kleśasaṃprayuktā prajñā yayā asaṃviditā kāyavākcittacaryā

pravartate / āpattisanniśrayadānakarmakam / 150 BCA (5.26): aneke śrutavanto ‘pi śrāddhā yatnaparā api / asaṃprajanyadoṣeṇa bhavanty āpattikaśmalāḥ // 151 AS (Rahula, 13; Pradhan, 9): vikṣepaḥ katamaḥ / rāgadveṣamohāṃśikaś cetaso visāraḥ / sa punaḥ svabhāvavikṣepaḥ

bahirdhāvikṣepaḥ adhyātmavikṣepaḥ nimittavikṣepaḥ dauṣṭulyavikṣepaḥ manasikāravikṣepaś ca / 152 AS (Rahula, 14; Pradhan, 10): middhaṃ katamat / middhanimitt mohāṃśikaś cetaso’bhisaṃkṣepaḥ kuśalaḥ akuśalaḥ

avyākṛtaḥ kāle vākāle vā yukto vāyukto vā / kṛtyāvipattisanniśrayadānakarmakam / 153 AS (Rahula, 14; Pradhan, 10): kaukṛtyaṃ katamat / yad abhipretānabhipretaṃ kāraṇākāraṇam āgamya mohāṃśikaś cetaso

vipratisāraḥ / kuśalam akuśalam avyākṛtaṃ kāle akāle yuktam ayuktañ ca / cittasthitiparipanthakarmakaḥ / 154 AS (Rahula, 14; Pradhan, 10): vitarkaḥ katamaḥ / cetanāṃ vā niśritya prajñāṃ vā paryeṣako manojalpaḥ / sā ca

cittasyaudārikatā / vicāraḥ katamaḥ / cetanāṃ vā niśritya prajñāṃ vā pratyavekṣako manojalpaḥ / sā cittasya sūkṣmatā / sparśāsparśavihārasaṃniśrayadānakarmakau /

155 BCA (5.108): etad eva samāsena saṃprajanyasya lakṣaṇam / yatkāyacittāvasthāyāḥ pratyavekṣā muhurmuhuḥ // 156 BCA (4.45-46): nirvāsitasyāpi tu nāma śatror deśāntare sthānaparigrahaḥ syāt / yataḥ punaḥ saṃbhṛtaśaktir eti na

kleśaśatror gatir īdṛśī tu // 45 // kvāsau yāyān manmanaḥstho nirastaḥ sthitvā yasmin madvadhārthaṃ yateta / nodyogo me kevalaṃ mandabuddheḥ kleśāḥ prajñādṛṣṭisādhyā varākāḥ // 46 //

157 “Dran shes” is an abbreviation for mindfulness (dran pa) and discernment (shes bzhin). 158 rgyan drug mchog gnyis - Six Ornaments and the Two Supreme Ones. The six ornaments are Nāgārjuna, Āryadeva, Asaṅga,

Dignāga, Vasubandhu and Dharmakīrti. The two supreme ones are Śākyaprabha and Gunaprabha.