The new monarchies

The Centralization of Political Power

Creation of well-organized states built around strong central gov’ts

New Monarchs of England (Henry VII), France (Louis XI) & Spain (Ferdinand & Isabella) were successful in accumulating & centralizing power.

*Marked an end to more than a century of political fragmentation

All had opponents/problems to overcome and all did it differently

England

Formed its state through administrative centralization

Wars of Roses (1455-1485)—English Civil War—nobles caused chaos as they fought for control of throne

Richard III (1483-85) of the House of York, the last Plantagenet

Henry VII (Tudor) & the Revival of Royal Power

Came in as a usurper but restored order & increased the authority of the Crown

2 Biggest obstacles:1. Poverty of the Monarchy 2. Power of the Nobility

No secure monarch in 100 years

Henry VII Tudor (1485-1509)

Limits on the Monarch’s Power

Parliament Consultative assembly By 16th cen. Began to be more important as chief

representative body that could approve ruler’s actions, esp. when raising taxes

Common Law System of justice based on precedent & tradition that

was common throughout England Was an independent source of authority with which King

couldn’t interfere

How Henry VII Began Centralization of England

1. Developed modern methods of accounting, record-keeping, & enforcement to make the monarchy solventUsed fiscal cautionDeterminedly collected royal revenuesRelied on the cooperation of the gentry at the

local level to help administer the kingdom

How Henry VII Began Centralization of England

2. Asserted his authority over the nobles in both political and legal mattersRelied on the JPs to carry out the monarch’s

will Increased the authority of the Royal CouncilHad his councilors serve on the Star Chamber

(no jury, local leaders had no influence; decisions were quick & fair)

Henry VIII Cont’d What his Father Began

1513—defeated Scots which removed a threat Created an independent English Church which

increased Parliament’s power Confiscated Church lands which increased royal

revenue

Henry VIII Thomas Cromwell, Henry’s Chief Minister reorganized

the administration of the country Divided administration according to its function by

separating departments of state. Each department was responsible for its own record-keeping, revenue-collection, and law enforcement.

Expanded power of the Privy council (King’s primary advisers), which became the King’s executive body, to direct the royal gov’t

Edward VI (1547-53) & Mary I (1553-58)

Nobles tried to regain control of gov’t Mary I tried to reestablish Catholicism, which provoked 2

major revolts, but royal power survived Elizabeth I inherited a larger, wealthier, & more

sophisticated administration at her disposal She didn’t have a large standing army (like on

Continent), but she didn’t need one

France French centralization occurred because of

good fortune Problems working against centralization:

1. Surrounded by large aggressive neighbors2. French nobles were semi-independent princes3. French people were provincial & loyal to local

customs & institutions4. Divided by regional differences, esp. north &

south divided by culture and language

France

100 Years War (1337-1453)—France emerged intact, but monarchy was greatly weakened

Threat posed by Charles the Bold of BurgundyHad increased in size during the 100 Years

War

Charles the Bold of Burgundy

Louis XI (the Spider) of House of Valois (1461-83)

Increased the territories under control of the Crown Inherited Anjou, Maine, & ProvenceGained Brittany & Orleans through marriage

Subdued the nobility

French Royal Power Royal Council in Paris was administrative center of gov’t Greatest court of law was Parlement of Paris Roman law, based on royal decree, dominated &

allowed king to govern by issuing ordinances and edicts (had to be registered by parlements to take effect, but usually a formality)

Estates—representative bodies that were in a number of provinces & King had to negotiate with them to support his income & army

Estates General never attained the power and prestige of England’s Parliament

*French King had more independence and power, esp. in finance than the English King did

Charles VIII (1483-1498) Wanted to expand his dynasty’s territory 1494—led army into Italy

Had some successes, but settled into a long struggle with Hapsburgs for control of Italy

*16th Cen dominated by rivalry between France & Hapsburgs of Spain/Austria

Ended in 1559—Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis with French defeat (renounced any further claims to Italy)

The Italian Wars Role Played in the Centralization of France

Distracted the nobility & gave King opportunity to consolidate power at home

France’s financial & administrative machinery grew in size and effectiveness. But it was never enough.

Monarchs developed other ways to increase royal revenue

Sale of Offices –sold offices in administration, the parlements, and every branch of bureaucracy

Gained tax exemption Gained status & sometimes a title of nobility

The Italian Wars

War years also established the principle of royal taxation (which fell mostly on 3rd estate) Taille—direct tax on property Gabelle—consumption tax on purchase of salt Aide-tax on a variety of commodities, including meat and wine

French had a high degree of compliance French King was first to establish principle of a national

army—directed from the center but quartered and equipped regionally Nobility—cavalry and towns & country—infantry Fortified towns gained privileges for service to the King

Louis XI & Charles VIII

Neither was a nation-builder Both were very lucky! Had no grand designs & made many

mistakesBiggest—let Burgundy’s Low Countries go to

Habsburg’s and not to FranceThis initiated a struggle for the low countries

that would last 200 years

Charles VIII

Louis XII (1498-1515) Expanded sale of offices By end of 16th century, sale of offices

provided Crown with 1/12 of its revenue.Negatives:

Stimulated social mobility by creating a new administrative class

Caused a major expansion of bureaucracy Encouraged corruption

Francis I (1515-1547)

Gained power over the ChurchSuccessful in Italy early in his reign1516 persuaded Pope to give French Crown

the right to appoint all of France’s bishops and abbots.

*King could now use Church patronage to reward servants or raise money*

Unlike Henry VIII, he didn’t need to break with Rome to gain authority over clergy

Francis I

1520s Francis reorganized the gov’t Legalized sale of offices Formed an inner ocuncil to act as chief executive body of France

(more management) 1527—last Bourbon lands fell to the King—France was

unified Used lit de justice against parlements

He appeared in person before an assembly that was delaying registering of his edicts and declare them registered and law.

Estates General did not meet between 1484 and 1560

Henry II (1547-59)

Italian wars ended with French defeatDamaged royal prestige and finances

Reformation, esp. Calvinism caused social unrest and religious divisions Almost destroyed what French kings had

created in previous century

Spain

Spain centralized through a dynastic marriage Problem before 16th cen:

Moors in South, Portugal in west Spain divided among separate states (2 biggest were

Castile & Aragon) Had 3 religions & 4 languages

1469—Ferdinand of Aragon & Isabella of Castile married—led to 10 year civil war

1479—2 Crowns united & they ruled jointly

Ferdinand & Isabella Spain wasn’t a single state—local provinces guarded their pwr

Cortes—representative assemblies 1st they established order 2nd tried to reduce the power of the nobles

Reduced the number of great nobles in the royal council Overhauled the entire administration

Ability, not status would determine appointments Hidalgos, lesser aristocrats, became increasingly important in

gov’t They were essential figures in centralization and overseas

because they served and wer dependent on Crown Took over leadership of the aristocracy’s rich and powerful

military orders

Reconquista 1482-92

Kicked Moors off Iberian peninsula and retook GranadaHelped to create a national identity for Spanish1492—150,000 Jews were expelled

Also made Castilian the official language of the country

The Church and the Inquisition

For the successful Reconquista, the Pope granted them the right to make major ecclesiastical appointments there & in New World (Charles I was given complete control over Church appointments)

1478-gained permission to establish their own Inquisition Wanted to root out converted Jews & Muslims who

still practiced their religions in secret Persecution fostered a religious unity that enhanced

political centralization

Royal Administration Corregidors, minor royal officials, were given new

powers and responsibilities within the administration Became the chief executive and judical officer within a local

region (like JP in England) Cortes didn’t restrict the Crown b/c Spanish taxes could

be raised without consent Monarchs supervised the justice system

Had a Roman law system so monarchs could overrule the decisions of local courts

Developed a uniform code of law Increased royal income by establishing power over the

alcabala, the sales tax

Military and Diplomatic Achievements

Regained 2 provinces on the French border Ferdinand entered the Italian War against

France Reorganized Spain’s standing army Founded the finest diplomatic service of 16th

century Was the best-informed and most effective

maneuverer of his day

Charles I (1516-1556) 1520—Revolt of the Communes

He spoke no Castilian b/c educated in Flanders & gave Flemish ppl positions in gov’t

He was elected HRESpanish didn’t know him & feared he would be

an absentee ruler Communes attacked the privileged orders of

society, esp. nobles Nobles defeated them

Royal Gov’t under Charles Was away from Spain 2/3 of his 40 yr reign His representatives enlarged the bureaucracy & a system of

councils 2 types of councils—1 for each department of gov’t and 1 for each

territory the crown ruled Council of State was principal advisory group at the head of the

system Created a vast federation, with Castile at center but the parts had

considerable autonomy Viceroy was in charge of every major area & ran the administration

under the supervision of an audiencia, a territorial council They could do as they wished but they had to report to Castile &

refer major decisions to the central gov’t Although corrupt and not always efficient, Spain’s administrative

machine was one of the most detailed for ruling such a vast empire

Royal Finances

Habsburgs were constantly fighting wars In Italy against France Against Turks Against Schmalkaldic League

Put a strain on Charles’ financesNew World treasure saved him from financial

disaster He had to pay Italian & German financiers’ loans

for his armies

The Splintered States of Central

and Eastern Europe

Holy Roman Empire Weak institutions prevented strong central

gov’t1356—Golden Bull issued by Emperor Charles

IV—established 7 electors to elect the HRE=weak

Emperors’ ability to exercise power effectively depended on their own family possessions

Ruled most areas and princes in name only 2000 imperial knights, 50 ecclesiastical princes, 30

secular princes, 100+ counts, 70 prelates, and 66 cities

Local Independence in the HRE Princes’ primary concern—increase their

power Cities—had substantial wealth which the

emperor couldn’t tap Only central institution—Imperial Diet

3 assemblies—reps of the cities, princes and the 7 electors

It became the instrument of the princes

Local Centralization Late 15th cen.—princes had gained control

over their individual territories Hapsburgs only controlled their own

possessions (Austria, Low Countries, & Franche-Comte)

Attempts at Imperial Centralization

1495-HRE created a tribunal to settle disputes among local pwrsSuccessful at restoring order Princes were main beneficiaries

Other attempts at administrative reform had little effect

Reformation worsened the rivalries and further strengthened local independence

Hungary Late 15th cen—dominant force in E. Eur. With a strong

monarch similar to Eng, etc. Matthias Corvinus

After his death, royal authority collapsed Lost land to Hapsburgs Nobles forced King to dissolve the standing army 1514-imposed serfdom on the peasants When Ottoman Turks conquered Hungary, nobles

promised loyalty in exchange for their strengthened power

Poland Late 15th cen. b/c king needed help, he issued a

statute that strengthened lower aristocrats against ppl below them (peasants & townsmen)

Then nobles united against kingDiet (made up of nobles) estab. SerfdomNo law could be passed w/o Diet’s consent

By end of 16th cen. Diet made succession to the crown dependent on noble approval

Ottoman Empire

Only state in E. Eur. in 16th cen. that maintained a strong central authority

Sultan Suleiman II brought the empire to its largest size in first half of 16th cen.

Under his successor the empire began to decline

Italy Late 15th cen. 5 major states—Naples, Papal states,

Milan, Florence, and Venice—maintained a balance of pwr

1494—peace was broken when Milan invited Charles VIII of France for help against Florence & Naples Began the Italian Wars (between Valois & Hapsburgs) Fighting would end in 1559—Hapsburgs won and

would control Italy for next century By mid-16th cen. Power had shifted from the

Mediterranean to the Atlantic

Lesson Learned

Small political units couldn’t survive in an age when gov’ts were consolidating their authority in large kingdoms

No matter how brilliant and sophisticated, a compact city-state couldn’t withstand such superior force