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The Nuts and bolts of English

Nouns

Introduction to Nouns

There are more nouns than any other type of word in the English language. These words describe people, places and objects. That is, they refer to things. For example:

The dog barked at the man.

There are two nouns in this sentence, dog and man.

Mark Twain wrote this book.

There are two nouns in this sentence, Mark Twain and book.

Notice that proper nouns (names) and noun phrases (peanut butter, rock star) equal one noun.

Different kinds of Nouns

There are different kinds of nouns. Here is a guide with examples:

Proper nouns

Objects: Buckingham Palace, Ford Fiesta Zetec, Mount Fuji People’s Names: Mark, Amy, Chloe, Chris, James, Catherine, Martin Places: London, Yorkshire, Wales, The Sahara Desert, Japan

Concrete nouns

These are things you can touch or see and have a position in time and space. For example:

table, chair, building, electricity, clouds, burglar

Abstract nouns

There are three types of abstract noun:

1. Nouns that describe qualities, such as:

I promise to speak the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. I believe in justice and freedom, but not necessarily in the American way. I trust you understand the importance of the matter.

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2. Nouns that describe states, such as:

The employment situation in the UK is not so good. I live in hope that the world will become a better place. A good language teacher has a lot of knowledge about grammar. I need at least seven hours sleep every night. It is my belief that we are not alone.

3. Nouns that describe events or actions, such as:

I have an examination at 11.00am tomorrow. The fall of the Roman Empire did not happen overnight. I will write a reply to your letter later. Her voice was low, almost a whisper. The fight against Communism rose to a height during the 1950s in America.

Collective nouns

These describe a set or group of things, people or animals. For example, in the following phrases the highlighted nouns are group ones:

A swarm of bees A battalion of soldiers A flock of sheep A gaggle of geese A congregation of religious zealots A band of musicians

Countable and Uncountable nouns

Many nouns can be counted and these are called countable nouns. Generally when we put the word “one”, “a” or “many” in front of a noun it is countable. For example:

I have one apple in my hand. There are two apples on the table. There is a desk in my room. There are many desks in the classroom. There is one CD in my bag. There are many CDs in my house.

Some nouns can’t be counted and these are called uncountable nouns. For example:

water (you can’t say one water, two waters) rice (you can’t say one rice, two rices) bread (you can’t say one bread, two breads)

When we quantify a noun or put them in a box or a container, the noun remains uncountable.

For example:

I’d like a glass of water.

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May I have a portion of rice? Could you cut me a slice of bread?

Here, ‘glass’, ‘portion’ and ‘slice’ are countable nouns but ‘water’, ‘rice’ and ‘bread’ are still uncountable.

Sometimes we avoid mentioning the container but it is assumed. For example, “Can I have a cappuccino?” Here, “a cappuccino” refers to a cup of cappuccino, so in this context the noun “cappuccino” is countable.

There are some nouns which can be both depending on the context in which you use them.

Look at this example:

This recipe calls for two eggs. (Countable)

Here, the word “eggs” is countable. However, in the following sentence the word “egg” is uncountable. Can you see why?

The nutritionist suggested that I avoid recipes containing egg. (Uncountable)

Here, the noun “egg” is uncountable because the word “egg” is used in a non-specific or generic way. The speaker should avoid recipes containing egg as a product, not a particular egg or eggs.

Plural Nouns

All countable nouns have plurals. Usually we put an –s or an –es on the end of nouns. For example:

towns televisions buses foxes

Some nouns have irregular plurals and instead of the “–s“ or “–es” being added, the word changes or sometimes even stays the same. For example:

man becomes… men woman becomes… women fish stays the same… fish (although fishes can also be used) foot becomes… feet (although in the imperial measurement we sometimes use the

expression ‘six foot one’, instead of using the irregular plural form)

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Possessive Nouns

When a noun is owned by another noun, we add an apostrophe and an “s” to the first noun to indicate the possessive form. For example:

Mark’s new digital TV is cool. Martin’s car is pink. Catherine’s house is huge.

The first noun is not always a person. Sometimes an inanimate object can ‘own’ or ‘possess’ something. For example:

The university’s academic semester begins in September. Japan’s main export is cars. Please stand away from the water’s edge.

Sometimes the first noun will be neither a person nor a thing. For example:

In two days' time I’ll be gone. She didn’t answer my yesterday’s email

If the first noun already ends with an “s”, we simply add -’ at the end to indicate the possessive form, although it is acceptable to write another’s on the end of the noun. For example:

Chris’ DVDs. (This could also be: Chris’s DVDs.) Bridget Jones’ diary. (This could also be: Bridget Jones’s diary.) Jesus’ disciples. (This could also be Jesus’s disciples.)

For plural nouns ending in -s, the possessive is formed only by adding -'. However, for irregular plurals not ending in -s, we add an apostrophe and s.

For example:The foxes' tales ('foxes' is a regular plural)The sweets' wrapping ('sweets' is a regular plural)The oxen's owner ('oxen' is an irregular plural)

Compound Nouns

We often take a noun and put it with another to create a new word or collocation. For example, alarm and clock are two separate nouns, but when together they create a new collocation: alarm clock, which is called a compound noun.

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Adjectives

Introduction to Adjectives

Adjectives are words that are used to describe or tell us something about nouns. They often appear before the noun. For example:

The quick, brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.

The adjectives “quick” and “brown” appear before the noun “fox” and the adjective “lazy” appears before the noun “dog”.

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

When comparing things we use the comparative form for two things and the superlative form for three or more things. For example, using the adjectives “high”, “tall” and “beautiful”:

Mount Snowdon is a high mountain.(The simple form is high)

Mount Snowdon is higher than Scafell Pike.(The comparative form is higher)

Snowdon is the highest mountain in Wales.(The superlative form is the highest)

The Empire State is a tall building.(The simple form is tall)

The Empire State is taller than the Rockefeller Centre.(The comparative form is taller)

The Empire State is the tallest building in New York.(The superlative form is the tallest)

Jennifer Connelly is a beautiful woman.(The simple form is beautiful)

Jennifer Connelly is more beautiful than Julia Roberts.(The comparative form is more beautiful)

Jennifer Connelly is the most beautiful woman working in Hollywood today.(The superlative form is the most beautiful )

We sometimes use comparative and superlative adjectives to make statements that are true and sometimes we use them to state our opinions.

When the comparative adjective has more than two syllables, instead of putting the –er form at the end of the word, we precede it with the word more.

When the superlative adjective has more than two syllables, instead of putting the –est form at the end of the word, we precede it with the word most.

Adjectives which use the –ed form and –ing form

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Some adjectives use the –ed form (sometimes called past participle adjectives) and some use the –ing form (sometimes called present participle adjectives). Many of our students, even at advanced levels, get confused as to whether they should use the –ed form or the –ing form of the adjective, explaining why our non-native students sometimes say things such as: “I am boring” and “The film was bored”.

Verbs

Introduction to Verbs

Verbs are sometimes thought of as ‘doing’ or ‘action’ words. For example:

He walks to work. I am a student.

There are many verbs in English. Here are some examples:

write, walk, drive, smile, complain, eat, sleep… and many more

Verb Forms

Verbs appear in one of the four forms: present simple, past simple, present participle and past participle. For example:

I walk to work every morning.(Here the verb is in its present simple form)

I walked to the pub last night.(Here the verb is in its past simple form)

I was walking to a restaurant when you called me.(Here the verb is in its present participle form)

I had walked in that park before.(Here the verb is in its past participle form, which is used after the verbs ‘have’ and ‘be’. It is the same as past simple for regular verbs but it can be different for irregular verbs)

Notice that verbs do not appear in a future form. There is no future verb for walk or any other verb in the English language. When we want to talk about a walk in the future, we often say, we will walk or we are going to walk. We will deal with future tense constructions in greater detail in the next module.

Regular vs Irregular Verbs

There are about 200 verbs in English that are irregular, that is, they don’t conform to the usual “-ed” past simple and/or past participle construction . Here are some examples:

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I eat breakfast every morning.(Past simple: ate, Past participle: eaten)

I go for a run before breakfast.( Past simple: went, Past participle: gone )

I drink coffee around 9.00 am.( Past simple: drank, Past participle: drunk )

I get the paper every morning.( Past simple: got , Past participle: got or gotten )

He spends a lot of money.( Past simple: spent , Past participle: spent )

Auxilliary Verbs

Sometimes, you will find sentences where there are two verbs close together. One will usually be the main verb and one will be the auxiliary verb. The auxiliary verb usually comes before the main verb. Only a few verbs are used as auxiliary verbs in the English language. They are sometimes thought of as supporting verbs.

1. PrimaryThere are three Primary Auxiliary verbs in English:

Be Have Do

They can be used as main verbs. Look at the following sentences:

I am Mark.(from the verb ‘be’)

I have a good job.(from the verb ‘have’)

They do a lot of work.(from the verb ‘do’)

They can also be used as auxiliary verbs.We use be (was / were / are / am / is) as an auxiliary verb when we construct structures where the tense is continuous. Look at the following sentences using watch as the main verb:

I was watching LOST last week. I am watching LOST tonight. Martin is watching LOST with me.

We use have (have / has / had) as an auxiliary verb when we construct structures where the tense is perfect. Look at the following sentences using eat as the main verb:

I have eaten sushi. Has Martin eaten sushi? When I arrived at the restaurant, Martin had eaten all the sushi.

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We use do (do / did / does) for question forms, negative sentences and for emphasis. Look at the following sentences using like as the main verb:

Do you like chocolate? Martin didn’t like chocolate when he was young. Yes, Martin does like chocolate!

2. ModalThere are 11 true modal verbs in the English language. In the sentences below those verbs are in bold:

I can play the piano.(Main verb: play)

Could you close the door please?(Main verb: close)

May I use the bathroom?(Main verb: use)

I might visit my friends in Japan next year.(Main verb: visit)

I must finish this book.(Main verb: finish)

I will do the washing up.(Main verb: do)

I would speak to him, if I were you.(Main verb: speak)

You should eat more fruit.(Main verb: eat)

Cinderella shall go to the ball.(Main verb: go)

I ought to be careful of my weight.(Main verb: be)

I used to ride my bike so much when I was younger.(Main verb: ride)

If you look at these sentences you will recognise that there are certain things that modal verbs cannot do:

They don’t work as past tense verbs. For example: ‘canned’ – ‘coulded’ – ‘mayed’ –‘mighted’ – ‘musted’. (However there are a couple of exceptions to this rule which we will look at later in this course.)They don’t work as continuous or –ing form verbs. For example: ‘shoulding’ – ‘shalling’ –‘oughting to’ – ‘useding to’.They can’t stand alone as main verbs. For example: ‘I can the piano’ – ‘Could you the door?’ – ‘May I the bathroom?’ – ‘I might my friends next year.’You cannot create an infinitive form with modal verbs. That is, you can’t place the word “to” in front of them. For example: ‘to can’ – ‘to would’ – ‘to shall’ – ‘to ought to’ – ‘to must’ – ‘to should’.

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Subject and Object

Introduction to Subject and Object

Look at this sentence:

Chloë lost her keys.

There are three main parts to this sentence:

1. The main verb is “lost”.2. “Chloë” is the subject of the verb, that is, the ‘doer’ of the action.3. “Her keys” is the object of the verb, that is, the thing to which the action of the

verb is done.

In a longer sentence the subject and object may not be as conspicuous but you can always find them by looking for the ‘doer’ of the action and the ‘recipient’ of the action. For example, My friend Mike, who always amazes me with his extravagant purchases, bought a $500 golden penyesterday.

The ‘doer’ of the action is Mike (the subject), the action itself is ‘bought’ (the main verb) and the ‘recipient’, i.e. the thing to which the action is done is ‘pen’ (the object).

The object can be either a thing or a person, e.g. in the sentence ‘She married Bill’, ‘Bill’ is the object.

Gerunds and Infinitives

Look at this sentence:

Chloë lost her keys.

There are three main parts to this sentence:

1. The main verb is “lost”.2. “Chloë” is the subject of the verb, that is, the ‘doer’ of the action.3. “Her keys” is the object of the verb, that is, the thing to which the action of the

verb is done.

In a longer sentence the subject and object may not be as conspicuous but you can always find them by looking for the ‘doer’ of the action and the ‘recipient’ of the action. For example, My friend Mike, who always amazes me with his extravagant purchases, bought a $500 golden penyesterday.

The ‘doer’ of the action is Mike (the subject), the action itself is ‘bought’ (the main verb) and the ‘recipient’, i.e. the thing to which the action is done is ‘pen’ (the object).

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The object can be either a thing or a person, e.g. in the sentence ‘She married Bill’, ‘Bill’ is the object.

Gerunds vs Present Participles

Gerunds can also appear in compound nouns, such as:

Swimming pool Shopping centre Racing pigeon

...and in phrases where there is no main verb, such as:

How about giving me a lift? No smoking!

The gerund should not be confused with the present participle, which has the same form (verb-ing)The –ing form is always present participle if it is preceded by the auxiliary verb be:In the present tense:

am are is

In the past tense:

was were

If the –ing form is preceded by be, it is part of the continuous tense structure. Continuous tenses will be dealt with in detail in a future module. Here are some examples. Note that these sentences do not contain any gerunds, only present participles.

We’re seeing a movie tonight. Would you like to come?(Making arrangements with someone)

I’m watching TV at the moment.(On the phone to a friend)

Charles was teaching in class when a student asked a question.(Describing something that was in progress sometime in the past which was interrupted by something else)

Mark is running his own business at the moment.(Describing a current state or situation)

We were playing squash yesterday.(Describing an event that was in progress in the past)

Sometimes a present participle is not preceded by a form of ‘to be’. For example, in the sentence “I saw him dancing” “dancing” is a present participle as it doesn’t operate as a noun. As a test, try replacing it by “something”. You cannot say “I saw him something”, therefore it is neither a noun nor a gerund. On the other hand, you can say “I enjoy

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something”, therefore in the sentence “I enjoy dancing” “dancing” is a gerund.Another example:

He loves looking up at the clouds (“He loves something” – gerund) He lay looking up at the clouds (NOT “He lay something” – present participle)

These grammar points on use of gerunds are by no means exhaustive. This area of grammar is quite complex, so a good read through the section on gerunds in a decent grammar book would not go amiss. In the meantime, have a look at the next exercise.

Adverbs, Pronouns and Prepositions

Introduction to Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, that is, they describe verbs. They also show to what degree something has been done. Many adverbs end in -ly. For example:

Annie walked quietly into the room. My house was completely destroyed in the earthquake. He blatantly ignored my request.

Sometimes we use adverbs that do not end in -ly and we often refer to these as irregular adverbs. For example:

I’ve heard enough of your get rich quick schemes! Martin screwed the lid on the peanut butter jar tight. You’re going to have to drive your car fast to get there on time.

An adverb can also modify other words such as adjectives.

The whole lesson was extremely boring.(The adjective is boring)

The stones were hot enough to fry an egg on them.(The adjective is hot)

The man was completely unaware of the crime.(The adjective is unaware)

An adverbial can often be a phrase or a group of words that function as an adverb. For example:

Get down here as quickly as possible. We get together twice a week for dinner. The children could run around to their heart’s content.

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Adverbs of Manner, Time and Place

There are different types of adverbs and they do a lot of work. However, in this module we are going to examine just four types of adverb:

Adverbs of MannerThese adverbs concentrate on how something is done. For example:

Please don’t speak so quickly. I can’t hear what you are saying. The man walked hurriedly to the train station. The man next door plays his music so loudly. He must be deaf.

Adverbs of TimeThese adverbs concentrate on when something is done.

Shall I come round now? I saw Martin last week. I saw him yesterday.

Adverbs of PlaceThese adverbs concentrate on where something is done.

Shall we meet here again another time? There it is! Can you see it? I was walking through the mountains and everywhere I could hear the sound of

grazing sheep.

Adverbs of FrequencyThese adverbs concentrate on how often something is done.

I usually go to the cinema every week. I always catch the train to work. Martin plays chess occasionally.

We often use adverbials which generally give more information when we use these kinds of adverbs, such as:

I go to the cinema about four times a month. I catch the train to work most days. Martin plays chess a couple of times a year.

Introduction to Pronouns

A pronoun often refers to a noun that has been mentioned previously. For example:

Mr. Turner phoned. He is arriving at 10 o’clock.

He is a pronoun, which is used to avoid repeating Mr. Turner’s name.There are around a dozen subclasses of pronouns. A good grammar book will provide a

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more detailed list than you will find here. However, in the following exercises we will concentrate on just five subclasses.

Personal PronounsThese are: I- you - he - she - it - we – they – me – him – her – us – them

I like reading. He took us to the zoo. She is beautiful.

Possessive Determiner PronounsThese are: my- your - his - her - its - our - their (These are sometimes called possessive adjectives.)

Those are my books. Your bag is in the classroom. This is his CD.

Possessive Independent PronounsThese are: mine- yours - his - hers - its - ours - theirs

These books are mine. This bag is yours. These CDs are theirs.

Reflexive PronounsThese are: myself - yourself - himself - herself -ourselves - yourselves - themselves

I cut myself shaving this morning. I’m not doing it for you. Do it yourself! She got here all by herself.

Interrogative PronounsThese are question words that include: who - whose - what - which(The question words where - when - how - why are adverbs and are not included here)

Who left their bag on my chair? Whose book is this? What were you thinking of? Which of these do you think is best?

Introduction to Prepositions

A preposition usually goes before a noun or pronoun and links it with another word or phrase. They often show where things are in relation to each other. For example:

The book is lying on the table. I looked at the painting. The money is in my pocket.

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The supermarket is opposite the post office. My house is by the sea. She moved through the crowd.

There are many types of preposition in the English language. We will deal with just three in this module.

Prepositions of Time

Let’s meet at one o’clock. He arrived before me. My friends will come on Wednesday.

Prepositions of Place

Students are taught in a classroom. The book is on the desk. Let’s look at the top of the page.

Prepositions of Movement

The road goes down the hill, under the bridge, through the tunnel, past the lake and over the mountains.

The burglar went over the wall, through the back door and into the house.

You’ll need to go past the bank on the left, down the hill and through the traffic lights. Then you’ll see it.

Clauses

A clause is a group of words which contain a subject and a verb. Sometimes a clause by itself can make a short sentence. Sometimes clauses are put together to make longer sentences. We will deal with three types of sentences.

Simple SentencesLook at the first example:

Chris ate fish and chips.

In this sentence there is one main clause: “Chris ate fish and chips”. The subject is “Chris” and the verb is “ate”. Sentences with one main clause are called simple sentences.

Compound SentencesLook at the second example:

Chris ate fish and chips but Amy drank a bottle of beer.

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In this sentence there are two main clauses: “Chris ate fish and chips” and “Amy drank a bottle of beer”.These pieces of information are equally important. In the first clause the subject is “Chris” and the verb is “ate”. In the second clause the subject is “Amy” and the verb is “drank”. Sentences with two main clauses are called compound sentences. The clauses in a compound sentence are usually separated by the conjunctions 'and', 'or', 'but', and 'yet'.

Complex SentencesLook at the third example:

Chris, who works at the Odeon cinema, ate fish and chips.

In this sentence, there are two clauses: one is a main clause, while the other is a subordinate clause.The main clause is “Chris ate fish and chips”, because this is the focus of the sentence.The subordinate clause is “who works at the Odeon cinema”, because it is an aside, an extra piece of information. If we take out the subordinate clause, it will still leave the sentence complete. However if we take out the main clause, the subordinate clause will not make sense on its own.Sentences with one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses are called complex sentences.

Subordinate ClausesA subordinate clause can precede, interrupt or even follow a main clause.In these examples the subordinate clause precedes the main clause:

Although Chris wasn’t hungry, he ordered fish and chips. Despite feeling ill, Catherine decided to go to work. Even though he didn’t want to, Mark took his daughter to college.

In these examples, the subordinate clause interrupts the main clause:

Chris, who works at the Odeon cinema, ate fish and chips. Catherine, who stayed up late the night before, woke up feeling ill. Mark, who had a shed load of work to do, took his daughter to college.

In these examples, the subordinate clause follows the main clause:

Chris ate fish and chips, which he purchased from the local takeaway near the Odeon cinema.

Catherine decided to go to work, despite feeling ill. Mark took his daughter to college, even though he had many things to do.

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Conjunctions, Determiners and Numbers

Conjunctions

ntroductionA conjunction is a joining word that links clauses together to make compound and complex sentences. For example:

James wasn’t feeling hungry, but he managed to eat a portion of chips. Although Mark was feeling tired, he continued working through the night.

Main Clause ConjunctionsThe conjunctions linking main clauses include words such as: and - but - or -yet

James writes music but he doesn’t conduct the orchestra. You can have fish and chips or you can have pie and chips. We found a small scratch on the table, and the manager offered us a discount.

Note: these conjunctions do not necessarily link two clauses; they may be found within a clause and join single words or phrases. For example, “She was tired but happy”, “Would you like coffee or tea?”

Subordinate Clause ConjunctionsConjunctions linking subordinate clauses include words such as: after - although - if -since - when - wherever - whether - because

I haven’t seen him since he ran off with my girlfriend. Although she was tired, she wanted to go out. When Bill met Louise, he knew he had found the woman of his dreams.

Sometimes conjunctions are made of short phrases called conjunction phrases such as: as soon as - as if - so that - in as much as

She looked at me as if she had never seen me before. Mark put the schedule on the classroom wall, so that everyone could see it. As soon as James heard that Paul McCartney was performing in concert, he booked

a ticket.

Determiners

There are many types of determiners used in the English language. They are words that appear before nouns and tell us something about the noun.We will look at four types of determiners in this section.

ArticlesThe most common determiners are the definite article, which is ‘the’ and the indefinite article which is ‘a’ (or ‘an’ before vowels). Here are a few examples:

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Could you get a chair from the other classroom, please? The moon is full tonight. Would you mind closing the door? A taxi pulled up beside me. The man in the taxi asked me where I was going.

The definite article ‘the’ (which originated from ‘that’) refers to something that both the speaker and the listener already know about as it was mentioned before, or something that is unique – for example, the sun (there is only one sun), the chair standing in the corner (there is only one chair in that particular corner).

The indefinite article ‘a’ refers to something new, which hasn’t been previously mentioned. It has a meaning similar to ‘any’, ‘one of many identical objects’, etc.

QuantifiersSome determiners quantify a noun, that is they tell us how much there is or how many there are of the noun. For example:

There are many students in my class. There is one desk in my class. All children need love. How much does it cost? Some people are very lucky in life.

However, in the following example the only determiner is ‘any’ while ‘some’ is a pronoun: ‘Do you have any money? Yes, I have some’. ‘Any’ is a determiner because it determines the noun ‘money’. ‘Some’ doesn’t determine any noun in the sentence but it stands for ‘some money’, therefore it is a pronoun.

PronounsSome pronouns act as determiners in that they tell us who the noun belongs to. For example:

His girlfriend is extremely beautiful. My daughter needs love. This is your book. Don’t mention her ears. She’s very sensitive about them. Our class starts at 2.00 pm.

This and ThatSome determiners tell how near or how far a noun is. For example:

Look at that car. This is a nice car. I love driving this car. Look at these jeans. I’d love a pair. But what about those gloves over there?

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Introduction to Numbers

IntroductionThere are two kinds of number words in English:

Cardinal numbers, for example:

one, two, three, etc.

Ordinal numbers, for example:

first, second, third, etc.

Review

In this module you have learnt that English words are divided into the following categories:

Nouns Adjectives Verbs Adverbs Pronouns Prepositions Conjunctions Determiners Numbers

You have also learnt about gerunds and infinitives, which are derived from verbs but function as nouns.

You have been introduced to the grammar of English sentences, including main and subordinate clauses, the subject of a sentence and the object of a sentence.

Within each unit you have encountered some other terms too.

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Unit 2: English Tense Forms

Verbs

Verbs are easy to recognise in the English language. They are “doing” words or “action” words. Here are some examples of verbs in their various forms:

play - being - eaten - painting - have - sleep - would

There are many different types of verbs, which we will deal with in this module.

Verb Forms

As you learned in module 1, English verbs take one of these four forms:

- present simple form, e.g. live, go

- past simple form, e.g. lived, went

- present participle form, e.g. living, going

- past participle form (used after ‘have’ in perfect tenses or ‘be’ in passive voice), e.g. lived, gone

There are various ways of expressing a future time, but there is no future verb form. We will deal with this in more detail later.

In addition, there is the infinitive form of verbs. It is ‘to + verb’, e.g. to live, to go.

The infinitive form of verbs

With the exception of modal verbs (more on these later), you can place the word to in front of any verb. For example:

to be - to go - to sleep - to eat - to taste

Verbs in this form are called infinitive. However, there are two main types of infinitive verb: The to-infinitive and the bare infinitive. Look at the following examples:

Jason prefers to buy a house, rather than to rent one.

Elizabeth prefers to buy a house, rather than rent one.

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There is no difference in meaning between these two sentences. However, in the second part of each sentence, the first sentence uses the to-infinitive (“to rent”), while the second sentence uses the bare infinitive (“rent”).There are some verbs and structures in the English language that allow you to do this.However, on most occasions you can only use one of the two . Look at the above examples again. You cannot say, “Jason prefers buy a house.” The sentence requires that you use the to-infinitive, not the bare infinitive clause.Look at the following examples:

Jason asked Elizabeth to put her clothes in the wash last Saturday.

Jason asked Elizabeth put her clothes in the wash last Saturday.

The first sentence uses the to-infinitive clause and this is the correct form. The second sentence uses the bare infinitive clause and this is not the correct form. Look at the following examples:

They let the children to leave school early last Friday.

They let the children leave school early last Friday.

The first sentence uses the to-infinitive clause and this is not the correct form. The second sentence uses the bare infinitive clause and this is the correct form.

Remember that these infinitive clauses have a main verb that precedes it. In the first example, the main verb is prefer. In the second example, the main verb is asked. In the third example, the main verb is let. Another verb which is followed by a bare infinitive is ‘make’, as in Mike’s mother made him clean the room. The verb ‘help’ may be followed by either a full or a bare infinitive. For example, ‘My sister helped me do (to do) my homework.’

More on Primary auxiliary verbs

We have already seen from Module One that main verbs are often supported by auxiliary verbs. These verbs help to form verb phrases.The primary auxiliary verbs are:

be

have

do

Look at the following examples:

I’m warning you now. Give me that book. (Using the auxiliary verb be.)

Elizabeth has gone to bed now. (Using the auxiliary verb have.)

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Do you want to play squash on Thursday? (Using the auxiliary verb do.)

Sometimes these verbs are used as main verbs. For example:

I’m Jason.

Edward has the ball.

I do crosswords.

BeThis verb uses present forms: is ~ am ~ are. It uses past forms: was~ were. It uses the present participle form of the verb: being. It also uses the past participle form of the verb: been.The auxiliary verb be is used particularly in continuous tense constructions and in passive constructions.

HaveThis verb uses present forms too: have / has. It too uses a past form: had.The auxiliary verb have is used particularly with perfect tenses.

DoThis verb uses the present forms: do / does. It uses the past form: did. As an auxiliary verb, it does not use its present participle form doing or its past participle form done.It is used to form questions, negatives and to emphasise what we say. These are shown in the following examples:

Do you play squash?

No, I don’t want to play squash.

I do like to play squash.

Modal auxiliary verbs

Generally speaking, there are eleven modal auxiliary verbs in the English language. Unlike the primary auxiliary verbs (be, have and do), which have mainly a grammatical function, modal verbs carry meaning, that is, they carry the mood or the opinion of the speaker. With modal verbs you can express many things such as ability, advice, obligation and possibility.

Modal verbs are different from other verbs in the English language for a number of reasons. They are:

1. Can

2. Could

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3. Will

4. Would

5. Shall

6. Should

7. May

8. Might

9. Must

10. Ought to

11. Used to

Look at these five rules and see how they apply to modal verbs.1. You can’t put an -ed form on the end of them (e.g.‘shoulded’) or form an irregular plural. (Although there are three exceptions to this - see below.)

2. You can’t put an –ing form at the end of these verbs (e.g. ‘mighting’)

3. You can’t put an -s or an -es at the end of these verbs (e.g. ‘musts’)

4. They can’t stand alone as main verbs (e.g. ‘I can magic card tricks’). You need to follow them with a main verb.

5. You cannot create an infinitive form with modal verbs. That is, you can’t place the word to in front of them (e.g. ‘to shall’)

There are three exceptions to the first rule listed above. The verbs ‘can’(when used to describe ability) and ‘will’ (when used to describe a habit or tendency) as well as its negative form ‘won’t’ (when used to describe a refusal to do something) have the past forms ‘could’, ‘would’ and ‘wouldn’t’ respectively.

Compare:

I can speak Thai. – present

When I was living in Bangkok, I could speak Thai. – past

Whenever you invite him, he will always come on time. – present

Whenever you invited him, he would always come on time. – past

I talk to her, but she won’t listen. – present

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I talked to her, but she wouldn’t listen. – past

Some modal verbs often work with other auxiliary verbs to support the main verb. For example:

I should have talked to her. (The primary auxiliary verb is “have”.)

I must be getting off now. (The primary auxiliary verb is “be”.)

I ought to have tried harder. (The primary auxiliary verb is “have”.)

Sometimes need and dare are considered modal verbs but these do not fit the same pattern as the other eleven as they have a past tense form and they work as infinitive forms. The primary auxiliary verb have (followed by the to-infinitive form of the main verb) is also considered by some a modal verb.

For example:

I dared to question my teacher openly in class. (The main verb is “question”.)

I need to do my homework. (The main verb is “do”.)

I have to explain this to my friend. (The main verb is “explain”.)

There is argument among grammarians as to what to call these verbs when they are used in this way. Sometimes they are called Secondary Modal Verbs. The main thing to realise is that these operate as auxiliary or supporting verbs within the sentence.

The Present Simple Tense and the Past Simple Tense

Most of the English tenses are formed by combining one or more primary auxiliaries with one main verb. The only two tenses which do not use any auxiliaries in affirmative sentences are the Present Simple and the Past Simple.

For example:

I work as a tour guide. Jason works as a tour guide. (Present Simple)

Elizabeth worked as a tour guide. (Past Simple)

The only verb in these sentences is the main verb. However, the auxiliary verb do is required for the interrogative and negative forms of these tenses, for example:

Do you work as a tour guide?

Does Jason work as a tour guide?

Did Elizabeth work as a tour guide?

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I don’t work as a tour guide.

Elizabeth doesn’t work as a tour guide.

Shawn didn’t work as a tour guide.

The Present Continuous Tense and the Past Continuous Tense

Present Continuous

When we want to talk about something which is continuing (or progressing) as we speak, we use the present continuous tense (also called the present progressive tense).

When we use the present continuous tense form, –ing is put at the end of the main verb, and the main verb is preceded by the appropriatepresent form of the auxiliary verb be: am, are or is.

Look at these examples:

I’m speaking with my friends

They’re walking in the mountains.

She’s studying music at university.

Past Continuous

When we want to talk about something that was ongoing at a definite moment in the past, we use the past continuous tense. It is also called the past progressive tense.

When we use the past continuous tense form, –ing is put at the end of the main verb, and the main verb is preceded by the appropriate past form of the auxiliary verb be: was or were .

Look at these examples:

I was speaking with my friends (at 7 o’clock last night).

They were walking in the mountains (when they discovered the missing plane).

She was studying music at Leeds University (when I first met her).

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Regular and Irregular Verbs

Most verbs are regular, that is, when they become past simple or past participle forms we put a simple –ed at the end. Look at the following examples:

talk becomes talked

listen becomes listened

watch becomes watched

However, there are some verbs that are not formed this way. These verbs are called irregular verbs. Look at the following examples:

eat becomes ate (past simple) and eaten (past participle)

drink becomes drank (past simple) and drunk (past participle)

sleep becomes slept (past simple & past participle)

As you can see, the past simple and past participle forms of a verb can be either different or the same. They are the same with all regular verbs and many irregular verbs, e.g. ‘slept’, ‘bought’, ‘put’, ‘made’, ‘sat’, ‘felt’, ‘stood’, ‘won’. With such verbs the only way to tell whether a sentence uses the past simple or past participle is by checking whether the main verb is preceded by a form of ‘have’ or ‘be’. It is preceded by a form of ‘have’ in perfect tenses (e.g. ‘He has always admired her’) and by a form of ‘be’ in the passive voice (for example, ‘He was admired by everyone’). If it is preceded by either ‘have’ or ‘be’, the main verb is in its past participle form. If it is not preceded by either of these verbs, the main verb is in its past simple form.

Here are two more examples:

He saved $1,000 – past simple. He has saved $1,000 – past participle. $1,000 was saved by him – past participle.

We spent $1,000 – past simple. We have spent $1,000 – past participle. $1,000 was spent by us – past participle.

The Present Perfect Tense and the Past Perfect Tense

The Present Perfect TenseLook at the following sentences:

I have travelled to Japan.

We have eaten sushi.

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He has learned to speak Japanese.

These sentences use the auxiliary verb have or has, which is followed by the past participle form of the main verb. This tense construction is called the Present Perfect tense. Sometimes it is called the Present Perfect Simple tense. (Any tenses that are not continuous tenses can be called simple.) We often use this tense to talk about things we did at an unspecified time in the past, our experience as of today and something that started in the past but hasn’t been completed.

The Past Perfect TenseWhen we want to emphasize that something in the past happened before another action in the past, we can use the past perfect for the earlier action. For example:

When I got to Hyde Park, the concert had started.

After he had served his time, the criminal was released.

By the time John arrived at the party, everyone had left.

Please note that the past participle form of the main verbs (started / served / left) is preceded by the past form of the auxiliary verb have (had).

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense and the Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Present Perfect ContinuousIt is possible to combine two constructions and create a new one. For example:

I have been living here in Bangkok since June.

In this sentence there are three verbs: have, been and living.1. Have is the present form of the auxiliary verb ‘have’.2. Been is the past participle of the auxiliary verb ‘be’.3. Living is the present participle of the main verb ‘live’.

We use this tense when we talk about something that started in the past and continues down to the present.This tense is called Present Perfect Continuous (sometimes called Present Perfect Progressive).

Past Perfect ContinuousThis tense is similar in construction to the last one but uses the past tense form of the auxiliary verb had. For example:

It had been snowing all day and the streets were wet and slippery.

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In this sentence there are three verbs: had, been and snowing.1. Had is the past form of the auxiliary verb ‘have’.2. Been is the past participle of the auxiliary verb ‘be’.3. Snowing is the present participle of the main verb ‘snow’.

We use this tense when we talk about something that was happening for a period of time in the past and was completed by or still going on at a specified time in the past.

This tense is called the Past Perfect Continuous (sometimes called the Past Perfect Progressive).

The Future Forms

There are a number of ways to talk about the future. We will look at four of them:1. The Future with “Going To”2. Future Simple (Will)3. Present Continuous with a Future meaning4. The Future using Modal Verbs

The Future with ‘Going To’When we want to describe our plans, intentions or things we have decided to do, we precede the main verb with the structure going to. This is sometimes referred to as a verb idiom, yet though it functions as an auxiliary verb, it should be treated simply as a two-word structure or phrase that precedes the main verb indicating a future time. For example:

I’m going to teach my new students tomorrow.

She’s going to visit her mother next week.

We are going to go to the cinema tonight.

In these sentences, going to is the future structure followed by the present tense of the main verb (teach / go / visit). Notice too that going to is preceded by the verb be (am / is / are).This structure is also used when we predict future events based on present evidence.

For example:

Look at those clouds. It’s going to rain.

At this rate, they are not going to finish the construction by next year.

The going to structure looks like this:Auxiliary verb “be” + “going to” + infinitive of main verb

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The Future Simple (Will)Sometimes when we refer to the future, we precede the main verb with the modal verb will. We often refer to this structure as Future Simple. For example:

I will accept your proposal.

Elizabeth will go to the Ball.

I won’t see that film again! (The negative form of will)

In these sentences the modal verb will is the future indicator followed by the bare infinitive form of the main verbs (accept / go / see).Will is often used when we make decisions on the spur of the moment, often to make an offer. For example:

Okay, I’ll go to the cinema with you.

Oh, go on then, I’ll do it!

Ok, I’ll do the washing up.

At other times, you can use will to make predictions or general statements about the future. For example:

It will rain tomorrow.

Shawn will finish this book by next week.

There’ll be 12 people turning up for dinner tonight.

The will structure looks (very simply) like this:Modal verb "will" + bare infinitive of main verb

Present Continuous with a Future MeaningThe Present Continuous form describes what we are doing at the present moment. For example:

I’m watching television.

Edward is driving to Scotland.

My friends are having a party.

However, we can use this same structure to talk about the future. For example:

I’m watching television tonight.

Edward is driving to Scotland tomorrow.

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My friends are having a party next week.

The inclusion of the adverbs tonight, tomorrow and next week indicates that you are speaking about an activity that will be in progress in the future. It’s almost as if you can imagine seeing yourself watching television at a future time.We use this form when we talk about future plans or arrangements. For example:

I’m going out with my friends for dinner later.

Sorry, I can’t come round now - I’m seeing Michelle tonight.

We’re watching Avatar on Friday.

The structure is therefore:Present tense form of auxiliary verb “be” + present participle of main verb

The Future Using Modal VerbsOf the eleven modal verbs, six can be used to predict a possible future:

1. I may be able to help you.2. Deon might just give me a raise.3. I could do it if you gave me a chance.4. My friend Warren has a car. He can take you home.5. Lorna would climb Mount Everest if she had the chance.6. The parcel should arrive by the end of the week.

There is a modal verb that can be used to substitute will, and that is shall. The use of shall seems to indicate a determination on the part of the user. However, shall is falling out of use these days. Look at these examples:

Elizabeth shall go to the ball.

Shall we go to the beach?

I shall do some studying tonight.

We can also use different tense constructions by mixing the continuous and the perfect with the future. For example:

The Future Continuous

We’ll be waiting for your call.

Every breath you take. Every move you make. I’ll be watching you.

She’ll be coming round the mountain when she comes.

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This structure uses the following structure:modal verb “will” + auxiliary verb “be” + present participle of main verb

The Future Perfect

I’ll have started work by the time you get up.

I will have taught all my classes by 4.00pm tonight.

At this rate you’ll have eaten all the sandwiches by the time the guests arrive.

This structure uses the following structure:modal verb “will” + auxiliary verb “have” + past participle of main verb

The Future Perfect Continuous

I’ll have been cleaning my house for three hours by lunchtime.

By the end of this year, we’ll have been playing together in this band for five years.

Jason will have been teaching for almost twenty years next year.

This structure uses the following structure:modal verb “will” + auxiliary verb “have” + past participle of auxiliary verb “be” + present participle ofmain verb

The Active and Passive Voices

Aside from having different tenses, verb phrases have two voices. These are the active voice and the passive voice.When we use the active voice, the ‘doer’ of the action is the subject of the sentence. The ‘doer’ of the action is sometimes called the agent. For example:

Manchester University employs people. (Present simple tense)

People in India export cars. (Present simple tense)

The dog bit the man. (Past simple tense)

The girl in the green dress asked the tall man to dance with her. (Past simple tense)

In the active voice the structure of the sentence is:The subject (the “agent”) + the verb + the objectHowever, when we use the passive voice, the object of the sentence becomes the subject. For example:

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People are employed by Manchester University. (Present simple tense – passive voice)

Cars are exported from India. (Present simple tense – passive voice)

The man was bitten by the dog. (Past simple tense – passive voice)

The tall man was asked to dance with the girl in the green dress. (Past simple tense – passive voice)

In the passive voice the structure of the sentence is this:The subject (which is the former object, NOT the“agent”) + a form of auxiliary verb be + past participle of main verbWhen we make active sentences passive, the focus of the sentence shifts from the agent (the original subject) to the object. In fact, the agent often becomes unimportant and is sometimes unknown. For example, look at the following sentence:

Someone stole my car yesterday.

We don’t know who that “someone” is. Notice what happens when we use the passive -we don’t even refer to the person who stole the car. The focus is on the stealing.

My car was stolen yesterday.

Now look at the following sentence:

People build houses using a variety of materials.

We don’t know exactly who builds houses in this sentence and it is not that important. The focus is on the building of the houses using a variety of materials, so the people who build them are not even mentioned.

Houses are built using a variety of materials.

Passive forms are often used in quiz shows. Look at the following examples:

The famous cathedral La Sagrada Familia is found where?

JFK was assassinated when?

The first man to travel to outer space was born in which country?

The Conditional Forms

We are now going to look at structures called the conditional forms. There are two clauses in these structures. These clauses are usually called the conditional clause or if-clause (the cause) and the main clause (the effect).

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Sometimes they are called the if-conditionals or if-structures, because the sentences contain the word if.

There are basically four conditionals which will be dealt with in the following units.

The Zero Conditional (The Logical Conditional)This is sometimes also called the present conditional because the first and the second clauses use the present simple tense most of the time. We use this conditional to talk about a fact or convey a logical conclusion. For example:

If you mix yellow and blue, you get green.

If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.

If you fall off your motorcycle, it hurts.

The structure looks like this:If + present tense clause + present tense clauseYou can substitute the word when for the word if in many sentences and it will mean the same.

When you mix black and white, you get grey.

When you heat oil, it starts to smoke.

When you read books, you learn things.

Occasionally we use the past simple in both the if-clause and the main clause as shown in the following examples:

If Peter was at home, he didn’t answer the phone.(When we make assumptions)

If ever I was bored, I hung around with my mates.(When we talk about the way things used to be in the past)

As a rule, we don’t teach zero conditionals. Our non-native learners seem to pick this up as they go along as it is not a structure we use very much.

The First Conditional (The Probable Future Conditional)In this conditional the if-clause generally uses the present simple tense while the main clause uses the future simple tense. The first conditional can be used for a variety of functions including: to give warnings, to make threats, to make promises, to give advice and give directions. We use this structure to talk about a probable future. For example:

If you study this book, you’ll have a much better understanding of grammar.

If you come near me again, I’ll call the police.

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If you put your hand in the lion’s cage, it will bite your arm off.(Not the cage, the lion, you fool)

The structure looks like this:If + present tense clause + future simple tense clauseHowever, there are occasions when we can use a continuous tense in the first clause and other future structures (such as modal verbs) in the second clause as shown in the following examples:

If it rains, we might go to the cinema.

If my ex-girlfriend should happen to turn up, I’ll probably leave.

Sometimes, if I’m working hard in my office, I won’t answer the door.

As a rule, we introduce the first conditional structure to lower intermediate students.

The Second Conditional (The Hypothetical Conditional)In this conditional, the first clause uses the past simple tense and the second clause uses the bare infinitive form preceded by the modal verb would. We use the second conditional form to talk about an unreal or hypothetical present or future. For example:

If I won the lottery, I’d buy a big house on the south coast of France.

If I were you, I’d write her a letter and explain my feelings.

If Elvis were alive, he would have something to say about today’s music.

The structure looks like this:If + past tense clause + modal verb ‘would’ + infinitive clauseHowever, sometimes other modal verbs can be used instead of would, such as could or might. Here are some examples which you will see in the main clause.

If I went to see that film again, I could take my friend Catherine.

If she ever talked to me again, I would do a little dance in the street.

If I saw him again, I ought to break his neck.

As a rule, we introduce the second conditional structure to lower intermediate or intermediate students.

The Third Conditional (The Past Conditional)In this conditional, commonly called the past conditional, the first clause uses the past perfect tense and the second clause uses the past participle preceded by the modal verb would and the auxiliary verb have. We use the third conditional form when we want to express regret or to express what might have been.

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If I had run faster, I would have caught the bus.

If I had known you were coming, I would have baked a cake.

If I had been kinder to my girlfriend she wouldn’t have left me.

The structure looks like this:If + past perfect tense clause + modal verb “would” + auxiliary verb “have” + past participleAgain, sometimes other modal verbs can be used instead of would, such as could or might. Here are some examples which you will see in the main clause.

If Jason hadn’t met Elizabeth, he might have been single all his life.

If Shawn hadn’t been nasty to his girlfriend, he could’ve still been with her.

If you had told me you were coming, I might’ve asked you to get some milk.

As a rule, we introduce the third conditional structure to intermediate or upper-intermediate students.

Mixed ConditionalsThis structure mixes the if-clause from the third conditional and the main clause from the second conditional. For example:

If I had listened to my mother, I wouldn’t be here now.

If I hadn’t wasted my life on drink and drugs, I would have a good job and lots of money.

If Mike had only planned ahead, she wouldn’t be stuck in a war torn country.

Occasionally, this structure mixes the if-clause from the second conditional and the main clause from the third conditional. For example:

If he really wanted to do it, he would have done it before now.

If James thought about it, he would have come to the same conclusion.

If Deon were rich, he would have shared his money with me.

Variations of Conditional Structures

The conditional clauses can change places in a sentence. The “if” word appears in the middle of the sentence, as shown in the following sentences:

You get green, if you mix blue and yellow.

You’ll get a much better understanding of grammar, if you study this book.

I’d pay off all my debts, if I won the lottery.

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Also, you can do away with the “if” word altogether in certain structures.

Had I known it was you, I wouldn’t have answered the door.

Were we to offer you more money, would you do it?

Should anyone call, tell them I’m busy.

There are even certain expressions in the English language where you only need one clause in a conditional as shown in the following spoken phrases:

Jason, if you could shut the door, please.

Elizabeth, if you could do me a favour.

Michelle, if you wouldn’t mind.

If + not in the first conditional is sometimes replaced by unless, e.g. I won’t pay you if you don’t do your job properly – I won’t pay you unless you do your job properly.

As a rule, we introduce mixed conditional structures to upper intermediate students

Review

The Tense Structures

A. Present Simple:Present simple form : I go to the cinema every week. He goes to the cinema every week.

B. Past Simple:Past simple form : I went to the cinema last week. I liked the film.

C. Future Simple:Will + bare infinitive : I ’ll go to the cinema with you.

D. Present Continuous:Am/are/is + present participle : I ’m watching a film.

E. Past Continuous:Was/were + present participle : I was watching a film earlier.

F. Future Continuous:Will be + present participle : I will be watching a video tonight at eight o’clock.

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G. Present Perfect:Have/has + past participle : I have seen Babel three times.

H. Past Perfect:Had + past participle : By the time I arrived at the cinema, the film had finished.

I. Future Perfect:Will have + past participle : I will have finished watching season two of THE SOPRANOS by the end ofthe day.

J. Present Perfect Continuous:Have/has + been + present participle : I have been sitting in the cinema for two hours now.

K. Past Perfect Continuous:Had+ been + present participle : I had been waiting in the queue for twenty minutes, when we were told to go home.

L. Future Perfect Continuous:Will have + been + present participle : By ten o’clock tonight I will have been watching season two of THE SOPRANOS for half a year.

M. Future with “Going To”:Am/are/is + going + infinitive : I am going to watch a film at the cinema tonight.

As you may have observed, all continuous tenses use a form of the verb ‘be’ and a present participle, whereas all perfect tenses use a form of the verb ‘have’ and a past participle.

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Unit 3: English Tense Functions

Time References

When we use the present simple tense, many people assume that we are referring to the present, that is, right now. Is this always true? For example:

The Prime Minister unveils new policies.

This is taken from a newspaper headline. Although it is written in the present tense, it refers to a past time. It is a reported past event. As you can see, the tense name and the time reference do not always coincide. This happens because tenses have to do with the form of a verb phrase rather than its meaning.

Present and Past Simple Tense Functions

In addition to referring to different times, sentences that use the same tense can have quite different functions.

Look at the following four sentences. All of them use the present simple tense construction yet they all have different functions.

These sentences express a scientific or general truth:

Tadpoles turn into frogs.

It snows in winter.

It’s cold in outer space.

The sentences express a routine.

I play squash at least once a week.

I write two pages on my novel every day.

Martin drives for a living.

These sentences are newspaper headlines and describe recent past events.

Two Hundred Die in Plane Crash.

Man Gives Birth

Bush Invades Iraq

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These sentences contain information that is found on schedules or timetables and refer to a future time.

The exam starts at 8:30 tomorrow.

The plane sets off in 30 minutes.

The train leaves at ten o’clock tonight.

Now look at the following four examples that all use the First Conditional. Notice how each sentence uses the same structure yet the function or meaning is different. The present tense verb in each of the first clauses is highlighted.

These are practical suggestions.

If you practice every day, you’ll play the piano well.

If you treat people well, they will love you.

If you eat well, you’ll be healthy.

These are warnings.

If you use that CD as a coaster, you’ll damage it.

If you don’t stop, you’ll hurt yourself.

If you go too fast, you’ll get caught.

These are threats.

If you go near my girlfriend again, I’ll smack you.

If you damage my car, you’ll have to pay for it.

If you come near me again, I’ll call the police.

The difference between warnings and threats may not be immediately apparent. However, in warnings the speaker tells the listener what will happen if the listener takes a certain course of action, whereas in threats the speaker tells the listener what the speaker will do to the listener if the listener takes a certain course of action.

Similar to the present simple, the past simple tense can also have a variety of functions.

It can be part of reported speech.Reported (or indirect) Speech retells what someone has said opposed to quoting the person. For example:

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Direct Speech: Larry said: "I want to go to Spain."Indirect (reported) Speech: Larry said that he wanted to go to Spain.

It can refer to a past state.

She liked rock music

He owned a mansion

It can refer to a hypothetical situation (being part of the second conditional).

If you knew her better, you wouldn't be surprised.

It would be easy if you tried.

It can convey a present regret or wish.

If only I wasn't so shy!

I wish you spoke with him.

It can refer to a past habit or routine.

She listened to her favorite CDs every morning.

Whenever I phoned Lucy she said she was so busy.

It often describes a completed action at a specified time in the past.

The fireworks began at 8 o'clock.

I invited him to the party yesterday.

Continuous Functions

The present continuous (sometimes referred to as the present progressive) uses the –ing form of the verb and is often used to describe something that is temporary. For example:

It's raining

That is, it’s raining now, but it is temporary.

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The past continuous (sometimes referred to as the past progressive), which also uses the –ing form of the verb is used to describe something that was temporary sometime in the past. For example:

It was raining yesterday

That is, it rained yesterday for a temporary period and irrespective of what the weather is like now, that period came to an end. (If it is still raining and hasn’t stopped, we would generally use the present perfect continuous tense and say: “It has been raining since yesterday”.)

Future Functions

Look at these functions of the Future Simple tense (will + bare infinitive)

1. A command or order:

* Will you sit down and listen!

2. A future possibility or prediction:

* It’ll probably be too late to do anything by then.

* I think the weather will improve tomorrow.

3. An offer or promise:

* I’ll help you with the suitcase.

* I will always be your friend.

4. A definite future event:

* The Olympic Games will be held in London.

* Mark will be 7 next spring.

5. A request:

* Will you lend me a hand?

* Will you let me stay with you for a week?

The future form ‘shall’ is often used for suggestions:

Shall we dance?

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Occasionally ‘shall’ can perform other functions too.

Perfect Functions

The present perfect is the most commonly used perfect tense construction in the English language. Although it has many functions we will deal primarily with just four.

A. It describes a state, event or habit that started in the past, and continues to the present and may continue into the future. For example:

I have lived in this house for six years.

We haven’t seen each other since graduation.

B. It describes an event which was completed sometime in the past, but which has some significance to the present. For example:

I’m not hungry just now. I’ve just eaten.

Have you eaten yet?”

My car has broken down. (i.e. it’s not working now)

C. It describes an experience at an unidentified time in the past (usually one which you remember clearly). For example:

I have done a bungee jump.

Have you ever seen a Yeti?

D. It describes the overall experience of doing a certain action, i.e. the action is of repeated nature. For example:

I have seen that film five times.

He has been to many European countries.

Modal Verb Functions

Modal verbs have very different functions. Of the eleven modal verbs in the English language, we are going to look briefly at two of them: can and could.

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The best way to observe the various functions of these verbs is to consider the specific examples in the following exercise.

Conditional Functions

We have dealt with conditionals both in this section and in detail in Module Two. Here is a list of functions commonly performed by the zero, first, second or third conditionals.

A. To talk about past regrets (we sadly can’t turn back time)

If I'd met my husband earlier in life, I wouldn't have had so many relationships.

B. To express a sense of relief or satisfaction at the way things turned out in the past

If I hadn't exercised daily, I wouldn't have won the championship.

C. To make polite requests

If you turned the volume down a little, it would really help me concentrate.

D. To give advice

If you brought all the necessary tools, you'd be able to finish the job more quickly

E. To talk about hypothetical situations (an unreal scenario for the present or future)

If I were an astronaut, I would take a lot of photographs of Earth from Space.

F. To talk about future possibilities or probabilities

If the snowstorm begins tomorrow morning, we'll have to stay inside.

G. To impose a condition

I will only be able to give you any advice if you tell me the whole story

H. To make threats

If your dog goes trampling on my flowers again, I'll kill it!

I. To give warnings

If you don't revise all the material, you'll fail the exam.

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J. To talk about someone’s usual behavior

Ann never leaves on time unless you keep telling her to hurry up.

K. To talk about general truths (for example, scientific facts)

If it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere.

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Unit 4: Vocabulary and Phonology

Fields

One of the biggest problems for non-native speakers is their learning of vocabulary. Students will often lament that their vocabulary is small and limited. Often in your lessons, you will want to (and indeed have to) teach new vocabulary, and one of the best ways to do this will be by word association.

Words can be put into groups. That is, words are connected according to a particular subject or field.

For example:Amy, Chloe, Catherine, Julie - these can be classified as girls’ names.Mark, Chris, James, Martin - these can be classified as boys’ names.

Antonyms and Synonyms

An antonym is a word that has the opposite meaning. For example:

The antonym of thin is fat. The antonym of fast is slow. The antonym of big is little (or small)

A synonym is a word that has the same meaning. For example:

A synonym of thin is slim. A synonym of fast is quick. A synonym of big is large.

Homophones

Some words sound exactly the same but have both a different spelling and a different meaning. These are called homophones. For example:

Which and Witch

One of these words is a pronoun whereas the other flies around on a broomstick, yet they sound exactly the same.

Homographs

Some words in the English language are spelt in the same way but have different unrelated meanings. Such words are called homographs.They may or may not be pronounced in the same way, but they do look the same in writing and may be confusing in a written text.

For example:

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- ‘bow’ as in ‘They bow to the king’ or ‘a bow and arrow’.

- ‘can’ as in “I can do it’ and ‘The can was empty’.

Syllables

Words are made of syllables. Some small words will have just one syllable. Here are few examples:

get

King

stressed

However, other longer words will have more than one syllable. Look at these examples:

This word has two syllables Japan

This word has three syllables beautiful

This word has four syllables photography

This word has five syllables hippopotamus

This word has six syllables onomatopoeia

Word Stress

When we speak, we naturally pronounce some syllables with more force than others. The syllable is louder and longer. This is called word stress. When we are teaching non-native speakers we usually mark the stressed syllable with a large circle and the lesser syllable or syllables with a smaller circle. We always mark the syllable above the vowel.

For example:o O oConfusionOn the word confusion, the second of the three syllables is stressed.

Now have a look at the following examples:RecordTransportEach of these words contain two syllables, but which syllable is stressed? This depends on whether the

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word is a noun or a verb.

For example, if the words were treated as nouns then the stress marks would appear like this:O oRecord (as in record that needs to be broken or a record that you would play on a turntable)O oTransport (as in a mode of transport like the buses or trains or your car)

However, if these words were treated as verbs, then the stress would change like this:o ORecord (as in, to record, whether it be in written form or in a recording studio)o OTransport (as in, to transport something from one place to another)

It is good to be aware of the differences between the British and the American way of pronouncing words.

For example:o O o ocontroversyCompare this to the American way of pronouncing the same word:O o o ocontroversy

Sounds

The pronunciation of words in the English language often causes problems to a non-native speaker. Words, which have similar spellings or the same combinations of letters, can often have very different meanings yet have a similar sound. For example:

Glass and

Grass

These words have quite different meanings, yet the sound of each word is similar, especially to a non native speaker from Japan.