The Old Turkish Hands

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The Old Turkish Hands: The British Levantine Consuls, 1856-1876Author(s): Gordon L. IsemingerSource: Middle East Journal, Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer, 1968), pp. 297-316Published by: Middle East InstituteStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4324298 .

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THE OLD TURKISHHANDS:THEBRITISHLEVANTINE CONSULS,

1856-1876GordonL.Iseminger

T r HE late HaroldNicolson,n hisdescriptionf the idealdiplomat,ug-gests hat oyaltys the"seventhreatvirtue"ftheprofession.'egoeson to say:Thereis alwaysa tendency mongdiplomatists ho haveresided or long inforeign ountries,ndwho haveperhapsallenout of contactwiththeirownpeopleandwiththeirownforeignoffice,o find hattheir oyalties ecomea trifleblurred.Theyareapt eitherto love the countryn whichtheyresidewith a sentimentalpassionwhich blindsthem to all its vices, or else to loathe t with an intensitywhichis imperviouso all its virtues.'

Nicolsonurtherays hata "subtle ndunconsciousisloyalty" aycolor hereportsendered is governmenty the diplomat broad. hetemptationsalways trongo tell the membersf theforeign fficewhat heywould iketohear atherhanwhat heyoughtohear.3Notonlydiplomats,fcourse,utalsoconsuls reexposedo thetemptationof blurredoyalty,nd hemembersf theBritish evantineonsularervicenthenineteenthenturywereparticularlyusceptible. consulwas allowedoremainmany ears tthesamepostandoftenbecomedentified ith t. Ashebecamemoreandmorepro-Turkish,e lost his identity s an Englishman.4And,because ritain'sastern olicywassignificantlyhaped y the informa-tion andadvice btainedromherconsuls,heir apsesn loyalty ccasionallyprovedmbarrassingothegovernment.GreatBritain'snterestnmaintainingheOttomanmpire evelopednthefirsthird fthenineteenthentury hen heRussophobicordPalmerstonasForeign ecretary.!hesprawling ttomanmpirembracedgypt, uez, yria,

1. HaroldNicolson, Diplomacy (New York, 1964), 65.2. Nicolson, Diplomacy,65.3. Nicolson, Diplomacy,66.4. LondonTimes, May 22, 1858.5. Palmerston'sbiographersays of him that he was "the first great British exponent"of thepolicy of "defendingand reinvigoratingTurkey."HerbertC F. Bell, Lord Palmerston(2 vols.London, 1936), I, 291. For Palmerston'sattemptsto reform Turkey see FrederickS. Rodkey,"LordPalmerstonand the Rejuvenationof Turkey,1830-41,"Part I, Journalof ModernHistory,I (Dec. 1929), 570-93; and by the same author, "LordPalmerstonand the RejuvenationofTurkey,1830-41,"PartII, Journd of ModernHistory,II (June 1930), 193-225. For a complete( GORDON ISEmiNGERs assistantprofessorof history at the University of North Dakota,GrandForks.297

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298 THE MIDDLEEAST JOURNALArabia, he Straitsand the Principalities-all vitally important or Britain'seasternMediterraneannterests nd for her lifeline to India.6A further easonfor Britain'snterest n Turkeywas economic.After 1815, when continentalpowersadopteda policyof protection,Britainwas forced o seekmarkets ndrawmaterials lsewhere.For the first time in Englishhistory he Near Eastbecamemportantn the British conomic attern.7 nother eason orBritain'sinterest n the Ottoman mpirewas religious. n the Peaceof Parisof 1856 theBritishgovernment ointlyassumed he protection f Christiansiving in Mu-hammadan urkey.8Britain's rimary eason orseeking o preserve heSultan's mpire,however,waspolitical.Turkey, he "sickman"of Europe,possessederritoryhat otherstateswere at least interested n when they did not covet it outright:Syria,Egypt,Crete,the Straitsand the Principalities. ritain, herefore, ought toforestallananswer o the EasternQuestion n order o preclude disruption ftheEuropean alance f power.9and detailedstudy of Palmerston's asternpolicy see CharlesK. Webster,The ForeignPolicy ofPalmerston1830-1841 (2 vols. London, 1951). Although Palmerstonwanted to strengthenTurkey,he did not believe in encouragingchange in Turkeyunless it was absolutelynecessary.Harold W. Temperley,"BritishPolicy TowardsParliamentaryRule and ConstitutionalismnTurkey(1830-1914)," CambridgeHistoricalJournal, V,No. 2 (1933), 165.6. That Britain'saim after 1833 was to prevent renewalof Russian interventionin Turkishaffairsand to annul the exclusiveRussianprotectorship f Turkey s the thesis of R. L. Baker in"Palmerston n the Treatyof Unkiar Skelessi,"English HistoricalReview, XLIII (Jan. 1928),83-89. Veret6 concludes,however, that Palmerston'snsistence on supportingTurkey precededthe treatyof Unkiar Skelessi. M. Verete, "Palmerston nd the LevantCrisis, 1832," JournalofModernHistory, XXIV (June 1952), 143-51. For the beginning of English anti-Russian enti-ment see John H. Gleason,The Genesis of Russophobia n Great Britain (Cambridge,1950);and for a contemporaryiew see Philip W. Wilson (ed.), The Greville Diary (2 vols. GardenCity, New York, 1927), I, 553. For the personal element in Britain'sanxiety over Russianex-pansion in the East see G. H. Bolsover,"DavidUrquhartand the EasternQuestion,1833-37; AStudy in Publicityand Diplomacy,"Journalof ModernHistory,VIII (March-Dec.1936), 444-67; and CharlesK. Webster,"Urquhart,Ponsonby,and Palmerston,"English Historical Review,LXII (July 1947), 327-51.7. That Britishpolicy regardingTurkeyafter 1833 was largely economic is the thesis of FrankE. Bailey in "TheEconomicsof BritishForeignPolicy, 1825-50,"Journalof ModernHistory,XII(Dec. 1940), 449-84. A more comprehensivereatmentof the thesis is found in a work by thesame author,BritishPolicy and the TurkishReform Movement,A Study in Anglo-TurkishRe-lations, 1826-1853 (Cambridge,1942); see also Leland H. Jenks, The Migration of BritishCapitalto 1875 (London, 1963), 294-325. Puryearhas also found that Britain's nterests n theNear Eastwere largelyeconomic.VernonJ. Puryear, nternationalEconomicsand Diplomacy inthe Near East.A Study of British CommercialPolicy in the Levant1834-1853 (StanfordUni-versity,1935). For a brief but highly readableaccount of early British economicinterestin theLevantand the genesis of the economicaspectsof the EasternQuestionsee ReaderBullard,Britainand the MiddleEastfrom the EarliestTimes to 1950 (London,1951).

8. For a detailed reatmentof the Crimean ettlement ee Werner E. Mosse,The Rise and Pall ofthe CrimeanSystem,1855-71 (London,1963). Britishconcern or the Christiansn a specificpartof the Sultan'sempire is discussed n Abdul L. Tibawi, BritishInterests n Palestine,1800-1901(London, 1961).9. For the genesis of greatpowerrivalry n the EasternQuestionsee FrederickS. Rodkey,TheTurco-EgyptianQuestionin the Relationsof England,Prance,and Russia, 1832-1841 (Urbana,Ill., 1923), 1-274. Websterasserts that "the whole policy of the [British) Empirewas possiblymore influencedby the necessityof preservingits Easternpossessions than by any other singlecause."CharlesK. Webster,"TheStudyof BritishForeignPolicy (NineteenthCentury)" Ameri-can HistoricalReview, XXX (July 1925), 728-37. Standardworks covering Britain'spolitical



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THE OLD TURKISHHANDS 299That Britain'spoliticalinterest n Turkeywas paramounts seen in theinstructions iven to her consularofficialsand in the informationrequentlyrequestedrom hem.In 1860,ontheeveof thecrisesn SyriaandLebanon,heBritishambassadortConstantinople, enryL.Bulwer, enta twenty-fourartquestionnaireo eachof the British onsular gents n the Levant.The purposefor the inquirywas political, o substantiater disprove he allegations hatreformspromisedn theHatti-Humayunf 1856 werenotbeingimplementedandthatChristiansn Turkeywerestillsubjectedo abuseand ndignities.10heresponses o Bulwer'squestionsrevealthat those consuls who had been inTurkey he longestwerethosemostsyimpatheticowards hePorte.The reportsof twomeninparticularndicatehat ongresidencenTurkey ouldblurmen'sloyaltiesandconfuse heirofficialhinking.CharlesBlunt,consulat Smyrna, eportedo Bulwer hatthe generalcondi-tion of his provincewas constantly mproving,and the improvementsweregenerally n favorof the Christians. erfectequalityexistedamongthe races,and the Christianswere betteroff in all respects han the Turks."ConsulWilliamR. Holmesat Sarajevooncededhatthe Christians ereagitated, uthe insisted hattheymagnifiedhe mostinsignificantncident nto a premedi-tatedcrime.TheMuslimshadno deliberatententionof persecuting rabusingthe Christian opulation.'2oththesemen had lived the betterpartof their

lives in Turkey.Holmeshad been in the consular ervicefor nearlytwentyyears,andBlunthadbeenaconsul nTurkey orfortyyears."Equallynstructive rethe responses f the consuls o a subsequentequestfor informationby the Houseof Commonsn March1867. Becauseof theallegedunrest n theOttoman mpire heCommons sked hatconsular gentsreporton the progressof reform n their areasof jurisdiction nd whetherChristian ndGreeksubjects f the Sultanwerebeingoppressed.'4With onlyinterestsin Turkey are Robert W. Seton-Watson,Britain in Europe, 1789-1914 (Cambridge,Eng., 1938); and GeorgeP. Gooch and J. H. B. Masterman,A Centuryof BritishForeignPolicy(London,1917).10. Accountsand Papers,State Papers,LXVII (1861), ReportsReceivedfrom Her Majesty'sConsulsRelatingto the Conditionof Christiansn Turkey,1860, inclosurein no. 1, BulwertoRussell,June 11, 1860. Davisonhas a detaileddiscussionof the Hatti-Humayun nd its receptionin Turkey.RodericH. Davison,Reformin the OttomanEmpire,1856-76 (Princeton,1963); seeby the same author"TurkishAttitudesConcerningChristian-Muslim qualityin the NineteenthCentury,"AmericanHistoricalReview,LIX (July 1954), 844-64. ForTurkishdistrustof Christianreformeffortssee CharlesEliot, Turkey in Europe (London, 1908), 693-94. Western Europeaneconomicpenetration n the Levantalso hamperedexecutionof the Hatti-Humayun.FrederickS.Rodkey, "Ottoman Concern About Western Economic Penetrationin the Levant, 1849-56,"Journalof ModernHistory,XXX (Dec. 1958), 348-53.11. GreatBritain,3 Hansard'sParliamentaryDebates,CLXXI (1863), 77-78 thereaftercitedasHansard.All references re to the thirdseries];AccountsandPapers,StatePapers,LXVII (1861),inclosure2 in no. 8, Blunt to Russell,July 28, 1860.12. Ibid., inclosure n no. 19, Holmes to Russell,September3, 1860.13. Hansard,CLXXI (1863), 77-78; Accountsand Papers,StatePapers,ReportsReceived -romHer Majesty'sConsulsRelating to the Conditionof Christians n Turkey,1867: Part II, no. 4,Holmes to Stanley,July 6, 1867.14. Ibid., [PartI].



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300 THE MIDDLE EAST JOURNALtwoorthreeexceptionshe menwithlongresidencenTurkey rlongtenurentheconsularervice eportedhatconditionsnTurkeywere mproving ndthattheChristiansadfewlegitimate omplaints.

Vice-consulAlfredBiliotti,witheighteenyears n the service, eportedromRhodes hattheChristians ere nsome nstances issatisfied.heyweretreatedno worse than the Muslims,however,and in some respectshad privilegesunknownnTurkey relsewhere."5iliotti's bservations eresharedbyconsulJamesH. Skeneat Aleppowho had fifteen years n the service.'6CharlesJ.Calvert, onsulat Monastir,ouldnot exonerate he Porte n all instances, uttwenty-fiveears' esidencen Turkey,hirteenof themin the consular ervice,allowedhim to appreciate he tremendousdifficultiesunderwhich Turkishofficialsaboredngoverning heterogeneousopulation.'7Muchmore emphaticwas the reportof vice-consulJohn E. Blunt fromAdrianople.Basinghis observationsn the experienceaffordedby seventeenyears n theconsular ervice,Bluntassertedhatin general he Christians erebetteroffthantheTurks.Persecutionndexactionwere sectarian nd occurredonlybecause f thebitterrivalry mong heChristian enominations.'8ConsulRichardReadeat Scutari nd E. T. Rogers,actingconsul at Beirut,eachhadnearly wentyyears' ervice rresidencenTurkey.Bothattestedo theimproving ondition f theChristiansnddeclaredhatChristiansadnomorereasonfor complaint han Muslims.Rogersdeclared hat "theChristiansnSyriahardlydesireanyfurther hange."1In 1867 a numberof men shared he dubiousdistinction f havingbeenconsuls n Turkey ormorethantwentyyears.Holmesat Sarajevo adservedfor twenty-sixyearsand in his opinionthe conditionof the Christians adimprovedappreciably uringthat time.20ConsulD. Sandisonat Bursahadtwenty-eightearsof official esidencenTurkeyandstrongly ndorsedHolmes'impressions.2'onsulC. H. Dicksonat Crete,who was soonto embarrass isgovernmentwithhishighly-coloredndmisleading ro-Turkisheports n theCretanuprising f 1866-67,hadtwenty-oneears' ervicenTurkey.22Althoughhe had been n theconsularervice oronlysixteenyears n 1867,consul-general. A. Longworthat Belgradehad lived in Turkeymorethanthirtyyearsandwas a consistentlytrongapologist or the Porte.Longworthwas firmlyconvinced hat the conditionof the Christians ad been steadilyimproved ince 1856 and that despitehis shortcomings,he Muslimwould

15. Ibid., no. 6, Biliottito Stanley,April 1, 1867.16. Ibid., inclosure n no. 8, Skene to Lyons,April 1, 1867.17. Ibid.,no. 9, Calvert o Stanley,April4, 1867.18. Ibid.,no. 12, Bluntto Stanley,April 4, 1867.19. Ibid.,no. 15, Readeto Stanley,April 9, 1867; no. 18, Rogersto Stanley,April 12, 1867.20. Ibid.,PartII, no. 4, Holmes to Stanley,July 6, 1867.21. Ibid., PartI, no. 23, Sandison o Stanley,April 20, 1867.22. Ibid., XV (1859), Return of ConsulsGeneral,Consuls,Interpreters,Secretaries, tc. Ap-pointedSince Ist January1856, StatingSalaries,Date of Appointment,PreviousService,etc., 5.



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THE OLD TURKISH HANDS 301alwaysbe the betterqualifiedo govern.Duringhis long residencen TurkeyLongworthhad gaineda reputationor being ardentlypro-Turkishnd hadfrequently autioned gainstundertakingrecipitanteforms."Thegreatmis-take,"he said,"isleavingnothingto time.Timealonecanbridgea periodoftransition, econcilenterests, ndobliterate cars."3In 1863 RichardCobden,M. P. from Rochdale,had said of Longworth,". * . ConsulLongworths an enthusiast-I hadalmostsaida fanatic-in hislovefortheTurks.. . . 24 WilliamH. Gregory,M.P. fromGalwayCountynIreland,was of thesameopinionandsaid,"Mr.Longworthwasa manwhowasTurkishn heartandsoul,andwho believed hattheTurkswerea long-suffer-ing and benevolentclass of people horriblyoppressedby overbearing ndtyrannicalhristians."5Reportsof the pro-TurkishBritishconsuls to the contrary, onditions nTurkeywerefarfromexemplary.Givena newleaseon lifebythevictory f thealliesover Russia n 1856, the Sultan's mpireremainedteepedn corruption,ignorance, ankruptcyndapathy.Consulsof otherpowers, venthosesympa-theticto the Porte,submitted eports epletewithexamplesof officialmalfea-sance,abuseto Christians r neglectedopportunities or reform.Europeantravelersalso recited uridtales of unsatisfactoryonditions, specially n theoutlyingprovinces f the Sultan'sar-flung mpire.Thatdeficienciesxisted n the consular ervicewas revealedn 1858 by aSelectCommitteen Consular ervice ndAppointments. heconsensus f thiscommitteewasthat the Britishconsular ervice acked,amongotherthings, a"ConsularCode."To guidehim in carrying ut his responsibilitieshe consulhad to relyon hisowncommon enseand on publicopinion n thecommunityin whichhe resided.The committeealso recommendedhat a more regulargradation f consular fficesbe establishedn order"togive the service ome-thingof thecharacterf aprofessionalareer."6The committee lsobelatedly ecognizedhe difficultiesnvolved n keepingconsuls oo long at the samepost,a weaknessn the service hatwasobservedfirsthandby the Constantinopleorrespondentor the LondonTimes.Fromwhateverbackgroundhe individualwas recruitednto the service,wrotethereporter,ongresidencen Turkey rfamilyandbusiness ssociationsreventedtheconsul romrepresentingheBritish overnment dequately.27In 1870 and 1871 anothercommitteecollectedmaterial o be used by aCommittee f the Houseof Commonson the ConsularService.The primaryaim of the committeewas to economize, o determinewhethersubstantial

23. Ibid.,LXXV (1867), PartI, no. 22, Longwortho Stanley,April 10, 1867.24. Hansard,CLXXI (1863), 128-29.25. Ibid., 14.26. Quaterly Review,CV (Jan. 1859), 81-85.27. London Times, May 22, 1858.



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302 THE MIDDLE EAST JOURNALreductionsould be safelymade n the numberof consular stablishmentsndpersonnel.28Apartfrom the findingson the costof the service,however, he committeehearingsrevealeda great deal about the Levantineconsularestablishment,particularlytspersonnel,tspolitical haracter nd tsdeficiencies. enryElliot,Britishambassadort Constantinople,or example, estifiedon the importanceof consuls o theperformancef hisofficial esponsibilities.lliotexplainedhatin the East most of the Britishconsulswerepoliticaland that he was "keptacquaintedwith the state of the countryby the consulsthroughoutall theTurkishempire, . ." The ambassador sserted hat consularreportswere"political eports, venthoughtheymight to a certain xtent nvolvecommer-cialquestionslso."9The committeealso indicated ts cognizance f a problemby askingElliotwhetherhe thought t advisablehatconsuls n theLevantbefrequentlymovedfromonepostto another.The ambassadordmittedhatfrequent otationhadbothadvantages nddisadvantages,utsaid hat t wouldbe difficult o abidebyanyrigidrule.Since heconsuls n theOttoman mpirehadmoreof a politicalresponsibilityhanelsewhere,heywere n reality ubordinateiplomats;t wascrucial o havegoodmen at everypost.Longresidence rovided n advantage,therefore,becauseover a long periodof time the consulbecameknownandrespectedn the community ndwastherebybetterableto secure he kindofinformationnwhich heBritish overnment epended.30Elliot'sviewsweresharedby Henry L. Bulwer,an experienced iplomaticofficerand one-timeambassadort Constantinople.When askedabout theadvisabilityf keepingpersonsat theirposts for long periods,he said t wasaquestionof sacrificinghe goodof the publicor the goodof the individual.Aconsulwho had been manyyearsat a post, said Bulwer,acquireda "localknowledge" ndwas, therefore,of immensevalue andservice o the Britishgovernment.Onlyrarely ould a personbe transferred ithoutexperiencingperiodof adjustmentndacclimatizationndenduring nintervalduringwhichhe hadlittle orno influence.Rather hantransferring consul o a higher-pay-ing postas a reward orsatisfactoryervice,andtherebyosing a valuableandexperiencednformant,hegovernmenthould nducehimto remain tthepostwherehewasdoingwell bygrantinghim anincreasen rankandsalary.3"

28. Accountsand Papers,State Papers,VII (1870), Report from the Select CommitteeonDiplomatic and ConsularServices; ogetherwith the Proceedingsof the Committee,Minutes ofEvidence,Appendix,and Index;ibid., LX (1872), ReportsRelativeto BritishConsularEstablish-ments,1858 and 1871. Part III. OttomanDominions.29. Ibid.,VII (1870), 89.30. Ibid., 76. The difficultyof learning the Turkish anguagewas also an argument or keepingconsulsat the same post. Elliot said that a young Englishmanmight be able to translateTurkishaccurately fter manyyears'concentratedtudy, but he would requireat least two or threeyearstopick up the colloquial,even if he "threwhimselfentirely nto Turkishsociety." bid., 71-81.31. Ibid.,360.



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THE OLD TURKISH HANDS 303LordHammond,UnderSecretaryf State,was also asked o givehisopinionon thewisdomof movingconsuls romonepostto another.Hammondadmit-ted that consuls were not moved frequentlyand that they were generally

appointed withaviewrather opermanencehanotherwise,heyriseoccasion-ally fromaninferior o a betterconsulate, utthere s no ruleto change hemperiodically,s there s in thediplomatic ervice."f a manwasa consul-generalin what wasconsideredn importantocation, orexample,he wasunderstoodto be there for life unless some unusualcircumstanceeemed to warrantachange."Desiring urthernformationnwhich o base tsconclusionsndrecommen-dations,hecommittee ddressed seriesof questionso the Levantineonsularofficials hemselves.Theywere askedwhether heirpostwaspoliticalor com-mercial, he amountof tradeperyear,the size and costof the consular taff,whetherexpensesat the posthadincreased ince the lastinquiryn 1858, andthe length of time they had spent in the service.Most consuls also tookadvantage f the opportunityffordedhem in onesectionof thequestionnaireto airanygrievanceheyhadagainstheirpost,salary r theservicen general.33The answers eceivedo thesequestionsprovided he committeewith valu-ableinformation n the consular ervice n the Levant.Mostinstructive, ow-ever,were the almostuniversalcomplaints hat salariesand allowancesnolongerweresufficient,hatopportunityor furlough n Englandwas in realityalmostnon-existent,ndthatlong residence t the samepostcaused onsuls olose contactwith Englishways and becomemoreand more like the peopleamongwhomthey ived.Thefollowinggrievancesrerepresentative.ConsulJamesH. SkeneatAleppoobservedhatalthoughhissalaryhadbeensufficientwhen he was firstappointed, ineteenyearsbefore, he cost of rent,food and servicehad tripled and his pay was no longer adequate.He alsopointedout thatparagraph 2 of the GeneralInstructionsor Her Majesty'sConsularOfficers,published n 1868, provided hat leave for more than amonthdepriveda salariedconsularofficerof one-halfhis salaryduringhisabsence.Consequently,aidSkene,

however esirablet maybe, evenonpublicground,hatConsulshould,rom imeto time,visitEngland,hisprovision utsit outof hispower o dosounlesshe hasprivatemeansof meeting he expenseattendingt. Whenhe hasnot, it is tanta-mount o banishmentor life fromfamilyandfriends o be appointedo a Con-sulate,becausehe cannotafford he pecuniaryacrificendispensableo visitingthem, .. .84Skene's entimentsweresharedby Noel TempleMoore,who wasconsulat32. Ibid., VII (1871), SecondReportfrom the Select Committeeon Diplomaticand ConsularServices;togetherwith the Proceedingsof the Committee,Minutes of Evidence,Appendix, andIndex, 25.33. Ibid.,LX (1872), PartI; Ibid., PartIII.34. Ibid., 154.



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304 THE MIDDLE EAST JOURNALJerusalem ithsixteen ears'xperiencen theservice.Moore lsocomplainedof low pay andof the increasen the cost of rent,services nd food.Heconcludedisreportwithaproposal.Iwould uggest,"aidMoore,

that f therewere obe noinsuperablebjectionshereto,he rulewhereby Consul'ssalarys reduced yonehalf,whenheabsents imself romhispostonleave, houldbe modified.The advantageo an expatriated nglishmanersonally,nd to thepublicServicendirectly,f an occasional isitto England,will,I ventureo think,be admitted.Underthe presentrule the possibilityof sucha visit becomessorestrictedhat few can avail themselves, xceptat very wide intervals,of theprivilege.35Vice-consulW. KirbyGreenat Damascus asedhis observationsn the

experienceainedromnineteenearsntheconsularervice.HeadmittedhattheBritishonsularystemwasgenerallyuperiorothatof theotherEuropeanpowers,utcomplainedhatconsuls adgreatdifficultynlivingrespectablyntheirsalaries.Moreover, reen aid,manyof theconsuls ervedn countriesthatwereunhealthyndatagreatdistanceromEngland,ndwhereveronsulshappenedo be,"thehopeof one andall mustbe to be enabled o returnoccasionallyo theirnative ountry,norder otonly orecuperateheirhealthbutalso orenewieswithrelativesnd riends hich longabsence as endedto loosen."Greenadvisedhatconsuls eallowedo visittheirnative ountryoccasionally,beforeheylearn o forget t through prolongednd forcedabsence."6InhisreportromSuez,wherehehadbeenconsul ortwenty ears,GeorgeWestpointed utwhathethoughtwasagross njusticentheconsularervice.TheGeneralnstructionsrovidednemonthof leaveperyearwithpay,butthe eavewasnotcumulative.lthough month'seavewasadequateorthoseconsulswhosepostswereonlya fewhours' istanceromEngland,heprovi-sionreducingay or eaves fmorehanamonth'suration orked hardshiponmenservingntheLevantwheremuchimewouldbespentntravellingoandfromEngland. nlessconsulshadprivatemeans,herefore,nd few ofthemdid, heywerepreventedromreturningome. t appearedoWestthat

Consuls t ports,or placesout of Europe, nd,indeed,anywheren the Ottomandominions, houldbe allowedthe privilege,by remainingat their posts for alengthened eriod,of obtainingeave,anddrawing heirsalary or anyperiodnotexceeding ne calendarmonth or everyconsecutive earthey mayhaveremainedat theirpost.It cannotbe considered therwisehandesirablehatConsuls houldoccasionallyeport hemselvest theForeignOffice; ndI amunder heimpressionthat the existingregulation reventspersons romgoing homeoccasionally, howouldwillingly, f theycoulddo so at a moderateacrifice,vailthemselvesf theleave,which, n principle,t is intendedheyshould njoy.3735. Ibid., 168-171.36. Ibid., LXI (1872), Reports Relative to British Consular Establishments:1858-1871.FurtherReports,PartV, 59-63.37. Ibid., LX (1872), PartIII, 218.



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THE OLD TURKISH HANDS 305GeorgeJacksonEldridgewasconsul-generaln Syriaandin 1871 hadnearlyseventeenyears n the service.Eldridgewas highlycriticalof a branchof thegovernmenthatfailedto payits staffenoughto enablethemto live decently.

Mencouldhardlybeexpectedo "expatriate"hemselves utof purepatriotism,he said,orfor the smallsalaries rovided ytheconsular ervice.Eldridge,whohadnotbeenback o Englandor tenyears,also criticizedhestipulationllowingonlyonemonthof leaveperyearat fullpay.Because f thedistance nvolved,a consul in Turkeycouldonly infrequently,f ever,availhimselfof hisleaveopportunities.nd,continuedheconsul-general,thosewholive in out-of-the-waylaceswhere ocietyandamusementsrewanting,andwhere heclimates frequentlyelaxing ndsometimesnhealthy, ustmorere-quirerelaxationhan hosewhohaveall the resourcesf London t theircommand.

The efficiencyf manya usefulpublicservanthasbeendestroyedhrough hewantof a littlechange,whichwouldhavebeenbeneficialo hismoral,mental, ndphysicalhealth.Besides heseconsiderationshere aremanyothers hatrender tnecesssaryhata Consularfficer hould evisithisnative ountryrom imeto time.A longresidencebroad auses imto lose the nationaloneandfeelingwhich t isnecessarye shouldkeep up . . .38AlfredBiliottiheld the politically mportant ice-consulate f Rhodes.His

twenty-two ears n the service,he felt, enabledhim to speak romexperiencewhen hedeclaredhat t wasalmost mpossibleorconsuls o liveon thesalariesor fees they received.And, since theirsalarieswere reducedwhen they wenthome on leave,manymenspentyearsat theirpostswithoutoncereturningoEngland.Biliottiadmitted hatthe system n use in the BritishServiceo keepConsularervantsor manyyearsin the sameplace s certainly erygood,as theyget a thorough nowledge f themenandthingsof theirdistrict,whichenables hem, n politicalpostsespecially,to estimatewithproprietyheeventswhich heywitnessandtheirprobableesults,buta toolongresidencen thesameplacemayhaveontheotherhand hegreatdis-advantageo imbuethem with the peculiardeas thatexist in eachlocality (inTurkey specially), nd, ittleby little,theybecome, o to say,naturalizediththewayof thinking, nd heprejudicesf thepeopleamongwhom heyspend,n somecases,nearlyall their life. If Consuls esiding n distantcountries,nsteadof theyearlyeaveof absence f onemonth,were allowed hreemonths very hirdyear,withoutdeduction f salary,heywouldbe induced o proceed o Europemorefrequently, here,by recruiting freshorderof ideas, he evil justpointedoutmightbe somewhattoned.39Even morestrikingwas the plaintivereportof RobertWilliam Cumber-batch,consulat Smyrna.The long-suffering umberbatchelieved hatconsulswould benefit mmeasurablyf leave timewerecumulative ndcomplained, I38. Ibid., 165-66.39. Ibid., 143.



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306 THE MIDDLE EAST JOURNALhavebeen bout7 yearsntheservice,ndhavenever bsentedyselfrommypost,as Icouldnotsustainhe oss."0Edward .Rogers tCairo,with wenty-fourearsn theservice,ummed pwellthecomplaintsf thosewhofelttheyhadremainedoo ongat theirposts."I hink t essential,"aidRogers,hat

BritishConsuls houldbe encouragedo visit their nativecountry t intervals ftwoor threeyears.The reasons reobvious; man ivinglong in a semi-civilizedcountry ecomes iasedby localcircumstancesndrequiresn occasionalisithometo take n a freshstockof English eeling, ndependentf thischangebeingbene-ficial o his health.4'Inadditionovoicing isgrievancesboutowpayand nfrequenturloughs,

eachconsulndicatedis opinion n the valueof consularosts o theBritishgovernmentndwhether ispostwasessentiallyolitical rcommercial.heBritish overnment,antingo prevent isturbancesnTurkey,rdesiringobe informedf theyoccurred,adestablishedonsular ostsforpoliticalreasonsat strategicocationsn the Levant: n the Danube; t the juncture f theTurkish, ersianndRussianrontiers;n theAdriaticndMediterranean,ndindeed,tany ocation here placeofobservationasdeemeddvisable.hepostsconsideredoliticaln European urkeywere:Janina, cutari, driano-ple,Monastir,arissa,olo,Rustchuk,elgrade, rete,Rhodes, alonika ndSarajevo.nAsiaticTurkeyhepostswithpoliticalignificanceere:Koordis-tan,Trebizond, osul,Baghdad,erusalem,leppo,Beirut ndDamascus.hecommitteewanted o determine hichof thesepostscouldbe reduced rabolished,utgrudginglyecognizedhat heimportancef theOttoman m-pire to European iplomacy equiredhatcertainpoliticalconsulates e main-tained ven houghheconsulransactedittlecommercialusiness.Robert tuart, onsulatJaninan Albania, adformed is opinionsveraperiod f nearlyourteen earsn theservice nddeclaredhatconsulservinginTurkeyad opossesspecial ualifications.ntheEast, esaid,

the Consuls always egardeds a political ndrepresentativefficer,ndas areposi-toryof theviews of his Governmentn questions f Statepolicy.Thusaccredited,he derives romhisposition a verygreat nfluence, hich t restswith himselfhowto use, in a way to do good or to do harm-to bring credit or discredit on hiscountry.Thegovernment,herefore,ouldnotbe tooparticularn itschoice f consulsfortheLevant.40. Ibid., 145-49.41. Ibid., 205. Elliotwasalso askedby the committeewhetherhe thought it necessary or consu-lar and diplomaticofficialsto returnfrequentlyto England.Elliot answered: "I think it is veryimportant; think what you want is to keep your diplomaticservantsas Englishas you can keepthem; the tendencyof all of us, fromliving abroad, s to lose ourEnglishfeelings;we really do notknow on many subjectswhat the feelings are in England."He agreedthat it was "a matterofnational mportance hat all membersof the professionshould frequentlycome to England." bid.,VII (1870), 76.



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THE OLD TURKISH HANDS 307Stuartwas emphaticon one qualificationhat all Britishconsulshad topossess.A Britishagent, he said, had to view matters"through he Englishmedium," ecauseif his notionsand sympathies re local,they influence is judgment, is modeofreasoning, ndhabitof thought.Theycolourhis despatches,o that,writingaccord-ing to his own appreciations,e might, n all good faith,represent stateof thingsverydifferent o what t wouldappear o English yes.Now, it is the English, otthe Eastern, iew of things hat s required y our Government.42Theconsulalso had to be unusually erceptive ndobservant,aidStuart,norder o providehisgovernmentwith political nformationecausethe prevailing ystem s to mystify, o elude nquiry,o mislead,o pervert acts,andto give to everything n aspect ndcharacters unlike he reality spossible; ever-theless, urGovernment,swellasourcapitalists ndmerchants,redirectlynter-ested n knowing he real stateof things n Turkey.Andfor suchknowledge heyarealmost,f not altogether,ependentn Consular eports. o disengagehe truthfrommazesof error, o as to presentt in itsproper utlines ndbearings, equires,at least,discriminationnd experience. ailure n this headmightleadto seriousmisconceptionnd serious onsequences,or ConsularReportsaresupposedo beauthoritative;. .43Charles . Calvert tMonastir, asinghisopinionon seventeen ears' xperi-enceas a consul,declaredhatin Turkey,dueto peculiar ircumstances,veryconsulwas a politicalagent of his government.The localTurkishauthoritiesknew that the consuls watched heir administrativects closely because hegeneralwelfareof the entireOttoman mpirewas involved.And, saidCalvert,the reports romthese consuls"whofor politicalreasonsare perhaps he onlyreallydisinterestedpectators f what is going on, constitute n fact the solemeans, n the absence f a freelocal press,of exercising wholesomepressure

on theTurkish fficials."4Becauseof his thirty-yearerm of serviceconsulHolmes at Sarajevowaskeenlyawareof aconsul's esponsibilities. e saidthatthe politicaldutiesof aconsul n Turkeywere42. Ibid., LX (1872), Part III, 10-11. In this same regardStuartalso stressedthe need forfrequentfurloughin England."Tomanyin the East,"he said,"the conditionsareso onerousas toconstitutean absoluteprohibition n the matterof leave,so that,practically, heyare in the positionof exiles. Now . . . this difficultyabout eave is veryapt to operate o the detrimentof the Service;for protracted esidenceabroadhas generallythe effect of wearingoff the edge of a man'shome

perceptionsand ideas. . . . In suchcasea Consularofficer osesthe essentialrequisiteof seeing andjudgingfromthe samepoint of view as his countrymen, nd his communicationsmay,consequently,lead to erroneous onclusions.On this account t is, I think,for the interestof the GovernmenthatConsular fficers, o far frombeing met by pecuniaryobstructions,houldbe affordedall reasonablefacilitiesfor going home from time to time, in orderto refreshtheir ideas and repairthe moraleffectsof foreignresidence. f this holds good in general,it appliesin a specialdegreeto Turkey,the country,perhaps,of all others in the world the mostunlike in everyrespect o England."43. Ibid., 11.44. Ibid., 86.



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308 THE MIDDLEEASTJOURNALto watchoverthe variousmovements nd mpulses f the mixedand hostileraceswhich form the population, nd whosecondition s a matterof Europeanm-portance, s remaining eaceful r inducing eneraldisorder;nd so longas thereis anyinterest or GreatBritain n whatis called he "Eastern uestion"t is in-dispensablyecessaryhatourGovernmenthouldbe exactlynformed f all thatis influencing,r occurringmong,hesepopulations.45Holmes declared that the British ambassadorat Constantinople could notperform his various responsibilitieswithout trustworthy nformation from theBritish consuls regardingconditions and developments in the remote areas ofthe Sultan'sempire.' The consul, by previousknowledge of circumstancesandpersons, had to be able to discern the validity of reports and to determinewhetherfalse informationwas being given him for the purposeof misleadingormisinforming.47Charles M. Kennedy,the senior clerk in the CommercialDepartmentof theForeignOffice,also attestedto the political importanceof consularposts in theLevant.48On the basisof first-handknowledge gained from his tour of consularposts in 1870,49Kennedydeclared hatall [Levantinejostspossess highpolitical haracter.hepresence f anintelligentandimpartial ritishConsularfficers of the verygreatest ossibleadvantagenchecking buses,ntrigues, ndoutburstsf fanaticism. y preventing isturbanceof internalranquilityn Turkey,hey further revent he riseof questionswhichmustgravelyexcitepublicfeelingin Europe, ndcause nternationalisputes, findeed,heydo notleadto war.50Because the committee was attempting to reduce the cost of the consularestablishments in Turkey, it carefully scrutinizedany posts where there werefew or no commercial interests. Those individuals who were aware of thepolitical importanceof consulatesin the Levantwere, therefore,placed on thedefensive. Elliot admittedto the committee that there were only 551 resident

British subjects in all of Asiatic Turkey, a total that seemed rather low inrelation to the number of consuls, but pointed out that the small number ofBritishresidentsdid not give a fair indicationof the extent of British interestsinvolved. The political situation in Asiatic Turkeyand Britain'sdesireto propup the tottering Ottoman empire dictatedthat an extensive consularestablish-ment be maintained.Elliot also justifiedretaininga large consularstaff in EuropeanTurkey,eventhough British commercialinterestswere not very extensive. At Belgrade,for45. Ibid., 232-33.46. Ibid., 233.47. Ibid., 233-35.48. Ibid.,VII (1872), Reportfrom the SelectCommitteeon Diplomaticand ConsularServices;togetherwith the Proceedingsof the Committee,Minutesof Evidence,Appendix, and Index, 1.49. Ibid.,2.50. Ibid., 157.



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THE OLD TURKISH HANDS 309example,herewereonly hreeBritishubjectsndalmost o Britishrade, uta consulwasneededhere.Belgradewasthe capitalof a semi-independentvassal tateandmightatany imebecomehecenter f a movementn whichBritainwouldbe vitally nterested.hesamereasoningppliedo Rustchukwhereherewereonly wenty-sixritishubjectsndnotrade.5"heconsulatesinAlbaniawerealsonecessarylthoughherewereonlysevenBritishubjectsintheentire rovincendpracticallyotrade.52LordHammond asaskedby the committeeo explainwhya consulateshouldbe maintainedt Monastir,orexample,whentherewas no tradeorshippingndonlyoneBritishubject. ammondustified aintainingotonlyMonastir,utall theposts n northernurkey ecause, e said,

it is of theutmostmportanceorus to havea strong onsulartaff n theNorthernProvinces f Turkey;he advantagef a consul here s not to be measuredyhiscommercialuties,butby the influence hat he has overthe wholepopulation ndovertheTurkish uthorities. neednot sayto theCommittee,hatwe havea verygreat nterestn keeping hingsquiet n Turkey, nd thepresence f a British on-sul notonlyneutralisesnterferenceromotherquarters,uthas a great nfluencein checkinghe misdeeds f the Turkishunctionaries,ndtherebymprovinghepositionof theChristianopulation;t tends o keepthepeaceof thecountry, ndto preventanyoutbreakshere,which I need not say would have a very seriouspoliticalnfluence pontherelations f the restof the worldwithTurkey. knowthere s a verystrong eeling about he consuls n the northof Turkey, ndI canperfectly ccount or it, if you confine he questionmerely o one of trade;but Iholdthattheconsulsn Turkey rea mostvaluableafeguardorthepeaceof Tur-key, andtherefore or the generalpolitical nterests f this country,o faras it isconnectedwith thewell-being f theTurkish mpire.53As for Monastirspecifically,Hammond said, the commercial mportancewasonly ncidentalecauseI lookuponall suchplacesas reallyoutpostsor the maintenancef the TurkishEmpire n an indirectmanner,not so muchas againsta foreignenemy,but asagainst he malversationf the Turkish uthorities, hich, f not checked ndre-ported o Constantinople,ouldproduce state of feelingin the provinces erydetrimentalo thehappinessf the Christianopulation,nd theMussulmanopu-lationalso;for theyarein manyplacesas muchoppresseds the Christians,ndeven moreso;andit is importantor thepeaceof Europe enerallyhatwe shouldhave an opportunityf bringing o the knowledge f the Portematterswhich, fleft unchecked,mightlead to veryserious onvulsionsn the empire.'William H. Wylde, Senior Clerk and Superintendentof the Consularand

CommercialDepartments,was also asked by the committee whether some ofthe consulates in the Levant could be reduced or abolished. Wylde was in aunique position to answer the question becauseevery piece of correspondence51. Ibid.,VII (1870), 92-93.52. Ibid.,VII (1871), 37.53. Ibid., 18.54. Ibid.



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310 THE MIDDLE EAST JOURNALbetween he consulsand the ForeignOfficepassed hroughhis hands.Wyldesaidheknewof noinstancewherea reductionouldbemadebecause

as long as we are interestedin keeping peace in the East,so long do I think thatyou must continue to maintainconsularestablishmentsn those countries.Nobodybut those who are unacquaintedwith the workingof those consulatescan tell howmuch influencethey have in preservingpeace in those parts;and I think that weare as much interestedas any countryin the world in keeping peace there.55On the basis of information furnished by the consuls and other informedpersons,the committee concluded that the political functions of the consuls inthe Levantplacedthem in a differentposition from those occupyingconsulatesin other countries.The committee furtherconcededthat the establishmentofposts in what seemedexcessive numbershad been necessary n the past to watchand protectBritish interests.But, improved communicationand transportationand an alteredcondition of Europeanaffairs no longer justifiedsuch an exten-sive service. Some reductions n specificpostscould be safely made.56The committeealso recommended hat the Secretaryof State recruitqualifiedyoung men for the counsularservice,men whom "it may be suitableto retain,more or less, as fixtures in certain places, or, at all events, who will not berestless and dissatisfiedif the public interests require them so to continue."

These qualified persons would be from among the "accustomedtype." 7 Inother words,the argumentfor rotationof personneland frequentfurlough wasunheeded.The observationsof the consuls and the findings of the committee had beenimportantin showing which were the essentiallypolitical posts in the Levant.Also revealed by the committee'sinformationwas that almost without excep-tion these importantposts were staffedwith men who had lived or servedmostof their lives in Turkey. Severalof these veteranshad complained at one time or

another of being unable to returnto England on furlough and had voiced thefear,or had borne the accusation, hat they were becomingmore and more likethe people among whom they lived.Despite the committee members'feeling that many political posts could bereducedor abolishedand that frequentfurloughs and occasionalrotationwerenot of paramount importance, the first eastern crisis following their workproved at once the worth of the political consulatesin the Levantand the needto guardagainstpersonsbecomingpermanentfixturesat these locations.In thesummer of 1875 a revolt broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovinathat reopenedthe EasternQuestion. Within a year the disturbancehad spread to Bulgariawhere it was quelled with the brutality afterwardknown as the "BulgarianHorrors."The events in these northernmostprovinces of the Sultan's empire

55. Ibid., 44.56. Ibid.,VII (1872), viii.57. Ibid.



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THE OLD TURKISH HANDS 311threatened o engulf all of Europe n war becauseAustriaand Russiaeithersharedrontierswiththe insurrectionaryrovinces, rsegmentsof theirhetero-geneouspopulationshared heaspirationsf therebels."8

Great Britainsoughtto preventa generalEuropeanwar by deferring hesettlementof the EasternQuestion hatwouldresult n the destructionf theshakyEuropean alanceof power.In carryingout this task the Beaconsfieldgovernment eliedheavilyon informationbtained romBritish onsulsat thepolitically mportantposts in EuropeanTurkey.This information,unfortu-nately,wasscanty,misleading, r,in somecases,patently alse.Onthe basisofconsular eports,whichstrengthenedro-Turkishredilectionslreadyheldbythegovernment, he ForeignOfficeadopted irst an attitudeandthena policyregardingheinsurrectionhatlaterproved mbarrassingecauset seemed hatBeaconsfieldndmembersof his Cabinetweresupporting ndendorsinghebrutalmethodsof a decaying tate in puttingdowna justified ebellion.Theweakness f theLevantineonsularystembecamepainfullyobvious.Thepostsproviding he governmentwith its informationwerestaffedby men who hadlived mostof their ivesorservedmostof theircareersn Turkey.Theydidnotviewmatters"throughheEnglishmedium."9Althoughnewspapersuchasthe LondonTimesearlypublishedelegraphicaccounts f theinsurrection,heBritish overnment adlittleinformationromits consuls o verifysuchreports.As lateas May 1876 dispatchesromconsulJ. HuttonDupuisatAdrianople,henearestBritish onsulate o thesceneof thedisturbances, ereinfrequent ndcertainlynot alarming.0 Nor didthe reportsof consulRichardReadeat Rustchuk, n the rightbankof the Danube,revealundueanxiety,andAmbassador enryElliotat Constantinoplearly nformed

58. Seton-Watson,Britainin Europe,505-25; and by the same author,Disraeli, Gladstoneandthe EasternQuestion(London,1935), 51-83. Fora discussionof RussianPan-Slavismee MichaelB. Petrovich,The Emergenceof RussianPanslavism1856-1870 (New York, 1956); see also HansKohn, Pan-Slavism: ts History and Ideology (New York, 1960); and BenedictH. Sumner,Russiaand the Balkans1870-1880 (London, 1962), 56-80. For Russia'sopportunity to advance herpoliticalaimsbecauseof Turkishmisrulesee "Turkey ndRussia,"EdinburghReview (Jan. 1877),136-54. For the implicationsof the Balkancrisis on the Dreikaiserbundee William A. Gauld,"The 'Dreikaiserbiindnis'nd the EasternQuestion,1871-6,"English HistoricalReview, XL (Apr.1925), 207-21; and by the sameauthor"The 'Dreikaiserbfindnis'nd the EasternQuestion,1877-8," English HistoricalReview, XLII (Oct. 1927), 560-68. Severalmonographsdiscusswesternliberalinfluenceson the Bulgarianuprising.See, for example,C. E. Black,"TheInfluenceof West-ern PoliticalThoughtin Bulgaria,1850-1885,"AmericanHistoricalReview,XLVIII (Apr. 1943),507-20; and L. S. Stavrianos,"Antecedentso the BalkanRevolutionsof the NineteenthCentury,"Journalof ModernHistory, XXIX (Dec. 1957), 335-48; also Vangel K. Sugareff,"The Consti-tution of the BulgarianRevolutionaryCentralCommittee," ournalof ModernHistory, IV (Dec.1932), 572-80.59. The Britishgovernment,unfortunately,had no consularposts in the immediatevicinity ofthe insurrection.On the basis of recommendationsmade by the SelectCommitteeon Diplomaticand ConsularServices n 1872, the economy-mindedLiberalgovernmentabolishedthe consulatesat JaninaandPhilippopolis.Monastirwasreduced roma paidconsulate o an unpaidvice-consulate.AccountsandPapers,StatePapers,LX (1875), ConsularNo. 3 (1875), 4.60. Hansard,CCXXX (1876), 1486-87; except see W. N. Medlicott, "Vice-ConsulDupuis''Missing'Dispatchof June 23, 1876,"Journalof ModernHistory,IV (Mar. 1932), 38-48.



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312 THE MIDDLE EAST JOURNALLordDerby, heBritishForeignMinister,hatthe insurrection adunquestion-ablybeenput down.'TheBritish overnment nderstandably,herefore, lacedmore aith n itsconsuls han ntheoccasionalorrespondentsf thepress.

The shockingnews of Christians eingslaughteredn Bulgaria irstreachedEnglandnot through he mediumof consular eports,but in the pagesof anOppositionmouthpiece,he Daily News of June 23, in a letter fromEdwinPears,a well-knownawyerpracticingn Constantinople.he accountwas sospecifichat t inflamedheEnglishpublic.Namesof towns,numbers f personskilled, the namesof the Turkcommanders-all weregiven.Yet on June26,whentheywereasked n Parliamentf the reportsweretrue,bothBeaconsfieldand Derbyexpresseddoubt.Beaconsfield dmitted hat excessesmight haveoccurred, utsaid hat "the nformation hichwe haveatvariousimesreceiveddoesnotjustify hestatements" adebythepress.62PerhapsheBritish onsulmostguiltyof slantingnews n favorof theTurkswas WilliamR. Holmes,"anotoriousTurcophile,"t Sarajevo.63mmediatelyafterthe insurrectionegan,Holmesadmitted hatsomeoppressionxisted nBosniaandHerzegovina, utinsisted hat"acquainteds I am with the socialcondition f thecountry uring ifteenyears, donothesitateo declare hat theoppression n the Herzegovina n general is greatly exaggeratedby theChristians."4 "Therewasno particulareason,"aidHolmes,"oranyexcessofoppression,o justify roccasion risingof thepeople n 1875 beyondwhathasexistedat anytimesince1860, . . ..Holmeswasalsoconvinced hatforeign nfluenceswereresponsible or theoutbreakand insisted hat "to personsacquaintedwith the courseof affairsduring he lastfewyears n BosniaandtheHerzegovinaherecanbe no doubtthat the insurrectionwas firstbroughtabout,and afterwardsupportedby,foreign nfluence."Rather hanarising romgrievances, e said,"theso-calledinsurrectionn Bosniamight be bettertermedan invasionby bandsopenlyformed in AustrianCroatiaand Servia." t "cannotbe called a popularmovement."6

61. Walter G. Wirthwein,Britainand the BalkanCrisis, 1875-1878 (New York, 1935), 64.Shannonwrites that by 1874 Britain'ssupportof Turkeyhad becomean "orthodox radition"andidentifiedwith maintainingBritish imperial interests."So oppressive,"Shannon says, "was theorthodox traditionthat consulstended to supplythe ambassadorwith informationagreeableratherthan accurate."R. T. Shannon, Gladstoneand the BulgarianAgitation 1876 (London, 1963),17-18.62. Hansard,CCXXX (1876), 425-26.63. Seton-Watson,Disraeli, Gladstoneand the EasternQuestion,21.64. Accountsand Papers,StatePapers,LXXXIV (1876), TurkeyNo. 2 (1876), inclosure nno. 32, Holmes to Elliot, September 8, 1875.65. Ibid.,TurkeyNo. 3 (1876), inclosure n no. 67, Elliot to Derby, March10, 1876.66. Ibid. Temperleyconcludes,however, that the originatorsof the revolt were the semi-independentclans in southernHerzegovinaand not foreign agents.Harold W. Temperley,TheBulgarianand otherAtrocities,1875-8, in the Light of HistoricalCriticism(London, 1931), 4-8,43-44. Albrecht-Carrieaysthat the elementof personal[foreign] initiativefiguredheavilyin theBalkancrisis, for examplewith GeneralIgnatiev.Rene Albrecht-Carrie, DiplomaticHistory ofEuropeSince the Congressof Vienna (New York, 1958), 168. See also Sumner,Russiaand the



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THE OLD TURKISH HANDS 313Manyof Holmes'assertionsevealedhis ignorance f conditionsn the twoprovinceshatwerehis specialconcern.He was content o remainat Sarajevoandacceptalmostat facevalue the erroneous nd misleadingreportsof the

grosslyncompetent urkish fficialsn theseprovinces.Beaconsfieldndicatedhow verymuch he was influencedby reports romHolmesandotherconsuls n a letterhe wrote to QueenVictoriaon June29,1876. Commentingn anobservationmadebythe RussianTsarthatEngland,always o philanthropic,pparentlyadno desire o assist he oppressedChris-tians n BosniaandHerzegovina, eaconsfield rote hattheprobableause f thecomparativeoolnessf theEnglisheople,ndcertainlyof yourMajesty'sovernment,n thisrespect,risesrom he fact hat heyare npossessionf incontestablevidencehat he so-callednsurgentsrenotnativesfanyTurkishprovincebut aresimplyan invasionof revolutionaryands,whosestrengthay n thesupportffordedo thembyServia ndMontenegro,cting nthe instigation f foreignagentsandforeigncommittees. ll this is evident romthereport f yourMajesty'sonsuls,67In his statements efore he Commons n July 10 regardinghe BulgarianatrocitiesBeaconsfield gain indicatedhow much he reliedon consulardis-patches orhisknowledgeof the Balkancrisis.The Britishgovernmentwasin

constant ontactwith itsconsular epresentativestBelgrade,Ragusa,Adriano-ple,Cetinjeandelsewhere, esaid,andnoinformationnatrocities adreachedthe ForeignOffice romthem.68 week later,on July 17, the PrimeMinisteradmittedhatguerillawarfareandadverse onditionsn the disturbed istrictshamperedBritish onsuls n obtainingandtransmittingeports,"but," e said,"therewasnothing n thoseaccountswhichat all justifiedhe statementshatappearedn thepublicPress, . ."69Because he Britishgovernmentwas obviouslynot receiving nformationfrom heLevant iaconsularhannels,t is instructiveo notethelengthof timein the consular erviceof thoseconsulsoccupyinghe politicalpoststhatweremaintained or the purposeof obtaining nformationon developments ndevents n the Ottoman mpire.Withoutexceptionhesemenin 1876 hadlongserviceandexperiencen Turkey.Holmeshad been at the politically mportant onsulateof Sarajevo ince1861 andwas a veteranwith thirty-six ears n the Britishconsular ervice.70J. HuttonDupuishadbeenfouryearsat Adrianoplen 1876, but hadnearlytwentyyears'experience s a Levantine onsul.71 t Scutari, post politicallyBalkans,74-76.67. Quotedin GeorgeE. Buckle,The Life of BenjaminDisraeli (6 vols. London,1920), VI, 35.68. Hansard,CCXXX (1876), 1181-82.69. Ibid., 1489.70. Accountsand Papers,StatePapers,XCII (1877), TurkeyNo. 16 (1877), inclosure n no.21, Holmes to Elliot,April 17, 1871.71. Ibid.,Returnstatingthe Namesand Postsof all BritishConsulsand Vice-Consulsn Bulgariaand the BalkanDistrictsof Turkey,1870-76, TurkeyNo. 7 (1877).



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314 THE MIDDLE EAST JOURNALimportant ecause f itsproximity o Montenegro,W. KirbyGreenwasconsul.Greenhadbeenin the Levantineervice ortwenty-threeears.72onsulRich-ard Readehad servedmany yearsat Scutari,but had been transferredoRustchukbefore he outbreak f the insurrection. e basedhis reportson theexperiencegained from twenty-eightyearsin the service.73 agusaon theAdriaticwasalsoconsidered politicallymportant ost,andJ. G. Taylor,whohadtwenty-fiveearsn theservice,wasconsul here n 1876.74ConsulEdmondMonsonwas also attached o the Ragusaconsulate,but atthe height of the crisiswas dispatched n a specialmission o reportcircum-stancesanddevelopments t Cetinje n Montenegro.75onsonhad morethansixteenyears n Her Majesty'sService.76onsulJ. E. Blunt at Salonikaalsooccupied politicallymportantonsulate n European urkeyandwas abletokeephis governmentnformedon developments t Monastiras well. Blunt'sservice n Turkeydatedfrom 1854, a termof twenty-two ears.77 lunthadunderhimasvice-consulf LarissandVoloinThessaly,HenrySuter,whohadentered heBritish onsularervicen 1833 andwhohad,therefore,orty-threeyears n theservice n 1876.78Whenthenewsessionof theBritishParliamentpenedonFebruary , 1877,the government'sasternpolicywasbitterlydebatedandmanyof the Opposi-tion memberswereopenlycriticalof the consuls n the disturbed istrictsnEuropean urkey.HenryB.Samuelson,M. P. fromFromen SomersetCounty,askedwhethera Britishconsul,for exampleDupuisat Adrianople,was notinstructedo communicate ytelegrapho the ForeignOffice"allflagrant asesof Turkishoppressionhatcometo his knowledge; . ." 7' A. EvelynAshley,M. P. fromPoole in DorsetCounty, ecalledhatat onepointwhenquestionedabout he activities f irregular andsof Bashi-BazouksndCircassians,upuishad reported hat he had "'no means of ascertaining'" uch information.Ashleydemanded o knowwhya consulwassentto a districtf it was not tofind suchmeans.At another ime, saidAshley,Dupuis,"unable o reportabetter tateof things,said f he werecompelledo notice he disordersommit-ted, twasnot fromanydesire o sayanything dverse o theTurks."0Under the withering ireof the OppositionBeaconsfield dmittedhat thegovernment ackedinformation n the atrocitiesand impliedthat a partial

72. Ibid.,LXI (1872), PartV, Greento Granville,March25, 1872; Ibid., XC (1877), TurkeyNo. 1 (1877), inclosure n no. 46, Greento Elliot,August7, 1876.73. Ibid., XCII (1877), TurkeyNo. 7 (1877).74. Ibid., LXXXIV (1876), TurkeyNo. 3 (1876), inclosure n no. 115, Taylorto Buchanan,March 29, 1876.75. Ibid.,XC (1877), TurkeyNo. 1 (1877), no. 1067, Derbyto Monson,November27, 1876.76. Ibid., VII (1872), 164.77. Ibid.,XV (1859), 11.78. Ibid., 9; lbid., LX (1872), PartIII, 95.79. Hansard,CCXXXIII (1877), 115-16.80. Ibid., CCXXI (1876), 1083-86. Also for Dupuis' lack of objectivitysee Shannon,Glad-stoneand the BulgarianAgitation,55.



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THE OLD TURKISHHANDS 315explanationay in the penurious ctionof the preceding overnmenthathadreducedheconsular stablishmentsnTurkey. aid he PrimeMinister:

I am perfectlyaware-the slight andvagueinformation n the subjectof theseatrocities s theywere at firstreportedo us. I amwell awarehow slightwasthatinformation, utwe gaveall we could;andon subsequentccasionswhenwe hadfuller informationwe gave it also. . . . Now there is not the slightest doubt thatHer Majesty'sGovernment as ill-served n thatoccasion-theydid not receivethe informationheyought o havereceived.

Beaconsfieldwas not criticizingElliot. The ambassador ad beenpreoccupiedwith revolutions, ssassinations,hangesof governmentand ill health.And,said hePrimeMinister,Elliotwasdeficientn informations to theProvincesn whichtheseatrocities ccurred.ThatI attributed,nddo attribute,o the Consular ervicenot havingbeen ade-quate o theoccasion,ndthat t hadbeenimprovidentlyeduced.8'Afterthe atrocitieswereover,the Beaconsfieldovernment ent FrederickCalverto Philippopolissvice-consul2 and GeneralArnold R. Kemball o theheadquartersof the Turkish army as English Military Attache. But, chargedWilliam G. V. Harcourt,M. P. fromOxford ICityl, this actionwas a case of toolittle,too late.Whathadimpelled he government o delayso long in acting?Why wait until an entire province had been pillaged and an entire populationmurdered? he answer o oftengiven by the governmentwas that it had noinformation n theatrocities.Harcourtwasaghast hattheBritishgovernment,havingundertakeno maintain he integrity f Turkey, ouldfail to knowthatthousands f innocentandunresisting eoplehadbeenslaughtered ytheverygovernment she hadpledgedto uphold.Harcourtcalled it "a spectacle of diplomatic impotence and administrative

incapacity.. . ." And, he continued, "from the First Minister of the Crowndown to the Consul at Adrianople,there seemed not to be a man who, at themoment when the Eastwas occupying the attentionof the country,knew thatthese massacresand horrorswere going on."84Harcourtreferredto what hecalled "theculminationof diplomatic ncapacity in these transactions, . " andscoffed at the apology that had been given "for the ignorance and want ofenergydisplayedby our Representativesabroad, . 85 The levity with whichBeaconsfieldhad referredto the atrocitieswith "his unrivalled powers of hu-mourandsarcasm,"accusedHarcourt,"proved hat the Government at the time[Beaconsfield] spoke was unawareof the magnitude of the events which hadoccurredor that languagewould neverhave been used."m81. Hansard,CCXXXII (1877), 801.82. Accounts and Papers,StatePapers,XC (1877), TurkeyNo. 1 (1877), no. 29, Elliot toDerby, August 14, 1876.83. Ibid., no. 12, Derbyto Elliot,August 10, 1876.84. HansardCCXXXI (1876), 1126-27.85. Ibid., 1128.86. Ibid., 1129.



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316 THE MIDDLE EAST JOURNALPeterRylands,M. P. from Burnley n LancasterCounty,was even morecaustic.He declaredhatthe Englishpeoplehadlong beenskeptical egardingthe conductof the government nd eventhough"blindconsuls"were sentto

the East, hereweresourcesof information therthanthe consular erviceonwhich hepeoplecouldbase heircriticismsf government olicy.87Rylandsalso reminded he Commons hat informationon the atrocitiesreachedEngland,not throughdiplomatic hannels,but in the columnsof theDaily News. "TheGovernment ere nperfectgnorance," e declared.

Forweeks fter heperiod f themassacresheMinisters ereunableo giveanyreliablenformation-thenly nformationheyprofessedo have eceivedendedto discredithe accounts iven in the DailyNews, andto palliate he conductofthe Turks. t was felt at the timethroughouthe countryhat t wasa greatscandalthat withournumerous ndhighly-paid taffof Diplomatic ndConsularAgentsin Constantinoplendthe TurkishProvinces,he Governmentouldpossiblyhavebeenleft in ignorance f suchmomentousccurrences.hattheywereso left inignorances nowno longerdenied.'The Dukeof Argyllalsocastigatedhe government or its lack of informa-tion and tssubsequentolicy owards heBalkan risis.SaidArgyll:I confess hat the BlueBookshavenot impressedme with the accuracy r the ex-tent of knowledge ossessed y our Consuls.Almostall theirinformationppearsto be derived romTurkish ources.You almost nvariablyind in theirreports"- Pashaold me this," r "theTurkishGeneral old me that."Thefact s,afterwhatI haveread n thoseBlueBooks, donot believea wordwhichrestsaloneonsuchauthority. herewereveryfew occasionsn which he Consuls ot intocom-municationwiththe people hemselves.89Mildly chastening he government or its easternpolicy,H. DrummondWolff,M. P. fromChristchurchn Southampton ounty,put his fingeron thecrux of the problem.Wolff believed that a good deal of what had taken

place-the atrocitiesndthe policyof thegovernment-wasdueto the want of information t the ForeignOffice,owing to a certain oosenessamong omeof ouragentsabroad nd of diminutionn thenumber f ouragentsin placeswhere heyought to exist.Both at Constantinoplendsomeof the out-postsour diplomatic nd consular gents,were, fromthe society n whichtheymixed,aptto havefeelingsmore n favourof the Turks hantheChristians.9087. Ibid., CCXXXIII (1877), 577.88. Ibid.,445.89. Ibid., CCXXXII (1877), 647. Bluntoften reliedon sourcesof dubiousvalue.On September4, 1876, for example,he reported o Elliot what he had heardfroma "correspondentritingto mefrom the interior"and what "personswho have recentlycome here from Novi-Bazarsay...."Accounts and Papers,StatePapers,XC (1877), TurkeyNo. 1 (1877), indosure 1 in no. 268,Blunt to Elliot, September4, 1876. Reade also reliedon information hat he had not gotten first-hand. On one occasionhe obtainednews from "a trustworthyBulgarian," n anotherfrom a Bul-garianChristian"whocanbe reliedupon,"and on yet anotheroccasion,"froman impartialperson."Ibid., LXXXIV (1876), TurkeyNo. 3 (1876), inclosure1 in no. 500, Reade to Elliot, June 16,1876; Ibid.,TurkeyNo. 5 (1876), inclosure2 in no. 21, Readeto Elliot,July 19, 1876.90. Hansard,CCXXXI (1876), 1123-24.

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The Old Turkish Hands