THC NEW LEFT HISTORIANS

AND THE HISTORIOGRAPHY

OF THE COLD WAR

James V i g g o J e n s e n

B . A . , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Co lumbia , 1 9 6 9

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF I .:

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n t h e Department

H i s t o r y

@ JAMES V I G G O JENSEN 1 9 7 5

SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY

A p r i l 1975

A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . T h i s t h e s i s may n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d i n w h o l e o r i n p a r t , by p h o t o c o p y o r o t h e r m e a n s , w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e a u t h o r .

APPROVAL

Name : James Viggo Jensen

Degree: Master of Arts

Ti t le of Thesis: The New Left Historians and the Historiography of the Cold War

Examining Comit tee :

Chairman : J.M. Bumsted

Ian Mwidge Senior Supervisor

C.G. Reed, External Examiner

Department of Economics & Commerce Simon Fraser University

Date Approved : 28 April 1975

PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICEhSE

I h e r e b y g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o lend

my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e o f which i s shown below) t o u s e r s

of t h e Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r s i n g l e

c o p i e s o n l y f o r s u c h u s e r s o r i n r e s p o n s e t o a r e q u e s t from t h e l i b r a r y

of a n y o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on i t s -own

b e h a l f o r f o r one of i t s u s e r s . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t pe rmiss ion f o r

m u l t i p l e copying o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d

b y me o r t h e Dean of Graduate ::udies. It is unders tood t h a t copying

o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t b e a l lowed

w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n pe rmiss ion .

T i t l e o f Thes is / ~ i s s e r t a t ion :

The New L e f t Historians and the H i ~ t o r i o g r a p h y o f t h e Cold !Jar.

Author :

James V i g g o Jensen

(name)

April 28, 1975

( d a t e )

l? T ) C t " " C T . nud I binc. I

C h a p t e r I o f t h i s t h e s i s a t t e m p t s t o p l a c e t h e

New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s i n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y . I n d o i n g t h i s , o n e f i n d s t h a t i n

p r e c i s e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s a s t r a i g h t l i n e e x t e n d s

f r o m t h e P r o g r e s s i v e s c h o o l o f h i s t o r i a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y

C h a r l e s A u s t i n B e a r d , h i s a n a l y s i s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y a n d

h i s v i e w o f t h e h i s t o r i a n as a s t u d e n t o f h i s t o r y , t o

t o d a y ' s r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s , T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

B e a r d a n d t h e N e w L e f t h i s t o r l i a n s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e

o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War i s e s s e n t i a l t o a f u l l u n d e r s t a n d -

i n g o f New L e f t s c h o l a r s h i p , H i t h e r t o , t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p

n a s b e e n g i o s s e d o v e r w i t h g l i b cornrrier1i.s o r i y i i ~ r e d 7 i Z t i j -

q e t h e r , T h o u g h t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s ' r a d i c a l s c h o l a r -

s h i p c o n s t i t u t e s t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t

t h e s t e r i l i t y a n d c o m p l a c e n c y t h a t t h e y f i n d s o p e r v a s i v e

i n t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s ' w o r k , t h e N e w L e f t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f t h e C o l d War i s n o t s o m e t h i n g p u t t o g e t h e r i n p r o t e s t

a g a i n s t V i e t n a m . I t i s a c t u a l l y t h e l a t e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f

d i s s e n t w i t h i n A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .

C h a p t e r I1 t r i o s t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e

N e w L e f t h i s t o r i a n s a s s t u d e n t s o f h i s t o r y h a v e made a n y

s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f t h e o r i g i n s

iii

o f t h e C o l d War. The N e w L e f t wr i te r s h a v e made t w o m a j o r

c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o C o l d War h i s t o r i o g r a p h y . F i r s t , t h e N e w

L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e q u e s t i o n e d t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e o r t h o -

dox v i e w w h i c h i n t e r p r e t s A m e r i c a n p o l i c y as p r i m a r i l y a

d e f e n s i v e r e s p o n s e t o a n a g g r e s s i v e S o v i e t Union b e n t o n

w o r l d d o m i n a t i o n . I n v i e w o f t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e , t h i s

c o n c l u s i o n i s n o l o n g e r t e n a b l e . S e c o n d , t h e r e v i s i o n i s t s

h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e d e c i s i v e e f f e c t o f t h e a t o m i c bomb

p l a y e d i n t h e o r i g i n s of t h e C o l d War.

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e N e w L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e e m p h a s i z e d

t h a t i t was W a s h i n g t o n , n o t Moscow, w h i c h had t h e c h o i c e o f

a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t h e i m m e d i a t e p o s t - w o r l d War 11 p e r i o d . I n

t h e i r j u d g e m e n t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was d e t e r m i n e d t o u s e

i t s p r e d o m i n a n t e c o n o m i c a n d a t o m i c p o w e r - i n a v a i n e f f o r t

t o c o m p e l R u s s i a t o a c c e p t America's Open Door v i e w o f t h e

w o r l d . Very s i m p l y s t a t e d , t h e Open Door v i e u ~ h o l d s t h a t

A m e r i c a n p o l i c y m a k e r s , a t l e a s t s i n c e t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f

t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , have d o g m a t i c a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t

A m e r i c a n p r o s p e r i t y a n d d e m o c r a c y a re d e p e n d e n t u p o n c o n -

t i n u o u s a n d e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g e c o n o m i c e x p a n s i o n . The Open

Door t h e o r y h a s f o r m e d t h e v e r y b a s i s o f t h e N e w L e f t ' s

r a d i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e w h o l e Amer ican d i p l o m a c y .

A l t h o u q h it i s t o o e a r l y t o g i v e a d e f i n i t i v e

a n s w e r c o n c e r n i n g t h e v e r a c i t y of t h e Ne~u L e f t ' s Opcn

nmm7. + &-,- -...., U U U L L I I G L J J . y t i t is . ; t i i d c n t t h z t zn i-tttrarctatisn c l c s 2 ~

t o t h e r e a l i t i e s of t h a t p e r i o d w i l l e v o l v e from a

s y n t h e s i s of t h e N ~ V J L e f t h i s t o r i a n s ' and t h e i r p r e -

d e c e s s o r s * a n a l y s e s of t h e o r i g i n s of t h e Cold war.

S e v e r a l p e r s o n s h a v e a s s i s t e d me i n t h e p r e p a r a -

t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s . S p e c i a l t h a n k s a r e d u e t o my t h e s i s

s u p e r v i s o r , D r . I a n M u q r i d g e , who m a i n t a i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l e

p a t i e n c e t h r o u ~ h t h e y e a r s t h i s p a p e r was u n d e r d e v e l o p -

m e n t . He c o n t r i b u t e d t o i t s p r o g r e s s t h r o u g h c o n s t r u c -

t i v e c r i t i c i sm a n d i n v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t i o n s . A l s o o f

a s s i s t a n c e was Dr. R i c h a r d K . D ~ b o who t o o k t ime f r o m

h i s b u s y s c h e d u l c t o r e a d t h i s p a p e r a n d o f f e r h e l p f u l

s u g g e s t i o n s . I am a l s o i n d e b t e d t o my wi fe , 8 a b e r t - a ,

a n d my d a u g h t e r , S a r a h , f o r t h e i r c o n t i n u e d s u p p o r t a n d

e n c c u r a g e a e n t .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

APPROVAL PAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

ABSTRACT . s . iii-v

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v i

CHAPTER

I NEW L E F T COLD WAR HISTORIOGRAPHY I N PERSPECTIVE * w . . s . 1

I I THE NEW L E F T HISTORIANS AND THE COLD W A R . . . * . . . . . . . * . . r w . . 54

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 CONCLUSION 97

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . 102

vii

CHAPTER I

N E W LEFT C O L D WkR H I S T O R I O G R A P H Y IN PERSPECTIVE

I n t h e f i e l d o f A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y t h e r e

h a v e b e e n t w o m a j o r g r o u p s o f h i s t o r i a n s d u r i n g t h e l a s t

f i f t y y e a r s . C h a r l e s A u s t i n B e a r d e x e m p l i f i e d t h e

P r o g r e s s i v e h i s t o r i a n s who d o m i n a t e d t h e p r o f e s s i o n i n

t h e 1 9 3 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 9 4 0 s . l S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e S e c o n d

W o r l d War, h o w e v e r , some h i s t o r i a n s r e j e c t e d t h e p r o g r e s -

s i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n OF A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y , w h i c h s t r e s s e d

c l a s s d i v i s i o n a n d c o n f l i c t , and r e p l a c e d it w i t h a n

i n t e r p r e t a t i o r e m p h a s i z i n g h o m o g e n e i t y a n d c o n s e n s u s . 2

Though t h e p o s t - B e a r d i a n c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s a r e s t i l l

wel l e n t r e n c h e d i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e , i t is e v i d e n t t h a t d u r -

i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s G n3c.i r a d i c a l schoo l of A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i a n s ,

commonly l a b e l l e d t h e N E W L e f t , e m e r g e d t o c h a l l e n g e t h e

c o n s e n s u s a c c o u n t o f t h e A m e r i c a n p a s t . B a r t o n J . B e r n s t e i n

or an e x c e l l e n t a n a l y s i s o f t h o t h r e e m a j o r P r o g r e s s i v e h i s t o r i a n s , F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n T u r n e r , V e r n o n L. P a r r i n g t o n , a n d C h a r l e s A u s t i n B e a r d , r e f e r t o R i c h a r d H o f s t a d t e r ' s T h e Progressive H i s t o r i a n s ( N E W Y o r k , 1 9 6 8 ) . For t h e b e s t b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n OF t h e ~ r o a r e s s i v e h i s t o r i a n s , s e e J o h n Higham -- e t a l . , ~ i s t a r y ( ~ n ~ l e i o o d C l i f f s , N. J . , 1 9 6 5 ) , p t . 111, Chap. 111.

2 ~ o r t w o v a l u a b l e v i e w s o f t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s , s e e i b i d . , S k o t h e i m , e d . , The H i s t o r i a n a n d t h e C l i m a t e of - O p i n i o n ( R e a d i n g , M a s s . , 1 9 6 9 1 , p t . 11.

h a s r e n d e r e d a u s e f u l d e f i n i t i o n o f t h i s g r o u p .

T h o u g h d e r y i n g p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n a n d l u m p i n g t o g e t h e r t h o s e who b e l i e v e i n o b j e c t i v e h i s t o r y w i t h t h o s e who d o n o t , t h e t e r m d o e s d e n o t e a g r o u p o f v a r i o u s ' l o f t ' v i e w s - w h e t h e r t h e y be E a r x i s t , n e o - B e a r d i a n , r a d i c a l , o r l o f t - l i b e r a l . 3

A s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e m a j o r c o n c e r n o f t h i s

t h e s i s , w h i c h u i l l b e t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s ' c o n t r i b u -

t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War,

t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l r e s t r i c t i t s e l f t o a b r i e f e x a m i n a t i o n

o f t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l r o o t s o f t h e s e h i s t o r i a n s , T h i s

i s u n d e r t a k e n i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t s u c h a n a n a l y s i s w i l l

c o n t r i b u t e t o a more t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e New

L e f t h i s t o r i a n s w h i c h i n t u r n will f e c i l i t a t e a b e t t e r

t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d Uar. As W a l t e r L a F c b e r has n o t e d ;

" t h e y ( t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s ) a r e p e r h a p s b e t t e r s t u d i e d

t h r o u g h t h e i r vie^ o f h i s t o r y r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r c a l l t o

p o l i t i c s " . 4 He c o n t e n d s t h a t t h i s i s t h e case b e c a u s e o f

t h e i r " w i d e l y - v a r y i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p " t o t h e t e r m , New L e f t .

I f o n e a c c e p t s L a F e b e r ' s c o n t e n t i o n , o n e f i n d s

3 t3a r ton J. B e r n s t e i n , e d . , T o w a r d s A New P a s t t D i s s e n t i n q Essays i n A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y (New Y o r k , 196i'J.

4 ~ h o r n a s G . P a t e r s o n , n d . , The O r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War ( L e x i n g t o n , ~ a s s a c h u s e t t s ~ ? ~ ) , p , 1 1 8 ,

3

t h a t , i n h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l terms, t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s '

v i e w o f h i s t o r y i s r c n a r k a b l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f p e o p l e

l i k e C h a r l e s A u s t i n B e a r d . P o r h a p s t h e new r a d i c a l s '

c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e r o l a o f t h e h i s t o r i a n a n d h i s p u r p o s e s

i n s o c i e t y s i m i l a r l y e x p l a i n s i n l a r g e p a r t t h e c h a n g e s

t h e y have w r o u g h t i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g

w r i t e r s , d e s p i t e t h e i r d i f F e r e n c e s i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,

m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d t h e m a j o r N e w L e f t C o l d Was h i s t o r i a n s ;

B a r t o n J, B e r n s t e i n , D a v i d H o r a w i t z , Thomas G . P a t e r s o n ,

G a b r i e l K o l k o , L l o y d C . G a r d n e r , W a l t e r C a F e b e r , Gar

A l p e r o v i t z a n d William f i p p l c n a r i Williams. 5

B e f o r e e x a m i n i n g t h e ' h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l r o o t s o f

t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i r n s , i t 5s h e l p f u l t o d e s c r i h e t h e

i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n o f t h e d o m i n a n t c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s t o

t h e new revisionist r e a d i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n p a s t . To a

r e m r k a b l e e x t e n t , t h e C G n s e n s i j s l z iden A m ~ r i c a i ~ H i s t o r i c d l

A s s o c i a t i o n has b e e n s l o w t o r e c o g n i z e t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f

t h i s new s c h o o l oF r a d i c a l writers e s p e c i a l l y i n s u c h

S ~ h a u ~ h t h e r e a r e many h i s t o r i a n s who m i g h t b e con- s i d e r e d N e w L e f t , t h i s p a p e r is c o n c e r n e d s o l e l y w i t h t h o s e r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s , who may now^ b e c o n s i d e r e d t h o F i r s t g e n e r a t i o n of Neu L e F t C o l d War h i s t o r i a n s , T h o s e r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s c o n s i d e r e d h e r e are s p e c i a l i s t s i n A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War. T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s made b e c a u s e o t h e r New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e s o m e w h a t d i F F c r e n t h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l r o o t s t h a n t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y w r i t e r s . I n t h i s r e g a r d s ee l l N e ~ R a d i c a l H i s - t o r i a n s i n t h e S i x t i e s : A S u r v e y 1 ' , R a d i c a l . A m e r i c a , IV, No. 8-9 ( N O V . , l.970), 8 1 - 1 0 6 . A l s o h e l p f u l is I r w i n

c o n t r o v e r s i a l a r e a s a s t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War , u:hich

e l u s i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f l i c t OF m o d e r n t i m e s " . U n t i l

q u i t e r e c e n t l y , t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s s e e m e d c o n t e n t

e i t h e r t o i g n o r e N E W L e f t h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p o r t o

d i s m i s s i t wit.h d e r o g a t o r y r e m a r k s . Thay a p p e a r e d t o b e

f o l l o v ~ i n g t h e a d v i c e g i v e n by L o u i s Ha r t z , a r e s p e c t e d

c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n , r e g a r d i n g C h a r l e s B o a r d .

H i s t o r i a n s h a v e o p e n l y a s s a i l e d B e a r d . . . . B u t a f t e r a l l i s s a i d a n d d o n e B e a r d sol how s t a y s a l i v e , a n d t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s Lhat , a s i n t h e case o f Rarx, you m e r e l y d e m o n s t r a t e y o u r s u b s e r v i e n c e t o a thinker when yau s p e n d y o u r time a t t v n p t i n g t o d i s p r o v e h i n . 7

O s c a r H a n d l i n d i d n o t i g n o r e New L e f t w r i t i n g . On

The C o n t o u r s o f A m o r i c a n H i s t c r y beczrne a l m o s t r e p r e s e n t a -

t i v e o f t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s 1 a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e New

L e f t ' s r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f ~ m e r i c a n h i s t o r y . H a n d l i n w r o t e

t h a t

U n q e r ' s , "The 'Neu~ L e f t ' a n d A m e r i c a n H i s t o r v r Some R e c e n t rends i n U n i t e d S t a t e s H i s t o r i c g r a p h y , " ~ m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , LXXII ( J U ~ Y , 1 9 6 7 ) , 1 2 3 7 - 1 2 6 3 ; Dan P o p e , ' " A R a d i c a l m i c G u i d e It A m e r i c a n H i s t o r v . " L i b e r a t i o n . V o l . 15 (Au tumn , 1 9 7 0 ) ' 49-54; Walter ~ a ~ u o d r , " ~ c r n r i t i n ~ H i a t c r y , " C o m m e n t z r y , V o l . 55, No. 3 ( m a r c h , 1 9 7 3 ) , 53 -63 .

' ~ o r r n a n A . G r a e b n e r , " C o l d War O r i g i n s a n d t h e Can- t i n u i n y D e b a t e r A R e v i e w o f R e c e n t L i t e r a t u r e , " J o u r n a l o f C o n f l i c t R e s o l . u t i o n , X I 1 1 arch, l 9 6 9 ) , 1 2 3 .

? ~ o u i s H a r t z , The L i b e r a l T r a d i t i o n i n A m e r i c a ( ~ e w - Y o r k , 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 3.

i n e v a l u a t i n g t h i s b o o k , o n e c a n n a t e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i t was i n t e n d e d a s an e l a b o r a t e h o a x , t h a t i t s a u t h o r h a s h e e n e n j o y i n g h i r - s c l f by i n e n i o u s l y p u l l i n g t h e l e g o f h i s c o l l e a g u e s . 1

D a v i d D o n a l d e v e n o b j e c t e d t o " p u b l i s h i n g a m a n u s c r i p t

b y I r w i n U n g e r o n h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e Neu L e f t " . He o b j e c t e d

"on t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e h i s t o r i a n s w h o s e w o r k h e d i s c u s s e d

were no?; @ f s u f f i c i ~ t n t c o n s c q t i e n c e t o mer i t e x t e n d e d c o n -

s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e p a g e s o f o u r m a j o r p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r -

r ~ a l " . ~ A r t h u r S c h l e s i n g e r , J r . , w e n t s o f a r a s t o " b l o w

t h e w h i s t l e " o n h i s t o r i c a l r e v i s i o n i s m c o n c e r n i n g t h e

o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d Wa; . lo E v i d e n t l y t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s -

t o r i a n s were s a t i s F i e d t o d i s m i s s t h e N ~ L U L e f t h i s t o r i a n s

a s u n w o r t h y OF e n g a g i n g i n s c h o l a r l y d e b a t e .

8 0 s c a r H a n d l i n , r e v i e w o f William App lemen William;, The C o n t o u r s o f A m e r i c a n H i s t o r , The M i s s i s s i p p i Val le H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , l 9 6 1 ~ I ~ r c h , m d 4 3 .

avid D o n a l d a n d A i l e e n S . K r a d i t o r , r e v i e w o f B e r n s t e i n , e d . , T o w a r d s A New P a s t , A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l Hevie tu , L X X I V ( k c . , i 9 r 5 3 1 .

' O ~ r t h u r M . S c h l a s i n g e r , J r . , The Nen York R e v i e m o f B o o k s , Oct. 2 0 , 1966, p . 37. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d that- S c h l e s i n g e r w i t h d r e w h i s a t t a c k o n r e v i s i o n i s m a y e z r l a t e r i n h i s a r t i c l e , " O r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War," F a r e i q n , , f f a i r s , X L V I ( ~ c t . , 1 9 6 7 ) , 22-52.

6

D o n a l d ' s a n d S c h l e s i n g e r ' s a t t i t u d e t o r a v i s i a n i s t h i s -

t o r i o g r a p h y i s d i r a c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i r v i 3 a o f h i s t o r v

a n d t h e h i s t o r i a n s ' r o l e i n s o c i e t y , T h u s , t h e i r n e g a t i v e

r e a c t i o n t o New L e f t h i s t o r i o g r a p h y is n o t s u r p r i s i n g uhen

o n e p e r c e i v e s t h e p e s s i m i s m i n h e r e n t i n t h e c o n s o n s u s

v i e w OF h i s t o r y . L!arren S u s m a n , i n h i s e x c e l l e n t a r t i c l e

o n A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g , c o g e n t l y a n a l y z c d t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s ' v i e w o f

h i s t o r y a n d i t s e f f e c t o n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g . He

n o t e d t h a t i n 1 9 4 0 , t h e a p p r o x i r n a t c y e a r t h o c o n s e n s u s

h i s t o r i a n s b e g z n t o e n e r g c a s a d i s t i n c t s c h o o l , "a s i n g u -

l a r l y a n t i h i s t o r i c a l s p i r i t " a p p ~ a r e d "crnong t h e l e a d i n g

f i g u r e s o f o u r i n t c l l e c t u a l l i f e " . 11 S u s n a n f u r t h e r com-

m e n t e d t h a t " t h e s t u d y o f h i s t o r y a s a d i s c i p l i n e h a s a g a i n

become m a j o r l i t e r a t u r e , F r e q u e n t l y s u p e r b l y w r i t t e n a n d

A l l a n N e v i n s , a n d S a m u e l E l i o t M o r i s o n . He s p e c i f i c a l l y

q u o t e d S c h l e s i n g e r ' s v i e v ~ of h i s t o r y , w r i t t e n i n 1 9 4 9 .

l l . b J a r r e n I . S u s m a n . ' H i s t o r v a n d t h e A m e r i c a n I n t e l l e c t u a l t U s e s o f a ~ i a b l e ask." A m e r i c a n Q u a r t e r l y , X U 1 (Surnrnsr, 1 9 6 4 ) , 2 4 3 - 2 6 3 .

H i s t o r y i s n o t a r e d e e m e r , p r o m i s i n g t o s o l v e a l l human p r o b l e m s i n t i n e ; n o r i s man c a p a b l e ZF t r a n n c z n d i n - t-2 lizita-icns cf his b e i n g ,

Y

Man g e n e r a l l y i s e n t a n g l e d i n i n s o l u b l e p r o b - l e m s ; h i s t o r y i s c o n s e q u e n t l y a t r a g e d y i n w h i c h we a r e a l l i n v o l v e d , V J ~ O S ~ k e y n o t e i s a n x i e t y a n d f r u s t r a t i o n , n o t p r o g r e s s a n d f u l - f i l l m e n t , l 3

I t was S u s m a n ' s o p i n i o n t h a t , i n t h e w o r k s o f t h e

h i s t o r i a n s n o t e d a b o v e a n d m o s t h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g s i n c e

W o r l d War 11,

we l o o k i n v a i n F o r a v i s i o n o f t h e p a s t w h i c h w i l l e n a b l e u s t o r e m a k e t h e p r e s e n t a n d t h e f u t u r e . H e r e i d e o l o g y i s s p e c i f i c a l l y r e j e c t e d . Here we f i n d a h i s t o r y w h i c h o f f e r s a r e i n f o r c e - m e n t o f c u r r e n t m o r a l v a l u e s a n d n o e f f e c t i v e c h a l l ~ n q e t o t h e r i ~ r i . ? j n n r n ? k e r s iuFthin t h e s o c i a l o r d e r u ~ h o d e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y o p e c a t e i n terms o f some v i e w o f h i s t o r y , s o m , i d e r s l o g y , l 4

e l u c i d a t e d b y S c h l e s i n g e r i n 1 9 4 9 h a s c h a n g e d v e r y l i t t l e .

For e x a m p l e , a s r e c e n t l y a s t h e A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a -

t i o n ' s 1 9 7 0 c o n v e n t i o n , Oscar ' H a n d l i n r e i t e r a t e d = h a t i n

1 3 b r t h u r S c h l c s i n g c r . J r . , "The C a u s e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l Wart A N o t e on H i s t o r i c a l S e n t i m e n t a l - i s m , " i n E . C . R o z u e n c , e d , , The Causes o f t h e A m e r i c a n - C i v i l War ( ~ o s t o n , 1 3 6 1 ) , p p . 189-190,

1 4 ~ u s r n a n , " H i s t o r y a n d t h e A m e r i c a n I n t e l l e c t u a l , " 2 6 1 - 2 6 2 .

8

e f f e c t was s t i l l t h e c o n s e n s u s v:ew o f h i s t o r y when he

d e c r i c $ t h ~ n c d z r n "d~!---;:~ r-.-- . ~ u * t g , < a S ! - . ? r . " W A ~ I I A I I z(.id i;siiti"l?2il;

a g a i n s t " m a k i n g o u r s c l v o s u s e f u l i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f

s o c i e t y ' s e v e r e h a n g i n g p r o b l e m s " . H i c r e f e r e n c e t o

"decay f r o m ~ t ~ i t h i n " U~as c l e a r l y d i r e c t e d a t t h e New L e f t

h i s t o r i a n s . H a n d l i n h a d e x p l i c i t l y d e c r e e d t h a t a n y

i n v o l v e m e n t i n p r e s e n t d a y i s s u e s was o u t o f b o u n d s f o r

t h e l e g i t i m a t e h i s t o r i a n .

D e s p i t e t h e a d d i t i o n o f a s h i n y s c i e n t i f i c v e n e e r

i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s . c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r y was b u f f e t ~ d b y s e r i o u s

c r i t i c i s m i n t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s . l6 much o f t h i s

c r i t i c i s m , w h i c h cpme f F ~ V sc>re!~*tv t u n c x r 2 ~ c t c d I z r e z s , L : J Z ~

d i r e c t e d z t t h e r i g i d i t y a n d 4 s t e r i l i t y t h a t h a d bacome t h e

m a i n f e a t u r e s o f c o n s e n s u s s c h o l a r s h i p ,

I n an a r t i c l e w r i t t e n i n 1359, "The Cu l - t o f t h e

' A m e r i c a n Consensus'r H o r n o g ~ n i z i n g Cur H i s t o r y " , J o h n

Higham w a r n e d o f t h e d a n g e r s o f "The conservative f r a m e o f

r e f e r e n c e " a n d how i t " c r e a t e s a p a r a l y z i n g i n c a p a c i t y t o

d e a l w i t h t h e e l e m e n t s o f s p o n t a n e i t y , e f f e r v e s c e n c e , and

l s O s c a r H a n d l i n , Newsweok, J a n u e r y 1 1 , 1 9 7 1 , p . 58.

1 6 ~ o r r e s t N c D o n a l d h a s r e f e r r e d t o h i s f e l l o a h i s - t o r i a n s ' i m p r o v e d m e t h o d s o f gathering . d a t a t h a t t o o k p L a c ~ , d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s a s a " F a c t u a l e x p l o s i o n . "

9

v i o l c n c o i n A i r ~ c r i c a n h i s t o r y " . l7 Whi l e h e c r i t i c i z e d

c e r t a i . n asr>nct.s nf t.hv h i s t c r i n??-.-.phy r?F + h n P ~ 2 2 r c c c i v c

h i s t o r i a n s V c r n o n P a r r i n g t o n a n d C h a r l e s A u s t i n B s a r d , hs

c o n c l u d e d t h a t "we p a y a c r u e l p r i c e i n d i s p e n s i n g w i t h

t h e i r d e e p e r v a l u e s ; a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h o c r u s z d i n g

s p i r i t , a r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o i n d i g n a t i o n , a s e n s e o f i n -

1 8 j u s t i c e w .

C. Vann Woodward a l s o was c r i t i c a l sf t h e c o n s e n s u s

h i s t o r i a n s u h e n i n 1 9 6 0 , h e c o m m e n t e d on t h e e f f e c t o f c a n -

t e m p o r a r y e v e n t s o n h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . He went s o

f a r as t o p r e d i c t t h a t t h e " a v a l a n c h e o f e v e n t s " w h i c h has

s o c o m p l e t ~ l y r e v o l u t . i o n i z e d o u r t v o s l d since 1 9 6 5 tllor.rlrf

i n s p i r e , e v e n n e c e s s i t a t e , e x ' t e n s i v e r e v i s i o n s i n t h e writ-

i n g o f A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y . 'The p r c o c n t gcnerntion o f h i s -

t o r i a n s " , he a r g u e d , "has a s p e c i a l obligation a n d a u n i q u e

L o p p o r t u n i t y " 1.0 ohal.lc~l[;u a c c e p t e d v e r s i o n s OF h l s t o r y f r o m

t h e i r u n i q u e p e r s p e c t i v e . 20

-

1 7 ~ o h n Higham, "The C u l t o f t h e ' A m e r i c a n C o n s o n - s u s 8 - - H o m o g e n i z i n g Our H i s t o r y , ' C o m m e n t a r y . J a n u a r y 2 7 , -- 1 9 5 9 , p. L O O .

I9c . Yann Woodward , "The Age of R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n I - l i s t o r i c a ? . .-- Hcview, L X V I ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 5 0 ) , 13.

As t h i s t h e s i s w i l l a t t e m p t t o s u b s t a p t i a t e , it

i s r e a d i l y a p p z r c n t t h a t k J o o d w a r d f s plea f o r a r o i n t a r -

p r e t a t i o n o f A r n s r i c a n h i s t o r y i n v i e w o f t h e c a t a c l y s m i c

e v e n t s s i n c e 1945 w e n t l a r g e l y u n h e e d e d by a n y o t h e r s t h a n

t h e new r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s . The c o n s e n s u s

h i s t o r i a n s h a v e i n d e e d a s s u m e d t h e r o l e a s s i g n e d t o t hem

by Woodward. " I f h i s t o r i a n s a s s u m e a n i n t r a n s i g e n t a t t i -

t u d e t o w a r d r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e y w i l l d e s e r v e t o b e

r e g a r d e d a s a n t i q u a r i a n s a n d t h e i r h i s t o r y a s i r r e l e v a n t . , , ? I

The s e r i o u s c r i t i c i sm c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r y e n c o u n t e r e d

f r o m Woodmard c o n t i n u e d when Migham r e n o u ~ e d h i s e a r l i e r

c r i t i c i s m i n a 19G2 a r t i c l e & t i t l e d "Beyond C o n z a n s u s :

The H i s t o r i a n a s Moral Cr i t i t " . I n t h i s s t i n g i n g a t t z c k ,

h e s t a t e d t h a t

now t h a t s t a b i l i t y r a t h e r t h a n c h a n g s h a s t ~ c o m e t h e n a t i o n a l objective, whsk va lues can p a s s t h e p r a g m a t i c t e s t ? O n l y w h a t i s s n u g l y e n m e s h e d i n t h e t e x t u r e o f American expe r i ence h a s c l e a r l y p r o v e d i t s p r a c t i c a l w o r t h , D e p r i v e d o f a n a c t i v e c o m m i t m e n t t o p r o g r z s s , t h e p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h t e n d s t o e n d o r s e s h e e r s u c c s s s a n d s u r - v i v a l . H a v i n g l o s t i t s c r i t i c a l e d g o , p r a 9 - m a t i s m h a s t e n d e d t o d e t e r i o r a t e i n t o r e t r o - s p e c t i v e p i e t y . 2 2

2 2 ~ o h n Higham, "Beyond C o n s e n s u s i The H i s t o r i a n a s M o r a l C r i t i c , " A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c z Z R e v i c u , L X V I I ( ~ p r i l , 1 9 6 2 ) . 620.

t o r y t h a t s t r e s s e d h o m o g e n e i t y a n d consensus, a c k n o u j l e d g e d

t h e l i m i t a t i o n s OF c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r y i n h i s b o o k , The - Progressive H i s t o r i a n s . He a c c e p t e d t h a t c o n s e n s u s h i s t o z y -- had met r u i t h s e r i o u s a n d s-!nd c r i t i c i s m ~ ! ~ h e n h e c o n c e d e d

t h a t among t h e c h a p t e r s o? t h e p a s t o f w h i c h t h e c o n s e n s u s

t h e s i s h a d f a i l e d t o make sense w e r e t h e R e v o l u t i o n a n d

t h e C i v i l War. 23 I n a d d i t i o n , H o F s t a d t a r m i g h t have c i t e d

t h a C o l d War and, i n d e e d , t h e e n t i r e c o n s s n s u s a c c o u n t of

t u ~ e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r e i g n p o l i c y .

To a l l i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s , t h c mnjns tssam h i s -

t o r i a n s remained d e a f t o t h e c r i t i c i sm h u r l e d a t t h e n by

Higham, Woodu~ard a n d H o f s t a d t e r , T h e i r f a i l u r e t o h e e d

tl-iis c r i t i c i s m c o m p e l l e d Noodwisd, i n h i s 1970 Preskdentia3.

Address t o t h e American Hi s to r i ca l . A s s o c ; i o t i o n , t o r e p e a t

h i s w a r n i n g , f i r s t made i n 1960, f o r h i s t o r i a n s t o l i s t e n

t o "c r i t i c i sm OF t h e g u i l d , w h e t h e r i t cnE:cs f r o m a r t i s t s ,

s c i e n t i s t s , o r p h i l o s o p h e r s , o r from o u r own s t u d e n t s " . 2 4

To d o o t h e r ~ u i s c , h e a r g u e d , " ~ o u l d appear t o be s i n g u l a r l y

2 3 ~ o f s t a d t c r , The P r o q r e s s i v e H i s t o r i a n s , p . 460 .

2 4 ~ . Vann Moodward , "The F u t u r e o f t h e P a s t ," A r n e r i c ~ ~ n H i s t c r i c a l R e v i r e , L X X V ( ~ e b r t i a r y , l 9 7 0 ) , 724 . -

p e r i l o u s a t t h i s time". *' I n h i s m o s t b i t i n g b a r b ,

Woodmard c r i t i c i z e d t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t a r i a n s f o r t h e i r

" e F f a r t s t o p l e a s e p o p u l a r t a s t e a n d c o u r t p o p u l a r e s t e e m w .

T h i s " t e n d e d t o e n c o u r a g e t h e q u a l i t i e s o f b l a n d n e s s a n d

b a n a l i t y c o m p l a i n e d o f b y t h e c r i t i c s of h i s t o r y " . 26 He

a l s o a c k n o w l c d q e d t h a t

o u r s i s ~ s s e n t i a l l y a n age of d i s j u n c t u r e , n o t of c o m m u n i t y . I n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a n d i n s c n s i t i v i t y t o a n y l i g h t t h a t t h e w o r l d o f a r t o r s c i e n c e o r p h i l o s o p h y may t h r o w u p o n t h e m w o u l d b e a d i s s e s v i c o t o t h e craFt.27

Y e t t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s , f o r t h o m o s t p a r t ,

p e r s i s t e d i n i n t e r p r c t k n g t h e A m e r i c a n c x p e r i e n c c i n a

t i o n a t e . S i n c e Samucl E l i o t M o r i s o n ' s P r c u i d e n t i a l

A d d r e s s o f 1950, l i t t l e h a d c h a n ~ z d i n @ h e c o n s e n s u s

o f t h a t y e a r i n a c c u r a t e . Me n o t e d w i t h s a t i s f a c t i o n

a d e c i d e d change o f a t t i t u d e t o w a r d o u r p a s t , a f r i e n d l y , a l m o s t a f f e c t i o n a t e a t t i t u d e , as c o n - t r a s t e d w i t h t h e c y n i c a l , a l m o s t h a t c f u l o n e o f young i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n e a r l i e r y a a r s . 2 8

205amuel E l i o t P l o r i s o n , ' F a i t h o ? a H i s t o r i a n , " A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l t7aviatii, - LVI ( ~ a n u ~ r y , 1951)e 272.

As n o t e d , Wood~vard q u e s t i o n e d t h e adequi3cy o f s u c h

w h i c h " r e g a r d s h i s t o r y a s a n i n s t r u m e n t o f p o l i t i c a l o r

s o c i a l a c t i o n " , Moodward c l e a r l y a d v o c a t e d a r e e x a m i n a t i o n

o f t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e c r a f t o f h i s t o r y . 29

The c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s ' c o n p l a e o n c y became s o

a p p a r e n t t h a t i t uJas e v e n d i s c u s s e d by j o u r n a l i s t s who

were l a r g e l y u n f a m i l i a r with American h i s t o r i o g r a p h y ,

C l i f f o r d S o l w a y o b s e r v e d t h x t t h e i r h i s t o r i o g r a p h y e x u d c d

p e r f e c t c e r t a i n t y aboc i t how t h i n g s t m r e , a r c , a n d s h o u l d b n p n u t t o n r o n t i o n a g a l l i n q com- p l a c e n c y a b o f ~ C t h c o b j e c t i v i t y o f t h e i r o m a c c o u n t o f r e c e n t evon ts .30

Nowhere was t h i s n o r e u r i n i s t a k a b i c t h a n i n t h o

l i b e r a l - c o n s e n s u s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e C o l d Mar, s p e c i f i -

c a l l y t h e i r r e a c t i o n t o t h e c o n t a i n m e n t p o l i c y w h i c h Farmed

t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f l l k s h i n g t u n ' s p o s t - 1 9 4 5 f o r e i g n p o l i c y . 31

291doodwerd, " F u t u r e o f t h e P e s t , " 724 .

3 0 ~ l i ~ f o r d S o l w a y , " T u r n i n g H i s t o r y U p s i d e D o ~ n , ' S a t u r d a y H e v i r i t ~ , - June 2 0 , 1 9 7 0 , p , 1 4 .

3 1 ~ e o r g e Kennan d e l i n e a t e d t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y w h i c h came t o b e known a s c o n t a i n m e n t ,

The list o f C o l d War l i t e r a t u r e b y s u c h s c h o l a r s a s D e x t e r P c r k i n s , H a r b e r t F e i s , John L u k a c s a n d J o h n

I n t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s a rea o f A m e r i c a n d i p l a -

m a t i c h i s t o r y , t i iohnm's commen ts u h o u t t h e t e n d ~ n c v o f

c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s " t o e n d o r s e s h e e r s u c c ~ s s a n d s u r -

v i v a l " h a v e s p e c i a l r e l c v a n c c . 32

D u r i n g t h e 1950s, t h e i r i n t a r p r e t a t i o n cama t o b e

a c c e p t e d a s t h e o r t h o d o x i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Very b r i e f l y ,

t h e h i s t o r i a n s o f t h a t p e r i o d " a c c e p t e d t h e n a t i o n oF

S o v i e t a g g r e s s i v e n ~ s s a s v a l i d a n d o f L e s t e r , ] F i r m n e s s a s

n e c e s s a r y " . 33 W i t h t h i s f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e , i t n a t u r s l l y

f o l l o w e d t h a t t h e y c o n s i d e r e d W a s h i n g t o n ' s c o n t a i n m e n t

p o l i c y a s n e t o n l y n e c e s s a r y b u t t h e n a t i o n ' s m o s t succcss-

f u l p o s t w a r d e c i s i o n . t i e r b u r t F e i s , F o r o x a m p l e , justified

t h e A m c r i c n n a d o p t i o r r o f t h e c a n t s i n s e n t p o l i c y w i t h the

a g a i n s t b o t h S o v i e t e x p z n s i ~ a i s r r ~ and C o n m u n i s t soc ia l .

34

S p a n i e r Focusses o n t h e c o n t a i n m e n t p o l i c y a s t h e backbone of p c s t 1 9 4 5 f o r e i g n p o l i c y , The m e m o i r s a n d p a p e r s of s t a t e s m e n s u c h a s President H a r r y T r u m z n , S e c r e t a r i e s o f S t a t e James B y r n a s a n d John F o s t e r Dulles a l s o a t t e s t t o t h i s .

3 2 ~ i g h a ~ n , "Beyond C e n s e n s u s , " 6 2 0 .

3 3 ~ r a e b n e r , 'Co ld War O r i g i n s , " 126.

3 4 ~ e r b e r t F e i s . B e t m e n L!ar a n d P s a c e r Thc Potsdam Conf rrencr? ( ~ r i n F c t o r 3 , N. J. , lTim-r%T. ---

I t s h o u l d b e e m p h a s i z e d h e r e , a s G r a e b n e r h a s

C o l d War o r t h o d o x y l a i d d o m b y U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d B r i t i s h

o f f i c i a l s i n spaeches, w r i t i n g s , m e m o i r s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ,

a n d r e c o r d e d c o f i v e r s a t i o n s b e t w e e n 1 9 4 5 a n d 1 9 5 0 " . 35 1 n

e f f e c t , t h e s c h i s t o r i a n s were a b l e t o , a n d d i d , " d r a w

h e a v i l y on t h e r e s e a r c h u n d c r t . n k e n b y t h o s e p o l i t i c i a n s

who f e l t o b l i g a d t o d e f e n d t h e i r v i e ~ s " . I6 T h i s c a s t s c o n -

s i d e r a b l e d o u b t o n t h e o b j e c t i v i t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e OF t h e

o r t h o d o x a c c o u n t o f t h i s e r a o f A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y .

The c e r t a i n t y i n h a r e n t i n o r t h u d ~ x C o l d !Ajar h i s -

o f s u c h r e c a n t o r t h o d o x s c h o l a r s a s C h a r l e s 8 . m a r s h a l l ,

D e x t e r P c r k i n s , a n d D a v i d Zccs a r e b r j . e f l y c o n s i d e r e d . 37

3 5 G r a e b n z r , " C o l d War O r i g i n s ," 175. Graebner h a s g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w e d t h e o r t h o d o x p o s i t i o n on t h e C o l d War. S e e a l s o B r i a n Thomas , " C o l d $Jar O r i g i n s , " 11, J o u r n a l of Conterilpc ~ -9 H i s t o r y , S I I ( A p r i l , I ~ S G ) , 183-1.98s

3 6 ~ h o r n a s . 'Co ld War O r i g i n s ,' 1 8 3 .

3 7 ~ e e p a r t i c u l a r l y D e x t e r P e r k i n s . The D i o l o r n a c s - o f a KPL.J Aqe ( ~ l o o r n i n g t o n ; I n d . , 1 9 6 7 ) ; ~ h a r l e s B u r t o n & a r s h z i > % i i ~ C o l d !'jar: A C o n z i s o _-___I_ t i i s t o 2 ( N ~ M Y o r k , 1 9 6 5 ) ; a n d D a v i d H e e s , The Aqe o f C o ~ t 3 i n m c r - t : The C o l d --- -.- Irlar, 1945-1955 ( L o n d o n , l ~ ? 6 7 ? .

1 6

Thcy h a v e , d e s p i t e t h e c h a n q e d perspective OF t h e 196Cs

;)nd f h n 2 ~ : j12bk-Li*.- .,/ - C \,. n, L L U e A . I T - ' - ' C I , . C & I L U < ~ 1 L K - L L ~ L I - - . ibl, ' p e ~ ' b i ~ t ~ f 3

i n v i e w i n g " t h e S a v i e t U n l c n ns a n e x p a n s i v e F O ~ C E ? a n d

. . . S t a l i n a s t h e e x p o n e n t , not. o f R u s s i a n s e c u r i t y , h u t

o f t h e Cotzrnunist p r o q r s n " . 38 I n f a i r n e s s , Graebner has

q u a l i f i e d h i s s t a t e m a n t b y n o t i n q t h a t t h e s c s c h o l a r s d i d

n o t " l a u d e v e r y American d e c i s i o n o r a c c e p t t h e r a t i n n a ! ~

of e v e r y o f f i c i a l utterance". 39

However, t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i z n s ' a l m o s t whole-

h e a r t e d a c c e p t a n c ~ , t h r o u g h a u k t ~ o d e c a d e s , o r !!Jashingtonls

a c c o u n t o f t h e C o l d 1Car hnd s t2r ious r e p e r c u s s i o n s f o r t h e i r

h i s t o r y . " H a v i n q l o s t jts r r i t i t - 7 1 p d n - 7 ( i t ~ l i c z z i n c ) " , 40 --LA---

consensus C o l d ' l a? s c h ~ l a r s h i p a lmos t b c c ~ n c i n d i s t i n z u i s h -

a b l e from o f f i c i a l Ljnktod S t a t e r ; C o l d P!ar f o r e i q n policy,

N e i t h e r t h i s o c c u r r ~ n z c n o r 'ctre l o s s o ? t h e i r " c r i t i c a l .

e d g e " was a c c i d s n t a l , S e v e r a l h i s t o r i a n s d u r i n g t h e 1950s,

among t h e m a p r e s i d e n t of t h e American H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i s t i o n ,

w e r e f o r t h r i g h t i n ca l l i r - lg on s c h o l a r s t o a b a n d o n t h o s t a n c c

o f c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n , Thcy a d v o c a t e d i n s t u a d a k i n d sf

38 G r z c b n o r , "CoLd Uar O r i g i n s , " 1 2 7 .

40~ighnrn, "Rcyocd C o n s e n s u s , " 620 .

17

h i s t o r y t h a t w q u l d s e r v e t h e 4 m s r i c ~ n n a t i o n a l i n t a r o s t

i n t h e st.y.11nn7 P trli t.h H hnc: t ? l ~ , S n ~ i ~ t !Ir l inn- n1 !t o t ! l - tc-

m a i n s t r e a m h i : t o r i a ~ s ' accc*p tanc t~ o f t h i s recommenr la t i c n

t h a t s e v e r e l y u n d o r m i n c d o r t h o d o x Cold War h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .

H a v i n g a s s o c i a t e d t h e m s e l v e s s o c L o s c l y m i t h \ ; J a s h i n g t c n 1 s

p o s i t i o n , sny c r i t i c i s i z oP o f f i c i a l A m e r i c a n f o r o i 2 n p o l i c y

was n c c e s s a r i l : f t r a n s l a t e d i n t c l i r l w a r r a n t e r ? c r i t i c i s m o f

t h e i r w r i t i n g s .

D e x t e r P e r k i n s ' 1354 a r t i c l e , " A m e r i c a n F o r e i g n

P o l i c y a n d i t s C r i t i c s " , is i l l u m i n a t i n g i n t h i s r ~ g a r d

b e c a u s e i t r evc ;* l s t h e d r f c n s i v ~ p e s t u r e u n d e r l y i n g t h e

o r t h o d o x a n z l y s i s o f A m c r i c c n f o r ~ > i c n pa! icv s t s e t c h j n y

f r o m 1 6 9 8 t o 1954. F a r e x a m p l e , wkile t h? a u t h o r r i . , j c c t , cd

w h a t h c l a b c l l c d p z r t i s o n c r i t i c i ~ n , h e l a r ~ d e d c r i t i c i sm

" w h i c h F l o w s From s p t . c i a 1 kr iou~ler fqn, a n d reflection a n d

~ h i z h s t i i s i i l a t c s a dcePek u , r d ~ r s i a n d i n g : ' . R S e x a n p i e s

o f s u c h l o f t y c r i t i c i : ~ t n , hz m c n t i o n s d t h e u ~ o r k o f Hans

M o r g e n t k a u i n h i s b o o k , I n D e f e n s e o f t hs P!atizn:l I n k c r e s t . , - -.".-------

4 1 ~ n n y c r s Read, "The S o c i a l Responsibilities o f t h e H i s t o r i a n , " American H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , LV ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 0 ) , 283.

" 2 e x t t e P e r k i n s , "American F o r e i g n P o l i c y a n d I t s C r i t i c s , " i n A l f r e d Ii. K e l l y , e d . , A n e r i c s n F o r c i ~ n P n l i c v

- - - C -

a n d Amr1rican Dcnoc racy ( ~ a y n o S t o t o U i l i v . , 1!m77$~d63zg6. ----

a f f a i r s .

I SF:? t hc l m s ' c serious f z u l t oT o u r p a s t p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n t o l i e i n s o n t ~ t h i n g t h 3 t I n i g h t c a l l t h z l c 9 a l i s t j . c - n o r ; l i s t , i c a ~ p r o ~ c h t o i n i c r n n t i c n a l problc3ms. T h i s app roach r u n s l i k e 3 rcC s k '-12 t h r a r i q h cr i r f o r e i g n p o l i c y of t h e l a s t f i f ly y c a r s . 4 4

D e s p i t e P e r k i n s ' own umrm ti:el.come t o t h e r i g h t k i n d

o f c r i t i c i s m , a p p a r e n t l y even K c n n a n ' s r emarks , n o t a i t h -

s t a n d i n g h i s c r e d e n t i a l s , w r e t o a much F o r P o r k i n s . 4 5

He d e c i d e d t h a t h i s h s z r e r s v iou ld c o n c l u d e t h a t " t h c y

4 3 G e o r g q Kennao a n d Hans F o r g c n t h z u a r c n e n b r r s n f t h e s o - c z l l c d r z n l i s t s c h o o l , F o r a s u r v z y o f t h e r e a l i s t s s c e C h r i s t o p h s r Lcsch, " T ~ P Co!d War, R z u i s i t e d and R e v i s i o n e d , " -- N, Y . T i r n o s L'laqazinc, J a n t ~ r r y 14, 1968 , pp. 2 6 - 3 5 .

4 5 ~ e c C h r i s t o p h ~ r Laa~h's excellent a r t i t l e on George K e n n a n , "The H i s t o r i a n a s D i p l m z t , " Th? N a t i o n , - - November 2 4 , 1 9 6 2 , p p . 3 4 8 - 3 5 3 ,

d 6 ~ e r ! < i n s , "American F o r e i g n P o l i c y ," p . D O .

C i i L i L i S j * , ,,,7.c- 1*3 ,,lqt;,;ii3 i j"L Si;Lj ?;,,ii.,iJ* I , . 'L "i'ly LBi,s"Lsd

American p o l i c y f o r b c i n g t o o l e g a l i s t i c a n d u n r e a l i s t i c .

Thauqh P e r k i n s a l o n e wro te t h e s a w o r d s , t h e a t t i -

t u d e t h e y r e v e a l e d came t o r e p r a s e n t t h o s t a n d OF an

e n t i r e s c h o o l o f h i s t o r i a n s o n A m e r i c a ' s c o n d u c t o f t h e

C o l d War, H i s L a c k o f c r i t i c a l i n s i g h t , a s r u f l c c t c d i n

t h i s a r t i c l e , i s c h a r a c t o r i s t i c of c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .

R a c o c j ' n i t i n n o f t h i s i s e s s e n t i a l i f one i s t o a c q u i r e a

m e a n i n g f u l p e r s p e c t i v e on New L e f t Cold War h i % . t o r y . 47 Tho

New L e f t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n must be u n d c r s t a o d i n r c l a t i o n

Nel;! L c f t r a d i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p , pa r%ic t r l a rEy t h - ; r i n t e ~ p ~ ~ -

t a t i o n o f t h c o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d bjzr, c u n s t i t g t ~ s t o a

c o n s i d e r a b l e d c g r c ~ a r e a c t i o n a g : i i r ~ s t t h c s t 9 r i f i t y a n d

complacency t h c ; t t h e y f o u n d s o p c r v a s i v g i n t b o i r p redec{=c-

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e o u t r a g e o u s c o n f i d e n c e o x h i b i t c d

b y t h e h i s t o r i a n s o f t h s 1950s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f t h e C o l d War, e v i d e n t l y t h e y a r e e q u a l l y

c o n v i n c e d o f t h e c n r r e c t n e s s o f t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e

h i s t o r i a n ' s f u n c t i o n , The f o l l o t u i n g exchsnge between t h e

4 7 ~ a r r y Ho~li: Hansom's revie . n F D a v i d H o r o v ~ i t z , -- T h c F ree Y o r l d C ~ ~ c s s t ~ : ~ : A C r i t i q u e o f rPi~-if?rirzn P o r e i o n P o l i c y - --ly- ------.-- -- - - - -. - - - - ~ i - - - u -

i n t l ic [:old W : > r , 5 z i c t ~ r d ~ y t iav i r ! ! , Noitr,mLc!r Gti, 1965, p . 3 4 , - ....-U_- Fa---

a= r e v e z l s t h i s c u m p l a c c n c p .

r a d i c a l A r t h u r Waskow a n d hJoodurardvery s u c c i n c t ; l y i l l u s -

t r a t e s t h i s p o i n t a n d c a p t u r c s t h e d i f f e r s n c ~ i n t h u i r

c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i a n . 4 8 T h i s i s s u f F i c i n n t a t

t h i s t i m 2 , I n h i s c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s '

c o n c e r n w i t h " r e ? e v a n c e " , Woodward s t a t e d t h a t

h i s t o r y i s n o t a n i d ~ o l c g y , . , i t i s an i n t e f - l n c t u a l p r o c e s s , a d i s c i p l i n e t h ~ i t i s s t i l l g o i n g . I t s f u t u r e and i t s t r u e F u r t c t i u r i s a r e t o c l e a n s e t h e story o f m a n k i n d f r o m t h e d e c 2 i v i n g v i s i o n s o f t h e p u r p o s e f u l p a s t . 4 9

Waskou~ r ~ s p o n d e d t h a t

e v e r y c o m w i t t c d h i s t o r i a n o u ~ h k t o b c a r a d i c a l , . . . The r a d i c a l h i p t o r ik tn h;s t h e d r j t y t o e x a m i n e t h e s e e d s of2 ch:>nga so t t ~ c t t h e y do n u t becomc d e f e a t e d n l t e r n a t . i v e s . 5 0

S c h l e s i n q e ? ' ~ v i e w o f h i s t o r y . a l r e z d y n u a t s d ,

s e p a r z t c s t h e t u ~ o viec. ,s c v e n n a r c stark1y. His o u t l o e k

i d e n t i f i e s a p a s s i v e , s t a t i c r o l e f o r t h b h i s t o r i 2 . n .

4 8 ~ h i s e x c h a n g e o c c u r r e d a t t h e 1970 m e e t i n ? oT t h e A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n i n Lldash ington , D, C. Sec Cornrnantwal, X C I , J a n u a r y 1 6 , 1970 , 469.

T h i s is s o m e i l ~ h a t u n f a i r t o VJaad~ard becausc h~ i s m o r e a p r e g r o s s i v e t h a n a c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n , H o w v c r , h i s r e m a r k s a r e u s e f u l a t t h i s s t a g e b e c a u s e t h e y n e a t l y c r y s t a l - l i z e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e Neu L e f t ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e h i s - t o r i a n .

4 9 ~ o r i s Grurnbzch, "Ou t o f t h s G r o o v c s o f Acadnrni?," Commonra.a?, - XCI , J a n u a r y 1 6 , 1970, 4.69.

h i s f u n s t i o n i n sucizty. T h e i r i d e a l wks t l , a t o f a

n e u t ~ < s l , d e t a c h e d c c k o l a r wkcse f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n ~wbs

o b j e c t i v L t y . As Osccr H a n d l i p A r t h u r Mcier S c h l e s i n g e r ,

S a m u e l E l i o t Marison, F r e d e r i c k Merk , A r t h u r Meier

S c h l e s i n g ~ r , Jr,, arid P a u l Herman Buck h a v e p o i n t e d o u t

i n t h o tfaruard G u i d e t o flncr5can H i s t o r y , --

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A ~ i c i p d i i o n wat~2.d c i c s r l y undermine t h c much a d n i r c d his--

t o r i - c a l o b j e c t i v i t y . 5 :!

O n s can r e a d i l y u n d e r s t a n d why t h e e s t s b f i s h m c n t

h i s t o r i a n s , c a n v i n c e d i n b o t h t h e i r i n t e r p r ~ t a t i o n o f t h e

A m e r i c a n p a s t a n d t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i a n , b!ere

r e l u c t a n t t o came tu g r i p s w i t h Nem L e F t s c h o l a r s h i p . B u t

n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e i r d s t ~ r m i n c d e f f o r t , t h e d o m i n a n t schoo?

o f A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i a n s c a n nc L o n g e r d i s r o q a r d t h e work of

"0sc3r H a n d l i n , c t a l e . H a r v n r d 6 u i d i 2 l o Anorican - -- - - H i s t o r y ( N ~ L ~ J Y o r k , 1 9 6 7 ) . p , 2 0 .

5 2 ~ l a a r l y , h i s t o r i a n s ecro nut t o makc t.hcrnsclvcs d i r c c t l y u s o f u l i n t h e s o l u t i o r ~ o f s c ) c i z t y t s p r n h l c m s ,

t h r 3 s n n n w r c v i s i o n i s t , ~ , B o t h e v e n t s a n d t t ie N e w L ~ : f t ' s

v ~ i t h i n t h e p r o f n r ; ! i.crt u f t h e r a d i c a l l e f t ' s c r i t . i q u e o f

U n i t c d S t a t c s fareign p o l i c y i n p a r t i c u l c 7 s . 53 However,

a l t h o u g h t h ~ p r o ? e s s i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g l y e n g a g i n g t h o New

Lr.7t i n s c h n l a r l y d e b a t c , it has y e t t o o f f e r a n y t h i n g

more t h a n a c u r s o r y cxplznation of iuky t h e New L e f t h i s -

t o r i a n s emerged i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s .

I n s o d o i n g , t h e y h a v e r ~ l i e d upan one o f t w o

e x p l z n a t i o n s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e appearance of t h o N ~ S J L e f t .

e i t h ~ r a r c c h i l d i s h l y ~ c h c S l i n g a g a i n s t t h : : i r ~ L d s r s o r a r e

5 3 ~ r e particularly D a v i d S. P a t t e r s o n , 'Recent Literature 017 Cold Mar C r i q i n s : A i l Essay Revicw,"

was a p o r i o t j o f u x t r r : m u s o c i a l and politic^! u n r e s t .

T r a d i t i o n : , l s o c i s ? a n d p o l i t i c a l v a l u e s w E r c questioned

and r n j c c t c d by s u c h t z i l i l z n t l e f t g r o u p s a s S t u d e n t s f o r

a Democrat ic S o c i ~ t y , t h e I 3 3 a c k Panthers, S t ~ l d n c t P!on-

Committee, 54 Durinq t h i s " t i n e OF r a m ~ o n t s o c i a l c r i t i -

J e r o l d A u e r b r c h , " t h e p a s t no l ess t h a n t h e p r e s e n t f a l l s

under s c r u t i n y " . 55 He continues L h z t

54 I n t h n i r efi?pkz;is u p c n t h e t u r ! ~ i ! l ~ n t I Y G O s , t h e

p r o f e s s i o n has o r t r n c o n f u s e d t h e rdcw L 5 r " t h i s t o r i a n s i i ~ i t h t h e Yaif~ L e f t mr,$~enent t h a t r c c k c d t h e l z s L d u c a d a . Fo r a good s u r v e y 07 t h c N c w L e f t m c v e n c n t , s e ~ P a u l Jacobs z n d

The New L e f t i n H i s t o r y , " R a d i c a l A r n o r j c a , I U , No. 4 ( ~ u l ~ - --- Augus t , 19'721, 11-4R.

55~hough J e r u l d 5 . A u e r b a c h v s "NI! D e a l , O l d D e a l , o r Rza 3231 8 Some T h ~ ~ ~ C 2 h t s on New L e f t H i s t o r i o q r a p h y , " The J o ~ l r n a l o f ~ s i ! b , h c r f i - ~ . i s t c ~ r y (Fc .b ru :? r .y , l 9 ~ 3 ) , pp.. ----- -. ------ ------ d- , i s c o f ~ c e ? n c d ! i l i t h t h c ivew L c f t ' s t h ~ u a i - ~ t s on the N ~ G J D e a l i t i s h e l p f u l . b e c a u s a it r e v s a l - s t h e consencrtr; a t e i t u d ~ t o ~ i j a r d r a d i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p .

e A p f i s i t in h i s a n a l y s i s o y t h e nzLsi r a d i c a l h i s t o r i o n s i s

h i s b c l i e F t h a t t h c y have suc i \irnbcd t o t h e p e r i l s OF

p r e s e n t - n i n d e d n e s s , i n t h a t t h e y have a l logJpd i s s u e s s u c l ~

t h e f i r s t major ~ s s a y c;n t h e y o u n g c 3 i s s i . d : .-~t h i s t o r i a n s GF'

t h e 1960s. I n r e l a t i n g t h e i r emergence t o "a y o u n g e r

g e n e r a t i o n ' s p r o t e s t a g 3 i n s t t h e s t a t u s q u o " , Unger c r i t i -

c i z e d t k c i r "exploitati3n c f t h e p a s t F o r p u r p r s ~ c s o f p r e s e n t

reFormW . 50 He o 5 v i o u s l y h u l i e v c s t h a t t h e P!or; L e f t h i s t o r i a n s '

5 8 ~ r u ~ i n U n a s r . "Comsentnrv or, t h e Re. L n f t H i s .

d e e p c o n c e r n w i t h t h e i s s u e s t h a t c o n v u l s e d t h e U n i t e d

n e c e s s a r y f o r g o o d h i s t o r i c a l s c h c l a r s h i p . L a c k i n g t h e

a l l e g e d p o l i t i c a l n e d t r a l i t y o f t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s ,

Unge r v i g o r o u s l y c o n d e m n s t h e New L e f t ' s e x c e s s i v e p r e s e n t -

m i n d e d n e s s b e c a u s e "it s u g g o s t s a c o n t e m p t f o r p u r e h i s -

t o r y , t h a t has n o t e n l i s t e d i n t h e g o o d f i g h t " . 59 v e r y

s i m p l y t h e n , t h e netu r a d i c a l s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e

o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War c a n be dismissed a s a d i s t o r t i o n

o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d . C o n v e n i e n t l y , t h e o r t h o d o x

a c c o u n t o f t h e C o l d War r e m a i n s i n t a c t ,

A u e r b a c h ' s a n d U n g e r ' s p o i n t o f V ~ R N I i s o f S O M -

i m p o r t a n c e . The r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s h a v a i n d e e d b e e n

g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e t u m u l t u o u s e v e n t s o f t h e l a s t

d e c a d e . The V i e t n a m War i n p a r t i c u l a r has d s e p l y a f f e c L e d

t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g ,

B a r t o n J. B o r n s t e i n has a d d r e s s e d himself t o t h i s

v e r y p o i n t . " D u r i n g t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s , " h s n o t e s , " t h e

c o n s e r v a t i v e c o n s e n s u s b e g a n t o b r e a k down", F o r h i r n s e l F

bid., p , 155. The m y t h t h a t t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s - - t o r i a n s w e r e o b j e c t i v e i n t h e i r j udge rn t?n t s i s s t i l l a l i v e . F o r a u s e f u l c o r r e c t i v e , s e e t h e s t i l l r e l e v a n t a r t i c l e b y W i l l i a m L. Neurnan, " H i s t o r i a n s I n An Age o f A c q u i e s c e n c e , " D i s s e n t , IV ( w i n t e r , 1 9 5 7 ) . 64 -69 . A l s o i n v a l u a b l e is D a v i d E a k i n s , " O b j e c t i v i t y a n d Commi tmen t , " S t u d i e s o n t h e L e f t , I a all, 1 9 5 9 ) , 44-53. -

a n d o t h e r y o u n g r a d i c a l s , " t h e r e d i s c o v e r y o f p o v e r t y a n d

V i e t n a m " h a d f a r - r e a c h i n g r e s u l t s , I t " s h a t t e r e d many o f

t h e a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h e f i f t i e s a n d c o m p e l l e d i n t e l l e c t u a l s

t o r e - e x a m i n e t h e A m e r i c a n p a s t " . From t h e s e e v e n t s , a n d

m a i n l y f r o m t h e w r i t i n g s o f y o u n g e r h i s t o r i a n s , " t h e r e

b e g a n t o e m e r g e a v i g o r o u s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l

c o n s e n s u s " . 60

G a b r i e l Kolko has a l s o a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o t h i s

q u e s t i o n .

FOR A G R O W I N G N U M Y E R OF A M E R I C A N S t h e war i n V i e t n a m h a s become t h c t u ' r n i n c j p o i n t i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y , t h e t r a t ~ m a l i s i r r ~ ; ~ e v e n t t h a t r e q u i r e s t h e m t o l o o k a q a i n a t t h e v e r y r a a t s , assump- t i o n s , a n d s t r u c t u r a o f a p o l i c y t h a t 6s p r o f o u n d l y d a s t r l t z t i v o and $8nqpfcus: 6 1

I t i s a l s o e v i d e n t t h a t t h e N ~ U J L e F i h i s t o r i a n s a r c

v e r y d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h b o t h " t h e h i s t o r i c a l j u d g e m e n t o f

t h e i r e l d e r s a n d w i t h t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f A m e r i c a n c i v i l i -

z a t i o n " . 62 William Applasan Williams h a s s e r i o u s d o u b t s

6 0 ~ e r n s t e i n , New P a s t , p . i x .

b L ~ a b r i e l K o l k o , The R o o t s o f A m e r i c a n F a r e i s n P o l i c y ( ~ o s t o n , 1 9 6 9 ) , p , x i .

" ~ o h n A . G a r r a t y , "A T h e n F o r Now," r e v i e w o f B e r n s t e i n , e d . , New p a s t , Tho New Y o r k Times Rook R e v i e w , May 1 2 , 19C.9, p . 4 4 ,

c o n c e r n i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e c o n s e n s u s a p p r o a c h t o h i s -

t o r y . He a s s e r t s t h a t , d u r i n g t h e l a t e 194Gs a n d 1 ? 5 3 s ,

f e a r f u l A m e r i c a n s t u r n e d " t o h i s t o r y f o r a n e x p l a n a t i o n

o f t h e i r p r e d i c a m e n t a n d a p r o g r a m ( i f n o t a p a n a c e a ) f a r

t h e f u t u r e " . 6 3 I n h i s c o n s i d e r e d j u d g e m e n t , t h e h i s t o r i a n s

o f t h a t per iod o n l y t o o w i l l i n g l y o b l i g e d . Thus, " C l i o

b e c a m e i n v o l v e d i n a n o t h e r o f h e r many a f f a i r s w i t h a

s o c i e t y i n s e a r c h o f r e a s s u r a n c e a n d s e c u r i t y " . 6 4

I t d o e s n o t f o l l o w , h o w e v e r , t h a t , b e c a u s e t h e Neu

L e f t s c h o l a r s a r e d i s e n c h a n t e d w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l f i n d i n g s

o f t h e i r e l d e r s , t h e y a r e e n g a g e d m e r e l y i n i n f a n t i l e

r e b e l l i o n . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e i r r a d i c a l a n a 1 y : i s o f

A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i r w r i t i n g s o n t h e

o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War, is o f r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n

A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , H o p e f u l l y i t w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d

i n a n o t h e r p a r t o f t h i s p a p e r t h a t t h i s now r a d i c a l i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n is i n p a r t t h e r e s u l t o f n e w l y a v a i l e b l e a r c h i v a l

m a t e r i a l a n d a new p e r s p e c t i v e .

H o w e v e r , e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t i s t h e New L e f t ' s con-

c e p t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f t h e h i s t o r i a n a n d h i s p u r p o s e s i n

2 8

s o c i e t y . T h e i r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s r o l e i s

s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f C h z r l c s n u s t i n !card, He saz h i m s e l f

a s a s t u d e n t o f h i s t o r y a n d n o t a s a h i s t o r i a n , The

f o r m e r i s i n t e r e s t e d i n u s i n g h i s t o r y zs a m e a n s t o a n

e n d w h i l e t h e l a t t e r is i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s t o r y a s a n e n d

i n i t s e l f . 65

F o r t h e most p a r t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t h i s t o r i a n s

h a v e o v e r l o o k e d t h i s f a c t o r i n t h e i r a p p r a i s a l s o f New

L e f t s c h o l a r s h i p . I f t h i s i s n o t r e m e d i e d , i t i s impos -

s i b l e t o p l a c e t h e New L s F t h i s t o r i a n s a c c u r a t e l y i n h i s -

t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , b e c a u s e a l l o f t h e i r w r i t i n g h a s b ~ e n

i n f l u e n c e d by their v i e w o f t h e historian. Because o f

t h e i r s h o r t c o m i n g s i n t h i s a r e a , t h e c o n s e n s u s h i s t o r i a n s

h a v e m i s s e d t h e c h a l l e n g e t h a t t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s

h a v e made t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e o f t h e h i s t o r j a n . R a t h e r

t h a n e x a m i n i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e N e w L c F t ' s i d e a o f t h e

h i s t o r i a n i s o f a n y v ~ ~ r t h t t h e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e h i s t o r i a n s

h a v e m c r e l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r a d i c a l s a r e g u i l t y o f b e i n g

t o o p r e s e n t - m i n d e d . 66 I n s o d o i n g t h s y h a v e c o n v e n i e n t l y

d i s r e g a r d e d t h e e x c i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e New

6 5 ~ e e Willinms' , ' C h a r l e s A u s t i n B e a r d l The I n t e l l e c t u a l a s T a r y - R a d i c a l " i n H a r v s y G o l d b e r q , e d . , Arnc r i can R a d i c a l s - - Sane P r o b l e m s a n d b e r s o n a l i t i e s (Nel:~ ----- -" - York, f Y 5 8 ) , pp. 29i~-307 .

6 6 ~ e e U n g e r ' s "Commenta ry o n t h e New L e f t " f o r t h i s p o i n t o f v i e u ~ .

2 9

L e f t i d e a o f t h e h i s t o r i a n a s a s t u d e n t o f h i s t ~ r y . They

T h z t t h e p o s t - 1 9 4 5 h i s t o r i a n s s h o u l d diuell u p o n t b z

e v e n t s of t h e 1 9 5 3 s 2 n d i t s c h ~ n g e d c l ima te o f o p i n i c n , i n

t h e i r ~ x p l z n a t i o n o f t h s e m e r g e n c e o f t h e Neu L e f t h i s -

t o r i a n s , is n o t s u r p r i s i n g , R o s t r s d e r n h i s t o r i a n s a c c e s t

t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t i m e t e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t t c e e n a h i s t o r i ' n ' s

work a n d t h e c l imate o f o p i n i o n i n u ~ h i c h h e d o e s h i s w o r k ,

A s B e n c d e t t o Crnce o b s e r v e d , " e v e r y t r u e h i s t o r y is con-

t e ~ p o r a r y h i s t o r y t ' . 6 7 T h i s s t a t e m e n t h a s s p e c i a l rele-

v ~ n c e t o t h e z r i t i n g o f A m k . i c a n h i s t ; c ! r y , f o r e v e r y c c n c - 2 -

t i ~ n o f A m e r i c a n s c h o l a z s hks r e e x a m i n e d a n d r e i n t e r p r e t s d

t h e p a s t i n t e r n s o f i t s own t i n e .

H o ~ e v e r , d o s p i t e i t s s t r e n q t h s , t h i s e ~ p h a s i s on

t h e !tz::; L e f t z s a p r o d ~ c t o m t h e i r a y e f a i l s t o e x p i a i n

how t h e e v e n t s o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s c o u l d p o s s i b l y h a v e i n f l u e n c e ?

t h e x r i t i n g done b y William A p p l e m a n W i l l i a m s in t h e 1 9 5 3 s .

T h i s i s m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e W i l l i a m s , who m i g h t a p t l y

ke c e l l e d t h s dsan o f t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s , w r o t e b o c k s

a n d a r t i c l e s i n t h e 1 9 5 9 s w h i c h l a t e r came t o f o r m t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e ~ o r k o f t h e r a d i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p o f t h e

5 7 3 e n e d e t t o C r e c e , " H i s t o r y and C h r o n i c l e , ' i n Hans T e y e r h o f f , e d . , T h e P h i l o s o o h y o f H i s t o r y i n Our T i ~ e (;.ea Y o r k , 1 9 5 9 ) . -

Tha i n F i u e n c e o f Williams o n h i s s t u d e n t s a n d

o t h e r s i s e a s i l y d i s c e r n i b l e . The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s a r e

o b v i o u s . I n W i l l i a m s ' i n t o r p r c t a t i o n , t h e y f o u n d a

c o h e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n o f how t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s found i t s e l f

in t h e t r a g i c s f t u a t i o n o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s .

6 8 ~ e e e s p e c i a l l y t h e f o l l o w i n g s o r k s by William Appleman Williams, A m e r i c a n - R u s s i a n R e l a t i o n s , 1781.- 194'1 (Neu~ York , 195'27-;I-The T r a q z d y of A m e r i c a n D i p l o m a c r l = Y o r k , 1 9 5 9 ) ; The U. S., Cuba and C a s t r o .- (--? N E W York 1 9 6 2 ) t "The I r o n y o f C o n t a i n m e n t , " The N a t i o n , Nay 5, 1 9 5 6 , p p . 376-379; and "The A m e r i c a n C e n t u r y : - m - 1 9 5 7 , " - The N a t i o n , November 2 , 1 9 5 7 , pp, 297-301 .

6 9 L l n y d C . G a r d n e r , G a r A * q o r o v i t z , a n d W a l t e r L a F e b e r wera s t u d e n t s o f W i l l . i a m s . A l p e r o v i t z was an u n d e r g r a d u a t e i n Williams' course a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n ; LaFcbo r , uha wro te h i s t h e s i s t h e r e u n d e r F r e d H a r v e y W a r r i n g t o n , d i d n o t t a k c a f o r m a l c o u r s e w i t h W i l l i a m s b u t a s s i s t e d i n h i s c o u r s e a n d a c k f l o ~ ~ l - e d g e s h i s i n f l u e n c e , C i t e d i n B a r t o n J . E l e r n s t e i n , e d . , P o l i t i c s a n d P o l i c i e s o f t h e T r u ~ . 3 n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ? c h i c a g o , 1970) , p , 5.

D a v i d H o r o w i t z h a s r e c o g n i z e d t h e p i o n e e r i n g w o r k o f P r o f e s s o r Williams o n p. 1 6 o f C o r p o r a t i o n s a n d t h e C o l d - War ( ~ e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 9 ) .

I n t h i s r e s p e c t s e e a l s o t a s c h ' s "The C o l d War, R e v i s i t e d a n d R E - v i s i o n e d , " a n d R o n a l d Radosh "Making t h e W o r l d S a f e f o r A m e r i c a , " r e v i e w o f G a b r i e l K o l k o ' s - The P o l i t i c s o f War 1 9 4 3 - 1 9 4 5 ( N ~ L U Y e r k , 1968), a n d The H o o t s o f Arn:?rican f a r e i q n P o l i c y , The N a t i o n , O c t o b e r 6 , 1969, p p , 3 5 ~ - 3 5 1 . I n t h e s e r e v i e u ~ s t i a d o s h c r i t i c i z e d K o l k o b e c a u s e h e d i d n o t a c k n o a l e d g e h i s c o n - s i d e r a b l e d e b t t o William Applernan Will iams,

T h e i r acceptance o f kt i l l iams' s c h o l a r s h i p h a d

t h a t d e c a d e c a n e t o r e j e c t t h e l i b e r a l c o n s e n s u s i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f American h i s t o r y , n o t m e r e l y b e c a u s e i t was

t h e s c h o l . a r s h i p o f a m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n

w h i c h r s p r c s e n t e d t h e s t a t u s q u o , b u t b e c a u s e b J i l l i a r n s *

t w o b o o k s , - A m e r i c a n - R u s s i a n R e l a t i o n s , 1 7 s 1 - 1 9 4 7 ( 1 9 5 2 )

a n d The T r a q e d y o f A m e r i c a n Dip lomacy (1959 ) , o f f e r e d a

m o r e r e a l i s t i c , p l a u s i b l e a c c o u n t o f how t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

b e c a m e i n v o l v e d s o e x t e n s i v e l y a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , The

l a t t c r s t u d y i n p a r t i c u l a r was a l u c i d b o o k w h i c h a c c o u n t e d

f o r A m e r i c a n q l o b a l i s m a n d t h e Hmerican empire . A young

Nem L e f t wri ter has w r i t t e n t h a t Williams' a n a l y s i s ,

p r i n c i p a l l y h i s r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l r o l s o f expa r i -

s i o n i s m i n A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y

h a s made i t p o s s i b l e f o r r a d i c a l s t o a r g u e p e r s u a s i v e l y t h a t A m e r i c a n i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m was n o t a n a b e r r a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r a l o g i c a l c u l m i n a t i o n o f America's h i s t ~ r ~ . ~ O

C o n t r a s t t h i s v i e w w i t h t h a t e x p r o s s e d by t h e o r t h o -

d o x E r n e s t R. May i n I m p e r i a l D c m o c r a c y t The Erne rqence OF

A m e r i c a as a G r e a t P o w e r . - - --- 71 T h o u g h i t i s a s t u d y o f

- 7 0 ~ i t e d i n "New R a d i c a l H i s t o r i a n s i n t h e S i x t i e s , "

92 *

7 1 ~ ~ c W i l l i a m s * i l l u m i n a t i n g "The A c q u i t t i n q J u d g e , " r e u i e ~ u o f Ernes t R , May, Derocracyr t h e f r n e r q e n r e o f America a s a Great York, 19611, ~ t u 3 i e s on - t h e L e f t , I I I ( W i n t e r , 1 9 6 3 ) , 94-99.

A m e r i c a n f o r e i q n p o l i c y d u r i n g t h e l R 9 0 s , i t advancad a

v i e w t h a t t h e I\vi+.nc! 5 t - ? ? s h35 ~ ~ Z Z ~ G L S S t h r ~ s t 3por1 i t ,

w h i c h i s r emarkab ly similer t o t h a t p u t f o r r r ~ a r d by t h e

o r t h o d o x s c h o o l . i n t h e i r e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e C o l d War.

American l e a d e r s "werc a t m o s t o n l y i n c i d e n t a l l y concerned

a b o u t r e a l o r i m a g i n e d i n t e r e s t s a b r o a d " . 72 Cornpsrcd t o

t h i s , Wil l iams ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s p e r i o d a n d U n i t e d

S t a t e s t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y f o r e i g n p o l i c y was more s a t i s -

f a c t o r y t o t h e e m e r g i n g r a d i c a l s i n e x p l a i n i n g haw t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s a c q u i r e d t h e e m p i r e t h z t was a l l t o o v i s i b l e

emphasized t h a t ! ; ! i l l i a ~ r s ' r e j l i s v wzis i n f i n i t e l y s u p p r i o r

t o t h c o r t h o d o x account o f hot%? t h ~ U n i t ~ d S t a t e s a c c i d e n t a l l y

came t o p r e s i d e a v o r a v a s t P e r h a p s t h i s is o v e n

more t r u e o f t h e p ! r i n d a f t e r 1 9 4 5 . A c c o r d i n g t o thr?

o r t h o d o x s c e n a r i o , a r e l u c t a n t W a s h i n g t o n , i n n o c e n t o f t h e

i n t r i c a c i e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l . p o w e r p o l i t i c s , h a d wor ld

7 3 ~ a v i d Horotuitz h a s a c c e p t e d W i l l i a m s ' i n n l y s i s o f t h e Y a l t a a c c o r d s b e c a u s e it is m o r e f i p m l y based o n t h e a c t u a l c o u r s e OF e v e n t s . T h i s i s o n e small examp le o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Williams. See H o r o w i t z , " R e v i s i o n - i s t Tales o f N e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e C o m m u n i s t s , " N a m p a r t s , June 2 9 , 1958, p p , 49 -54 .

l e a d e r s h i p t h r u s t u p o n i t u n ~ ~ ! i l . l . i n g l y a f t e r W o r l d War

IT. 74 G c o r q o Kennan . t h s c e l e b r a t e d r e a l i s t , has d j ~ r e r t - n d

h i m s e l f t o t h e q u c s t i o n o f America's a l l e g e d i n n o c e n c e i n

t h e d i p l o m a t i c a r e n a . He found t h a t t h e a n s w e r l a y i n

W a s h i n g t o n ' s l e g a l i s t i c - m o r a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h t o i n t e r -

n a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s . Konnan h a s s l a b o r a t e d t h a t

t o t h o American m i n d , i t i s i n p l z u 5 i b l e t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d h a v e p o s i t i v e a s p i r a t i o n s , a n d o n e s t h a t t h e y r e g a r d as l e g i t i m a t e , more i m p o r t a n t t o t h e m t h a n t h e p e a c e f u l n e s s a n d o r d e r l i n e s s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i f e . 7 5

T h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t c s was a n i n n o c e n t ,

e s s e n t i a l l y i s o l a t i o n i s t n a t i l n has l o n g T o m i n d t h e b a s i s

o P C o l d War o r t h o d o x y . ,

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s a x p l n n a t i o n , \ i j i l l iams has

a d v a n c e d t h e v i e w t h a t Wnshingtnn c a g e r i y sought t o a s s u m e

v m r l d l e a d e r s h i p i n t h i s p e r i o d . He i s w o r t h q u o t i n g a t

s o m s l e n g t h . He c o n t e n d s

t h a t t h e United S t a t c s h a d From 1944 t o a t l e a s t 1966 a v a s t p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f a c t u a l a s w e l l a s p o t e n t i a l p o w e r v i s - 3 - v i s t h e S o v i e t ~ n i o n . 7 6

An a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e

7 4 ~ h i s c o n t e n t i o n i s c e n t r a l t o C o l d lCar u r t h o d n x y . As a l r e a d y n o t e d , it i s Found i n t h e works of s u c h w r i t e r s a s J o h n S p a n i e r , J o h r , Lukacs, D e x t e r P e r k i n s a n d H e r b e r t F e i s .

7 5 ~ c n n a n . A m e r i c a n D i p l o m a c y , - p. 83.

7 6 ~ i l l i a r n s , T r a q s d y , p . 200.

r e l a t i v e weakness o f t h e R u s s i a n s . . . does c o n f r o n t a l l s tuden t s of t h e c o l d Imr, b e t h e y a c a d e m i c i a n s o r p o l i t i c i a n s o r hn!~.;et:!<fi:.lr?s, t i l i tk v e r y c l e a r a n d f i r n limits on h o v ~ t h e y c a n make sense o u t of t h e c o l d war if t h e y a r c a t t h e sane time t o obsorvo t h e e s s e n t i a l s t a n d a r d s of i n t e l l e c t u a l honesty. F o r polcuar a n d r e s p o n s i - b i l i t y g o t o g e t h e r i n a d i r e c t a n d i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p .77

W i l l i a m s c o n t i n u o s t h a t

a n a t i o n w i t h t h e g r e a t r e l a t i v e supremacy e n j o y e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e t w e e n 1944 a n d 1 9 6 2 c a n n o t w i t h a n y r e a l w a r r a n t o r m e a n i n g c l a i m t h a t it h a s b e e n FORCED t o f o L l o u ~ a c e r t a i n a p p r o a c h o r p o l i c y . Y e t t h a t i s t h e Amepican clairn.78

The c o n s e n s u s v i e , * [ o f U n i t e d S t a t e s d a r n e s i i c h i s t o r y

l c n t Fu; L11t.r i m p e i ; u s t o t h e n r i t i n g s O F ' J f i l l i a n s . The c o n - I

s e n s u s image of Rrnerica p i r t u r c d a u n l ' q u o denocra'ic

n a t i o n , d e v o i d o f c l a s s c o n F l i c t , ~ n d free f r s z i n p z r i a l -

ism, u n i t e d i n a b r o a d domest 'c and f c r e i c j n p o l i c y c o n s e n -

s u s . The n a t i o n , a s c e l e b r a t e d b y s u c h c o n s e n s u s h i s -

t o r i a n s a s L o u i s H a r t z a n d Dan ie l B o o r s t i n , someho~v s e e n o d

a t o d d s w i t h t h e A m e r i c a t h e young r a d i c a l s c o n F r o n t e d i n

t h e l a t e 1950s and 1960s. 757

or a n e x c e l l e n t rov ie tu o f t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e s e e S k o t h e i m , e d . , C l i m a t e o f O p i n i o n .

a n d i t s e c ~ n c m i c deprndcnce on s u c h e x p a n s i o n e x e r t e d

g r e a t i n f l u e n c e on h i s s t u d ~ n t s . Tha t i t d i d c a n be seen

i n t h e r e c e p t i o n a c c o r d e d h i s s e m i n a l s t u d y , The T raqedy

o f A m n r i c a n D i p L o ~ a z y . --- - That s t u d y p r o v i d e d t h e f r a m e w o r k

o n w h i c h t h e y o u n g r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e 1969- b u i l t

t h a i r c o n t r o v e r s i a l a n a l y s i s o f A m a r i c a n d i p l o m a c y .

I n t h i s r e g a r d a y o u n g revisionist h a s w r i t t e n

t h a t " h i s ( ~ i l l i n r n s ' ) b o o k s , rnest n o t a b l y The T r a g e d y o f - A m e r i c a n D ipJ -o~ :acy , h a v e o f f c r e d a w o z l t h o f i n s i g h t s and

80 s u a q e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h c ? ~ r o r 2 a a r c h " . Thvs, h i s C ~ U ~ ~ C R ~ S ,

a n d o t h e r s a s w e l l , h a v a s u i G e d u p o n W i l l i a m s ' i n t e r p r n -

t a t i o n a s a b a s i s o f e n q u i r y a n d expanded u p o n i t i n t h e i r

own s t u d i e s , One n c c d o n l y e x a m i n e t h e h i s t a z - i c s l s c h o l n r -

s h i p o f G a r d n e r , A l p e r u v i t z , a e r r . ~ s t ; c i n , Kal ico, F a t e r s o n ,

a n d H n r o w i t z t o c o n f i r m t h i s .

I n v i e w o f LbJi l l iams ' c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e o n h i s

s t u d e n t s , a n y e x p l a n a t i o n OF t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s a s

mcrely a r e F l e c t i o n o f t h e i r c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n is i n a d e -

q u a t e b e c a u s e i t i g n o r e s t h e f a c t t h a t h e w r o t e i m p o r t a n t

s t u d i e s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y f o r m e d t h e c o r e

o f r e v i s i o n i s t C o l d War h i s t o r i c g r a p h y .

" ~ a d i c a l Amer ica , " A S u r v e y , " 92.

To d o s o i s a l s o t o i g n o r e t h e Fact t h a t i n p r e c i s

h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l terms a s t r a i g h t l i n e o x t e n d s F r o m t . h ~

s o - c a l l e d P r o g r e s s i v e s c h o o l o f h i s t o r i a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y

C h a r l e s A u s t i n B o a r d a n d h i s a n a l y s i s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y

a n d h i s v i e w o f t h 9 h i s t o r i a n , t o t o d a y ' s r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n s ,

T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p b o t ~ u z e n B e a r d a n d t h e New L e f t ' s

c r i t i q u e o f t ~ t i e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n f o r ' n i g n p o l i c y i s

e s s a n t i a l t o a f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Ncu L e f t s c h o l a r s h i p .

H i t h e r t o t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s b e e n g l o s s e d o v e r w i t h g l i b

c o m m e n t s o r i g n o r e d altogether. The New L o f t h i s t o r i a n s '

i n t a r p r o t a t i o n of t h e C o l d War is n o t , t h e r o f a r c , s o m e t h i n g

p u t t o g e t h e r i n p r o t e s t a g z i n S t V i c t n s n . I t i s a c t u a L l y t h e

l a t e s t e x p r r e s s E o n o f d i s s e n t w i t h i n A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i a g r a p h y ,

Though t h e naw d i s s e n t e r s hava gonc b e y n n d B ~ a r d , t h e i r work

' l ~ c c e r d i n c j t o I r z i n Ungcr , t h c Ncw Le ' t h i s t o r i ; n ; , i n p a r t i c u l a r William Applenzn Willizrns, ome w r y l i t t l e t o Beard. U n g e r d o e s q u a l i f y t h i s b y n o t i n g t h a t t h e y a r e o b l i g a t e d t o Beard i n t h e a r e a a f " r ecen t A r n e r i c z n f o r e i g n p o l i c y . "

I n U n g e r ' s o p i n i o n W i l l i a m s h a s o n l y a c k n o ~ l c d g e d t h e f o l l o w i n g d e b t t o Beard because it b e f i t s h i s b e l l i - c o s e s t y l e . U n g e r "Commenta ry o n t h e Naw L e f t , " p . 132 . " I t . . . seems a p p r o p r i a t e i n v i e w o f a 3 1 t h e b i g o t a d a n d c a r e e r b u i l d i n g a t t a c k s * a c t s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n i n t h e f o r m o f m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a n d e v c n smart a l e c c r i t i c i sm b y s u p - p a s e d a r i s t o c r a t s , t o a c k n o w l e d g e f o r m e l l y my r e s p e c t f o r a n d i n d e b t e d n e s s t o C h a r l e s A u s t i n Beard." Williams, C o n t o u r s o f A n e r l c a n his tor^, p . 490. Walter L a F e b ~ r h a s a l s o p r a i s e d t h e t r a d i t i o n o f C h a r l e s Beard i n A m e r i c a n d i p l o m a t i c h i s t o r y . I n s o d o i n g h e h a s a s s a u l t e d t h o s a h i s t o r i a n s who " s i n c e 1 9 4 5 . . . have b e e n p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h k n i f i n g B e a r d w i t h o n c h a n d a n d u s i n g t h e o t h e r h a n d t o p e n c a r i c a t u r e s o f a u n i q u e u n b l e m i s h e d R e p u b l i c w h i c h b e c a m e a world e m p i r e w i t h l i t t l e c o n s c i o u s human i n t e r - v e n t i o n . " L a F e b e r , "The C o n s c i o u s C r e a t i o n o f a ' W o r l d

i s g r e a t l y i n f u s e d t ~ r i t h b o t h h i s v i e w o f t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s

Tho key c o n t c r n p o r a r y f i g u r e i n t h i s h i s t o r i o -

g r a p h i c a l chain i s i n d i s p u t ~ 5 l y William Rpplcrnan W i l l i a m s ,

He i s t h e l i n k c o n n e c t i n g t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s a n d

C h a r l e s A u s t i n B e a r d . Fin a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e i r r e l a t i o n -

s h i p l a r q e l y e x p l a i n s t h e New L e f t s c h o l a r s ' c o n c e p t i o n

o f t h e h i s t . o r i a n a n d t h e i r g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h t o f o r e i c = , n

p o l i c y . P r o f e s s o r Williams f u l f i l l e d much t h e sems r o l e

o f g r e a t t e a c h e r f o r t h e r a d i c a l l e f t a s B e a r d , t o a l ~ s s e r

e x t e n t , d i d f o r h im . --

p e e t s , b.!illisms i s w r i t i n g ~ k o m 3 B e a ~ t f i z n p o r s p o c t i v e ,

especially i n t h e a r e a oF f o r e i g n p o l i c y . He has r e c o g -

n i z e d t h i s d e b t i n a p e r s o n a l a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " C h a r l a s

A u s t i n B e a r d : The I n t e l b e e t u a l as Tory -Rad ica l " . I n h i s

j u d y c m e n t , " T h e r e a r e f o w s h o r t a n a l y s e s , . . w h i c h match

t h e q u a l i t y o f Beard's t r e a t m e n t o f f o r a i g n a f f a i r s i n

The Rise o f A m e r i c a n C i v i l i z a t i o n " a n d " I t i s e v e n m o r e

Wide' E m p i r e , " re vie^ o f R i c h a r d Van A l s t y n e , The R i s j n q . --- A m e r i c a n E ~ p l r o , ( O x f o r d , 1 9 6 0 ) i n S t u d i e s on t i !e L e f t p 11, m27 103.

S o l w a y i n h i s a r t i c l e , " T u r n i n g H i s t o r y U p s i d e Down," r e c o g n i z e d t h e l i n k b e t w e o n Beard and t h e New L e f t h i s t a r i a n s .

he Now L s f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e "gone b e y o n d " R e a r d i n t h a t t h e y a r e more h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d t o Karl Mzrx. When t h e new r e v i s i o n i s t s have msde much c f Marx, it i s more o f t e n t h e e a r l y " s o f t " M a r x , who s p e a k s o f " a l i e n a t i c n , " r a t h e r t h a n t h e " h a r d " Marx OF Das K a p i t a l , w i t h i t s c l a s s - s t r u g g l e a n d p r o q r e s s i v e " i m r n i s e r i z a t i o n nT t h e p r o l e t a r i a t . "

d i f f i c u l t t o name a v o l u m o t h a t i s more r e w a r d i n g i n i n -

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e a n o f t h e New L e F t h i s t o r i a n s ,

t h s P r o g r e s s i v e G o a r d s t r e s s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e p o i n t s

i n h i s a n a l y s i s o f F o r e i g n p o l i c y .

( 1 ) i t is i r i t i l n a t e J - y connected w i t h d o i n e s t i c a f f a i r s , ( 2 ) e m p i r e s are n o t b u i l t i n F i t s of a b s e n t - ndr:dn.;ss, a n d ( 3 ) expansion d o e s n o t i n a n c ~f i t s e l f s o l v e p r o b l e m s , and o f t e n c o m p l i c a t e s a n d deepens t h e m . 8 4

Tho New L e f t d i ! ) l o m a t i c h i s t o r i a n s ' o b l i g a t i o n t o Beard i n

t h i s r e s p e c t is c u n s i d o r z b l e . Thzy t o o havc ~ m p h a s i z s d ,

i n v a r y i n g d c g r c e s , t h e s e samh t h r e e f a c t o r s i n t h e i r

r a d i c a l c o u n t e r - i n t c r p r e t a t i c n o f U n i t e d S t a t c s f o r e l q n

p o l i c y , Though t h e y h a v e s t r e s s e d much m o r e t h a n Beard

t h e d e m a n d s o f c a p i t a l i : > r n i n t h e m a k i n g o f A m e r i c a n r o r o i ~ n

p o l i c y , t h e y a r c s t i l l w r i t i n g ~ u i t h i n h i s s h a d o ~ u . AS

I n t h i s r r g a r d s ee Eugene D. G e n o v c s e , "William A p p l e m a n Williams o n ftlarx a n d America, " rcvieth~ of N i l l i a n A , W i l l i a m s , The G r e a t E v a s i o n . An Essay o n t h e Contem- -- p o r a r y R e l e v a n c a o f Ka5.l I h s x a n d on t h e N i s d o n o f -- ---- - A d m i t t i n g t h s He re t i c i n t o C-----'--t-.--d-----.----- t h e D i a l o o u n a b o u t A m e r i c a ' s Futurn, Studies o n t h e L e f t , V I (January-February, 1966) 7 0 - 8 6 .

8 3 ~ i l l i a r n s , "Intellectual A s T o r y - R a d i c a l , l o p . 3 0 5 .

his is a n a l y z e d i n H o r o w i t , ~ , e d . , C o r p o r a t i o n s a n d t h e C o l d IJar a n d K o l k o , The L i m i t s o f P a ~ ~ c r .

I t was B e a r d ~ h o f i r s t f u l l y e x p o s e d t h e d e g r e e

i n g : ' e a t u r e of A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y . a6 I n s o d o i n g h e eas

p e r c e p t i v e e n o u g h n o t t o l i m i t h i s s t u d y o f Amc!rican

e x p a n s i o n t o t e r r i t o r i a l s ~ ~ a n s i o n . ~ ~ I n The I d e a o f

N a t i o n a l I n t e r a s t , - B e a r d a s t a b l i s h s d t h z t a n a t i o n a l

i n t e r e s t , a s i n t ~ r p r e t e d by m o s t A m e r i c a n s t a t e s m e n , is a

ma te r i a l i n t e r e s t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f a r t h e R e p u b l i c , i n

B e a r d ' s j u d g e m e n t , t h e H a m i l t o n i a n c o n c e p t i o n o f n a t i o n a l

i n t e r e s t t r i u m p h e d t o o o f t e n . B e a r d d e f i n e d t h i s a s mean-

i n g t h e

c o n s o l i d z t i o n o f c o m ~ i c r c i ~ l , nanufacturinq, f i n a n c i a ? . a n d a g r i c u l t u r t l i n t e r e s t s a t h o n c , t h e p r o m o t i o n o f t r a d e i n a l l p s r t s o f t h c w o r l d by t h e e n g i n ~ s u f d i p l o n z c y , t h e deSensc

I - I - o f tha",e,rr:d:. b y zi ~ ~ L : , ; ? ? f i j : n a u y , b i t e suprerildcy o f t h e U n i t e i S t a t e s i n t h e W e s t e r n H e z t i ~ p h e r ~ ? , a n d @ h e u s e o f m i l i t a r y a n d n a v a l s t r n n g t h i n t h e r i v a l r y o f n a t i o n s t o s ccu rc e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e s f o r c i t i z c n s o f t h e U n i t e d ~ t a t e s . 0 8

8 6 ~ e a r d f o c u s s e d on e x p a n s i o n i s m i n h i s The I d e a - .--. c f N a t i n r t a l I n t e r e s t ( N ~ U J Y o r k , 1 9 3 4 ) . H i s f e a r o f e x p a n s i o n - i s m i n s p i r e d h i s The Open Dazs a t Home ( ~ e w York, 1934) .

8 7 ~ e n r y W a l l a c e , ' B e a r d : The P l a n n e r , " The New R e p u b l i c , J a n u z r y 2 , 1 9 3 5 , p . 225. T h i s a r t i c l e s u c c i x c t l y s h o v ~ s t h a t E e a r d was c o n s c i o u s o f rriore t h a n j u s t t e r r i - t o r i a l expansion. As ! d a l l a c e has n o t e d , B e a r d tins a w a r e o f i m p e r i a l i s m . He d e f i n e d i t a s " a n e f f o r t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e d c m i n a n t i n d u s t r i a l a n d f i n a n c i a l f o r c s s o f a n a t i o n t o s e n d i t s s u r p l u s c a p i t a l a n d c o m m o d i t i e s z b r o a d i n p r c - F e r e n c e t o r a i s i n g t h e s t a n c ! 3 r d o f l i v i n g o f i t s peop1.e a t home."

" ~ e a r d , Notinnal I n t e r e s t , p p . 4 8 - 6 9 .

I n C h a r l c s 8c : ? rd ' s j u d g ~ r n e n t , as lonq a s t h e

W a s h i n g t o n ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y m a k e r s , t h e 3 e p u b l i c w o u l d b e

c o m m i t t e d t o a

d i p l o m a c y w h i c ' . ostensibly s e e k s t h e t x e l f a r c o f t h e U n i t e d S t z t e s b y p u s h i n q a n d h o l d i n g d o o r s o p e n i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w i t h a l l e n g i n e s o f g o v e r n m e n t , r a n n i n q f r o m p o l i t e c o ~ r c i o n t o t h c u s e o f a rms .Bg- '

The New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s have come t o a similar,

t h o u g h m o r e r s d i c a l c o n c l u s i o n . The new r e v i s i o n i s t s h a v e

t o r y . S t a r t i n g From this perspective, t h c !?cc: L e f t has

n e c e s s a r i l y a r r i v e d a t a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ~f k r n ~ r i c z r l f u r e i y n

p o l i c y t h a t d i f f e r s rcr , ;arkzbly f r c j L i t h ~ i r predecessors,

The New L e F t , like Heard, h a v e also dsmonstrated, i n a

m o r e sophisticated manne r , t h e considsrable e x t e n t t o u ~ h i c h

W a s h i n g t o n ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y h a s d e l i b a r a t e l y l o n g f l o l u e d

f r o m d o m e s t i c r e q u i r e m a n t s ,

S o p h i s t i c a t e d o r n o t , i t was B e a r d aha o b s e r v e d

t h a t " d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s a n d f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s a r e i n t i m a t e l y

a s s o c i a t e d u ~ i t k e a c h o t h a r . O f t e n b o t h a r e b u t d i f ' f e r c n t

a s p e c t s of t h e same t h i n g . T h i s v i e w s i g n i r i c a n t l y

Open Door , - v i i .

' ' b a r d , - N a t i o n a l I n t e r e s t ,

a f f e c t o d B e a r d ' s a n a l y s i s o f A m e r i c a n d i p l o m a c y . i t

e n a b l e d h im t o g r a s p t h e d s n c s t i c p r e s s u r e s u n d e r l y i n g

t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n 7 o l i c y . I t p l a y e d

a n e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e N e w L e f t d i p l o m a t i c

w r i t i n g s . T h e y have f o c u s s e d upon t h e i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n d i p l o r a a t i c and d o m e s t i c p o l i c i e s .

T h u s t d i l l i a n s h z s c o n c l u d z d t h a t

a r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n r c l a t i o r l s ( a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n f o r e i q n p o l i c y and t h e d o m e s t i c e c o n o m y ) o f f e r s t h e m o s t p r o r n i s i n q a p p r o a c h t o such a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f ou r a s s u m p t i o n s , 91

? his a p p r o n c h has p r o v e d t r i ~ i t P u i f o r Niilis-;s an3 I

t h o a n t i r e s c h o 3 1 o f Nsx~ L e F t d i p l o m a t i c h i s t o r i a n s ,

T h e i r e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h c r c ? c i p r o s a l r c 3 a t i n n s h i r j bet ixeen

f o r e i g n and d o m e s t i c p o l i c y h a s l e d t a t h e i r c o n t r a v e r s i a l

Open Door t h e o r y o f H m s r i c a n d i p l o m a c y , T h i s t h e o r y , a s

p r o m u l g a t s d by Willirms, h o l d s t h a t s i n c e

t h e Crisis o f t h e 1.C9O1s, v ~ h e n A m e r i c a n s T H O U G H T t h a t t h e c o n t i n e n t a l f r o n t i e r was g o n e , t h e y a d v a n s e d and accep ted t h e a r g c r n e n t t h a t c o n t i n u e d e x p a n s i o n i n t h e f o r n o f o v e r s e a s e c o n o m i c ( a n d e v e n t e r r i t o r i a l ) empi re p r o v i d e d t h o b e s t , i f n o t t h e o n 1 way t o s u s t a i n t h e i r f r e e d o m a n d prosperity. 5 2

9 1 ~ i l l i a m s , T r a q e d y , p . 9.

The Noiu L e F t wr i te rs , aq a g r o u p , a r e cor, f i r i ced t h a t

A m e r i c a n d i p l o m s c v c i f i t i s t o b~ r e n l i c t ; - - ? l l y trnd-r-

s t o o d , m u s t be v i e t ~ ~ c d En t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i r Opcn Door

t b e o r y , I n t h i s r e g a r d , Williams h a s a r g u e d p e r s u a s i v e l y

t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f A m e r i c s n d i p l o m a c y t h r c u g h o u t t h e

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y h a s b e e n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e Open Door

p c licy, "To s t a b i l i z e t h o w o r l d i n a p r o - A m s r i c a n e q u i -

l i b r i u m " h a s been t h e minimum o b j e c t i v e OF U n i t e d S t a t e s

p o l i c y ; " t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e A m e r i c a n e x p a n s i a i i i s n w i t s

9 3 o p t i m u m g o a l . The C o l d !!Jar, i n W i l l i a n s ' v i e u ~ , n u s t b e

i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h o l a t e s t p h a s c o f a c o n t i n u i n g a F F o r t t o

mako t h e w , r l d s z r e Tor ~ n z r i c a n capitalisn. 9 4 T h i s p o l i c y

was c o n s c i o t i s l y a n d d c l i b i : r a i r ; l y c n h s r k e d upr , i bcczusc?

A m e r i c a n s t a t c s r n e r ~ ts, l i e v c d t h r i t A n s r i c a n c n p i t a l i s r n n c e d c d

e v e r - e x p s n d i n g f o r e i g n m a r k s t s i n o r d c s tr) survive,

A similar e x p l ~ ! f ~ a i i o n wss p r c v i o u s i y c x p o l ~ n d e d by

B e a r d . He ices s o c o n v i n c e d o f t h e v a r z c i t y oF t h e Opan

Door t h e s i s t h a t he w r o t s The Open D n n ~ a t Hone i n an

a t t e m p t t o e n d j u s t s u c h A m e r i c a n d e p o n d e n c o u p o n ever-

e x p a n d i n g x a r k e t s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n Bzard a s k e d t h e follcw-

i n g q u e s t i o n t

" s e e Lasch, ' C o l d War , R c v i s i t c d and R e - v i s i o n e d , " p p . 29-32 f o r a n e x c e l l e n t a n a l y s i s o f L I J i l f i a m s ' Open Door i n t e r p r a t a t i o n .

Was it r c a l l y p n ; s i b l e , b y a n y p o l i c y a n d a c t i o n , t o f i n d c v c r - e x p , , n d i n q f c r a i g n o u t l e t s f o r t h o e v e r - i n c r e a s i n y " s u r p l u s e s w o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e , m a n u f 3 c t u r e s , a n d c a p i t a l , e s p e c i a l l y i n view o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o m p e t i t i o n o f o t h e r g r o a t p o w r s f n r t h e same m a y k e t s ? 9 5

B o a r d ' s d e f i n i t i v e a n s w e r uJas "no". C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

i n The O p e n D a a r o t H o ~ c he r n z i n t a i n c d t h e v i e w t h a t - t h e o n l y wcy t o assure? peace a n d p r o s p e r i t y was t o d e v e l o p t s c h n o l o g i c a l a n d c o n s u m e r f r u n t i e r s a t home a n d F o r g a t a b o u t t h e w o r l d f r o n t i a r . 9 6

B e a r d ' s n r i t i n g s o n t h e misdom o f c r e a t i n g a n o p e n d o o r

a t home a r e e l o q u e n t t e s t i m o n y t o h i s b c - l i e ' t h a t t h e

U n i L c d St2tes and i t s l e a d e r s were e r r o n e o u s l y a n d d a n g e r -

o u s l y c o n v i n c e d t h z t t h e n s i i ~ n ' c s c o n c m y d e n a n d e d expznd-

i n g f o r e i g n mzrka t s ,

Beard's o b s e r v z i i o n t h a t e: , :p i res a r e n o t b u i l t i n

f i t s o f a b s e n t - m i n d c d n c s s a l s o o c c u p i e s a c e n t r a l p l a c e

t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h o N e w L ~ f t d i p l o m a t i c h i s t o r i a n s .

T h o u g h W i l l i a m s w r o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g , h e i s e c h o i n g a b e l i e f

h e l d b y h i s New L e f t colleaguss a s wel l a s Beard:

n e i t h e r c o n t i n g e n c y n o r m a d n e s s i s a b s e n t f r o m h i s t o r y , b u t t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o r s i q n i f i e a n t f i g u r e s o n t h e s t a g e o f h i s t o r y a c t c o n s c i o u s l y and p u r p o s e f u l l y ( i f u s u a l l y r o u t i n e l y ) w i t h i n

9 5 ~ e a r d , I n t e r e s t , - p . 552.

9 6 ~ l o y d Gardner, "From M E X Deal t o New Frontiers: 1 9 3 7 - 1 9 4 1 , " S t u d i e s on -- t . h ~ - L e f t , T ( F a l l , 1 9 5 9 ) , 30.

t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d , 97

The Keut L e f t w r i t z r s ' e n t i r e b o d y o f s c h o l a r s h i p

i r r e f u t a b l y s u p p o r t s t h i s o u t l o o k . W a l t e r L a F e b e r h a s

s t a t e d t h a t

i t i s o d d t h a t h i s t o r i a n s who w o r r y m o s t a b o u t k e e p i n g t h e A n e r i c e n s t o r y c l e a n f o r C o l d War p u r p o s e s a n d f r e e f r o m t h e B e a r d i a n i n t e r p r e - t a t i o n a r e reluctant t o g i v o t h e i r ancestors c r e d i t f o r t h e b r i l l i a n t d e b a t e s , d e t a i l e d b l u e p r i n t : ; , a n d t h e s o u n d s t r u c t u r i n g w h i c h c r e a t e d o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t , a n d m o s t s u c c e s s f u l e m p i r e s i n w o r l d h i s t o r y . 9 8

I n c r e d i t i n g t h e i r ances to r s w i t h c o n s c i o u s l y c r e s t i n g a

t h c sano p a t h as C h a r 1 . c ~ Bcard.

T h e d i s s e n t i n g I t i s t o r i a n s 0 4 t h e 1959s a n d 1 3 7 0 s

a r e e v e n m o r e f i r m l y i n t h e B e a r d i a n t r a d i t i a n u h e n i t

and h i s rol-e i n s o c i e t y .

F i r s t , c o n s i d e r B e a r d ' s v i e w o f h i s t o r y a n d t h c

h i s t o r i a n t h r o u g h t h e e y e s s f P r o f e s s o r Williams, i n whose

e s t i m e t i o n , a s e a r l i e r indicated, B e a r d p i c t u r e d h i m s e l f a

s t u d ~ n t o f h i s t o r y a n d n o t a h i s t o r i a n . T h i s i s n o t o n l y

~ i l l i a r n s ' o p i n i o n b u t t h a t o f t h e A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i c a l

9 7 1 ~ ~ i l l i a m s , C o n t o u r s , p . 21 .

" ~ a ~ s b o r . " C o n s c i o u s C r e a t i o n o f o ' World-Mi ' e Empi re " ' , 1 0 4 .

p r o f e s s i o n a s w e l l c The d i n s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m i s o f

t h e stu-

d e n t ' s e m p h a s i s i s "on h i s s t u d y t s a m e a n s " , u n l i k e t h e

h i s t o r i a n , u~ho considers "his w o r k a s a n e n d i t s e l f " . 99

A c c o r d i n g l y B e a r d , t h e w o r d s o f W i l l i a m s ,

s t u d i e d h i s t o r y t o e q u i p h i m s e l f t o c o m p r e h e n d a n d c h a n g e h i s o w s o c i e t y 8 t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n a n d t e n p a o f i t s movemen t , and t o p i n - p o i n t t h e p l a c e s a t w h i c h t o a p p l y h i s e n e r g y a n d i n f l u e n c e i n an e f f o r t t o m o d i f y b o t h a s p e c t s o f i t s d e v e l o p m e n t . 1 0 0

Now c o n s i d e r 1jJilliams' own v i e w o f h i s t o r y a n d ti,:.!

h i s t o r i a n zs e n u n c i a t e d i n t h e c h a p t e r o n " H i s t o r y a s a

Tha p u r p o s e o f h i s t ~ ~ y is n o t t o e x p l a i n o u r ~ i t z ~ t i ~ ~ sc t h ~ t GC C Z E ~ ~ k i l ~ ~ G ~ J I , ui3~xi

C . W r i q h t Mills h a s c a l l e d C h e a r f u l R c b o t s i n T h i s Bee ' . P o s s i b l e o f A l l b ! o r l d s . l O l

I n W i l l i a m s ' c o n s i d e r e d o p i n i o n ,

h i s t o r y ' s g r e a t t r a d i t i o n i s t o h e l p u s u n d e r - s t a n d o u r s e l v e s and o u r w o r l d s o t h a t e a c h o f u s , i n d i v i d u a l l y , a n d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h o u r f e l l c m m c n , can f o r m u l a t e r e l e v a n t a n d r e a s o n e d a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d became m e a n i n g f u l a c t o r s i n m a k i n g h i s t o r y . 102

9 9 ~ i l l i a r n s , " T o r y - R a d i c a l , ' p . 3 0 3 .

1 0 1 ~ i l l i a r n s , Contours, p . 1 9 .

C o n t r a s t t h e a b o v e v i o w o f t h e h i s t o r i a n w i t h

t h ~ t exFresced b y Q c c z r H a n d l i p , i n 15?1 ~ h ~ n hc c z u t i o n z d

h i s t o r i a n s a g a i n s t " m a k i n g ourselves u s e f u l i n t h e s o l u -

t i o n o f s o c i e t y ' s e v c r c h a n g i n g p r o b l e m s " . lo3 O b v i o u s l y

t h e t r u e h i s t o r i a n @as n o t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e m a k i n g o f

h i s t o r y , S u c h i n v o l v e m e n t w o u l d u n d e r m i n e h i s o b j e c t i v i t y .

The NEW L e f t h i s t o r i a n s c o u l d n o t a c c e p t t h i s

i m a g e o f t h e h i s t o r i ~ l n a n d h i s r o l e i n s o c i e t y a n y m u r e

t h a n B e a r d . The s i g n i f i c a n c a o f t h i s i s c o n s i d e r a b l e . F o r

e x a n p l e , in Williams' v i e u ~ , h i s t o r y t h u s f r e e d c o u l d becorne

a way o f l e a r n i n g , o f b r e a k i n g t h e c h a i n s o f t h e p a s t . 1 0 4

" W r i t t e n H i s t o r y as e n A c t a f F a i t h " p r o v i d c d what was, i n

e f f e c t , a d e f e n s e f o r t h e u s a o f h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p i n

t h e c a u s e o f r e f o r m . 1 0 5 i

- l h i s v j e w o f t h e h i s t o r i a n i n c o n j u n c t i c n w i t h

t h e i r f o r e i g n p o l i c y a s s u m p t i o n s c r e a t e d s e v e r i i l r e l a t e d

p r o b l e m s f o r t h e r a d i c a l s , a s i t h z d F o r B e a r d . Williams'

" C h a r l e s B e a r d ; t h e I n t e l l e c t u a l a s T o r y - R a d i c a l " i s

I U J H a n d l i n , Neust!!eek, p . 58,

1 0 4 See t h e p r e f a c e a n d c o n c l u s i o n i n Wil l iams ' , C o n t o u r s .

lo5see S k o t h s i m ' s C l i m a t e of O p i n i o n a n d B e a r d ' s ----̂ I-y

bwn a r t i c l e " M r i t t e n H i s t o r y a s an H c t o f F a i t h . " Ar~cr icsn H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , X X X I X ( . l i n u a r y . 1 9 3 4 ) . 219-229. -

e x t r e m e l y v a l u a b l e i n t h i s r e s p e c t . ! / J i l l i a m s * t h o u g h t s

p r o b l e m s . The Nevi L e f t ' s a n d Beard's v i e w o f t h a h i s t o r i a n

and f o r e i g n p o l i c y f o r c e d t h e m t o d e v e l o p a c o n c e p t o f

k l e l t a n s c h a u u n g . Ll t i l l inrns h z s d e f i n e d i t a s a " d e f i n i t i o n

o f t h e w o r l d c o m b i n e d u ~ i t h a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f how i t

w o r k s " , lo' Will iams* a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h i s was n e c e s s a r y

for Beard a g a i n acts as a mirror-image o f why i t was a l s o

n e c e s s a r y f o r h i m s e l f a n d t h e N e w L e f t . W i l l i a m s sugges ts

t h a t

b o t h a s a s t u d o n t o f h i s t o r y a n d a s a n a c t i n g c i t i z e n i t mas v i t a l f o r him ( ~ e a r d ) t o rom- p r e h c n d t h e s y s t b n o f i d e a s c h i c h f i r s t r a t i n n a l i z e , a n d i n tern f u r t h e r m o t i v a t e , i m p c r i a l e x p a n s i o n , 107

I t n a t u r z l l y f o l L o r ; s t .hat t h e nevi r e v i s i o n i s t s

were eornpcllea t o d e v e l o p a c a n c c p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d .

W i l l i a m s ' e x p l a n a t i o n of why t h i s was v i t a l f o r Beard

revsals ~ h y i t was a l s o n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e Neu L e f t .

T h i s study was o f key i m p o r t a n c e t o B e a r d , f o r i f h e c o u l d cnme t o g r i p s u ~ i t h t h e g e n e r a l v i e w o f t h e w o r l d t h a t was h e l d b y t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t s , t h e n h e c o u l d a t t : ? c k i t more d i r e c t l y a n d e f f e c t i v e l y . 1 0 8

106tqiI . l iarns , C o n t o u r s ,

1 0 7 ~ 4 ~ i l l i a n s , "Tory-Rad ica l , " p. 305.

The N e w L e f t h i s t o r i c n s ' n o t i o n o f W e l t a n s c h a u u n g

A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y . Very s i m p l y s t a t e d , t h e Open Door

v i e u h o l d s t h a t A m e r i c a n p o l i c y m a k e r s , a t l e a s t s i n c o

t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , have d o g m a t i -

c a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t A m e r i c a n p r o s p e r i t y a n d democracy a r e

d e p e n d z n t upon c o n t i n u o u s and e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g e c o n o m i c

e x p a n s i o n . l U 9 The Open Door t h e o r y h a s f o r m e d t h e v c r y

b a s i s of t h e New L e f t ' s r a d i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e

w h o l e o f A m e r i c a n d i p l o m a c y .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e N E W i e f t is c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h i s

Open Donr view o f t h e wortd h a s l a u n c h ( * d t h ~ U n i t e d S + . 2 f = q

o n i t s imperialistic c u u r s e . T h e o b j e c t i v e o f New L e f t

s c l ~ c l l e r s h i p , i n t h e words o f Car A l p e r o v i t z , i s

t o g o t t o t h ~ r c o t o f t h o i n t c r v e n t i c r ~ i s t t r a d i - t i o n s o t l ia t , t h e i d e a or^ e x p a n s i o n , OF i n t e r - v e n t i o n - a n d tlre i d e a t h a t " F r e e d o r ; t ' b e q u i r e s b o t h - no l o n g c r weaves c o n f o r t a b l y i n t o t h c b a s i c f a b r i c o f o u r s o c i e t y - s o t h a t o r d i n a r y p e o p l e a r c f r e e t o s c e t h a t t h e i r i n t e r ~ s t s a r e not t h e same a s t t ) o s e o f t h e b u s i n e s s and g o v e r n - m e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s t i ~ h i c h now s u s t a j n t h e o l d i d e o l o g y . lliJ

B e a r d a l s o a k t e m p t c d t o g e t t o t h e r o o t o f A m e r i c a n

interventionism a n d e x p a n s i o n i s m i n h i s much mal iqner i Open

1 0 9 ~ e o l i l l i a m s , - T;aqr?%, -- pp. 57 -83 a n d p p . 2 2 9 - 2 4 3 f o r a d e t a i l e d o x a m i ~ s t i o n o f t h e Open Door t h e n r y ,

l l O ~ l p e r u v i t z , -- C o l d !!Jar Essays (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 0 ) , p , 120 .

Door a t Honlc. I n t h i s bonk , Heard o f f e r e d a n z l t e r n a -

t i v e p r o g r a m f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , I t p r o v i d c d f o r

m o s t e f f i c i e n t u s a o f t h e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a n d i n d u s t r i a l a r t s o f t h e n a t i o n a t horn9 i n a q u e s t f o r s e c u r i t y a n d a h i g h s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g . l l l

B e a r d ' s a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i e t y was tb b e a c o l l e c -

t i v i s t d e m o c r a c y . He uas c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h i s wzs t h e

d i r e c t i a n i n w h i c h h i s t o r y was m o v i n g . I t was t o t h i s

e n d t h a t he d i r e c t e d s u c h s c h c l a r s h i p . I n t h i s r e g a r d ,

Beard tuould no d o u b t have agr t lcd i r ~ i t h A l . p e r o v i t t l s

d e t e r r n i r ~ a t i n n t h z t t h e " o n l y ' p c i n t of i n v e e : . . i q a t i n g t h t ?

p a s t i s t o lca=.n hov: 'ia cIz:~ll u i t h .the future". 1. I. 7

I n t h e v i e w of A l . p e r o v i t z a n d t h e h!cv: L e f t , t h e

f u t u r e c a n b e s t be d o a l t ~ i t h i f an a l t e r n a t i v e i s p r o v i d z d

t h a t w i l l f r e e America f r o ? i t s r n l i s n c z on t h e OpEn Dour .

I f t h i s i s t o b e d o n e ,

ways m u s t b e f o u n d t o s l leak i n t e l l i g e n t l y t o t h c great m a j o r i t y of A m e r i c a n s , and, w i t h p a t i e n c e and c o m m i t t r n e n t t o t h e l o n g h a u l , t o o f f e r a c r e a t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e t o i d e a s w h i c h s o many have h e l d F o r s o l o n q . 1 1 3

' " ~ e a r d , Open D o o r , p . vii.

l l ' b l p e r o v i t z , 501-d War Essays . p. 113.

l l 3 1 b i d ., p p . 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 ,

New L e f t C o l d War h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i s w r i t t o n n i t h t h i s

,,b3:-"'4-:" is - L 1 a l + . . r n - , t i v c i~ - i n d . E ~ v i s i ~ n i s t ,,,$ ULJIsIp L 1 i 5

f i r s t s t e p i n c r e z t i n g an a l t e r n a t i v e t o w h a t t h y con-

s t r u e a s A m e r i c a n i m p a r i a l i s m .

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He s t a t e s t h a t

by u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h a t p o r i o d ( 1 3 4 3 - 1 9 0 9 ) we c o m p r e h e n d o u r own d e c a d e i n m i c r o c n s r n and th .3 c h a l l e n g e s we F a c e i n b r e o k i n q t h e p a r ~ l y z - ing g r i p o f a t h i r t y - y ~ a r - o l d crisis i n i n t e r - n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s o v c r t h e f u t u r e of a l l man- k i n d . 1 1 4

K o l k o i s o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t " i n v i e i c i n g t h e g e n c : . i s o f

t h e c h a l l e n g e oS o u r t ime wa h o l d a mirror t o c u r s e l v e s ,

t h e p r o b l e m s LUZ c u n f r o n t , z n d t+tc saurcc CF u u r m3la isc" . 1 1 5

i n t h e f u t u r e . " E v e r y war g e n e r a t e s m y t h s t h a t s e r v e t o '

j u s t i f y a n d perpetuate i t , a n d t h e c o l d war h a s b a e n no

e x c e p t i o n , "11' The d i s t o r t i o n o f r e a l i t y by t h e s e m y t h s

h a s c r e a t e d a p u 5 l i c consensus t h a t i m p o s e s s e r i o u s

r e s t r a i n t s o n f u t u r e f l e x i b i l i t y , The m y t h o f A m e r i c a n

i n n o c e n c e i n t h e C o l d War m u s t b e s c t s t r a i g h t . U n l e s s

The P o l i t i c s o f Mar,

1 1 6 ~ o r o w i t z , From Y a l t a t o V i e t n a m -- ( m i d d l o s o x , 1 9 6 7 ) , p . 11. A l s o p ' & l i s h e d a s The F r s e W o r l d C o l o s s u s .

t h n m y t h s o f t w o d ~ c a d s s o f c o l d \liar can b e r e p l a c e d with premisc:s more f i r n l y r o o t p d i n r ~ a l i t y . t h e p r o s ; y c t s f o r p c a c o w i l l g r o w d i r n . i l 5

T h i s x~ovld s e v e r e l y i n h i b i t t h e New L e f t ' s c r e a t i o n o f a n

a l t ~ r n a t i v e Amcrican s o c i a t y .

A s i m i l a r m o t i v a t i o n h 2 s s u b t l y u n d c r l i n c d t h e

w r i t i n q s o f W a l t e r LaFektor . I n A r n ~ r i r - n , R r c r : s i ? , and t h p -- C o l d War, 1945-1966, LaFebcr has d e p l o r e d t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s ' p o s t - 1 9 a 5 f o r e i g n policy b e c a u s e of i t s preaccupa-

t i o n w i t h a n t i - c o m m u n i s n . He has a l s c warned o f t h e

powsr c o u l d most p r o f i t a b l y b e t ~ s c d " , 118 ~t a l m o s t g o e s

w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t s u c h an analysis ~ot.,iLd c o n t r i b u t s

i m m e a s u r a b l y t o t h e c r c a t i o n o f a nevj A m e r i c z . LaFeber

h a s n o t e d t h a t t h i s " w o u l d be a P r o m e t h e a n - or S i s y p h e z n

e f f o r t " . 119

T h o u g h t h e New L e f t dipl.omztic h i s t o r i a n s a r e

v i t z l l y i n t - e r e s t o d i n creating a nev; s o c i e t y i n A m e r i c a ,

they a r e q u i t e vague a b o u t i t s s h a p e , UnFortunately, even

Williams, u h o is t h e m o s t h e l p f u l i n t h i s r e g a r d , has

l l ' ~ a ~ e b e r , C o l d Wac, p . 2 5 9 .

t h e m a j o r i t y o f Amer icans must be p r e s c r l t e d w i t h someth ing nnu t a 13ok a t s o t h e i r c h o i c e s will no l o n g c r b e c i r c u m s c r i b e d ~ ~ i t h a h u n d r e d y s ~ r s o f i m p e r i a l consciousness. 121

I f t h e Americans a r e presentee! w i t h a n e u conccp . t ; i nn o f

f reedom, " t h e y have t h e chance t o c r e a t e t h e f i r s t t r u l y

democratic socialism in t h e umrldw. T h i s i s t h e t z s k a t

w h i c h t h e N e w L e f t C o l d P13r h b s t o r i z n s , a s a g r o u p , have

d i r e c t e d t h z i r e f ' f n r t s .

f o r e i g n a f f a i r s 113s l c d them i n t h i s direction. Tn s o d o i n g

it has r a i s e d s e v e r z l q u a s t i a n s . F o r o x a r p l c , i s t h e Open

Door W e l t a n s c h a u u n g t h a t t h e y a t t r i h u t c t o fimcrican p o l i c y

makers s i n c e a t l e a s t t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h -

century a c c u r a t e ? IF n o t , what i s one t o makc of t h e i r

1 2 0 ~ e e Milliarns, The Great Ev3sion ( ~ h i c p r j o , l g f ~ d ) , *- ----

p p . 167-176, a n d t h e l a s t two page:, o f h i s The R o o t s of - tho Mndern Ameriran Empire -- ( N E W York, 1969) .

1 2 ' ~ l i c h a c l m e e r o p o l , O W . A . W i l l i a m s ' H i s t o r i o - graphy, " R a d i c a l A a e r i c a , I U , KO. 6 (Aug., 1 ~ 7 0 ) , 2 9 - 5 3 . ---

1221dilliarns, -- Contours, p . 480.

1s it p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e i r i t ~ F ? i t a n s c h a u ! ~ n q has r e s u i t f ~ d

f rom t h e i r r a d i c a l d e s i r e t o changz Amzrica i n t h e d i r e c -

t i o n o f s o c i - a l i s m ? 3 i l l . i i 2 r n u h a s s t a t e d t h a t

i f we can u n d e r s t a n d . . . h i s t o r y a s a p r e l u d e t o a c c e p t i n g i t , and a c c e p t i t a s a p r e l u d ~ t o chs r ig i r rg t h o s e i c . a s and Fjol . ic ies , t h c n . . . America can g i v e t h e o t h e r , . . p e o p l e s o f t h e w o r l d a chance t o make t h e i r nvm h i s t o r y b y a c t i n g o n o u r ovJn r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o make o u r own h i s t o r y . 123

An a t t e m p t will b e made t o d e a l w i t h thesc q u e s t i o n s

1 2 3 ! ~ i l l i a m s , VuLinrn A n p r i c i i n C ~ i r a , F . x x i v . --

THE NEW LEFT HISTOHIAMS AND THE COLD WkH

T h i s c h a p t e r will t r y t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n ,

w h e t h e r t h e New L o f t h i s t o r i a n s , a s s t u d e n t s o f h i s t c r y

h a v e made any s u b s t a n t i a l c a n t r i h u t i o n t o t h e h i s t a r i n -

g r a p h y o f t h e o r i g i n s a f t h e C o l d War? I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o

r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e N e u ~ L e f t wri ters a r e w r i t i n g a s s t u d e n t s

o f h i s t c ~ r y . T h i s awarEness t h a n allu:.ils one t o f a c u s on

t h e i r a n a l y s i s r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h ~ t h e r or

more s e r i o u s v i o l a t i o n s a f h i s t u r i c a l s c h o l ~ r - s h i p , 1

However , i t is f i r s t n e c e s s z r y t o o u t l i n e briefly

t h e i r i m m e d i a t e p r e c ~ e c e s s a r s ' i n t e r p r s t n t i n n a s s t i l l

a c c e p t e d i n such widely u s e d t e x t b o o k s as J o h n Spnnler's

American F o r e i q n Policy S i n c e LtJorld lllar I 1 (1967) a n d John

Lukacs' A H i s t o r y of t h o C o l d War (1961) . T h i s i n t e r p s e - -- - t a t i o n h a s b e ~ n s u c c i n c t l y a n d s o m e w h a t c r u d e l y p r e s e n t e d

he assessmsnt o f Nea L e f t C o l d War h i s t o r i o - graphy u n d e r t a k e n in t h i s c h a p t e r i s o f a l i m i t e d n a t u r e . I t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h w h a t may b e c o n s i d e r r t d t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s ' most i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o C o l d lhr l i t e r a t u r e .

b y Henry P a c h t c r a s fo l l n r . i : . ; t

A f t e r k ' o r l d Lhr 11 t h e S o v i e t U n i o n t r i e d t o e x p a n ? i t s p o w e r t h r o u g h m i l i t a r y c o n q u c s t a n d C n n r ~ u n j s t u p r i s i n g s i n a s many c o u n t r i a s as p o s s i b l e .

But i t was r e s t r a i n n d by v i g o r o u s c o u n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e L.'t?:tern p o ~ c r s w h i c h " c o n t a i n e d " t h e S o v i e t advznce b y n e a s u r c s o f m u t u a l assistance s h o r t o f v:ar.

F o r t u n a t e l y , U n i t e d S t z t e s * o p i n i o n h a d a b a n d o n e d i s o l a t i o n i s m a n d America now ! .as r e a d y t o a s s u m e i t s r e s p o n s i k i l i l i a s as a g r e a t w o r l d p o w e r d e d i c a t e d t o t h e p r i n c i p l g of c u i l c c t i v e sccurity.2

F o r m u l a t e d d u r i n g t h e l a t e 1 9 4 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s ,

an e r a o f r a p i d l y deteriorating SnvieL-American r e l a t i o n s ,

t h e n r t h o d n x i n t o r p r ~ t ~ k i r ~ c r ~ t l r l ~ r z P m ~ r f r i - n pn?Fi*;t r n n r p ?

d o f e n s i u t ? a n d C i l m ~ s t psssjvd in t h c f a c e o f s c r \ n r s s l e s s

3 S c v i e t e x p a n s i o n , Conssquantly, t h e y acccpCed as p r o p e r

t h e A m e r i c z n r e j e c t i o r - , n f any a g r ~ c r c n t o n ~ p h z r c s o f

i n f l u e n c e and ths d c v c i o p r ~ c n t o f a c o u n t e r s t r a t e g y , con-

4 t a i n m e n t . I n g e n e r a l , it is a g a i n s t t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w

t h a t t h e Ncw L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v ~ s t r u g g l e d , P e r h a p s s v c n

' ~ n n r ~ P a c h t c r , ' R c v i s i o n i s t H l s t u r i a n s and t h s C o l d War," D i s s e n t ( N O V . - D e c . , 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 505.

3 ~ e m h e r s o f t h e o r t h o d o x s c h o o l now o f t k n c o n t c n d t h a t t h e C o l d N a r r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e fzilure o f b o t h s i d e s . L o u i s J . H a l l e , The C o l d Mar a s H i s t o r y (London, 1 9 6 7 ) ---------- e m p h a s i z e s h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t s .

' ~ o r r n a n A . G r a e b n e r . " C o l d War O r i ~ i n s a n d t h o Con- ... t i n ~ ~ i n q Debater A Review o f R c c e n t L i t e r a i u r e , " J o u r n a I - o f C o n f l i c t R e s n l u t i o n , X I 1 1 arch, 1 9 6 9 ) , 1 2 5 - 7 .

m o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e r a d i c z l h i s t o r i a n s have a l s o s t r u g -

g l e d a q a i n s t t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s ' d s t a c h ~ d c o n c e p t i o n o F

t h e h i s t o r i a n . I n t h e f o r m e r ' s o p i n i o n , t h e l a t t e r ' s

v i e w o f t h e h i s t o r i a n has n o t s e r v e d t h c m n o r t h e p r o -

f e s s i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y we l l . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e neLv r e v i s i o n -

i s t s , i t a l l o w e d t h e o r t h o d o x h i s t o r i z n s to u n c r i t i c a l l y

a c c e p t t h o c o n t a i n r n u n t d o c ~ r i n a . ~ T h i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t

because t h e Now L e f t ' s vie iu o f t h e h i s t o r i a n ( a s c r i t i c )

i s s i m i l a r l y i n t e r t w i n e d ~ ~ i t h t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f t h e C o l d

War.

Any m e a n i n g f u l assessment 07 t h e New L e f t his-

o f t h e C o l d Kar n c s t F i rs t c a n s i d c z t h ~ z0r4 o f t h e e a r l y

6 Car r , I k ~ L t c s L i p p c ~ n n , a n d Henry Wsl. l a c e . T h i s a s s a s s r - e n t

i s neccssa.;y t o d , , t i . , r n i n c t h e e x t e n t . or" t h e idew L z f t h i s -

t o r i a n s ' c o n t r i b u t i o n , w h e t h e r t h e nem r e v i s i o n i s t s h a v e

' ~ h r i s t o ~ h s r Casch, "The C u l t u r a l C o l d War: A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f t h e C o n g r e s s f o r C u l t u r a l Freedom," i n B a r t o n J . B e r n s t e i n , e d . * To~e~ards A N ~ L Y Pns t : D i s s c n L ' - - ----- " J I -----..- Essavs i n A m e r i c a n ~ i s t o r y 7 i d c w York, 1~6'/'J-2:!-35~. --A

T h i s e x c e l l e n t $ t i c l a a n a l y z e s t h e s o c i a l . c o r f d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h h i s t o r i a n s OF t h e 1 9 5 0 s w o r k e d .

m e r e l y r e c a s t o l d v i e w s i n a new way.

a s p e c t s o f Co1.d !f!ar o r t h o d o x y . Yet t h e y a r e n o t i n cnm-

p l e t e a g r a e n c n t . Carr, t h e n a n a s s i s t a n t e d i t o r o f The - Times, turotg an e d i t o r i a l o n i iovernber 5 , 1 9 4 4 , v ~ h i c h

p r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n o f s u p p o r t f o r c jha t l a t e r

b c c a m e t h e N E B L e f t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s . T h i s

e d i t o r i a l is o f c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e to t h e Neuj L e f t h i s -

t o r i a n s because i t d e f e n d e d R u s s i a n p r e d o n i n z n c e i n

E a s t e r n Europe b e f o r e t h c C h u r c h i l l - S t a l i n s p h e r e s o f

i n F l u c n c c a g r e e m e n t wzs made p u b l i c . Tho new r e v i s i o n i s t s

p r c v i o t r s west.clrn z c t , t h e G e r n a ~ i i n v a s i o n o f l 9 h l .

R u s s i a , l i k e Great O r i t a i n , h a s n o a q q r c s s i v e o r e x p u n s i v e d o s i q n s i n Eurepe . ;ghat s h e w a n t s o n h e r Western f r ~ n t i e r i s s e c u r i t y . What she a s k s fsnn h e r t l l e s t e r n n e i g h b o r s is a g u a r a n t e e , t h e e x t e n t a n d f o r m o f w h i c h u ~ i l l b e d e t - . r r n i n e d m a i n l y b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e a f t h e p a s t t ~ e n t y - f i v e years, t h a t h e r s e c u r i t y s h a l l n o t b e exposed t o a n y t h r e a t from o r a c r o s s t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . A d m i t t e d l y she i s u n l i k e l y t o r e g a r d w i t h f a v o u r i n t e r v o i i t i o n b y o t h e r Grc2at Powers i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s .

B u t G r e a t D r i t a i n h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r s s i s t o d s u c h i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h r Coru Countries o r i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e S u e z C a n a l , s n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n C e n t r a l America - r e a i o n s w h i c h t h e s e t w o pott jers have p r o p e r l y a d j u d g e d v i t a l t o t h s j r s e c u r i t y . I t vjould b e i n c o n q r u o u s t o a s k R u s s i a t o renounc-r? s i m i l a r r i g h t o f r e a s s u r r n c s ; a n d i t w o u l d b e f o o l i s h as u o l l as somewhi

Carr's a c c e p t a n c e a n d d s f ~ n s e o f t h e i d e a t h a t a

pos tw? , r S o v i c t s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e i n E a s t e r n Europe was

wa.2 f u l l y cjevclupt:cj b y Malter Lipprnann in The C o l d Mar

(1947 ) . Lipprnann p e r c e i v e d t h e e x i . s t e n c s o f a Russ ian

p r o b l e m b u t h e r e j e c t e d t h e o f f i c i a l A r e r i c a n p l a n f o r

s o l v i n g i t .

P e r c e p t i v e a, C ~ r r ' s a,nd Lippn3nn's a i i a l y s i s o f

a d \ ~ a f 1 ~ 5 ! r ! t h e nlo!;.k p2;c; l : is ive si;.tcn:t..::t o f t h e r e v i z i o n i s ' c

q u e s t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e Nea L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e r s t u r n e d .

Haw do 4 m o r i c a n act ief is s i n c e V-J C a y a p p e E r t o o t h e r n a t i o n s ? I mean by actions t h e c o n c r e t e t h i n g like $13 h i l l i o n f o r t h e Liar & Navy D e p a r t m e n t s , t h e B i k i n i tests o f t h e a t o v t i c bomb a n d c o n t i n u e d p r o d g c t i o n o f bombs, t h e p l a n t o arm L a t i n America w i t h o u r wezip+-r~s, p r o d u c t i o n o f 0 - 2 9 ' s and p l z n n c d p r o d u c t i o n o f B-36's a n d t h e e f f o r t t o s e c u r e a i r bascs s p r e : l d o v e r h a l f t h ? g l o b e from w h i c h t h e c t h c r h a i f C C t h e q?cbe can be bombed. I c a n n o t b u t f e e l t h a t t h e s e a c t i o n s m u s t make i t l o o k t o t h g r e s t o f t h e w o r l d a s i f we Luerc o n l y p a y i n q l i p s e r v i c e t o

7 ~ d i t o r i a l , --- Tho Times - (Londcn) , Nu". 6. 1944, 7. 8.

peace a t t h e conference table.

Thcsc f n c t s r a t h e r sskc it a p p c z r c i t ! - i ~ ~ (1) bi IU CI

we a r c p r e p a r i n g o u r s e l v e s t o w i n t h e war w h i c h we r e g a r d a s i n e v i t a b l n or ( 2 ) t h a t we a r e t r y i n g t o b u i l d u p a p r e d o m i n a n c e o f force t o i n t i m i d a t e t h e res t o f m m k i n d . How w o u l d i t look t o u s if Hussia h a d t h e a t o m i c bomb a n d we d i d n o t , i f R u s s i a h a d 1 0 , 0 0 0 - m i l e b o m b e r s . n d a i r bases w i t h i n 1 ,Of10 miles of our coasC- ines, and iw d l d not?e

L o n g b e f o r e t h e n e w r e v i s i o n i s t s emerycd, !Cal;cce

a s s e r t e d , i n h i s l e t t e r Lo Truman, t h a t U n i t e d S t a t e s - R u s s i a n r s l a t i o n s b r c k e d n a n F o r t v ~ o reasons r f i r s t ,

because the DeFence D e p a r t m e n t a c q u i r e d a i r b a s e s c l o s e

t a t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , a n d , s e c o n d , b e c a u s e o f t , h ~ U n i t e d

S t a t e s monopoly of t h c a t o m b n ~ h , K a l l a c n ' s c n n t e n t i o c s

\]:ere l z t c r t o occupy a e s n t r n l p33cc i n t h e v o r k s o f

The a s s c r t i a n s m a d e b y Waflaca a l s o f o u n d a cen-

t r a l p l a c e i n 8 l a c l : ~ t t ' s F e a r , Nar a n d t h e Banb, - w r i t t e n

i n 1948. Written before t k c p u b l i c a t i o n o f l a t e r d o c u -

m e n t s , some o f w h i c h v i n d i c a t e its conc1 ,us ions t o a

r e m a r k a b l e d eg ree , B l a c k n t t c o g e n t l y d e v e l o p e d F o u r major

c o n t e n t i o n s upon ~ h i c h t h e Now L e f t a o u l d l a t e r e x t e n s i v e l y

r e l y i n i t s a n a l y s i s o f t h z o r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d War.

' c i t e d i n Denna F rank F l a m i n g , - Ths --------- Cold Car and Its O r i n i n s , Vol. I ( L o n d o n , 1 9 6 1 ) , pp. 420-21.

G O

F i r s t , s i n c e t h e c a s u a l t y f i q u r c s S ~ O V J ~ ~ t h a t m o s t o f t h o

f i g b k i r ? c ; i~ t,+c s z r ~ 4 ~ s done b y g s d ?,r;;,y ~ 1 - L I I C

e a s t e r n f r o n t . , Eussia's s n n s i t i v i t y a b o u t h e r v i e s t e r n l a n d

f r o n t i e r s m u s t b e appreciated. S e c o n d , a s J a p a n was a l r e a d y

t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s o f s u r r e r i d o r by J u l y 1945, a n d t h e

A m e r i c a n s d i d n o t i n t o n d t o i n v a d e b e f o r e November, t h e

h a s t e t o d r o p t h e f i r s t atom bomb on A u g u s t 6 becomes com-

p r e h e n s i b l e o n l y i n v i c w o f Stalin's d e t e r m i n a t i o n to

b r i n g t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n t o t h e war on A u g u s t 6 - w i t h ,

p r e s u m a b l y , t h e i n t e n t i e n o f m a k i n g t h e same g a i n s i n

R u s s i a noLu i n p r o g r o s s . " T h i r d , t h e American ( B a r u c h )

P l a n f o r c o n t r o l l i n g atomic w a p o n s e n s u r e d t h e w c a k c n i n g

of R u s s i a ' s m i l i t a r y a n d e c o n o m i c p o s i t i c ! ~ . F i n a l l y , t h e

o b v i o u s S o v i e t s o l u t i o n b o t h t o America's a t o m i c bomb

monopoly a n d t o t h e doctrine oP " i n s t n n t a n d c o n d i g n p u n i s h -

m e n t " c o n t a i n e d i n the Raruck P l a n must b e t o advance h e r

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fi p - * 4. -- , . .- ?* c. *.. .- L. .. . . - - k t I r z b t . . i ~ ~ . . t L L J I ~ L . , G L : . > ?&c -7r~if i f i u s s i a as p u s s i b l e . IF!

I m p l i c i t i n Olbckott's a n a l y s i s were t w o a r g u m e n t s

w h i c h have p r o v e d i n v a l u a b l e t o t h e New L e f t ' s i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n . F i r s t , i f R u l ; s i a 1 s p o s i t i o n i n E u r o p e i n 1945

c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e l i ~ h t OF h e r e x p e r i e n c e o f

r e p e a t e d i n v a s i o n s f r o m t h e ~ ! ~ e s t , h c r c o n s o l i d z t i o n o f

t h a t p o s i t i o n a f t e r 1945 shou1.d bc e q u a l l y u n d e r s t o o d '1

t h e l i g h t of H i r o s h i m a , o f A m e r i c a ' s new a n d a p p a r L n t l y

p e r n i a n c n t a i r bases, and o f thr? Baruch P l a n . S e c o n d , t h e

Truman a d i i i n i s t r a t i o n ' s d e c i s i o n z f t e r R o c s ~ v ~ L ~ ; * s d s a t h

, E a s t e r n Europe %as t h e r ~ s u l i n o t o f arty ncc: S o v i e t z c t s

d u r i n g t h e c r u c i a l p e r i r ? d I+. :il. 1 9 4 5 - J z n b ~ r y 2 9 4 5 br;t o f

a n American i.evc.:.sol of p o l i c y . I n c f f o c t , !uhnt; hctd ci-ranqe4.!

was n o t S o v i e t p o l i c y b u t t h o v ~ o s t o r n v i e w o f i t , d u e pes-

s i b l y t o p r e s s u r e e x c r t n d b y t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t a n d t h e

new menbcrs OF t h e T r u m e n c ~ b i n e t , who werG m i l i t a n t anti-

ce. : ~ u n i s t s and h a d r e j e c t e d R o a s ~ v @ l t ' s wartirm a t t e m p t s t o

c o n c i l i a t e Rue-P . 11 a a ~ a .

- 1 0 B l a c k s t t d e v e l o p e d t h o s c p o i n t s i n h i s b o o k ,

A t o m i c Neanons and F ? ~ t - ! ~ ' ? s t R e l a t i o n s ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 5 6 ) . - - - ---- C i t e d i n G r i a n Thomas , " C o l d War O r i g i n s , " 11, J o u r n a l o f C o n t c m p ~ r a r y H i s t o r y , I 1 1 ( ~ ~ r i . 1 , 1 9 6 8 ) , 1 0 7 - 1 8 8 . -

l l ~ s v i d Horox i t . 7 i n h i s bock, F rnn Y a l t s t o V i e t n e r n -- ( ~ i d d l c s e x , 1 9 ~ 7 ) h a s emphas i zed t h e e f f e c t of I ~man's c h a n g e s i n h i s c a b i n e t o n A m n r i c a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y . See pp . 51-62 .

W a l t e r LaFeP n r , f o r e x a m p l e , has d e m o n s t r a t e d

a n x i e t i e s a n d o f A r n c r i c a ' s r e s p o n s e s urnpa dus n o t t o Russ ian

a c t i o n s b u t t o America's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e m . l2 New

L e f t a r i t e r s l i k e !iJilliarns, A l p s r o v i t z , H o r o w i t z and L a F e b e r

also c o n c u r w i t h Blackett's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t U n i t e d S t a t o s

p o l i c y t oward t h e S o v i e t U n i o n d r a m a t i c a l l y s h i f t e d a f t e r

Truman became P r e s i d e n t . T h i s change i n p o l i c y began u ~ i t h

T r u m e n ' s " g e t t o u g h " s p e e c h t o M o l o t o v c o n c e r n i n g Russ ia ' s

a t t e m p t t o l o w e r an i r o n f e n c e a r o u n d P o l a n d . A s u r p r i s e d

M o l o t o v , P c n p l c ' s Commissar f o r F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , r e p l i e d ,

"1 have n e v e r b e e n talked t o l i k e t h a t i n ~y l i f e . " "Car?y

o u t your agscer::cnt.s, " t h e P r % ~ i d i . i i t s s i d , "ar ld yc:~~t v ~ c n ' t

g e t t a l k e d t o l i k z t h a t . ,, 13 I t i s c v i r i c n t f r o m t h i s b r i t : f

a c c o u n t t h h t t h e ncu r e v L s i u n i s t s have r e l i e d t o a g r ~ a t

major f l r u . I f B l a c k e t t was c o r r e c t , and i f i t was t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d n u t t h e men i n t h e K r e m l i n ~ h o r c f u s e d

t o c o o p e r a t e , t h e r e a s o n s FOP t h i s d e c i s i o n a r e n o t mad2

i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t b y B l a c k e t t , 1tJhat v~oul-d cause t h e

A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t t o reCxch s v c h a f a t e f u l d e c i s i o n ?

12%l te r LaFeber . America. R u s s i a . a n d t h e C o l d

1 3 ~ a r r y S. Truncn, Plecoirs, P o l . I , Yeor o f D e c i s j o n s ( G a r d e n C i t y , N .

Fear a n d d i s l i k e o f d i c t a t o r i a l govarnmsnts m i g h t b e o n e

r e a s o n l b u t a s t h e New L e f t h i s t u r i a n s h a v e e m p h a s i 7 e d e

t h e s e e x i s t e d o u t s i d e t h e c o m m u n i s t czrnp, a n d t h e i r

n u m b e r was l i k e l y t o i n c r c a s e i n p l a c e s like S p a i n and

Greece, A s e c n n d p o s s i b i l . j t y , F e a r o f a R u s s i a n i n v a s i o n

of W e s t e r n E u r o p e , i vh i ch U J ~ S p r o m i n e n t i n o r t h o d o x i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n s o f C o l d War, was n o t t a k e n

s e r i o u s l y by t h e Truman a d m i n i s t r n l i o n . G e o r g e Kennan,

s r c h i t e c L OF t h e c o n t a i n m e n t t h e o r y , h a s s u b s t a n t i a t e d

t h i s v i e u p o i n t . I n May 1965, 2.t a l e c t u r e d e l i v e r e d a t

t h e G r a d u a t e I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i c s a t G e n e v ~ ,

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S u c h a p r o c e d u r e , he p o i n t e d g u t ,

f i t t e d n e i t h e r w i t h t h e r e q u i r c r n c n t s o f t h c M a r x i s t d o c t r i n e , n o r w i t h R u s s i a ' s o m u r g e n t n e e d f o r r e c o v e r y Fronr t h c d e v ~ s t z ~ t i n r ~ a f a l o n g a n d e x h a u s t i n g war , n o r w i t h w h a t was knomn a b c u t t h e temperarnzr.tt o f t h e S o v i e t d i c t a t c r h i m s e l f . l4

1 4 ~ o o r g 2 F, Kennan . " P h i l o s o p l ~ y a n d S t r a t e g y i n A n ~ o r i c a ' s P o s t w a r P o l i c y , " a l o c t u r c d e l i v s r e d a t Lha G r a d u a t e I n s t i t u t e o f I n t e r n a t i ~ n a l S t u d i e s , G€?nel~a, flay 11, 1965,

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b i a g r z p h y , -- S t a l i n r A P o l i t i c a l B i o c j r s p h y ( 1 5 4 9 ) , t h e

S O V ~ E ~ l e a d e r p r o v e r ' h i m s c l f t o b e o n e o f t h c m o s t c o n s a r -

v a t i v s l e a d e r s i n t h e w o r l d , S t a l i r t ' s record o f n o n - e o -

o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e c a m ~ u n i s t l e a d e r s o f C h i n a a n d Y u g o s l a v i a ,

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1 6 ~ 0 1 k o has w r i t t e n n x t e n s i c n l y a b o u t S t a l i n ' s c o n - s e r v a t i s m . I n r e g a r d t o E a s t e r n E u r o p e , F o r e x a m p l e , Ko lko c o n t e n d s t h a t tht? c o m n t ~ n i z a t i c n o f t h a t r e g i o n c o n s t i t u t e d R u s s i a ' s r e a c t i o n t o h o s t i l e Western p o l i c i e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e u n f o l d i n g o f S t a l i n ' s d e s i g n . " I n f a c t L ~ J G no$! know," K o l k o w r i t e s i n h i s The P o l l i i c s o f War ( N ~ L u Y o r ! ~ , ------ 7 1 9 6 0 ) t h a t t h e R u s s i a n s . . , h a d n o i n t e n t i o n o f B o l s h e v i z - i n g E a s t e r n E u r o p e i f - - b u t o n l y i f - - t h e y CCtiJld f i n d a l t e r - n a t i v e s " ( p , 619) . I n a b r a a d e r c c n t r x t , K o l k o n o t e s t h a t "The Americans a n d B r i t i s h salt] t h e c m e r q r n c e a? t h e L e f t zs r r l a t o d j n sonp v i t a l way t o Russ ia r a t h z r t h a n t o t h e c o l - l z p s e o f c a p i t a l i s m znd c a l u n i a l i s r r ! t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . " A c c o r d i n g t o G a l k o , i t i s i r o n i c t h a t " t h e t w o g e n t ~ i n r > l y p o p u l a r Communi s t p a r t i e s t o t a k e p o ~ l ~ e r - - i n Y u g o s l a v i . : ~ a n d C h i n a - - d i d s o a v c r S o v i e t o b J e c t . i o n s a n d a d v i c e , a n d were

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t o g o v e r n u ~ i t h t h e C o m m u n i s t s i n a m i n o r i t y . Two weeks

a f t e r Y a l t n , h o ~ ? v e r , S t a l i n b r u t a l l y demanded t h a t t h e

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i u o u l d f o l l o t u a f o r e i g n p o l i c y f r i e n d l y t o Russia . H i s t o r i c a l

e v e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e two German i n v a s i o n s , l e d S t a l i n

t o p l s c e P o l a n d i n t h e sane c a t e g o r y as Ruc.!ania , n o t F i n l a n d . 1 7

t h e f i r s t t a brcal.: t h e hegemony a f t h e w o r l d movement" P o l . i t i c 3 o f War, p . 3 6 . -------

I n From Y a L t a t o V i e t n a m I l o r n v ~ i t z d e v e l o p s D e ~ ~ t v c h c r ' s -- --.---.-----. t h e s i s t h a t t h e 5 t a l i n i z a t i o n o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e was e s t z h - l i s h s d c n l y a f t e r t h e T r u m a n D o c t r i n e i n 1 9 4 7 ' (pp. 96 -90 ) .

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Rr . : ,,,,sis 3 l;Llicp o f i i i " x o r e b l a p ~ ~ , t i ~ l ~ ~ ~ , - , 1 ii 5 i! u LI -i i.: LI ,

t h e y havc t o o o f t o n o t .~e r?c inke r i t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e

i r n m ~ d i a t a p o s t , n a r p e r i o d w h i c h i s e s s e n t i a l 'co z m e a n i n g f u l

a n a l y s i s of t h e Go1 r I n a d d i t i o n , n n n - r n v i s i o n i s t

h i s t o r i a n s h a v o s i m n l y c l i u m i . s s ~ d t h i s c r i j c i a l 1945-1.945

p e r i o d a s t h e p r c ? l t t d a , a s h r e ~ i ~ d S o v i e t p l a n t o a11sy

A m a r i c a n s u s p i c i o n s u n t i l t h e American Army e v a c u a t e d

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d i f f i c u l t t o u n d ~ r s t a n d S t a l i n ' s demsnd Par r e p a r a t i o n s

f rom B u l g a r i a , Hungary, a n d Rumznia i f h e eventually p l a n n e d

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67

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E a s t e r n E u r o p e o s t h e Neu L e f t historians have c h a r g e d ?

, . To make t h e i r c h z E 2 e n ~ ~ a t a t h e o r ' i t ~ c d o x i n t r : r i : r e i ; : ~ ~ . c : i ~ :

crc?df b l a , t h c F.'cv: L c f t !-i:i. r;i;ori.:ins necrl a n o i i v c ? F a r s ~ j c h

nv.apiniknf:e y..uu4,.. f i r n ~ r i c 2 n ~ r t ? a n . T h a t m o t i v e i s t \ ~ c i d 2 2 o f

t h e o ? ~ n Dour as d ~ v f : I c ? ~ d h y t h 8 l i l~ jcr N c ? ~ L e f t U . ! " ~ . i t e r ~ ~ .

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m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y OF t h e o r i g i n s

o f t h e C o l d War,

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m o s t t o d e v e l o p and p r o m o t e t h e idea o f t h e Open Dao:- a n d

a r e v i s i o n i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e b c g i n n i n q s o f t h c C o l d

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t h a t t h e h i s t o r y OF A m e r i c a n d i p l o m a c y t h r o u g h o u t t h e

t v ~ e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y h a s b e c n t h e h i s t o r y oP t h e Open Coor

policy. " l o s t z b i l i z e t h e w o r l d i n a pro-Ameiican o q ~ i i -

l i b r i u r n " h a s b e c n t h e nininum a b j e c t r i v e o f U n i t e d S t a t e s

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,< .- ;= ? its cp t i:.;~;:: &,-. .L 2e T!-+c cz;-j b j z 2 , ii-i ~ ~ ! - ? ~ z . . . r . . . - . * L . , ~ J . A A U I J I J .- : V I C ~ ,

m u s t b c i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h c l a t e s t phase o F a c o i ~ t i n u i n g

e f f o r t t n maka t h e w n r l d s a f e f o r A m ~ r i c a n d e m o c r a c y a n d

American c a p i t a l i s m , a p h a s e i n w h i c h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

f c ~d i t s e l f i n c r e a s i n g l y c a s t a s t h e l e a d e r o f a w o r l d -

wide c o u n t e r - r e u c j l u t i o n . 2 1 T h i s p o l i c y was c o n s c i o u s l y

and d e l i b e r s t e l y e m b a r k e d u p o n , u J i l l i a r n s a r g u e d , b e c a u s e

A m e r i c a n statesmen bslievsd t h a t Amcrican c a p i t a l i s m

n e e d e d e v ;:-expanding fareign m a r k e t s i n o r d e r t o s u r v i v e .

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'lsee C h r i o t o p h o r Lasch, "The C o l d $Jar, R e v i s i t a d and 3 c v i s i o n e d , " N. Y . T i n o c M z a a z i n ~ , -zLr.p Jan., 1 4 , 1 9 6 8 , pp. 26-35 For an e x c r ? l l e n t analysis n f l l ! i l . l i rms ' Opcn Dqs: i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,

2 2 ~ n t h e o p i n i o n o t h e New L e f t h i s t o r i a n s , t h j c e n t r a l . d y n a m i c o f A m a r i c a n d i p l o m a c y s i n c s t h c 1.090s h a s b e e n an e v e r i n c r e a s i n g d o m e s t i c economy "Lha ddei?isndcd 3

c o n t i n u a ? . s e a r c h F o r f ' o r c i q n m a r k e t s en:fibin:?d w:;i t h a 1 - o m r - i n g of f o r e i g n t a r i f f ' s ( t h e O p ~ n D o o r ) . T h e C o l d $Jar was t h n a p a t h e 0 s i . s oC t h i s i n e v i t a b l e d e v c l c p m e n t .

Though t h c NEW L c f t s c h o o l o f h i s t o r i a n s a r e i n a g r o e n c n t on t h e a b o v e , t h e y can b e d i v i d e d i n t o a t l e a s t trun q r o u p s . T h e dct . rsrrni17ir . t n ~ m b e r s s i i c h a s Gabr ie l Kolko a n d D a v i d H o r a w i t z z r a c n n v i n c c d t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l s t r cc - t u r a l r c q u i r ~ r r ! e n t s o f a rnstura c c ~ ~ . i . t a l j . s t ; i c A r n ~ r i c a , more t h a n t h e d e F c c t s o f p r ? r s o n e l i t y , a r c r e s p o r i s i b l n f o r 9:ashington1s e x p a n s i o n i s t f o r e i g n p o l i c y .

Holuevcr , o t h e r s , such 2s !4ill.i.arn Applontan B?ilLi 'ams,

69

d e t e r m i n e d t o expand t h e Open Door p r i n c i p l e o f t r a d e a n d

i n v e s t m e n t i n t n a r e a s u n d e r Souin+ , r n n t r o l . 7 3

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o f t h e C o l d 'I!ar, t h e U n i t e d S t a t c s h z d "a v a s t p r o p o r t i o n

o f a c t u a l a s w e l l a s p o t e n t i a l power vis-5-vis t h e Soviet

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o r m e a n i n g c:a.fn t h a t i t h a s b e e n FO3CCD t o F o l l o w a c e r t a i n

a p p r o a c h o r p o l i c y " . 2 4

L l o y d C . G a r d n c r a n d : k l t s r L c F e b e r , havc g i v c n mora e m p h a s i s t o t h e impor tance t h a t s i m p l i s t i c a n d r n i s q u i d c d i d e a s o r i d e a l s rnzy b~ u n r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t u r e o f Ancrica's o c a n o r n i c s y s t e m , lf.!h?;tei,-~r t .he i r p:*rt . icular c r n p h a s i s , t h o ?Jnl*! !.?TC. h.icf,t?ri??:- lrc i:: ::i;r:z:::r;t t!-,l;_b_ A,:.;-ric;n i-'a;rr;l.ui; p o l i c y h a s d?fc:cdcd t h e cnpi:alist o l r j o r d e r 2 n d a p p o s c 3 l e f t i s t f ~ o v e m c n t s arour ld t h e m n r l d .

2 4 ~ i l l i n r n s , --L T r a q o d v * p. 208. 8 s Lasch has p o i n t e d o u t , i t i s h e l p f u l t o c o n p a r a t h i s w i t h a s t a t e m r n t by S c h l c s i n q e r , a defendcr o f C o l d :'Jar o r t h o d o x y : "The C o l d War c o u l d have b e e n a v o i d e d o n l y i f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n h a d n o t b e e n p o s s e s s r d b y c o n v i c t i o n s b o t h o f t h e i n f a f - f i i l i t y o f t h e C o ~ m u n i s t u ~ @ r d arid of t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of a C o n r n u n i s t r :u r ld . " A r t h u r S c h l e s i n 3 ~ r , J r . , " O r i g i n s o f t h e C o l d !#Jar," - - - - - . 4 F o r e i a n A f f a i r s , - XLVI ( ~ c t o b e r , 1967 ) , 5 2 .

I n q u e s t i o n i n g t h e o r t h o d n x v i e s t h a t U n i t c d

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of thn C o l d \Car. T h i s q u e s t i a n i n ~ has g i v e n t h e r e v i s i o n -

i s t s nem p c r s p c c t i v ~ s . I t has e n a b l e d t h e n , in p a r t , t o

r e t u r n t h e c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u r ? d i n g t h e o r i c j i n s OF t h e C o l d

tijar t o t h e d i p f o n ? a i ; i c a r ena . I t h a s remained For t h e Neiv

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r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n of t h a w a r t i m e c e a l i t i o n , 2 6

- 2 5 ~ n addition t o t l ~ ~ s e R n ~ r i c a n p o w c r adv i l n t i l ges ,

R u s s i a t iad b e e n d c v z s t a t o d by l i l o ~ l d '!far I I . See I s azc D e u t s e l i c r , " i J y t h s o f t h e Cold Mar," i n D a v i d H o r o u ~ i t z , e d , , C o n t a i n n c n t a n d E c ~ o ~ u t i o n ( L o n d o n , l96i'), pp . 13-14.

2 6 ~ o s c e t h e C o l d War a c c o r d i n g t o G a r d n e r s imply a s p a r t "of an ackicn--reaction syndrome in which one s i d e o r t h e o t b c ? r was t o t a l l y j u s t i f i e d , o r f o r w h i c h n e i t h e r s i d e was r e s p o n s i t ~ l o , o v e r s i m p L i f i e s m a t t e r s , " G a r d n e r r a t h e r suqgests , g i v e n o u r ignorance o f much o f S o v i e t p o l i c y , t h a t N a s h i n q t o n was m o r e r e s p o n s i b l e " f o r t h ~ way

P c r h ~ p s a ~ ~ o r d P r o m Do3n I chcson, a major a r c h i t e c t o f

A m e r i c a ' s C o l d LCzr p o l i c y s is i l l \ l rn ins i : inq i n t h i s rgs-

p e s t . "As l o n g as t h c r e is a g r e a t d i s p a r i t y o f p o m r

whjch makes n e g o t i a t i o n s seem t o b e u n n e c e s s a r y t o o n e

side, t h a t causzs t h e m t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y c a n a c c o m -

p l i s h t h e i r p u r p o s e s i t ~ i t h 0 ~ t i t". 27 G r a n t e d d i p l o m a c y i s

i n t e r a c t i o n amenq pc::crs, b u t i n c o r t a i n s i t u n t i o n s s u c h

a s t h c i r n i n u d i a t ~ l l jo r ld Mar I 1 period a s A c h e s o n has p o i n t e d

o u t u n ~ i t t i n g l y , t h e p r e : d o m i n % n t p o u J e r , i n t h i s cas6 t h o

U n i t e d S t a t e s , i s a p t Lo f o r e ~ o g e n u i n e n e g o t i a t i o n because

i t i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t it c a n a c c o m p l i s h i t s o b j e c t i v e s w i t h -

o u t i t . Such cjsre t h e c i r c u r n s t a n c z s it) t h e i r n c d i a t a p o s t -

war p e r i o d .

P ~ s s i b l y t h i s i s v ~ h y L lppzann" t e s t t o dc.crnlne

S o v i e t ccinduct a n d purpose . T h i s a c t i o n uiould d r z s t , i c a l l y

a l t e r t h e b a l a n c e of p u w r , t h e K r e m l i n w c u l d a p p r e c i a t e

t h i s , a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e r e F o r e

i n w h i c h t h e C o l d Kar d o v e l o p e d , . . f iecause7 i t h. d - much g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t y a n d f a r more o p t i o n s t o i n f l u e n c e t h e c o u r s e of e v e n t s t h a n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , ichcsc s i t u z - t i o n i n v i c t o r y m s R o r s e i n some ways t h a n t h a t o f t h o d e f c a t o d c o u n t r i e s w A r c h i t n c t s o f I l l u s i n n : Men a n d Idc:as

- - - - - - - - - I - --_.-- - i n A m o ~ i c a n F o r c i o n P o l i c y , 1911.-3 Y 4 9 v i l i c a r j o , 1 9 7 0 7 , p . - -*-- - 317.

Unfortunztely, as t h e N e r d L e f t h i s t o r i a n s , a i d c d by

L ippmann ts p c r c c p t i v e criticism oF c o n t a i n s :nt, have

e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e U n i t r ? d S t a t e s , dealing f r om a pnsi-t ion

of unassailable s u p e r i o r i t y , tms i n n o m o d t o c o ~ p r o r n i s e ~

Instead o f t h e course advocated by L ippnann, Amcrican

o f f i c i . a l s l z u n c k t ? d a d i p l c ~ a t i c . o f f e n s i v e t o p r e v e n t R u s s i z

f r o m cansclidating or e x p a n d i n g h e r spkar - (2 n f i n f f u c n c e in

t a c r p l o y i t s v z s t ecannmic s u p r t m a c y t a f'orca 9 u ~ s i a t o

accede t o A m e r i c a ! , cfernznd~ f o r an o p e n w o r l d , 30 Acccrdinq

L U L i p p m a n n ,

2 9 ~ ~ e L i p o r n a n n l s C a l d Uar *-- f ~ r a b r i l l i a n t c r i t i c u r o f t h e c o n t a i . n n o n t d o c t r i n e tind h o w t h a t pol . iey ums d o o m ~ d fram i t s i n c e p t i o n .

" " ~ o l k o , i n h f s Th? L i m i t s o f Fou.ar, is io a g r a u - ---------- merit w i t h L a F e t ~ n r . I n K c l k o ' s j t~r l r ;mani tilt: U n i t c u S t a t ~ ~ " e x c r q e d Frnm t h e c a r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s o f i t s nciu strsngth a n d c o n f i d e n t of i t s a b i l i t y t u d i r e c t world rccons!ruc- tion a l o n g lines compztibla w i t h i t s g o a ? s . " T h e o b j e c - t i v e s c f ! l ! auh ing ton ' s po! i c y m z k c r s vdcre " t o restructure

7 3

t o LaFeScr's b r i l l i a n t a r t d l y s i s , t h e U n i t c r l States b u i S t

i t s i n i t i a l pos t -Ncr l r i ? a r 11 f o r c i 2 n p o l i c y unon four

m a j o r assumptions. W 2 s h i n q t o n o f f i c i ~ l s f i r s t a s s c v n d

t h a t f o r e i g n p o l i c y qrcm d i r e c t l y f r a m domcstjc policy

and not p r i m z r i l y f r a n c u t s j . d e p r e s s u r e s , T h e s ~ e c t r e

o f a n o t ' :r d e p r ~ s s i o n h<i l !ntcd i i m e r i c a n o f f i c i a l s . T h i s

l c d t o a scconr j a s s l r m ; ~ i i o : ~ L h a t t h c pclr,i;-1929 q u a g m i r e

h a d b e e n L e n g t h e n e d a n d p a r t l y caused by high tzriff wzl1.s

and rcgional t r a d i n g b3f3ci:s a h i c h h a d p r e v e r ~ t e d t h c n e t g r a l

f l o w of f o r e i y n t r a d p . F ree f l o v ~ o f e x p o r t s and i m p o r t a s

S t a t o s w o u l d n o t s i t c n t h c s i d e l i n e s f o r it c c ~ u l d n o t

a r f o r d t o do s o . 31

A week a f t e r Japan was d s f e a t c d , Sec re t a ry o f S t a t e

James F. E y r n e s a F f i r m n 3 t h a t i n i t i a l A m e r i c ~ n p o s t w a r

p o l i c y wns bassd u p o n t h c s ~ f o u r 3 s s u n p t i o n s . N o t i n g k h s t

t h e o m r l d s o t h a t I\r;.aric::n buslncss c o u l d t r a d o , a p c r n t e , a n d profit i ~ ~ i t h o u t r e s e r i c t i o n ~ c v a r y ~ ~ h e r e " L i m i t s c f -- P O L L ! ~ ~ , p . 2.

#I o u r i n t e r n ~ i t i o n a l p o l i c i e s a n d o u r dornest.ic p o l i - c l e s

7 . - - - ' " ' LA A ,., . , i t ; ~ t ~ ; i i r ; t ~ ; i i i d t h ~ t "OLIJ? r o r e i c ~ n r c i a -

t i o n s inevitably a f f c c t e n p l o y m e r i t i n t h e U n i t c d S t a t e s ,

Prosperity ~ n d d n p r a s s i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s j u s t a s

i n r f v j t a b l y z f f u c t o u r relztions w j t h t h e o t h e r n a t i o n s o f

t h s w o r l d . " The S e c r z t a r y s t a t e d h i s " f i r m c n n v i c t i n n

t h z t a d u r a h l ~ pea-e c a n n o t b e b u i l t o n a n e c o n o m i c faun-

d a t i o n o f e x c l u s i v e b l o c s . , . and e c o n o m i c u ~ a r f a r e , ( A

l i b s r a l t r a d i n g system) i m p o s e s s p e c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

u p o n t h o s e ~ ~ h o occupy a d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n i n w o r l d t r a d e .

Such i s t h c p o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " U ! i t h h i s

o u r p a l i t i z a l a n d ccnriclrnic c r e c d is in c o n f l i c t ~ i t h i d o o -

l o q i e s w h i c h r e j ec t . b o t h OF t h e s e p r i - n c i p l e s . To t h e

e x t e n t t h a t vJe a r s a h l ~ . t n m a n s g o n i l r d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s

s u c c e s s f u l l y , uJe s h a l l % i n c a n v c r t s t o o u r c re r i n every

l a n d , "32 The U n i t e d S t a t ~ s i m p l e m e n t e d t h i s g o a l w i t h

r e s o l v e .

A m e r i c a n o f f i c i a l s h o p e d t h a t t h e y c o u l a c h i e v e t h e

3 2 ~ a y r n o n d D e n n e t t a n % ! R o b e r t K . T u r n c r . e d . . - - - Documents o n A r n ~ r i c n n F o r e i q n R c l n t i . n n s , Val. ~ I I I , ' ----I'- -.------- L---

19/15-1045 (Princeton), 1 9 4 0 , 6Lll-6132, -

f : ? o n ~ tary F u n d , 3 Thesc a g c n c i e s w o u l d , i f s u c c e s s f u l ,

g u a r a n t e e t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h t : Op n Door . American

o f f i c i a l s uorc crjnfider-l t- , t h s t Jchsac? a g r : n c i s s " u ~ o u l d m i n i -

mize c x c l u s i v ? a n d e x p l o s i v e nationalism and maximize

econonr ic ~ n d p o l j t i c a l i n t e r c h a n q e . ,, 3 4 I t wzis n o t w i t h o u t

s i g n i f i c z n c e f o r S o v i e t s e c u r i t y i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e t h a t

American econoinic power a u t o m a t i i c a i X y a s s u r e d t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s c o n t r o l o f t h e s e s r , p p o s e d l y i n t e r n a t i o n a l agenc ies .

I t ~ o u l d a p p e e r t h a t t h e New Lcft historians'

tariff w a l l s a t hon!a and abroad, However , one major d o u b t

d i s t u r h z d Amarican o f f i c i a l s : would a11 t h e f o r n c r A l l i e s ,

p r i m a r i l y B r i t a i n , F r a n c e a n d R u s s i a , p l z y t h s game accord-

i n g t o Amcriczn rulcs? B y 1946 , Great B r i t a i n and F r a n c e

h a d f o r t h e m o s t p a r t g i v e n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e answers , Tho

- --- d c v o F C i ~ ~ s e p o i n t s in d e t a i l .

3 4 ~ a ~ e b e r , C o l d ?Jar, 1945-3456, p . 17.

r e f u s e d t n p l a y t h z game a c c o r d i n g t o American r u l e s . I t

was largely f o r t h i s r u z s o n t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o u l d

n o t d e v c l n p i t s n ; t j l t i l . a t e r a l a p p r e a c h f o r t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h

p o l i c y XIS i t s d s t e r n i n a t i o n t o r e t a i n z n e x c l u s i v e American

s p h c r c o f i n f l t l e n s c i n t h e M e s t e r n H c ~ i s p h c r c , A S t a t e

D e p a r t m e n t mern~sandum o f l a t e Juna 1945 i n F a s n e d Truman

t h a t a l t h o u g h s p h s r c s o f i n t e r e s t d ? d i n f a c t e x i s t i n

3 5 ! ~ ! a s h i ~ n g t o n ' s Open Door v i s i o n o f t h c w o r l d h a d o t h e r Far r c a c h i n n r a m i f i c a t i o n s f o r L!nitrr3 S t a t e s f o r c i g ? p o l i c y . As Kolkn hzs n o t e d , t h e neces sa ry c o n c l u s i o n o f t h i s v i s i o n "was t h e b e l i e f t l ~ a t s o c i a l i s m , s t a t e o m e r - r i ~ i p , a n d T h i r d ? n r l d ecanom ic d ~ v e l a p m e n t wsre funda- m u n t 2 l l y i n i m i c n l t o American g 1 o b ? I objectives" L ; m i t s -- o f P O L ~ J F ~ , p * 13. ----

U. S . , D e p s r t f l e n t o f stat^, P a n o r s R e l a t i n n t o -------.. - t h e F o r e i n n RL-lnt ia : . i s n f t h c 1;niti.d qt- te : . : f h e I : c rn i~ ren r . c -----. - - . . - - - - - _ - * - _ - HerlFr7 ( f J a t s d S 3 ( W a s t . i n g i ~ ~ ~ , l 9 ~ 0 ) , 1, 262-2brt. - --- - ---

77

T h i s p o l i c y statement r e v e a l . a d t h e contrzdictory n a t u r e

r : f A m e r f c a n d i p l ~ r n n c y , T h e r t ? v t s i n n i r t s h a v n nraL3erly

s t r o s s ~ d t h i s d i l o n n s . Though t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ~vas

opposed t o s p h z r o s of i n t e r e s t i n Europe , i t a c t e d t o

s e c u r e i t s awn s p h c r e of i n t e r e s t i n t h e M e s t e r n h e m i s -

p h o r e . bJo. h i n ~ t o n a c h i e v e d t h i s ob j e c t i v u t h r o u g h A r t i c l e

51 o f t h e U n i t c d N a t i o n s C h a r t e r , f o r m u l a t e d by S e n a t o r

Vandenberg and A s s i s t a n t Secretary o f S t a t e Ne l son

R o c k e f e l l e r . A r t i c l e 51 p r o v i d e d f o r c o l l e c t i v e s e l f -

d e f e n s e throt:r,lh s p e c i a l r e q j o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o b e

f a r m r d o u t ? i . d e t h e ! J n i t c d Va t in ! 5 , b r ~ t tjnden: t h e p r i n c i -

a 1 . e ~ o f t h s Cha r t e r . Ser iz tor Vc?..ndenb~::c t y ; j i i ' i e d i;ne

e x c l u s i v e Amcriczn p o x o r i n t h e Net$~ a n d t h e r i g h t t o

e x e r t Arscricsn pntcqr i n t h a Old, 3 8

Russia r e f u s e d t o a c c o p t Ari?oric;t's c o n c n p t of t h e world.

S o v i e t a c c e p t ~ n c e 07 thc Open Boor w o u l d p r o b a b l y have

r nezn t A m e r i c a n econanic d o m i n a t i o n s f E a s t e r n Europe,

T h e r e f o r e , as some o f t h e e a r l y c r i t i c af t h e c c m t a i n n 3 r t

p o l i c y , i n p a r t i c u l a r t j a l l a c z , t i p p m a n n end Blackct t . , haw2

p o i n t e d nut , t h ~ R u s s i a n s r e f u s e d t o p l a y t h e g s ~ r a c c o r d i n g

---

7 8

t o Amoricrsrl r i ~ l e r ; , and, instc : i r i o f b ~ i n c n corrt,a.inrd, t h e y

t h e Open D o o r t o S o v i e t s c c u r i t y in Eas te rn E u r o p e , h a v e

c c i n s i d e r a b ! y ex ~ n d u d this e x p l a , ; t i o n . They h a v e shown

t h a t t h e Amcrican cancc : t of o p e n - u a r l d diplomacy c r a shed

a g a i n s t Stalin's m a j ~ r arr?a of c o n c e r n , E a s t e r n E u r o p e .

As e a r l y as 1941 and 1 9 4 2 , u~hen t h e N a z i army a p y r o a c h e d

Moscotii, S t z l i n i n s i s t e d t o O i e s t ~ r n o f f i c i a l s t h a t p o s t w s r

t h e Gcrmzn army a t S t a i i n g r a r j .

dsm!r1. .; For a n o;;cn tvor ld f o r hc cclu.ld not a f f c e d t o do s n .

A z t f i o r h e c o r l s t - u c t t Soviet p o s t u a r p o l i c y on t h e &ssump-

t i n n t h a t it was n e c e s s a T y t o m n i n t a i n R u s s i a n f r e edom OF

action in E a s t e r n Europe, an a r c a S i a l i n dcnned c s s s n t i o l

t n Soviet security. He r e l i e d l e s s on t h e F o m a l i t i c s o f

3 9 ~ n t t ~ o n y Eden h a s c n n i j r m c d t h a t S t o l i n a s k e d f o r r e c o g n i t i o n O F h i . .June 1 9 4 1 Frontiers z s e a r l y as t h e f o l lowing Decenbzr . C i t e d i n Thovas, " C o l d LJzr C r i q i n s , " I I , 191-192.

t h e L J n i t p d N a t i o ; l s C h a r t e r t t ? a n h a d th2 U n i t c d Strr-7tcr;

( A r t i c l e 51 ) . He a c c c . j x g l i s h c d S o v i e t s e c u r i t y i n a m n r e

r u t h l e s s m z n n z r , t h r w ~ g h t h e Red A m y ' s o c c u p a t i o n a n d

c c n s e q u e n t com!qun izn t inn c f East.c:rn E u r o p e , E x t r e m e

p e r s o n a l a ~ b k t i o n cnd fea rx i s t D o c t r i n ~ , p a r t l y a e c c u n t c d

f o r S t a l i n ' s p o l i e l ~ s i n t h i s a r e a . E u t t h e g r e a t Russian

demand f o r s e c u r i t y a n d e c o n o n i c r e h a b i l i t : q t i n n madc t h i s

p o l i c y i n $ a r a t i \ r c . S t a l i n wcs i n a p r a d i c a r n e n t . I n o r d e r

t o recrtvor q u i c k l y ocono* i c n l l y , h e w o u l d r e q u i r e American

c a p i t a l , s i n c e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p o s s e s c ~ d t h c only abun-

d a n t capi i . .l r r s o t l r c e s i n t h e cor3 .d . l'Jaltc.,r LaTcber has

b L

Washington ivzs awarc o f , and a t t e m p t e d t o c a p s t a l i ~ c

o n , S t a l i n ' s p r o b l e m , I t was p z r t l y f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t

A v e r e l l Harririar?, a p r i n c i p a l U n i t e d S t a t e s p o l i c y maker

p o l i c y w i t h R u s s i a . Ha a d v i s z d t h a t such t a c t i c s w o u l d

ccmpel t h e Soviet Union t o f o l l o u ~ t h e A m e r i c a n ! - n t ~ r c r e t a t i o n

o f t h e i s s u e s in d i s p u t e l i k a Pular r ', t h ~ U n i i e r f P ja t ions

40 L a F e b n r , C o l d ':Jar, p , 10. -..-

R i l

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. , s t r u c t i o n , " a r i d because S t a l i n d i d n o t wish t o b r e a k it:. z h

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" t h n S o t l i n t Govf?rn3nnt v l 8 c e ? t h e u tmnst i n p o r t n r n c n

o u r c o a p e r a t i o n " i n p r o v i d i n g e c o n o n i c assi ! : , tance; a n d h e

hed c o n c l u d e d t h a t "it i s a f a c t o r w h i c h s h o u l d be i n t e -

g r a t e d i n t o t h e f a b r i c OF o u r o v c r a l l r e l a t i o n s . " 4 1 R f t c r

a n e a r l y p o l i c y d i s p u t e i n x h i c h G e n a r a l Georqc X a r s h a t l ,

th:. Rrwy C h i n F O F S t y f F , 2nd S:-r;r..t?.;rt. C C " - ? - - - - $ I C . 1 5 . . I

- 5t.i msan r eco i a~en r f ed ~ : a ~ : t i i ? n , I rurr:r.;n o p b d f o r r 'z r r r tn i?n 'c ;

p o I. icy.

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b r i n g t h e Pa l . l sh i s s u e t p - , a s ~ l c t C i n n f z v o t ~ i 3 l c t o t h e

U n i t e d State:; . T r u r a n r e s o l v e d t o e n f o r c e h i s i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n o f t h e Y a i t a c g r e e m e n t , r e g a r d i n g r e p r c s r ? n t z t i o n

i n t h e r e s t r u c t u r e d P o l i s h government , even i f i t wrecked

t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . He l a t e r e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h i s uJas t h e

t e s t o f S o v i e t c o o ~ c r a t i o n . I F 5 t a l . i n ~ ~ o i ~ l d ncL a d h e r e t n

h i s a g r c e r n s n t s , T r u ~ a n r e a s o n a d t h a t k h c U n i t e d b !a t ions was

" ~ i t s d i n R c r n s t o i n , P o l i t i c s a n d Policies, - -.. pp . 25-36.

doornad. "Our anrer:me;>ts u : i t h t h o Soviet U n i o n s o far

t i n u e , Trumen i n f o r m c d h i s a d v i s e r s that " i f t h e Russians

did n o t wish to j o i n u s , t h e y c o u l d go t n h e l l . ,' 42

The President's m i l i t a n t mood u!as e v i d e n t i n h i -

A p r i l 2 3 , 1945 t a l k a i t h M o l n t a v , 4 3 Truman warned t h a t

economic aid would deu2nd m h o l l y uucn Russian b e h z v i o t i r i n

e x e c u t i n g t h e Y a l t a agreement. The new P r e s i d e n t acted in

s u c h a manner evFn though sonn Amer i can o f f i c i a l s b e l i e v e d

t h e Y a l t a aqrc:cfi~ent w 3 5 o p e n t o two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

A d m i r a l Leaky had remarked t o P r e r i d 2 n L R o a s e v a l k t h a t t h c

h e r e n c e t o t h a R m e r i c a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n when t h c agreement

945 The h!cw L a f t historians havs c h e r g s d that was so vague.

Truman a d o p t e d h i s u n c o m p r o m i s i n g a t t i t i r d e b e c a u s e t h e

e x t o n s i o n of t h e Open Door i n t o E a s t e r n E u r o p e was i n v ~ l v e d ,

4 2 ~ h i d . , - pp. 2 6 - 2 7 .

4 3 ~ o r T r u m n ' s l e c t u r e t a M o l o t o v o n t h z t a c c n s i o n , s e e f o o t n o t e 1.3 in C h d p t o r I 1 o f t h i s p a p e r .

4 5 ~ ~ ~ Herz's b c o 4 , a c o i n n i n r s oC t h s C n l d \t!ar, f o r ---- -- ---.-- ---- -- an €!>:cf?llefIt a n d l y s i s t h a t c l e a r l y ravr!a ls the vsr;ucr:ezc: uf

t h e Yal ta a o r e z ; n ~ n t s . We c o n c l u d 7 t h a t t h e y w e r e d e f i n i t e l y open t a t?i!o i n t e r i ~ r c t n t i o n s .

P o l i t i c s of W2r, -11_-----_.___

s t r a t c q y s i i r l l a r t o th,zt. f i . ~ l l n . ~ ~ d i n thrs l e n d - l e a s e ti la t t c r ,

Stalin's a p p l i c a t i c j n f o r a six billioq dal !ar l c a ~ in

January 1 3 4 5 w a r m c t v ~ S t h a Fzrn i l i a r A n ~ r i c a n r e s p o n s e .

4 8 ~ o r T r u r i n ~ ' ~ l a t c r c x p l n n a t i c n o f t h e n toppagc o f l e n d - l w c c , sen Prunan, b?emc.irs, VoE. I , 2 2 5 , --... - -- -

S e e . " - - . or.! n s t s i n , P o l i t i c s TI?.! P o l i c i e s , pp. 27-20 ------- - f o r t h c T?ew L e f t , histcrian:: ' c o n t c r i t i o n tha-l T r u i ~ ~ n ? . I.: " , ~ r recolleotion ~ v a s i n a c c u r a t e .

A l p e r o v i t z makes t h c p o i n t t h a t "a l i r n i t ~ t i n n on Lend-Lease F o l l . o ~ ~ e d Ir i ! - ; i .cnl ly From t h e vie:.:; k h h t A m c r i c ~ r ~ d i p l o r r a c y c o u l d g a i n i F t h z S o v i a t U n i o n wcro rEnrc dnperl- d e n t upon economic assistance?, A l ~ e r o v i t z c o n c l u d z s t h a t " T h i s w o u l d i n c r c : s s e ~ ! : P I s T ~ c ~ ~ ' s C C C I ~ U M ~ C l e v e r a g o ' . " Hs t h s n q u o t e s 9czns t n t h ~ e f f c c t t h a t s u c h A n c r i c a n a c t l o 5 w o u l d "meke t1.i.. s o v i e t a u t h o r i t i e s come t o us" Atemi(-: --- D i s ~ 1 u m ~ c \ t~ /_ ( p a 3 6 .

In this r n g z r d , s e e a l s o Kolko , The P o l i t i c s OF --.------ -..-..- War, p , 3 9 ' / , --

S o v i c t p o i n t o f vietxr, rncmbersh ip i n thvr;r! a g e n c i e s , con-

5 1 L a F c b e r , C o l d " z r , pp. 2 2 - 2 3 . --

0 h

Secretary o f S t a t e B y r r t t ? s s k a t ~ d i.n 19.47, "T be l i r?vr !c l t h r

ztcmiE t7ci,;> :! i;.- . - . z - :-.=. ..?.' P. . ' L;J"UIT; " - -- - " : - J G J U b L G 3 L 2 1 U L I u ~ ~ e L I I ~

Japanesc to a c c e p t s u r r s n d e r on o u r t e r n s . ,, 5:3 B u t t h e

f a c t t h a t . t h e Ur;i tot! S t a t e s tins d e t e r m i n e d t o end t h e Lvar

a g a i n s t J z p z n b ~ f a r o F i u s s i a n entry c n A u c u s t 8, r a t h e r

t h a n t h e I\fover;rSef L i r ~ v a s i n n dzts, has bc!.:n a f f i r m e d a n d

reaPfi .rrnod in a much mcpE r j c c j - s i v e ri-?nrrer. "Thoarjh t ? ? r t ~ t r

mas a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g thzit t h e S o v i e t s w o u l d e n t e r t h e wzr

t h r e e months a f t e r Germany s u r r e n d e r e d " , B y r n e s has testi-

f i e d , " t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d I h o p e d t h a t Japan w o u l d s u r r e n d e r

bonb at t h e Potsdam C o n f e r e n c e f o r a s p c c i f i c a n d f a r -

Japan. A t t h e szme t i n e , B y r n e s had d e c i d e d n o t t o co-

o p e r a t e w i t h t h e S o v i n t s i n t h e e a r l y s t a g s s sf n u c i ~ a r

53 Jancs F . By rnes , S p ~ z l t i n n Frrrnk1.y ( N Q N Yorl:, l 9 6 ? ) , ..-- - p . 203,

Alpc! rov i t z has i r r t e r p r n t ~ d T r u m a n ' s q o t t o u g h l e c t u r e t o

P ? o l o t o v a s e v i d e n c e o f a dramatic s h i f t from Rooscvelt's

a v n ? l a b l e t o B l ~ c k e t t , t h a t fro;^ any r a t i o n a l military

p c i n t of vieti:, Japan i.:as a l r e a d y d a f ~ a t e d " , ~ ~ and activu!.y

p u r s u f n g s u r r e n d e r terms. General E i s c n h o u e r has s t a t e d

'I t o l d him ( T r t l t n ) I vms a g a i n s t it ( t h e d r o p p i n g OF t h e n t o n bomb) o n t m o acctsunts . F i rs t , t h e Japnncsc wzrc ready tc s u r r e n d ~ r a n d it w?sn't n e c e s s a r y t o h i t t h e m u ~ i t h t h a t z w f u l t h lnq , Second, I h a t e d t o s c a o u r coun t , rb l : -a t h o f i r s t

5 6 ~ i t e d i n Thocns, " C o l d Mar O r i g i n s , " 11, 1 9 4 .

" ~ l ~ e r o v i t z . -- A t c n i r -- 1 . y p . 1116. -- -

t o u s e such a weapon. 50

Evidently the borilb xas n o t drappclr l For m i l i t a r y c o n s i d ~ r a -

t i o n s , t o d e C e 3 t J a p a n , a n d t h u s t o save thoussnds of

Arncriczn a n d Japanosr l i v e s , a s o r t h o d n x h i s t o r i a n s l i k e

F e i s h a v e argued. F-u r tb l z r d c s u t t i s c a s t upzn the or thcdr rx

i n t e r p r c t a f i o n b y t h e f a c t t h a t I J r c s i d e n t T r u r a n d i d nut

even c o n s i d e r i t necessary t o ask t h ~ opinion o f t i l o

m i l i t a r y z d v i s u r most d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d . Th is laas ncnc

o t h e r t h a n Gene ra l . PkcArthur, Supreme Coi2mander o f f ? l l i c d

Forces i n t h e P a c i f i c . He uas s i m p l y i r i f o r m ~ d o f t h e

weapon shnrtly b s f o r c i t LQes b s c d zt Hircst-tina. M 2 c 9 r t h u r

s i z t c d on numeroa: o c c c s i o n s b c f o ~ o h i s d e a t h Chpt, i i L e

E i ~ i 3 i : h 3 ~ 3 ~ ~ h e b ~ l i c \ : ~ d k h ~ al t r ; ,4c t;orlt, I:;(: curt; ? . o t ~ 3 . y

unnzcEssary fi-n,: z ailitdry p o i r ~ i o r vie,!. sr)

Why t h e n d i d Trumcln, t h ~ ? i\lleiu L e f t h i s t 0 1 i a n s

h a v e stressed, n a t Lry one o r more o f t h o f v l 1 o w i r . g ;I tr :rnt;-

t i v e s ? The t h r e e most l i k e l y were g u a r a n t e c i n q t h c p o s i -

t i o n a f t h ~ Japanese E m p e r o r (ar id h e n c e rnzk ing s u r r c n t i e r

c o n d i t i o n a l ) , s e e k i n g a Russian d e c l a r a t i o n o f vlar ( o r

a n n o u n c e r c e n t o f i n t e n t ) , o r L ~ a i t i n g f o r Russ ian ~ > n i s y i n t o

t h e mar. As no i n v a s i o n o f t h e Japanese m a i n l a n d 3s p l a n n a d

- 50 PJF?Ios~JJ;~cI:, -- " I ~ B on ! k e w , Nov. 11, 1S63 p . 107.

" c i t e d i n A l p e r o v i t z , -- Rt,crmic D i p l c ::3cy, p . 2 3 g . -.-

t n u g h speech, t h e f f ~ o l c t o v in te rv iec : , o r a conciliatory

a p p r o a c h , t h a KapkZns m i s s i o n , o r e v e n t h r cugh cconnmic

pressu re in t h e e n d i n g o f Lend-Lcase, T r u m a n d e c i d e d t a

r e l y 011 Lrner.ica's master c a r d , t h e atomic bomb, In o r d ~ : = .

t o do t h i s , t h e P r c s i d 2 n t had t o iuait u n t i l t h n a tomiz

I ' l l c e r t a i n l y have a hammer o,n thus^ b o y s ! ,, h 9

Eurupe t a t h e f c r c i g n r r ! i n i n t a r s ' r n c e t l n q in 5 e p t e m b e r ar"ter

t h o hoebs hsti b e e n dropper!,

T h c r e is lit ti^ d a u o t t h a t t l t e h ~ n b had a d o c i s i v o

,- t h e Soviets morn m a n a q e z h l c i n L.nstr:rn E u r o p c , and t h u s

a i r j t h u ,4rfici.j.cal1 qovor . t . ~ rn~n . t i n i L r ; e:'iit~l*t t o k s c ~ t h ?

Cnen Door intzct . 6 5

t h e e l e c t i u r l s h c r e and i n t l u n ~ a r y w e r e poskpcned. I t i s

a f f a i r s , n a r k n d L h e b e q i n n i n g o f " t h e t r z q i c inpassc? in

S o v i c t - A f i 1 3 r i c n n r e l a t i o n s . ,I 6 fi

t t i c U n i t e d S t a t ~ s

r ~ i t h t h e o p t i o n O F u s i n g t!-,z norib t 3 ccprco o r e v e n b i z c k -

m a i l t h o S o v i c t ! ~ n i a n . ~ ~ Tho J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a r f c l e a r l y

p e r c e i v n d t h c advan tage o f n ~ c l e a r mor!o;oly t o t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s .

Kc s h o u l d e : : p l c ~ i t ( t h e n u c l e a r rnono : lo l y ) to ass is t i n t h c e a r l y e s t a t l i s t l r n c n t crf a s a t i s f y - i n n peace , , . . I t will b e d e s i r 3 b l c f o r i n t e r n a t j o n a l aqr~.ement.s c o n z n r n i n g t h e a t o n i c bomb t o f o l l o w t h e E u r a p o a n s peace t r o a t i c s and d e f i n i t e l y t o p r e c e d e t h e t i m e when o t h ~ ? z c o u n - t r i e s c o u l d have atoi5i.c banhs.70

6 9 ~ e e t :oromitz, -.------ Ynl t c t o Y i ~ t ~ a r n , pp. 265-279.

7 0 ~ i t n d i n O c r n s t u j n , P o l i t i c ? 2 n d F ~ l i c i e s , p . 48 . --*

94

Under tt:e terms o f t h e B a r u c h P l a n , t h e S e v i e t

U n i o n was b e i n g a s k e d t o a c c e p t completely a W c s t , e r n

a r r a n q e r n e n t t h a t e n t a i l e d o p e n i n g i t s b o r e c r s , i.ts t a r ~ e t

a r e z s a n d i t s ~ i l i t a r y secrcts, a n d t g t r u s t P j a s h i n g t o n ,

w i t h i t s a b s o l u t e mpapon , n e t t a t a k e p o l i t i c a l o r m i l i t a r y

a d v z n t a g e o f t h u d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t w o u l d ' ~ n d o u b t e d l y ensup,

C l e a r l y , t h e S a r u c h P l a n d i d c n d n n q e r R u s s i a n s e c u r i t y , a t

l e a s t i n i t s e a r l y s t a g ~ s . I n h i s l e t t e r t c ~ T r u m n o f

J u l y 1 9 4 5 , Va l lace o b j e c t e d t o t h e B z r u c h a p p r o a c h ,

a s h e p r e d i c t e d i n h i s containment t h o r r y , t h i s w o u l d

p r e c l u d e t h e S o v i e t Un ion f r o m e v e r r e c e i v i n g a t . o n i c

i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s c o r ! s i d e r a t i o n , t h a t t h e C c r n c u n i s t Pa;.ty

w o u l d ba u n d e r m j ned i f i;lcscort~ a c c e p t e d t h e fimerieai-r Baruch

P l a n , was v e r y much i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e men u~ho d r a f t e d

b e l i e f t h a t he cons idcrc t f " t h c prob lcn ! of au: s a t i s f a c t o r y

T h e T r u m z n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i g n o r e d Stinson's a d v i c e , Russia

r n j c c t e d t h e Baruch P l p n and S o v i u t - A n a r i c z n r e l a t i o n s were

L%.lt~, Ya l t r j kc, Vic . t r :~ in , p 7 7 ~ i t r d in t i ~ r c . ~ ~ ' -..--------

d i p l o m a c y f a i l e d in i t s n r i r ; c i o z l o b i o c t i v e "to s a 4 p

Russia m c t r nsnaqcnblu i n E u ~ G ~ ? " a n d t h u s t n p r e s e r v e

a n d e x p a n d t h o Open Door. And, V J ~ Z ~ E V ~ Lhc tritth i n t h e

e a s t E u r a p e a n govr?ri-rr?lc?ntn ar;d t h e gsnrzral t i g h t e n i n g up o f

S t z . l i n i s t c o n t r o l which c u l n - ! i n a t o d in t h e e x p u l s i o n o f T i t o

f r o x t h e C ~ m i i i P n r r . : : .in 194I?, a l l f o l l o v o d the e r a o f aka:nic

d i p l a ~ s c y i c h i c h t h c I!cxi LcPk his Li-jr Fiir!s, A l p c r a v i t z a n d

Horo:!~itz i n por. t i .cuJ.:~r, h l i ~ ; ~ ! e v p ! - . a s i z o d , 7 4 T i l e o::thoc:c>:

i n t e r p r e t a t i n n c t f i;hz nriqiilr; o f tl-IE C o l d !'l>r, hc:-:ei;zr, tlas

c o n t i n u : , t f LO d ~ ; : i - , p l > y 01% s i r i r p l y t o il ,<:E 1::;~ i m p a c L v k i c h

A r , . , e w : " c , r p .-.,-.I rt ,.,-,r.<,.-,.%<...,-~ -(: 4 . L - . .2 .,.- 2 - . . ui bl:t3 u L ~ t : t * t _ . S ~ , ; t i t j hai: U i i b ~ L f . 1

2 u s s i a a n d 93 \ j ! . ' z ~ l ~ i n ! j i , ~ r ; ~ ~ p[?Ij.&g:; i , ~ c j ~ ? ; . d t h ~ S~:!i::t. Lli,rj.~n

i n t h e c r u c i a l 9945-19 . :5 p : - r i o d , N E L J L e f t h i s t o r i a n s h a v ~

~ i v e n t h i s aspecl:. of t h u C o l d War rni!ui.i n e e d e d eniphasis.

d o c t r : n e , economic c?:' * ~ ~ ~ i n i . s m and h i s t o r i c a l p r e s c n t -

mindndness , hava t o a g r n a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h e a r t t l odox

h i s t o r i a n s c r i t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d t he r o o t cac:scs of t h e C o l d

hzs l a r g e l y b s ~ r ~ f o r g o t t e n o r m i s r e p r e s e n t e d t n z t t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s h z d t h e c h o i c e o f a l t e r n a i . i v e s i n t h e

immediate p ~ s t - : ~ ! o r l d ?Jar I 1 p e r i o d , A s a l r e a d y n o t e d , t h e

A m e r i c a n gavern rnon t possessed predcminan t power, b o t h

ecj2nornic an3 a t o m i c , I t f o l l o e s , a s 11Jil l . ians has s t a t e d ,

t h a t "pau:cr a n d r c s p u i - ~ s i b i l i t j r go togetl- ler . i n a d i r c c t ar:d

i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p " . T h e r e f o r e , Washington, more so

t h a n IS"loscota, h a d i t i n i t s po!i!er w h s t h c r o r n o t t o c o o p e r a t ? .

2 ~ i l l i Appl .- n kiiil ? inns , -- The ---A T r n o e d y - o r Americar: -- --- D i p l o n a c v (?icu~ Y o r k , 1 9 5 9 ) , p . 2nU. __-.- -- __L

T h i s is esssntial t o a @ e n u S n n u n d a r s t n n d i n q o f t h e o r i q i n s

o f t h e C o l d !~Jr;tr. UnTt3r tun- ; l . tc . ly , 3 s t h e Nc~u L e F t h i s t o r i n n s

hclvc? zxautlrf, i t a p p e z r s t h a t t h a Uni-Lcd S t a t e s c h o s e t o

u s e i t s povter i n a V a i n c f f o r t t c c o m p e l Russia t o a c c e p t

t h e Open D o o r ,

C e r t a i n l y , as s t u d z n t s OF h i s t o r y , t h e neLv r e v i s i c n -

i s t s h a v e r s i r e d a fe!v d i s c o ~ c e r t i n g q ! ~ ~ . s t i o n s f o r t h o s e

who a r e committed e i t b s r tc t h e o r t h o d o x v i e w o f t h e C o l d

Nap o r t o t h e o r t i l ~ d r ~ x view o f t h e h i s t o r i a n , blast p r o m i n e n t

among t h e s e is t h e q u 2 s l i o n : hov: d i d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

a r r i v c d a t s t rch an e r r o n c ~ r ~ ~ e x y l a n a t i a n q i v c n t h z i r ob.jcc-

t i v c c o n c e y t i n n a f t h s historian's F u n c t i o n ?

o r t c n c h a r q c d , mere r i l z t o r i c ? i r e d hy t h a i r militsfit o p p o s i -

t i o n t o Aner i c3n f o r e l l n p o l i c y . On t h z c n n t r a r y , t h e ncm

r e v i s i o n i s t s inuch m a l i n n e d dissent from A c c r i c a ' s f o r e i g n

a n d d o m e s t i c p o l j - c i c s , co:nbj.ncd l x i t h t f ~ z i r B e a r d i a n v iew o f

t h o h i s t o r i a n , has pe rhaps eriabiec! thgn t o p e r c e i v e t h e

o r i g i n s o f t h e Co?-d !t:itr i n a manner c1osr.r t o t h c a c . t i ~ o l

r c a l f t i c s o f t h p e r i o d .

onr! r:iijst s r 2 p n r a t e ns v e l l a s i n t e r r e l a t e t h ~ p r o n l c m s o f Russ i? , E n 5 3 3nd. 1:lestern c a p i t a l - i s m , 2 n d t l ~ c r c v c ? l ; t i o n i n r,!uch o f t h e u~crld in t h c o v f : r r f d i n q c n n t ~ x t OF t h e U n i t e d S t a t ~ s ' expacs ' ~n a n d a d v a n c a m e n t o f i t s n a t i n ~ a l i n t c r c s t . 5

The c ~ n t i n u i n g e f F o r t s o f t h e N e v ~ L e f t u~r i t e r s in

t h i s a r e a m k o i t e v i d z n t t h a t t h c y ha:.e a c c o p t e d t h e ct ial-

l e n q e h a n d e d t o 'i'w h i s t o r i c a l p l n f e s s i o n b y Frcder ic !c

Jackson T u r n e r , i n h i s P r ~ s i d e n % i : j l A d d ~ e s s , t o t h s A m ~ ? r i c z n

P o s s i b l y , t h i s has bp:,n t h o liesf L a r k h i s t o r i a n : ; ' g rea t . cs t

c o n t r i b t l t i o n t o d a t e , T h r N c v ~ Left; historians h a v c un-

q u e s t i o n a b l y rei!:orked Amer ican h i s t o r y f r c - ) m t h e p e r s p e z t ick-

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