The Objects of Biology Paper (Tugas 1)

GENERAL BIOLOGY

THE OBJECTS OF BIOLOGY

Disusun Oleh :

M. Fajar Fathu Rhohman 13304241042

Inayatul Laili 13304241044

Gahar Ajeng Prawesti 13304241064

PROGRAM STUDI PENDIDIKAN BIOLOGI C

JURUSAN PENDIDIKAN BIOLOGI

FAKULTAS MATEMATIKA DAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN ALAM

UNIVERSITAS NEGERI YOGYAKARTA

2013

1The Objects of Biology

CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOLOGYThe basic things of biology is about Biology comes from bios, meaning life and logos,

meaning science. Biology is the study of everything about living things. Biology has developed very rapidly and can help people solve problems faced in everyday life.

Objects or the study of biology is a living thing. Living beings on this earth is vast and diverse, so as to facilitate the study, experts categorize / classify into groups (kingdom / empire).

Biology as a science has certain traits. BSCS (Science Curriculum biological study) illustrates the structure of biological science simply as a cover up of 3-dimensional objects, the level of organization of life, a theme issue. Sebaga biological sciences have a certain object, the degree to which objects are studied and the theme is the issue of a particular object. The 3-dimensional picture up by BSCS biology scholarship are as follows:

The objects of the study subsequently growing in line with the progress of science and technology, so that the study of each of the objects more complex or complicated. The study includes a variety of themes, among others, according to the biological question of Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS), 1996 is as follows:

Evolution: patterns and products of change Interactions and interdependence Maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium Growth, development, and differentiation Genetic continuity Energy, matter, and organization Science, technology, and society

THE ORGANIZATION OF LIFEA HIERACY OF INCREASING COMPLEXITYThe complexity of life at three levels (Cunningham, 2003:31): cellular, organismal, and population.A. Cellular Level:


1. Molecules. Atoms, the fundamental elements of matter, are joined together into complex clusters called Molecules. DNA, which stores the hereditary information in all living organism, is a complex biological molecule, called a macromolecule.

2. Organelles. Complex biological molecules are assembled into tin compartments within cells called organelles, within which cellular activities are organized. The nucleus is an organelle within which the cell’s DNA is stored.

3. Cells. Organelles and other elements are assembled in the membrane-bounded units we call cells. Cell are the smallest level of organization that can be considered alive.

B. Organismal Level:1. Tissue. The most basic level is that of tissues, which are groups of similar cells that act as a

functional unit. Nerve tissue is one kind of tissue, composed of cell called neurons that are specialized to carry electrical signals from one place to another in the body.

2. Organs. Tissues, in turn, are grouped into organs, which are body structures composed of several different tissues grouped together in a structural and functional unit.

3. Organ system. At the third level of organization, organs are grouped into organ system. The nervous system, for example, consists of sensory organs, the brain and spinal cord, and neurons that convey signals to and from them.

C. Population Level:1. Population. The most basic of these is the population, which is a group of organisms of the

same species living in the same place. A flock of geese living together on a pond is a population.

2. Species. All the population of a particular kind of organism together form a species. Its members similar in appearance and able to interbreed. All Canada geese, whether found in Canada, Minnesota, or Missouri, are basically the same, members of the species Branta canadenis .

3. Community. At the higher tier of biological organization, a community consist of all the populations of different species living together in one place. Geese, for example, may share their pound whit ducks, fish, grasses, and many kind of insects. All interact in a single pound community.

4. Ecosystem. At the highest tier of biological organization, a biological community and the soil and water within which it lives together constitute an ecological system, or ecosystem.

5. Biomes. Biomes has a bigger zone than an ecosystems. Its characteristics is based on each climate. The object of biome include almost the variety biomes in the world likes rainfall, moisturize, temperature, and wind.

THE OBJECTS OF BIOLOGYA. Monera

The smallest independently living things are prokaryotic organism that belong to the kingdom monera.many monerans are single-celled organism that are so small. Each one metabolizes food, produces wastes, grows, and reproduces.There are two major group of monerans, the bacteria and the cyanophytes.All of the cyanophytes are autotrophic, contain


chlorophyll. The process of photosynthesis in cyanophites is similiara to that in eukariots. The bacteria are heterotrophs that feed by secreting enzymes into their enviroment.

Monerans do not reproduce sexually. They do not undergo meiosis, nor do they form gametes that fuse to form a zygote. The process of conjugation.

B. ProtistFlosting near the surface of the seas are billions og tiny organisms called plankton. The

word plankton comes from a greek word meaning “ wanderer”. Planktonic organism are not attached anywhere.a. Plant like protist

The protist are a diverse group. Some protist groups are primaily autotropic and are classified as plant-like protist.1. Phylum Euglenophyta

The Phylum Euglenophyta have choloplasts and are autotropic.ussualy bright green chloroplasts are distributed throughout the cytoplasm. Euglenas move by means of whiplike structure called flagella. Flagella are common in many eukoriotes.euglena does not have a cell wall.Euglenas live in fresh water. The cytoplasm of their cells is always more concentrated than fresh water. Autotroph

2. Phylum PyrrophytaThe most pyrrophytes are dinoflagellates.The chloroplasts of dinoflagellates contain

chlorophyll. However, abundant red and yellow pigments. The nucleus of dinoflagellates is unusual. Recal that in most eukaryotes, chromosomes are visible only during mitosis.autotroph. Live in both fresh and salt water

3. Phylum ChrysophytaTheir characteristic gold or brown color comes from the predominance of pigmen

other than chlorophyll. Most of the 6500 spesies of chrysophytes are diatoms autotroph. Live in both fresh and salt water

4. Phylum ChlorophytaChlorophyta is a division of green algae, informally called chlorophytes. The name

is used in two very different senses, so care is needed to determine the use by a particular author. In older classification systems, it refers to a highly paraphyletic group of all the green algae within the green plants (Viridiplantae) and thus includes about 7,000 species of mostly aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Like the land plants (bryophytes and tracheophytes), green algae contain chlorophylls a and b and store food as starchin their plastids.

5. Phylum RhodophytaThese are called the “red algae.” They also are multicellular and marine-dwelling,

but are more typically found in tropical zones and deeper in the ocean. They also go through alternation of generations, Many of these (such as the Nori used in sushi) are used by humans as food, and are also good sources of iodine.

6. Phylum PhaeophytaThese organisms are commonly known as the “brown algae.” They are multicellular

and live in marine, temperate zone, costal areas. They all have a form of sexual


reproduction with alternation of generations. One member of this Division with which you may be familiar is Kelp, which actually can be any of several species of seaweed in the genera Fucus and/or Laminaria. Brown algae are used in many cultures as human food, and are good sources of iodine. We need iodine for our thyroid glands, and if a person doesn’t enough iodine in his/her diet (most commonly in inland areas where iodine is not added to salt), the thyroid gland enlarges in an attempt to keep making enough thyroid hormone (which doesn’t do any good because what it’s lacking is the iodine needed to make the hormone). This enlarged thyroid is called a goiter. Laminaria also has an interesting gynecological use. If a woman is scheduled for some medical procedure for which the doctor needs access to the inside of her uterus, often a day or so beforehand, rolled-up, dried pieces of Laminaria are inserted into the opening of the woman’s cervix. As the seaweed absorbs water from her body fluids, it gently and slowly expands, gradually stretching the cervix. Thus, by the time her surgery is scheduled, her cervix has been dilated slowly and gently rather than the doctor having to forcibly and quickly (thus painfully) stretch the cervix open minutes beforehand.

7. Phylum Bacillariophyta

b. Animal-like protistThe animal-like protist are single-celled eukaryotes with no obvious relationship to

photosynthetic protists.1. Phylum Mastigiphora / The Flagellates

The phylum Mastigophora contains the animal-like protists that move by flagella.A few species live in fresh or salt water and some in bodies of other animals. One of the best-known flagellates is trypanosoma.

2. Phylum Sarcodina / RhyzopodeThe phylum Sarcodina contains protists that move and take in food by pseudopods.

All sarcodines feed by phagocytosis. In phagocytosis, an organism surrounds its prey with pseudopods, then forms a food vacuole.Probably the best-known sarcodine is Amoeba proteus.Amoebas reproduce asexually by mitosis and cell division.

3. Phylum Ciliophora / The CiliatesProtists in the phylum Ciliophora use cilia to move and capture food.The most

commonly studied ciliate is paramecium. This slipper-shaped ciliate lives in ponds. These cilia function like the arm of a swimmer.Paramecia reproduce asexually by mitosis and cell division.These organisms undergo a kind of sexual reproduction called conjugation. Paramecia use their cilia to capture food.

4. Phylum Sporozoa All members of the phylum Sporozoa are parasitic, absorb food from the fluids of

their host.The best-known sporozoans are those that cause malaria in humans. Malaria-causing sporozoans belong to the genus Plasmodium. Plasmodium spores enter the blood stream of a human through the blood to the liver, where they reproduce asexually.

c. Fungi-like protistThe fungi-like protist are single-celled eukaryotes which has mucus, wet, and gelatin-like

texture. It’s also produce spore just like fungi


1. Phylum MyxomycetesThese organisms are called “slime molds.” They are fungus-like in their nutrition in

that they absorb nutrients from their environment. Their “body” structure is unusual in that the nuclei undergo mitosis, but there is no cytokinesis--there are no individual cells with one nucleus each. Rather, the “body” is a giant, multinucleate mass of cytoplasm. Slime molds are mobile: they move by amoeboid movement, in other words, like a giant Amoeba with giant pseudopodia. They live in decayed wood and move around in between the fibers, ingesting bacteria, etc. by phagocytosis. Slime molds are often brightly-colored (yellow or orange).

2. Phylum Oomycetes

C. FungiMushrooms are not known to grow on the beach itself. However, unusual species grow in

the beach ridge, living off of the dead roots of marram grass. Examples are dune brittlestem, Melanoleuca cinereifolia and stinkhorn. You find lots of other mushrooms in dunes further away from the coast which are otherwise very rare in other biotopes. Examples are collared earthstars, the waxcap Hygrocybe acutoconica, butter waxcaps and morels. Since coastal regions take much longer to freeze than inland, mushrooms are often found in the dunes practically year round. Dune woods are renowned for their abundance of mushrooms.Fungi are classified into three subkingdom.a. Subkingdom Gymnomycota

You have probaly never noticed a slime mold. Slime mold live in moist, decaying leaves or rotting logs. All slime molds have an amoebalike stage during their life cycle. Thisamoebalike stage feeds by creeping over the forest floor and engulfing bacteria or decaying matter by phagocytosis. The organism consists of independent single cells.

b. Subkingdom Dimastigomycota Since many members og the subkingdom Dimastogomycotina are aquatic.

1. Phylum ZigomycetesPhylum Zigomycetes are terrestrial saprophytes. A few live in water, and some are

parasites. The common bread mold, Rhizopus, is the best-known zygomycetes. 2. Phylum Ascomycetes

All members of the ascomycetes, have a saclike reproductive strucure. Like the other true fungi, these organism have a mycelium made of hyphae with chitin walls.

3. Phylum Deuteromycetes : Imperfect FungiThe Fungi imperfecti or imperfect fungi, also known as Deuteromycota, are fungi

which do not fit into the commonly established taxonomic classifications of fungi that are based on biological species concepts or morphological characteristics of sexual structures because their sexual form of reproduction has never been observed; hence the name "imperfect fungi." Only their asexual form of reproduction is known, meaning that this group of fungi produces their spores asexually.

4. Phylum BasidiomycetesBasidiomycetes include mushrooms, shelf fungi, puffballs, rusts, and smuts. They are

dispersed by spores borne at the tips of basidia (giving rise to the name for the group).


Mushrooms are masses of interwoven hyphae growing up from the main mass of the mycelium growing underground. The basidia develop on the undersides and release their spores (four from each basidium) into the air.

A single mycelium may expand outward year after year as its hyphae grow into new terrain. In some species, mushrooms are sent up once a year at the periphery producing a circle known since medieval times as a "fairy ring".

D. PlantaeThe 250,000-380,000 currently-known plant species (2,7,8,11) , or members of the kingdom

Plantae, are organisms that live on every continent and in nearly every habitat on Earth (10). Plants include some of the primarily water-dwelling organisms called green algae (specifically a group known as the charophyte algae(12)), and the embryophytes or land plants which evolved from green algae (1,12,14). A sometimes-used broader definition of plants also includes the rest of the green algae as well as red algae and glaucophyte algae (9,14). The subset of plants called land plants is divided into two main groups itself: nonvascular plants (those that lack specialized systems allowing them to transport water and nutrients internally; these include mosses, hornworts, and liverworts (5,7)); and vascular plants (those that do have vascular transport systems; these include ferns, lycophytes, gymnosperms, and the highly diverse flowering plants (14)). Plants have special cell walls around each of their cells built in large part out of a carbohydrate called cellulose (7) that makes them especially strong and firm (6). Unlike most other organisms, most plants produce their own food through a process called photosynthesis (9), in which they soak up sunlight, usually with their leaves, and deploy this sunlight within a complicated biochemical system to turn carbon dioxide combined with water into energy-rich sugars (3,15). Through this process, plants have a crucial effect on the global climate and the environment—they remove carbon dioxide, a gas that contributes to global warming, from the air (13), and release oxygen, which is essential for animals, fungi, protists, many bacteria, and even plants themselves in order for them to extract energy from organic molecules (4,15). In addition, plants provide food and shelter for many kinds of organisms, and humans rely on them directly for grains, vegetables, fruits, wood, paper, clothing, and many medicines (8,11). In the future, they may be useful as sources for new medical drugs (8), emerging cleaner, renewable fuels, and other products (6). For all of these reasons and more, plant conservation is critically important (2,8,11).1. The Pteridophyta

The Pteridophyta Divsion contains ferns. Ferns are plants with leaves, roots, and stems; but they do not have flowers like most plants. Ferns have special stems, called rhizomes, which grow sideways at the surface or underground. Many leaves grow from rhizomes and make fern colonies

2. The BryophytaThis places the mosses as the third most diverse group of land plants, only after the

angiosperms and ferns.The green leafy shoots (gametophytes) retain some features of the green algal ancestors (chlorophylls a and b, starch, sperm with two forward undulipodia), but the needle-like shoots that produce the spores (sporophytes) display key innovations for the life outside water, such as stomates, a simple strand of conductive cells [in an unbranched sporophyte], and airborne spores produced in a single apical capsule (sporangium).

3. Spermatophyta seed plantsComprises the Angiospermae (or Magnoliophyta) and Gymnospermae (or

Gymnospermophyta). In general, the group is characterized by the marked development of the sporophyte, with great differentiation of its parts (root, stem, leaves, flowers, etc.); by the extreme reductionof the gametophyte;and by the development of seeds.


a. GymnospermsThe gymnosperms the seeda develop on the surface or at the tip of anappendage.

Structures of gymnosperms may occur in cones or strobili. In gymnosperms,the ovule doesn’t increase much in size after fertization. Familiar examples include the pine, hemlock, Ginkgo biloba.

b. AngiospermsThe angiosperms exceed all other vascular plants in range of diversity of the plant

body and habitat, and in their utility to humans. Examples of the reproductive organs of angiosperms (flowers, fruits, and seed) used as food are even more abundant. Many perennials are woody that is they have active cambium that add abundant secondary xylemThe two groups of flowering plants differ inother respects as follow

- Dicotyledons- Monocotyledons

E. AnimaliaThe Kingdom Animalia (=Metazoa) is one of a handful of lineages rooted far back in the

branching "tree" that represents the history of life on Earth. This lineage that is composed of those organisms we know as "animals" represents one of the three major origins of multicellularity (the other two large and diverse groups of multicellular organisms are the fungi and the green plants).

It is difficult to list characteristics that apply to all animals, since various branches of the animal tree have undergone a range of significant modifications. However, most animals obtain energy from other organisms. They generally feed on them as predators (killing and eating a prey item); parasites, including herbivores feeding on plants (feeding on their "prey" without killing it, at least not immediately); or detritivores (ingesting tiny bits of decomposing organic material such as fallen leaves). In contrast to animals, most plants make their own food, through the extraordinary process of photosynthesis, using energy captured from the sun; most fungi break down decaying organic material (without ingesting it) into its chemical constituents and absorb released nutrients. Animal cells lack a rigid cell wall (some form of which is typical of plants and most fungi) and their cell biology and physiology differ in a variety of ways from other organisms.1. Vertebrates

The most prominent characteristic of vertebrates is a rigid, jointed skeleton inside the body.A. Mammals

All mammals share at least three characteristics not found in other animals: three middle ear bones, hair, and the production of milk by modified sweat glands called mammary glands.mammals have evolved to live in nearly all terrestrial and aquatic habitats on Earth. Mammals inhabit every terrestrial biome, from deserts to tropical rainforests to polar icecaps.

B. ReptileLiving species of the class Reptilia are placed in four orders. The order Testudines

includes turtles, the order Squamata includes lizards and snakes, the order Crocodylia. reptiles have neither fur nor feathers, but scales. While the process of copulation and egg-


laying differs slightly among reptiles, they share the ability to produce a large-yolked, shelled egg.

C. FishFishes are animals that live and swim in the water, are cold-blooded, breathe using

gills, have backbones, have a scaly skin, and have various fins instead of limbs.Lampreys and hagfish are a group of jawless fishes at the base of the vertebrate tree

of life. Cartilaginous fishes are the chimeras, sharks, skates and rays.Ray-finned fishes are the most diverse of the major groups of fishes.Lobe-finned fishes are a very special group of bony fishes with limb-like fins.

D. BirdsBirds live in a wide range of environments, from tropical rainforests to the polar

regions,Birds are ovivaporous—they reproduce by laying eggs rather than giving birth to live young.that have fixed wings, these birds have moveable wings powered by muscles. Some birds, soaring birds like the albatross, can fly using fixed wings and air currents as a source of power

E. AmphibiansFor much of their lives, which may last a couple of months or several years

depending on the species, larval amphibians bear little resemblance to their adult forms.Both amphibians and reptiles are derive heat from the environment, rather than producing it internally, they are cold-blooded.

2. InvertebratesMany invertebrates also live in habitats that people don’t see very often, example under water in oceans, streams, and ponds, in the soil, in the canopies of trees, or as parasites inside other animals.The vast majority of animals are invertebrates, animals without backbones like bugs, worms, snails, corals, spongesA. Crustacean

They belong to the phylum Arthropoda, as do insects, arachnids, and many other groups; all arthropods have hard exoskeletons or shells, segmented bodies, and jointed limbs.Crustaceans live in all kinds of habitats.

B. InsectsInsects account for a great majority of the species of animals on earth. They are a

tremendously successful group. The general characteristics of uniramians, these include a body composed of three tagmata, a head, thorax, and abodmen. Insects are dioecious and fertilization is internal in most.

C. MoluskThey never settle for one function when an organ could serve two or six purposes at

once. A good example of this is the mantle, a membranous projection of a mollusk body wall.Freshwater and marine mollusks have gills (called ctenidia) for respiration.

D. EchinodermataEchinodermata is an entirely marine taxon, occurring throughout the world’s oceans

and includes sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, and sea lilies. Characteristics though larvae are bilaterally symmetrical, hard endoskeleton.


REFERENCES

Paidi. 2012. Buku Petunjuk Praktikum Biologi Umum. Yogyakarta : UNY Press.

Pujiyanto, Sri. 2008. Menjelajah Dunia Biologi 1. Solo : Platinum.

Cunningham, William P. 2003. Environmental Science; A Global Concern. Quebecor World

Versailles Inc.

Rotundo, McLaren. Health Biology. Canada: D.C Health and Company

www.eol.orgen.wikipedia.orgaslam02.wordpress.combiology.clc.uc.edu


http://www.eol.org/

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The Objects of Biology Paper (Tugas 1)