The only study guide for PST103E

# 1997 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by theUniversity of South AfricaMuckleneuk, Pretoria

PST103±E/1/97±2005PFC101-Q/1/97-2005

96477245

3B2

CContentsontents

FOREWORD (vi)

UNIT 1

INFORMATION REGARDING THIS COURSE 1

1.1 Purpose, nature and scope of the course 11.2 Learning outcomes 11.3 Activities and self-evaluation exercises 21.4 Assignments 21.5 Prescribed books 21.6 Themes 21.6.1 A synopsis of the prescribed books and themes 31.7 An overview of the course 41.8 Concluding remarks 7

BIBLIOGRAPHY 7

UNIT 2

SOCIAL SCIENCES IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL Ð GEOGRAPHY ANDHISTORY 9

2.1 Clarification of concepts 92.1.1 What are the Social Sciences? 102.1.2 What is Geography? 112.1.3 What is History? 122.2 The nature and value of Geography and History in general education 132.3 Geography and History teaching in South African Primary Schools 172.3.1 A historical perspective 172.3.2 Recent developments 182.4 Correlation between Geography and History 212.5 Concluding remarks 222.6 Evaluation questions 22

BIBLIOGRAPHY 23

UNIT 3

CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 25

3.1 Defining the concept ``curriculum'' 253.2 Curriculum development 263.2.1 The place of Geography and History in the development of the

curriculum 273.3 Concluding remarks 323.4 Evaluation questions 32

BIBLIOGRAPHY 33

(iii) PST103±E/1/97-2005, PFC101±Q/1/97-2005

UNIT 4

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 34

4.1 Introduction 344.2 The difference between aims and objectives 344.3 Skills 364.3.1 Reading and research skills 364.3.2 Social skills 364.3.3 Descriptive skills 364.3.4 Schematic skills 364.3.5 Skills in synthesis 364.4 Concluding remarks 414.5 Evaluation questions 42

BIBLIOGRAPHY 42

UNIT 5

RESOURCES AND MEDIA 43

5.1 First order resources: the teacher 435.2 Second order resources: the spoken and written word 445.2.1 The writing/black/chalkboard 455.2.2 Textbooks 465.3 Third order resources: teaching media 475.3.1 Pictures, sketches, illustrations and photographs 475.3.2 The overhead projector 495.3.3 The timeline and timeline chart 505.3.4 Film/motion pictures 515.3.5 Video recording 515.3.6 Filmstrips and slides 515.3.7 Tape recorders 525.3.8 Maps 525.3.9 Exhibitions, presentations, samples and models 535.3.10 Computers 545.3.11 School library/media centre 545.4 Fourth order resources: beyond the school 555.4.1 Local events 555.4.2 Fieldwork, excursions and educational tours 565.5 Criteria for the selection of teaching media 595.6 Concluding remarks 605.7 Evaluation questions 60

BIBLIOGRAPHY 60

UNIT 6

LESSON PLANNING/PREPARATION 62

6.1 Introduction 626.2 Scheme of work 626.2.1 Educational objectives and aims 646.2.2 The course of the lesson 666.3 Evaluation questions 73

BIBLIOGRAPHY 73

(iv)

UNIT 7

EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES 74

7.1 Evaluation and assessment: explanation of concepts 747.2 Different types of assessment 757.2.1 Continuous assessment (CA) 777.3 The compilation of tests and examination papers 797.4 Concluding remarks 847.5 Evaluation questions 84

BIBLIOGRAPHY 85

UNIT 8

SCHOOL AND CLASS MANAGEMENT 86

8.1 Subject policy of the school 868.2 Organising individual, group and fieldwork 878.3 Concluding remarks 898.4 Evaluation questions 89

BIBLIOGRAPHY 89

APPENDIX 90

(v)

ForewordForeword

We welcome you to this course and trust that you will find the study guide useful andinformative. We welcome any form of criticism and will view it in the light of contributing toa better product.

The study guide consists of eight units, the first being an introduction, while the remainingseven will focus on the themes. Mr Lewis authored units 1, 2, 3, 7 and 8 while Dr VanSchalkwyk wrote units 4, 5 and 6.

We trust that this course will expand your own insights into the teaching of the subject, andwe wish you well in your studies.

Andrew LewisAlena van Schalkwyk

(vi)

Unit 1Unit 1

Information regarding thisInformation regarding thiscoursecourse

a After studying this unit you will be able to:

. list the themes that will be dealt with in this course,

. use and understand the contents pages of your prescribed books,

. speed read a passage for information,

. use this study guide as an aid for effective (and interactive) learning.

1.1 Purpose, nature and scope of the course1.1 Purpose, nature and scope of the courseThe main aim of the course, Social sciences in the primary school: Geography and

History,1 is for you to gain the necessary insight into the subject, and, what is all important,

how to apply this knowledge in the profession that you chose, namely teaching. It is not the

intention of this course that you merely reproduce facts, but that you have a sound grasp of

the subject and of how to apply this knowledge in teaching effectively.

This course is not designed to be a model of how teaching should be. That would be an

absurd assumption. This course is designed to give you the basic knowledge, skills,

values and attitudeswith which you can approach these subjects while teaching. We give

you the impetus; the rest (effective teaching) depends on you.

This course has to do with the teaching of Social Sciences (History and Geography) in the

senior primary phase. A conceptual analysis of relevant concepts and the rationale

behind the inclusion of both History and Geography will be given in units 2 and 3. The senior

phase in primary school is from Grades 4 to 6.

1.2 Learning outcomes1.2 Learning outcomesYou will see that each unit commences with certain learning outcomes. These outcomes

describe the results or achievements of learning rather than the means used to achieve

results. At the end of each unit it is hoped that you will have achieved every one of the set

outcomes.

ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ1 As these two subjects are still practised as separate subjects (1997) in the senior primary phase, the term ``Social Sciences'' in this study guide

will refer to the subjects History and Geography.

1 PST103-E/1

1.3 Activities and self-evaluation exercises1.3 Activities and self-evaluation exercisesActivities in the text and self-evaluation questions at the end of the unit will contributeto an outcomes-based type of learning. These activities and self-evaluation questions areincluded to help you to assess your progress and fulfil the set outcomes. They concentrate onmatters such as factual knowledge, insight and the ability to analyse or synthesise.

1.4 Assignments1.4 AssignmentsTutorial letter 101 contains a number of assignments appertaining to the course. Theseassignments are designed to contribute to your development of knowledge, skills, valuesand attitudes surrounding the subject, as well as contributing to your examinationentrance. Make sure that you understand the work and do not think that a verbatim (word-for-word) reproduction of relevant sections will ensure the attainment of the above-mentioned results.

1.5 Prescribed books1.5 Prescribed booksYour prescribed books form an important part of your study package which you receivedwhen you registered. You will notice that we prescribed two text books. One is forGeography teaching and the other one for History teaching and they are:

Hurry, L. 1991. Geography teaching in Southern Africa: an introductory guide. Pretoria: ViaAfrika.

Mathews, J, Moodley, K, Rheeder, W & Wilkinson, M. 1994. Discover History: a pupil-centred approach to History method. Pinelands: Maskew Miller Longman.

Please remember that, although the two books focus on the primary and secondary schools,you must focus on the first phase Ð senior primary. You can ignore aspects relating to thesecondary school.

The prescribed books also refer to syllabuses in use. These syllabuses are outdated and wehave included the latest core syllabuses of Geography and History at the back (seeappendix) of this study guide. We have also included an extract of the Western Cape'sStandard 4 (Grade 6) extended syllabus as an example of curriculum initiative atregional level.

1.6 Themes1.6 ThemesWe have seven themes that we will be discussing in this course and you will see that eachtheme features in both text books. Although some aspects may overlap, they do specificallyrefer to their own discipline. One book may also give more prominence to one aspect thanthe other does. We will supplement that information which is excluded or features lessprominently. You will see that we do not discuss all the aspects in the prescribed books. Thisdoes not mean that we do not see these sections as important. As your prescribed books areimportant sources of information, it is important that you use them correctly and efficiently.Do not view the seven themes in isolation; these themes are interrelated and form a whole.

2

When preparing say, a lesson, you will inevitably have to gather information from other units(eg when planning a lesson you have to look at, amongst others, basic didacticalprinciples and, assessment techniques).

1.6.1 A synopsis of the prescribed books and themes

We are now going to have a look at the themes that you will be encountering this year. Wewould like you to get acquainted with the themes and see to what extent they feature in theprescribed books. In order to help you gain clarity on how to use the text books correctly, weask you to do Activity 1.

D Activity 1 ± 10 minutes

Quickly scan through the contents pages of your prescribed books (rememberthat these can also be referred to as a table of contents) and the books as awhole. Below is a list of the themes that we will be discussing in our course.Next to each of our themes are two columns, representing our prescribedbooks. Next to each of our themes, see if you can write in the prescribedbooks' chapters/sections/pages. We have done certain sections of a theme sothat you are fully aware of what we want. Remember that both books may ormay not include all the themes discussed.

TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCES: HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

Geography bookChapter/s

Theme History bookChapter/s

1 Social Sciences in the primaryschool: Geography and History

1±4, 10

None 2 Curriculum and curriculumdevelopment

3 Aims and objectives

6±9, 12, 14 4 Resources and media

5 Lesson planning

6 Evaluation procedures 7±8, 12, 17

7 School and class management

!! At the end of this unit we have given you our version of the aboveoverview.

After completing Activity 1, you should now have a broad overview of what the course willinvolve, where more or less to find these themes in the text books and also which informationstill has to be supplemented. As was mentioned previously, it is not our intention to presentto you the alpha and omega of teaching Social Sciences, but it is our intention to give youthe basic skills with which to tackle these interesting (and very often neglected) subjects.

3 PST103-E/1

1.7 An overview of the course1.7 An overview of the courseAbove we have identified seven themes which we will be discussing in our study units. Wewill now give you an overview of what the course entails.

Theme 1will introduce Geography and History as part of the Social Sciences in the primaryschool. We will look at their relationship (correlation) and their nature, clarify certainconcepts and look at Geography and History teaching in South African schools. The aim ofthis chapter is thus to put the subjects into better perspective.

In theme 2 we will look at curriculum and curriculum development, lookingspecifically at Social Sciences (Geography and History). This will encompass basicprinciples and trends as well as a proposed framework for the primary school.

Theme 3 will look at the use of aims and objectives when teaching Social Sciences andhow they lead to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.

Theme 4 will look at ways of incorporating resources and media into one's planning of aneffective Social Science lesson.

Theme 5 will look at how to plan a Social Science lesson effectively with the subsequentaim of presenting it just as effectively.

An important aspect of teaching is that of evaluation and assessment. This canencompass evaluating your own performance, the evaluation of set aims and objectives andof resources and media that you use. Another aspect is evaluation of your pupils'performance. Theme 6 will look at assessment procedures in more detail.

Theme 7 will look at school and class management of Social Sciences in the primaryschool (senior phase).

It is also important that you know how to set out the particulars of the title page andpublisher's details. Activity 2 has been included for this purpose.


Study the title page and publisher's details of your History prescribed bookand then complete the following reference card. Compare your answers toours:

1 Author/s ....................................................................... (Surname and initials)

2 Date of publication .............................................................................................

3 Title .......................................................................................................................

4 Place of publication ...........................................................................................

5 Publisher ..............................................................................................................

6 Edition ..................................................................................................................

4

Study the title page and publisher's details of your Geography prescribed

book and then complete the following reference card. Compare your answers

to ours:

1 Author/s ....................................................................... (Surname and initials)

2 Date of publication .............................................................................................

3 Title .......................................................................................................................

4 Place of publication ...........................................................................................

5 Publisher ..............................................................................................................

6 Edition ..................................................................................................................

The aim of this activity is for you to use this information when doing your assignments.When you use any source of reference, you have to acknowledge it in your assignmentitself and in your bibliography.

When acknowledging in the text/assignment itself, wemake use of an internationally acceptedmethod known as theHarvardmethod. Youwill note that your prescribed books use a similar(but not identical) method. Wewill use the Harvard method because it is the most popular andacademically accepted method. This reference technique is used at the end of each sentence/paragraph in which we refer to information from another source.

Activity 3 will help you to use the method correctly.

Answers

1Mathews,J,Moodley,K,Rheeder,W&Wilkinson,M.

21994

3DiscoverHistory:apupil-centredapproachtoHistorymethod

4Pinelands

5MaskewMillerLongman

6Firstedition,secondimpression

Answers

1Hurry,L.

21991

3GeographyteachinginSouthernAfrica:anintroductoryguide

4Pretoria

5ViaAfrika

6Firstedition,secondimpression

5 PST103-E/1


1 Author

The only part of the author's name that you use is his/her surname. When

referring to the author in a text, you will place his/her surname in between

brackets, as follows:

(Hurry )

You are probably wondering if you must put all the authors of your History

book in brackets. The answer is no. You will only put the first one's

surname, followed by the Latin words et al. meaning `ànd others'' (Sykes

1979:355), implying all the other authors.

(Mathews et al. )

2 Date of publication

After the author's surname, you will write the date of publication as

follows:

(Hurry 1991 )

(Mathews et al. 1994 )

3 Pages

The last piece of information that you must insert are the pages consulted.

Say you consulted page 90 in your Geography book and pages 106±108 in

your History book. You will then write the information as follows:

(Hurry 1991:90)

(Mathews et al.:106±108)

And that's that! You will notice that there are many such references in your prescribed text

books and study guide.

You will also notice that at the back of each prescribed book, you have a list of all the books

consulted by the author/s. This is known as a bibliography. Each assignment must have a

bibliography, as you need to acknowledge the author/s whose books you consulted. Here

we will again use that information which we acquired in activity 2. A bibliography must be

as concise (yet complete) as possible. Entries in your bibliography are arranged according to

alphabetical order. Our prescribed books will be listed as follows:

Hurry, L 1991. Geography teaching in Southern Africa: an introductory guide. Pretoria: Via

Afrika.

Mathews, J, Moodley, K, Rheeder, W & Wilkinson, M. 1994. Discover History: a pupil-

centred approach to History method. Pinelands: Maskew Miller Longman.

You will notice that, in the bibliography, we list all the authors of a particular source.

Whereas we used et al. in the assignment, we have to acknowledge/write all the authors'

names in the bibliography. We also use italics when typing the source's title. If you write the

bibliography yourself, obviously you cannot use italics. Here you will underline the source.

Why is it necessary to have a bibliography in your assignment? In Activity 4, we would like

you to list a couple of reasons why you think a bibliography is necessary. Think about this

one before writing down your answers.

6


1 .................................................................................................................................

2 .................................................................................................................................

3 .................................................................................................................................

1.8 Concluding remarks1.8 Concluding remarksSeeing that we still have not yet explained why we have combined Geography and History,we will touch on that aspect in the next theme.

It is hoped that thiswrap-around study guidewill make of you an active learner, which inturn will lead to effective teaching.

As was mentioned earlier, we will equip you with the basic tools (knowledge, skills,values and attitudes) which will hopefully be used in effective teaching. Activities andevaluation questions will be included in the units for you to test and practise thesebasic tools.

The study guide will not repeat what is in the prescribed books. Our approach will be totake a theme, discuss it in general and then by reading certain relevant sections in theprescribed books look more specifically at the two different subjects Geography andHistory.

Activities may require of you to critically apply knowledge that you have learnt and yourown experience as a teacher/potential teacher. Activities are included to make youthink critically.

Look at the outcomes stipulated in the beginning of this unit and mark off those that youhave attained/mastered. If not, go back to those of which you are still unsure and give themattention. Remember that they are there to help you!

We look forward to hearing from you as well as meeting you.

BibliographyBibliographySykes, JB. (ed.) 1979. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. 6th edition, 8th

impression. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

7 PST103-E/1

Suggested answers to Activity 1:Suggested answers to Activity 1:

TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCES: GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

Geography bookChapter/s

Theme History bookChapter/s

1±2 1 Social Sciences in the primaryschool: Geography and History

1±4, 10

None 2 Curriculum and curriculumdevelopment

Sections of Ch 1

Parts of Chapters 1 &15

3 Aims and objectives 2 & 18

6±9, 12, 14 4 Resources and media 5±6, 9, 13±14, 19,20±21

6±10, 13, 15 5 Lesson planning 12, 15±16, 18

16 6 Evaluation procedures 7±8, 12, 17

3, 11, 15 7 School and class management 11, Appendix 1 & 2

8

Unit 2Unit 2

Social Sciences in the primarySocial Sciences in the primaryschool Ð Geography andschool Ð Geography andHistoryHistory


. understand what is meant by the concepts: Social Sciences, Geographyand History,

. discuss the essential nature of Geography and History as school subjects,

. discuss the value and contribution of Geography and History to alearner's general education,

. have knowledge of the development of Geography and History teachingin South African schools,

. discuss the basic principles of good general teaching and theirapplication to Geography and History;

. understand the correlation between Geography and History.

2.1 Clarification of concepts2.1 Clarification of conceptsAs you are into your second unit, you are probably wondering what Social Scienceshas to do with Geography and History and vice versa. As was suggested in study unit1, it is necessary to clarify the concepts of Social Sciences, Geography andHistory. Before one can teach effectively, surely one must understand what thediscipline involves.

Before we get to various people's definition of these concepts, let us see how you perceivethem. Activity 1 will cover this aspect.

9 PST103-E/1


How would you define the concepts of Social Sciences, Geography and

History? In other words, what do these fields of study mean to you?

1 Social Sciences:

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

2 Geography:

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

3 History:

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

2.1.1 What are the Social Sciences?

Firstly, let us look at the encompassing term Social Sciences.

Without getting into too much of a discussion on the debate surrounding the definition of

the concept of Social Sciences, it is necessary to briefly define the concept for our purposes

and place it into perspective.

There is no conclusive definition of the term; however, there is a general (broad) consensus

that this field examines the way in which individuals and groups interact with various

environments (Nelson 1992:24; Robertson 1977:7). This definition implies inter alia the

study of human society and social relationships as well as why people behave the way they

do (Elliot et al. 1992:1028; Tulloch 1993:1472).

Nelson (1992:24±25) further elaborates on these `ènvironments'' and refers to a material

and a human environment.

In the material environment, Geographers will study the spatial pattern of people's

interaction with the physical environment, while Economists study the ways in which

people use material resources. In the human environment, Sociologists study ways in

which people interact with society in general, Anthropologists study people's interaction

with culture, Psychologists will study the minds and behaviour of humans, and Political

Scientists will study people's interaction with power and authority. Lastly there is the study

of History (where Social Sciences merge with the Humanities). Historians examine the

different ways in which people of different time periods (epochs) and circumstances have

interacted with these environments (Reber 1985:593; Nelson 1992:24±25).

10

Now that we have looked at the concept Social Sciences, let us now focus our attention on

two aspects thereof: Geography and History.

2.1.2 What is Geography?

From an early age, children, in an attempt to satisfy their curiosity, ask questions about their

surrounding environment. As a teacher/potential teacher, you are aware of these questions,

perhaps while teaching, or through your own experiences or observations (formerly as a

child or now as an adult). Questions like why the sky is blue, why there are valleys and

mountains or what the capital of a certain country is are but a few such examples. As children

are becoming aware of their environment, they are becoming aware of the geography of

their surroundings (Holmes & Moorhouse 1993:1).

The first step in answering the initial question would be to inspect a few definitions of the

term and try and find a generally acceptable one.

Read: Hurry p 2 sec 1.1.


1 Identify certain key elements which each of these definitions emphasise:

1.1 .......................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................

1.2 .......................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................

1.3 .......................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................

2 Also consult a good dictionary/dictionaries and see how they define the

term (Geography):

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

3 Take all these definitions and note similarities and differences in these

definitions.

Similarities Differences

1 .......................................................... 1 ..........................................................

2 .......................................................... 2 ..........................................................

3 .......................................................... 3 ..........................................................

11 PST103-E/1

4 After all that you have read and experienced in activities 1 & 2, now tryto define the concept:

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

I think that after doing activities 1 and 2 you will agree with Holmes and Moorhouse(1993:1) when they observe that ``Geography is easy to observe but difficult to define''.Geographers do not always agree on what Geography comprises, mainly because they studya host of phenomena, while over the years a shift of emphasis has taken place, which hasbeen determined by the scientific ideals of the period. However, contemporary definitionstend to emphasise the relationship between the earth and its inhabitants, through thestudy of place, space and the environment (Wiegand 1993:1).

Let us now investigate the concept of History.

2.1.3 What is History?

Even to answer this question involves much debate and response (much the same as withGeography). If you have to ask your class/future class members how they perceive the termor subject, a myriad answers will be forthcoming. Answers may vary from ``boring facts'' to`ìnteresting stories from the past''.

Various authors have different opinions as to how they see History and, as in the case ofGeography, a generally accepted definition seems to elude writers.

Let us note a couple of these definitions in Esterhuizen et al. (1991:1).

Van Jaarsveld sees History as ``... the reality which took place in the presence of God, andthe historian who construes reality after it has occurred, is only able to do so on the basis ofinformation which has been left him. Each event is unique and unrepeatable''.

Burston and Green interpret History as ``the story of the development, evolution and origin ofour present environment''.

Dreyer perceives History as ``the totality, in the length of time, of humanity's life gone by''.

Commager makes the following statement: `Ìt means the past and all that happened in thepast. It means, too, the record of the past Ð all that men have said and written in the past''.

While Clark states that ``history is the record of what has happened in the past, of anythingthat has ever happened in the past, however long ago or however recently''.

12


1 Identify certain key elements which each of these definitions emphasise:

1.1 .......................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................

1.2 .......................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................

1.3 .......................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................

2 Also consult a good dictionary/dictionaries and see how they define theterm (History):

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

3 Take all these definitions and note similarities and differences in thesedefinitions.

Similarities Differences

1 .......................................................... 1 ..........................................................

2 .......................................................... 2 ..........................................................

3 .......................................................... 3 ..........................................................

4 After all that you have read and experienced in activities 1 and 3, try todefine the concept:

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

Much in the same vein as with Geography, various academics perceive the concept ofHistory differently. I think that you will agree that History is a record or description of thepast, with the past being understood in terms of time and space (Jordaan et al. [sa]:1).

2.22.2 The nature and value of Geography and History inThe nature and value of Geography and History ingeneral educationgeneral education

Looking at the previous definitions, I think that you will agree that we have still not got downto what the essential characteristics and elements of Geography and History are.

13 PST103-E/1

It is necessary that teachers understand the nature and elements of Geography andHistory, what they involve and finally their contribution to education.

Read: Mathews et al. pp 2±5 (The elements of History)Hurry pp 2±3 (secs 1.2±1.3)


1 What five important characteristics does Hurry identify as constituting(school) Geography? Explain.

1.1 .......................................................................................................................

1.2 .......................................................................................................................

1.3 .......................................................................................................................

1.4 .......................................................................................................................

1.5 .......................................................................................................................

2 What five elements does Mathews et al. identify for History?

2.1 .......................................................................................................................

2.2 .......................................................................................................................

2.3 .......................................................................................................................

2.4 .......................................................................................................................

2.5 .......................................................................................................................

Let us now look at the value and contribution of these subjects to general education.

Read: Mathews et al. chapters 2±4 (The value of History)Hurry p 4, sec 1.4±1.5

Here, both authors speak of the value and contribution to education of History andGeography. In the 1996 Geography Syllabus: senior primary phase Ð Standerds(sic) 2 to 4 (Grades 4 ± 6) of the Western Cape Education Department (1996:4), thefollowing diagram illustrates what they see as Geography's contribution to education:

14

CONTRIBUTION OF GEOGRAPHY TO EDUCATION

. locations and places in a national andinternational framework

. major natural systems of the world, e.g.landforms, water bodies, climate, etc.

. major socio-economic systems of theworld, e.g. agriculture, settlements,population, transport, etc.

. the diversity of peoples and societies inthe world to appreciate the culturalrichness of humanity

. structures and processes at local andnational level

. the challlenges of, and opportunities for,global interaction

. the use of maps, graphs and statistics

. the use of text, pictures, tables anddiagrams

. practising methods of field observationand mapping; interviewing people;gathering and interpreting informationfirsthand

. using communicat ion, thinking,practical and social skills to exploregeographical topics

. the process of inquiry which willencourage learners to question; processand evaluate information; makegenera l i sa t ion, judgements anddecisions; solve problems and to workin groups

Knowledge and understanding of: Skills in:

Attitudes and values that help to:

. interest the learners in their surroundings and in the variety of natural andhuman characteristics on the surface of the Earth

. appreciate the uniqueness of the physical world and the wide variety ofenvironments in which people live

. develop a concern for the quality of planning of the environment for futuregenerations

. understand the significance of decision making

. develop a readiness to use geographic knowledge and skills in daily life

. develop a respect for the rights of all people to equality

. encourage a commitment to seeking solutions to local, regional, nationaland international problems on the basis of the `Ìnternational Declaration ofHuman Rights''

S

T

ST

DIAGRAM 1

WV

Source: WCED 1996:4

15 PST103-E/1

WV

ST

S

T


What three broad categories do these sources acknowledge as contributingto a child's education?

1 ...............................................................................................................................

2 ...............................................................................................................................

3 ...............................................................................................................................


Although Mathews et al. do not make use of a diagram, they still incorporateknowledge, skills, attitudes and values. Create your own diagram for History,using other sources as well as Mathews et al.

CONTRIBUTION OF HISTORY FOR EDUCATION

Knowledge and understanding of: Skills in:

. ............................................................ . ............................................................

. ............................................................ . ............................................................

. ............................................................ . ............................................................

. ............................................................ . ............................................................

. ............................................................ . ............................................................

. ............................................................ . ............................................................

Attitudes and values that help to:

. .................................................................................................................

. .................................................................................................................

. .................................................................................................................

. .................................................................................................................

. .................................................................................................................

. .................................................................................................................

16

2.32.3 Geography and History teaching in South AfricanGeography and History teaching in South Africanprimary schoolsprimary schools

2.3.1 A historical perspective

The subjects Geography and History have long been an accepted part of South Africanschools' curriculum. However, owing to, amongst other reasons, South Africa's racialpolicies of the past, these subjects did not evolve at the same time and/or tempo in thedifferent departments. It was only in the 1990s that a single education department saw to itthat all inhabitants received an education that did not discriminate on the lines of, amongstother aspects, colour. As examples of the introduction and development of the subjectsGeography and History in South Africa, we will focus on salient aspects of the inclusion ofthese two subjects in the curriculum in the teaching of black and white pupils respectively.The latter will be sketched first.

In the Cape Colony, as far back as the early nineteenth century, Commissioner De Mist'sskoolorder of 11 September 1804 included Geography and History in the primary schoolcurriculum (Du Toit 1975:37±38).

It was only in 1872 that President Brand of the Orange Free State enacted an educationordinance which saw to the inclusion of Geography and History (general, fatherland andBiblical) in the school curriculum. The first schoolbook printed in the Free State wasAardrykskunde en Geskiedenis van den Oranje-Vrystaat (1892). Ordinance 9 of 1920 saw toit that the Geography and History syllabuses were adapted to South African conditions (VanSchoor 1975:145±146, 184).

In the former Transvaal the Volksraad formulated its first written attempt at an educationpolicy. These regulations were drawn up by a Dutch teacher, H van Linden, and promulgatedin 1852. In 1859 an educational committee was set up to supervise educational provisionand saw to it that teachers taught, amongst other subjects General History and Geography(Behr 1984:12). In 1889, Geography became a compulsory subject in primary schoolsaccording to the regulations of that year (Venter 1992:6).

In Natal, Act 15 of 1877 made provision for the recognition of primary education in thecolony. A curriculum was laid down which recognised, amongst other subjects, the Historyof England and South Africa as well as elementary Geography (Behr 1984:10).

After the Union of South Africa Act of 1909 up until 1967, traditionally white schools in thefour provinces were given a measure of local control in certain matters (Behr 1984:20).Education was one of them. The teaching of Geography and History was also practised inthis light. In the Cape and Free State they were presented up to Standerd 8 (Gr 10) as SocialStudies1 and in the Transvaal up to Standerd 5 (Gr 7). However, Social Studies was laterterminated in the 1960s (Van Jaarsveld & Rademeyer 1975:94). The National Education Actof 1967 saw to it that there was a national coordination in respect of syllabuses, courses andexamination standards and the two subjects were presented as separate disciplines (Behr1984:38±39, 43) up until the present.

Well up until the 1950s, Missionaries were largely responsible for black education in SouthAfrica and the teaching of Geography and History differed from province to province. Forexample, up to 1910 course content at mission schools in the Cape Colonywas very similarto that for white pupils, while in Natal the Council of Education created in 1877 did not

ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ1 This subject comprised Geography, History and Citizenship.

17 PST103-E/1

include these subjects (Geography and History) in the separate curriculum for blacks (Behr1984:174). Blacks in the Transvaal only received separate curricula in 1913, the Cape in1921 and the OFS in 1924 (Hartshorne 1992:25, 57).

In the Transvaal, a curriculum for the seventh school year which included Geography (SouthAfrica and the British Colonies) was only added in 1920, while it was only in 1928, at thetime of the next curriculum revision, that History was included in the curriculum (Hartshorne1992:26).

By 1949, the curriculum was more or less uniform in all the provinces, with History andGeography being included and presented as Social Studies (Hartshorne 1992:31).

After the infamous 1953 Bantu Education Act, new syllabuses were drawn up in 1956. Thecontent of the subject Social Studies was seen as containing ideological content promotingthe apartheid doctrine. These syllabuses were more or less similar to those used by Whiteprovincial schools (Harsthorne 1992:40±41).

Up until 1975, Social Studies was still practised in black primary schools (senior primary)but was later replaced by separate disciplines Ð History and Geography (Behr 1984:191±192, 208) Ð as is practised to date.

The democratic processes of the 1990s heralded a fresh look at curriculum content and thestatus of Geography and History. These curriculum developments will be discussed in moredetail in unit 3.

It is necessary to have a look at recent developments in Geography and History and theireffect on the teaching of the subjects in South African schools, with special reference to thesenior primary phase.

2.3.2 Recent developments

Read: Mathews et al. p1 Ð ``Recent developments in the teaching of history''.

Since the 1960s Geography has progressed from being perceived as an ``... ideographicdescription of regions, i.e. geography's traditional preoccupation with the individuality anduniqueness of different countries and areas, to a nomothetic, law-seeking science ...concerned with explanation in terms of general theories'' (Smit 1994:51) that is, process-orientated (Smit 1986:276; Venter 1992:7). Geography teaching in the primary school hasbecome increasingly child-centred and concept based (seeking more generalisedstatements which link phenomena together) as was evident in syllabus revisions of the1970s and 1980s. The importance of pure facts was now being replaced by a recognition ofconcepts and skills (Smit 1994:51±52). With regard to the development of concepts, it isimperative that educators take cognisance of aspects of child development as theorised byacademics such as Piaget (Smit 1986:277). Piaget's theory, together with other relevanttheories, will be discussed in detail in the theme Child development (ETH101).

During the 1970s and 1980s, a new shift in paradigm was experienced especially in humanGeography, namely that to an awareness of environmental and Third World issues. However,core syllabus revisions during 1985 did not reflect this paradigm shift (Smit 1994:52).

Seeing that Geography as a school subject lends itself well to the development of spatialconcepts (Smit 1986:277) and History to time and spatial concepts (Esterhuizen et al.1991:25±28) the following tables will show the development of the child's conception ofthese two aspects. Remember that these are only theories, mainly from a Westernperspective, and may differ from theories of child development in other cultures and lend

18

themselves to a fair amount of criticism (Lowry 1995:120±121). However, they do give a fairindication as to the child's development of concepts.

FIGURE 2.1

Scheme: consciousness of time

6±7 years 8±9 years 10±11 years 12±16 years 16±18 years

Gr 1 & 2 (Sub A& B)

Gr 3±6 Gr 5±6 Gr 7±9/10 Gr 10/11±12

Has a naõÈ veexperience of time

Becomes awareof time

Develops in-creasing experi-ence anddifferentiation oftime

Becomes awareof his own lifehistory and thehistoricity of hisexistence

Is able tocomprehend thechronological linein broad outline

Has no knowledgeof time

Starts to show anunderstanding ofbiological timeÐ age

Becomes awareof chronology

Awakening ofthe realisation oftemporality be-gins

Is able tocomprehend thespace of time inbroad outline

Does, however,hold hope for thefuture

Nine-year-oldalready catego-rises time, e.g.cycles, days,nights, seasons

Starts tounderstand his-torical dates

. Discovers thatthe temporarynature of hisown life is hispsychologicaltime

. Discovers thatthe temporarynature of alllife is hisphilosophicaltime

Is able to dividetime into periods

Develops under-standing ofconsecutive gen-erations: grand-father Ð fatherÐ himself and/orgrandmother Ðmother Ð her-self

Development oftime (withreference todates) occursslowly

Understandingof epochs and ofthe characteris-tics, style andatmosphere oftime begins andincreases

Adapted from: Esterhuizen et al. 1991:26

19 PST103-E/1

FIGURE 2.2

Scheme: the development of the pupil's conception of space

6±9 years 10±11 years 12±16 years 16±18 years

Gr 3±4 Gr 5±6 Gr 7±9/10 Gr 10/11±12

A very slight under-standing of the formof things, but no ideaof the relation ofthese to each other

The beginning ofa concreteoperation ac-cording to space

The beginning of aclear concept ofschematic outline

Further develop-ment of theconcept of space

Beginning of aconcept of space

The beginning ofthe developmentof ideas on formand schematicoutlining

The beginning ofthe linkage ofvarious spatialareas

Development ofconcept of spaceby means ofobservations andimagination toform an idea ofthe space of theearth on whichhuman beingslive, and theinfluence of spaceon the actions ofman

A very poorunderstanding ofschematic outlining

No true conceptof space butunderstanding ofconcepts ofdistances such asfar and conceptsof size such asbig

The beginning ofan intuitiveconcept of areasthat are so largethat one can neverobserve them withthe eye

Fixing ofdirection andlocation veryimportant

The beginning ofabstract thinkingrelating to largerspatial areas, e.g.Gauteng and theother provinces, asthe area of SouthAfrica

Adapted from: Esterhuizen et al. 1991:28

20


1 Do you think that it is wrong to overburden the Gr 5 child with the

memorisation of dates in a History lesson and geographical facts in a

Geography lesson? Give your reasons.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

2 Do you think it is wise to start letting pupils build models of South African

relief in the Geography class as early as Gr 4? Explain your answer.

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................

It is also necessary to look at some basic principles of good general teaching and how

they apply to Geography and History.

Read: Hurry p 12, (secs 2.1±2.2)

Although Hurry refers only to Geography, these principles are very valid for History as well.

2.4 Correlation between Geography and History2.4 Correlation between Geography and HistoryTo many people there is a strong correlation between the subjects Geography and History.

There are many reasons for this. In activity 8 we would like you to use the knowledge that

we have provided, together with your critical thoughts, to provide possible reasons why

there is such a strong correlation.


Do you think that there is a strong correlation between Geography and

History? Why do you say this?

1 ...............................................................................................................................

2 ...............................................................................................................................

3 ...............................................................................................................................

4 ...............................................................................................................................

On 15 April 1990, Margaret Thatcher, a former British Prime Minister, made the comment in

The Sunday Telegraph that:

21 PST103-E/1

`Ìt is obvious that you must have some history and some geography; you are not acomplete person unless you have that general knowledge'' (DES/WO 1990:6).

This quotation not only emphasises the importance of Geography and History, but also thefact that very often these two subjects complement each other in many aspects. Marwick(1976:107) supports this and notes that ``between history and geography ... there arevenerable ties''.

Although there are strong links (eg space) and dependence upon each other, one mustrealise that the practioners of the two subjects do work and think in different ways.Experience has also shown that the two subjects diverge quite significantly after primaryschool level (DES/WO 1990:74).

The following extracts outline the influence of the two disciplines upon each other.

Read: Chapter 10 of Mathews et al. and secs 2.3±2.4 of Hurry


1 What four conditions identified by Mathews et al. illustrate the way inwhich Geography influences the course of History?

1.1 .......................................................................................................................

1.2 .......................................................................................................................

1.3 .......................................................................................................................

1.4 .......................................................................................................................

2.5 Concluding remarks2.5 Concluding remarksThe aim of this unit was to place Geography and History into perspective as an aspect ofSocial Sciences, especially with reference to South African schools. For effective teaching totake place, it is essential that teachers/potential teachers understand what the subjectsinvolve and their value for education, not forgetting basic principles of good teaching.

2.6 Evaluation questions2.6 Evaluation questions1 Say if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.

1.1 History can be regarded purely as a Social Science.

1.2 The subjects Geography and History have always been practised from a content-based approach.

1.3 The teaching and learning of facts play an important role in senior primaryeducation. [3]

2 Why do you think that it is imperative that Geography and History teachers understandwhat their subject is about before they practise it? [5]

3 Why is holistic teaching considered important in the primary school? [5]

22

4 Name and discuss the fundamental principles that characterise good (general)

teaching. Explain in the light of your current teaching experiences or past experiences

while still a scholar. [10]

5 Discuss why it is not educationally acceptable to teach from a content-based approach

only. [3]

BibliographyBibliography

Behr, AL. 1984. New perspectives in South African Education. 2nd edition. Durban:

Butterworth.

Department of Education and Science & the Welsh Office (DES/WO). 1990. Geography for

ages 5 to 16: Proposals of the Secretary of State for Education and Science and the

Secretary of State for Wales. June.

Du Toit, PS. 1975. Onderwys in Kaapland. In J. Chr. Coetzee (red). Onderwys in Suid-

Afrika. Pretoria: JL van Schaik:

Elliot, SP, Goldstein, M & Upshall, M. 1992. Webster's New World Encyclopedia. New York:

Prentice Hall.

Esterhuizen, SJ, Gunning, NR & Mocke, HA. 1991. History method for primary and

secondary schools. Pretoria: Via Afrika.

Hartshorne, K. 1992. Crisis and challenge: Black education 1910±1990. Cape Town: Oxford

University Press.

Holmes, P & Moorhouse, I. 1991. Geography method for primary teachers. Pinelands:

Maskew Miller Longman.

Jordaan, SP, Vivier, JM, Barnard, CJ & Schutte, MA. [Sa]. Didactics: History in the primary

school. Pretoria: De Jager HAUM.

Lowry, S. 1995. A critique of the history curriculum debate in South Africa: some signposts

for the future. Perspectives in Education, 16(1):105±130.

Marwick, A. 1970. The Nature of History. London: The Macmillan Press.

Nelson, MR. 1992. Children and social studies: creative teaching in the elementary

classroom. 2nd edition. Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Reber, AS. 1985. The Penquin Dictionary of Psychology. London: Penguin.

Robertson, I. 1977. Sociology. New York: Worth.

Smit, MJ. 1986. Aardrykskunde in die primeÃ re skool: 'n pleidooi vir beter seleksie, meer

vryheid en inisiatief. Die Unie, April:276±278.

Smit, T. 1994. School Geography in the new South Africa: challenges and responses, in LB

Hurry (ed). A case for Geography in the new South Africa. Pietermaritzburg: Geography

Initiative in South Africa.

Tulloch, S. (ed). 1993. The Reader's Digest Oxford complete Wordfinder. London: The

Reader's Digest Association.

23 PST103-E/1

Van Jaarsveld, FA & Rademeyer, JI. 1977. Teorie en metodiek vir geskiedenisonderrig. 2deuitgawe. Doornfontein, Johannesburg: Perskor.

Van Schoor, MCE. 1975. Onderwys in die Oranje-Vrystaat. In J. Chr. Coetzee (red).Onderwys in Suid-Afrika. Pretoria: JL van Schaik.

Venter, SCJ. 1992. Subject Didactics: Geography. Only study guide for MGGROO-R.Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Western Cape Education Department (WCED). 1996. Geography Syllabus: senior primaryphase Ð Standerds (sic) 2 to 4.

Wiegand, P. 1993. Children and Primary Geography. London: Cassell.

24

Unit 3Unit 3

Curriculum and curriculumCurriculum and curriculumdevelopmentdevelopment


. understand what is meant by the concepts of curriculum and

curriculum development,

. take cognisance of curriculum development initiatives in South African

education with special reference to Geography and History,

. plot the position of Geography and History in these current initiatives.

3.1 Defining the concept ``curriculum''3.1 Defining the concept ``curriculum''Good education does not only occur if teachers' qualifications are improved, educational

equipment and materials are supplied in abundance, detailed syllabuses are provided or well-

structured examinations are the order of the day. Good education can only occur if all these

are combined into productive classroom experiences. These dynamic processes must be

reflected in the curriculum. Dachs (1996:93) sees the curriculum as an active educational

process, in other words ``... something that happens ... and not simply a pile of documents

describing what ought to happen''.

!! What then is a curriculum?

Carl (1995:26±27) notes the difficulty of defining such a concept because of, among other

reasons, the diverse approaches with which writers negotiate the field (curriculum studies).

Without getting into too much of a debate, we will look at Carl's definition of the concept.

The term can be defined as ``... a broad concept that embraces all planned activities, and thus

also subject courses that take place during the ordinary school day. It also includes all after-

school planned activities such as societies and sport'' (Carl 1988:21).

This implies that the concept has a narrow meaning (a set of subjects) and a wider

connotation (all learning experiences offered by a school, both during and after school). To

Marks et al. (in Carl 1995:33) the curriculum ``... encompasses all of the learning experiences

that students have under the direction of the school.''

It is now necessary to look briefly at curriculum development in South Africa. In this

analysis we will plot the position of Geography and History so that you can see its

development.

25 PST103-E/1

3.2 Curriculum development3.2 Curriculum developmentManyofSouthAfrica's educational problemsaredirectly related to thecurriculumand for it tobe

relevant, curriculum development should be such that it fulfills this need (Carl 1995:24).

!! What then is curriculum development?

Even this concept lends itself to various definitions. However, for this discussion, we will

adopt the definition by Carl (1995:73) who sees it as a process characterised by various

phases such as curriculum design, dissemination, implementation and evaluation.

Recently, specific initiatives in South Africa have endeavoured to investigate curriculum

development with the aim of proposing a broad policy (Carl 1995:25) in making it more

relevant. These initiatives include the Human Sciences Research Council's (HSRC)

investigation into education in 1981 (commonly known as the De Lange Report), the

discussion document of the Committee of Heads of Education Departments in

November 1991, as well as the provisional report of the National Education Policy

Investigation (known as the NEPI report) of 1992.

Although these initiatives contributed greatly to the curriculum development debate, they

were not seen as reflecting all the role players in South African education, a truly democratic

process was thus needed.

After the first democratic elections in 1994, developments in education attempted to reflect

democratic principles. This was also the case with curriculum development.

In 1995 the Heads of Education Committee (HEDCOM) requested the Department of

Education to facilitate the development of a new curriculum framework for General and

Further Education and Training. The Department of Education, in an attempt to meet this

request, appointed a national Consultative Forum on Curriculum (CFC). This forum

represented a variety of stakeholders and role players in education and training across the

country. The result was the Curriculum Framework For General and Further

Education and Training of December 1995 (CFC 1995: foreword). Hereafter, we will refer

to this initiative as the 1995 Curriculum Framework. This was the first discussion

document, and, in line with democratic principles, interested parties Ð both individual and

collective Ð were invited to respond by March 1996. The responses were considered by the

Curriculum Development Working Group (CDWG) of the National Curriculum

Development Committee (NCDC) and were as far as possible incorporated in the July

1996 discussion draft (CDWG 1996: foreword), herewith referred to as the 1996

Curriculum Framework.

Many relevant documents were used in preparing and developing these works. These

included the 1993 interim Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, the March

1995 White Paper on Education and Training and the October 1995 South African

Qualifications Authority (SAQA). TheWhite Paperwas drawn upon heavily to develop

the `'new'' curriculum (CFC 1996: foreword; CDWG 1996:6).

The 1996 Curriculum Framework (CDWG 1996:11±16) identified 11 principles

informing curriculum design to contribute towards:

. human resource development promoting continued learning, the application and

development of new knowledge, skills and technologies, flexibility in job movement, etc;

. learner-centredness;

26

. being relevant and appropriate to current and anticipated needs of the individual,

society, commerce and industry;

. an integrated approach which rejects a rigid division between academic and applied

knowledge, theory and practice, knowledge and skills, head and hand;

. differentiation, redress and learner support;

. nation-building and non-discrimination;

. critical and creative thinking;

. flexible learning programmes that offer learners the opportunity of choosing what,

where, when, how and at what pace to learn (especially adult learners);

. learning programmes that facilitate progression from one class, phase, or learning

outcome to another;

. credibility Ð both nationally and internationally;

. quality assurance.

To many in South Africa, the traditional curriculum did not reflect these above-mentioned

principles.

Whereas, in the past, curriculum design tended to be, centrally designed, content-

based, prescriptive and rigid there has been a shift towards making the curriculum

outcome-based and flexible in that it promotes lifelong learning. It allows for

optimum participation by the teacher/educator/trainer as well as the devolution of

curriculum development (Carl 1995:24±25; CFC 1995:3, 8; CDWG 1996:11). According to

the 1996 Curriculum Framework (CDWG 1996:17) `òutcomes-based curriculum

development processes will, therefore, have as their starting point the intended results of

their learning in terms of knowledge, skills and values rather than the prescription of content

to be learnt.'' It is argued that outcomes-based learning promotes holistic, integrated

learning development and not narrow, mechanistic behaviour (CFC 1995:8±9) as was the

case in the past where the focus was on curriculum input (learning content). The emphasis

has now shifted to curriculum output (the results of learning, rather than on the ways and

means by which these results have to be achieved) (CFC 1995:12).

As curriculum development will be discussed in more detail in the module `General

teaching methods and classroom management' (ETH202), we will not elaborate any

further on this topic. However, we will focus on the place of Geography and History in this

curriculum development process.

3.2.1 The place of Geography and History in the development of thecurriculum

Traditionally, the subjects Geography and History formed part of the basic curriculum for the

primary school (senior primary). Emphasis in these subjects was on product orientated

teaching instead of on the process (Carl 1988:2±3).

In the light of outcomes-based curriculum development (CDWG 1996:33), new content is

being looked into with a view to not dividing areas of learning into rigid, separate subjects as

was and is the case.

A Curriculum Model for Education in South Africa (CUMSA) of November 1991,

although only a draft document, proposed seven fields of study which would prepare

learners for life. One of these fields of study was Social Sciences. Figure 1 below gives the

proposed model (CHED 1991:19, 26).

27 PST103-E/1

FIGURE 3.1

The curriculum for the Junior Primary, Senior Primary and Junior Secondary Phases

Field of Study Jnr Prim PhaseGrd 1±3 (Substds/stds A, B, 1)

Snr Prim PhaseGrd 4±7 (Stds 2±5)

Jnr Sec PhaseGrd 8±9 (Stds 6±7)

Languages 1st year one or twolanguages, there-after twolanguages, fromAfr, Eng or anAfrican language

1st year twolanguages, thereafterAfr, Eng, and anAfrican language

Two languages fromAfrikaans, Englishand an Africanlanguage

Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics

Natural Sciences EnvironmentalStudies

General Science General Science

Social Sciences (accommodated inEnvironmentalStudies)

Social Science(Geography, Historyand principles fromEconomics)

Social Science

Arts Arts Education Arts Education Arts Education

Technology Technology Technology Technology

Lifestyle Education Religious Instruc-tionGuidanceEconomic Educa-tionPhysical Education

Religious InstructionGuidanceEconomic EducationPhysical Education

Religious InstructionGuidanceEconomic EducationPhysical Education

One of the followingoptional subjects:A third language(from the languagepackage/a foreignlanguage)A talent subjectA vocationallyoriented subject

Adapted from: CHED 1991:21, 26

!! What then did the 1995 and 1996 Curriculum Frameworks propose?

As was previously mentioned, an attempt was made to make education and training in SouthAfrica more relevant. This is reflected in a system which intends making learning a lifelongprocess.

This process proposes two bands General and Further Education: of education and training.General Education and Training is further more divided into three developmental phases ofschool education: Early Childhood Development [ECD]/Foundation, Intermediateand Senior phases as well as four sub-levels of adult basic education: ABET 1±4 (CFC

28

1995:9; NQF 1996). Figure 2 below gives you a graphic representation of this proposedmodel.

FIGURE 3.2

National Qualifications Framework

NQF Learning Types of Qualifications Locations of Learninglevel Band and Certificates for units and qualifications

Doctorates Technikons/Universities8 Higher Further Research Degrees Tertiary/Research/

Professional institutions

EducationHigher Degrees

Technikons/Universities7

Professional QualificationsTertiary/Research/

Professionalinstitutions

andFirst Degrees

Universities/Technikons/6

Higher DiplomasColleges/Private/

Professional institutions/Workplaces/etc

TrainingDiplomas

Universities/Technikons/5

Occupational CertificatesColleges/Private/

Band Professional institutions/Workplaces/etc

Further Education and Training Certificate

School/College/Training Formal Technical/ RDP and4 Further Certificates high Commun- Labour

Mix of unit credits from all schools/ ity/Police/ marketNursing/ schemes/

Education Private/ Private IndustrySchool/College/Training Public colleges, Training

3 Certificates schools etc Boards/and Mix of unit credits from all Unions/

WorkplaceTraining School/College/Training centres,

2 Certificates etcBand Mix of unit credits from all

1 General Education and Training Certificate (end of compulsory schooling/ABET 4)

General Senior phase Formal Work-based NGOs/Education schools training/ Churches/

ABET level (Urban/ Occupation adult3 rural/ training/ centres/

and Intermediate Farm/ RDP/ privatephase Special/ Labour providers/

ABET level Early market IndustryTraining 2 Child- schemes/ training

Foundation hood Upliftment boards/Band phase devel- programs/ Unions/

ABET level opment Community Workplace1 centres) programs/ training/

Pre-school develop- etcment

schemes

Sources: CFC 1995:11; NQF 1996:6

29 PST103-E/1

D Activity 1 Ð 5 minutes

Which phase is identified as the traditional senior primary (Grd 4, 5, 6) phase

by the Curriculum Framework?

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

As was previously mentioned, a principle of curriculum design is that of integration. An

integrated approach to education and training implies getting rid of rigid divisions between

aspects such as academic and applied knowledge, theory and practice, and knowledge and

skills. One way of effecting integration might be to combine two or more traditional subjects

or areas of learning into one, while another way might be to combine various subject

perspectives into a particular topic (CFC 1995:18; CDWG 1996:12).

It is important to note what the 1995 and 1996 Curriculum Frameworks (CFC 1995:25;

CDWG 1996:29) note about the Intermediate Phase.

In the Intermediate Phase teaching and learning, while still highly contextualised and

largely integrated (using cross-curricular themes or topics), could begin to move in the

direction of those individual areas of learning which inform General and Further

Education and Training. Learners in this phase are beginning to understand detailed

relationships between materials, incidents, circumstances and people and are able to

infer the consequences of such relationships. This has significant implications for the

selection of learning content and teaching and learning activities which should develop

these abilities to the full (CDWG 1996:29).

In keeping with this as well as ensuring that curriculum development is outcomes based,

Areas of Learning were identified to, amongst other aims, counteract fragmented views of

learning experience and to demonstrate shared commonalities of learning (CDWG 1996:33±

34). The 1995 Curriculum Framework proposed 11 Areas of Learning. However, these 11

were later incorporated into 8 in the 1996 Curriculum Framework (CFC 1995:9; CDWG

1996:33±34).

The following Areas of Learning will form the common core of the curriculum for all learners

in the formal General band (compulsory schooling):

. Communications, Literacy and Language learning

. Numeracy and Mathematics

. Human and Social Sciences

. Physical and Natural Sciences

. Technology

. Arts and Culture

. Economic and Management Sciences

. Life Orientation/Personal and Social Development (CDWG 1996:33±34).

The categorisation of these Areas of Learning does not imply that they have to be taught

separately or that learning programmes need to be based on these areas as single, discrete

entities. It is envisaged that curriculum development at local, provincial, regional and

institutional level will be innovative and relevant. This could include the integration of

knowledge across the core areas (CDWG 1996:34).

30


Looking at the Areas of Learning, where do you think that Geography andHistory will fit in?

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

More specifically, these Areas of Learning have focuses which are illustrated in figure 3below. Note that these focusses are not final and will be finalised in 1997.

FIGURE 3.3

Curriculum Framework for General and Further Education and Training

Core Learning Area Description (Including Options)

Communication, Literacy, Language learning LiteracySouth African Official LanguagesOther modern world LanguagesClassical Languages

Numeracy and Mathematics Numeracy, mathematics, statistics, etc.

Human and Social Sciences Geography, HistoryDemocracy EducationDevelopment StudiesEnvironmental StudiesWorld Ethical and Belief SystemsUtility and Social Services

Physical and Natural Sciences Integrated SciencesBiological-SciencesPhysical SciencesAgricultural SciencesEngineering

Technological Sciences Technology EducationInformation TechnologyTechnical EducationApplied Arts and Sciences

Arts and Culture Visual, Expressive and Performing ArtsMusic EducationMovement, Oracy Studies

Economic and Management Sciences Economic EducationFinancial ManagementBusiness Education including EntrepreneurshipPublic Management

Life Orientation, Person and Social Health Education, Career GuidanceDevelopment Lifelong Learning Skills

Inter- and Intra-personal DevelopmentReligious StudiesPhysical Education

Source: CDWG 1996:35

31 PST103-E/1

On 25 October 1996 a press release by the Department of Education noted the acceptance of

the new curriculum (SABC 2 News, 25 October 1996) which would replace the old

curriculum. This new curriculum will come into operation in January 1998 (The Citizen, 30

October 1996:5).

!! As there is no official information as to the specifics of this final

curriculum, tutorial letters will keep you informed as to their

progress and development during 1997.


Would you advocate the traditional separation of subjects or a more

integrated approach as indicated by the Areas of Learning? Explain.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

3.3 Concluding remarks3.3 Concluding remarksPast curriculum development initiatives which attempted to make the curriculum more

relevant to learners in South Africa, did not meet with much success. With the move towards

democratising education, the Curriculum Framework models of 1995 and 1996 attempted to

bring the curriculum in line with the real educational needs of South African learners. The

subjects Geography and History, once rigid disciplines, are to be integrated into one area of

learning.

3.4 Evaluation questions3.4 Evaluation questions1 How do the ``Fields of Study'' of the Curriculum Model for Education in South Africa

(CUMSA) differ from the `Àreas of Learning'' proposed by the 1996 Curriculum

Framework. Refer specifically to the subjects Geography and History. [6]

2 Would you say that the 1996 Curriculum Framework is more relevant to the educational

needs of all South Africans than previous initiatives? Explain your answer. [5]

3 Make a time line of the curriculum development processes in South Africa up until

recently. [5]

4 What is meant by an outcomes-based approach to learning? [4]

5 Curriculum development has undergone a major shift in thinking over the last couple of

years. By means of a table, show the difference between the traditional and

contemporary (modern) views surrounding curriculum development. [6]

32

6 Give a brief description of the most recent developments (1990 till present) of thecurriculum in formal education. Refer specifically to the subjects History andGeography. [5]

BibliographyBibliographyCarl, A, Volscenk, A, Franken, T, Ehlers, R, KotzeÂ , K, Louw, N & Van der Merwe, C. 1988.

Curriculum development in the primary school: A modular approach. Pinelands:Maskew Miller Longman.

Carl, AE. 1995. Teacher empowerment through curriculum development: theory intopractice. Kenwyn: Juta.

Committee of Heads of Education Departments (CHED). 1991. A Curriculum model foreducation in South Africa. Discussion document, November. Pretoria: The Departmentof National Education.

Consultative Forum on Curriculum (CFC). 1995. Curriculum framework for general andfurther education and training. Discussion document, December. Pretoria: NationalDepartment of Education.

Curriculum Development Working Group (CDWG). 1996. Curriculum framework for generaland further education and training. Discussion document, July. Pretoria: NationalDepartment of Education.

Dachs, T. 1996. Curriculum, child and teacher, in. Coutts, A. Empower the teacher. HalfwayHouse: Thomson International.

National Qualifications Framework (NQF). 1996. Working Document. Pretoria: Departmentof Education.

SABC 2. 1996. News programme. 25 October.

The Citizen. 1996. New School subjects `will set new course'. 30 October:5.

33 PST103-E/1

Unit 4Unit 4

Aims and objectivesAims and objectives


. realise the value and necessity of well-conceived aims and objectives forGeographical and Historical teaching,

. distinguish between the terms `àims'' and `òbjectives'',

. formulate your own aims and objectives for Geography and History,

. identify the general and specific skills and concepts that a pupil acquiresby studying geographical and historical phenomena,

. understand the forming of time and spatial concepts.

4.1 Introduction4.1 IntroductionThe setting of goals in one's life is of cardinal importance. Goals give one a sense ofdirection to that which has been achieved and that which has to be achieved. Thesesentiments are as important in the art of teaching.

In teaching, goals can be achieved by means of aims and objectives. Although these twoconcepts are very often perceived as being synonyms, it is necessary to explain thedifference.

Read: Hurry p 4 sec 1.5

4.24.2 The difference between aims and objectivesThe difference between aims and objectivesRead: Hurry p 4 sec 1.5.1

It is not always possible to reach all the aims and objectives in every lesson, but they musteventually be achieved in a unit of different lessons. In order to understand the differencebetween aims, and objectives read Hurry p 4 before doing activity 1.


1 What do you understand by an educational aim?

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

2 What do you understand by an educational objective?

................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................

34

!! Section 1.5.3 of Hurry must be replaced by the aims presented in thecore syllabus (see Appendix). Recent trends in curriculumdevelopment exclude the specifying of objectives as they tend toleave that in the hands of local institutions. This aspect is evident inthe extract from extended syllabus of the Western Cape included inthis study guide.


If a teacher presents a map in Geography and History, identify the aims andobjectives that he/she hopes to achieve.

Aims and objectives

Geography

1 ...............................................................................................................................

2 ...............................................................................................................................

3 ...............................................................................................................................

4 ...............................................................................................................................

History

1 ...............................................................................................................................

2 ...............................................................................................................................

3 ...............................................................................................................................

4 ............................................................... ...............................................................

When you as a teacher, are planning a scheme of work, you must consult the departmentalsyllabus when formulating the teaching objectives for a specific lesson/unit. Though thesyllabus only gives broad aims, it is up to you to specify objectives. See the extendedsyllabus of the Western Cape (Appendix).

When setting objectives, the basic aims of Geography and History must constantly be bornein mind and you will have to ask yourself:

. What is of the greatest importance in this topic/section?

. How does it fit into the general framework of Geography and History?

. What do I really want the pupils to learn?

. How do I propose to get there?

By stating the objectives of the teaching activity clearly, you can:

. measure the degree to which these activities have been attained

. indicate to other teachers what the intended learning patterns are

. provide the pupils with clearly defined tasks

. assess the progress of individual pupils

35 PST103-E/1

. determine the adequacy of the programme through the result of the intended learning

effects

You will note that teaching objectives can also include a:

lesson objective Ð the part the teacher will play in teaching the subject content in order

to achieve the desired learning effect/objective, and the

learning objective Ð the part the pupils will play in eventually accepting responsibilities

and adulthood.

When stating the objectives of a lesson it is important to include, where relevant, the skills

that would be included. It is imperative for the pupils to acquire certain skills in their subject,

be it Geography or History.

4.3 Skills4.3 SkillsWe must look at the following skills as most important aspects of teaching activities in Social

Sciences, namely

4.3.1 Reading and research skills

. The pupils must be able to observe carefully, identify and create mental images of

phenomena being studied, as well as to research information from different sources.

4.3.2 Social skills

. The pupils must be able to reflect on matters together, plan together and to make an

individual contribution to the group of which each one is a member.

4.3.3 Descriptive skills

. The pupils must be able to observe and record data and give an elementary interpretation

of data or events and supply key concepts.

4.3.4 Schematic skills

. Pupils must be able to distinguish between main and side effects, and arrange facts

systematically in a logical sequence.

4.3.5 Skills in synthesis

. Pupils must be able to select and gather evidence out of the diversity of information and

summarise and organise it into a meaningful coherent whole as well as synthesise (put

together) the information in such a way as to gain a complete picture of the phenomenon

observed.

In this way Social Sciences will contribute to literacy, oracy, numeracy and graphicacy (the

ability to read maps, graphs, etc).

36

Read: Hurry pp 7±8

Mathews et al. pp 20±24


Certain teaching and learning activities can lead to the development of

general learning skills, for instance:

Skill Supply teaching and learning

activities

posing questions .............................................................

forming hypotheses .............................................................

extracting information .............................................................

recording information .............................................................

recalling information .............................................................

analysing information .............................................................

critically assessing information .............................................................

synthesising information from

different sources .............................................................

discarding irrelevant information .............................................................

dealing with conflicting information .............................................................

using imagination .............................................................

making inferences and deductions .............................................................

looking at different viewpoints .............................................................

comparing and contrasting .............................................................

making links and connections .............................................................

explaining outcomes .............................................................

Try to add more teaching and learning activities to this list that would lead to

achieving the skills mentioned earlier. (Compare this list of skills with the

acquisition of skills under the aims presented in the core syllabuses.)

Although the development of knowledge, skills attitudes and values constitutes the holistic

process of education, these aspects may be grouped into three categories. Through their

studies in Geography and History the pupils are encouraged to explore and develop

. knowledge and understanding

. attitudes and values

. skills

Read: Hurry p 4 sec 1.5.2

37 PST103-E/1

Since Geography and History are such broad subjects, it is only possible to specify certainaims. The following aims listed below will develop an awareness from the pupils of thesubjects as a whole.

!! The following sections must be viewed in correlation with section2.2 in study unit 2 Ð `The nature and value of Geography and Historyin general education'.

GEOGRAPHY HISTORY

EXTENSION OF KNOWLEDGE: Teaching aims

Ð to lead the pupils to an awareness of theirimmediate and distant environment

Ð to introduce and make the pupil aware ofthe past and see it in perspective

Ð to stress interrelationships betweengeographical elements, people andenvironment

Ð to relate human and emotionalexperiences neutrally, objectively andtruthfully

Ð to help pupils to think ecologically andsee man as an integral part of theecosystem

Ð to foster virtues such as loyalty,responsibility, patriotism, moral andreligious values, a healthy emotional life,ethics, civic (political and cultural) dutiesand responsibility

Ð to help pupils to view all topics asintegral parts of an intermeshed system

Ð to help pupils understand that all humanlife has great value and is meaningful,and man must carve his name in anorderly community

Ð to help pupils to think holistically Ð to help pupils to think holistically

FORMATION OF ATTITUDES AND VALUES BY THE PUPIL

Ð to cultivate an appreciation of, andresponsible attitude towards, the earthand its physical resources

Ð to employ critical accurate analysis in theinterpretation of sources Ð not suscept-ibility to propaganda but objectivity

Ð to develop a concern for the quality ofplanning of the environment for futuregenerations

Ð to study cause and effect, as all humanbehaviour is determined by causes whichare ascertainable

Ð to understand the significance ofdecision making

Ð toestablish ahierarchyof causes to explainwhat happened in the past as lying behindthe search for intrinsic values

Ð to encourage a commitment to seekingsolutions to local, regional, national andinternational problems on the basis of the`Ùniversal Declaration of Human Rights''

Ð to develop an interest in, understandingof, and sympathetic attitude towardspeople of other races and nationalitiesaround the globe

Ð to acquire a comprehensive system ofvalues such as faith, honesty, orderliness,senseof duty, perseverance, healthyhumanrelations, good citizenship, freedom

Ð to develop a respect for the rights of allpeople to equality

Ð to develop empathy as a way of thinking

Ð to develop a readiness to use geographicknowledge and skills in daily life

Ð to bring history alive and make it relevantto everyday life

Ð to understand different kinds of change,eg slow, fast, unimportant, important,``good'', ``bad'' and developmental

38


Try to add to this list more aspects of knowledge, attitudes and values thatcould be influenced by Geography and History

GEOGRAPHY HISTORY

EXTENSION OF KNOWLEDGE: Teaching aims

.............................................................. .............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

FORMATION OF ATTITUDES AND VALUES BY THE PUPILS

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

................................................................ ...............................................................

GEOGRAPHY HISTORY

ACQUISITION OF SKILLS BY THE PUPIL

Ð to use verbal, quantitative andsymbolic data forms such as text,pictures, graphs, tables, diagrams andmaps

Ð to acquire language skills andterminology for communication andintellectual development

Ð to practise such methods as fieldobservation and mapping,interviewing people, interpretingsecondary resources and applyingstatistics

Ð to observe and record historicalevidence, data collection andclassification; to apply ideas to widerthemes/areas with insight

39 PST103-E/1

GEOGRAPHY HISTORY

Ð to use communicative, thinking,practical and social skills to exploregeographical topics from local tointernational level

Ð to communicate meaningfully aboutthe learning content duringdiscussions

Ð to question, collect, process, interpretand evaluate data; makegeneralisations, judgements anddecisions; solve problems, work ingroups and behave consistently withdeclared attitudes

Ð to expand one's field of experienceby making conclusions and formingnew opinions

Ð to test simple hypotheses and classifycause/consequence features

Ð to grasp the interaction betweencause and effect

Ð to develop the spatial concept ofplace in order to understand thedifferences between location,distance and area, as well as the ideaof variations in altitude above sealevel

Ð to understand the past in terms oftime and space in order to understandand judge each age in context of itsown time and characteristics

Ð to respect and preserve, for futuregenerations, that which has its originin the past

Ð to understand that a knowledge ofthe past is essential to understand thepresent and lift oneself out of thepresent limited sphere into the greatercommunity of the human being


Link the following activities with the knowledge, skills and values that theseactivities could help to develop:

Activity Knowledge, skill and values

The pupils could be

. introduced to timelines .................................................................

. asked to sequence a number ofdifferent artefacts such as toys, orsome ways of telling time(sundials, water clocks). Theycould be asked to place them inone of two categories, namely `àlong time ago'' or `'now'' andstate what they think the objectwas used for and why they haveput it into the category

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................. asked to arrange pictorial lists

(pictures) into the right sequence..................................................................................................................................

40

Activity Knowledge, skill and values

. asked questions such as ``Whyhas ... (a process, custom,system, etc) changed over theyears?''

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................``How and why has ... (an object,artefact, tool etc) beenimproved?''

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................``State whether ... (a fact from thepast or in nature) is true or falseand give your reasons.''

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................. taken on a field trip and given

learning activities such as roleplay during a trail, researchingspecific phenomena in nature,and similar activities.

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

.................................................................

The teacher may ask himself certain questions when setting the aims for his lesson suchas

. Why?

. Where to?

. Where is it?

. What is it like?

. Why is it there?

. How did it happen?

. What impact does it have?

. How should it be managed for the mutual benefit of humanity and the naturalenvironment?

The aims listed above need not be confined to Geography and History but are transferable intoto to any other subject in the senior primary phase. The norms and values instilled therebywill serve as a guideline for pupils in any other situation where they are required to make achoice and accept responsibilities for their choices (Jordaan [sa]:73). They could also leadto the development of personal and social competence, particularly with regard to the spatialand temporal dimensions of daily life and to intercultural understanding.

4.4 Concluding remarks4.4 Concluding remarksThe value of Geography and History is apparent from its aims and objectives, which muststrive to be child-centred rather than subject-orientated. For effective teaching to takeplace the subject matter must always be made alive and relevant for the pupils. You willbenefit from reviewing the extent to which you have achieved your aims and objectives atthe end of each lesson. This will enable you to view your successes and failures and be betterprepared for the lessons which lie ahead.

41 PST103-E/1

4.5 Evaluation questions4.5 Evaluation questions1 What is the difference between an educational aim and objective? [4]

2 Take any aspect from the Gr 6 Geography and History syllabus which you intend toteach during a lesson and set up (for each subject) an aim and three objectives.Remember that your objectives must include knowledge, skills, values andattitudes. [10]

3 Give a practical example in Geography and History how each of the following skillscould be acquired:

GEOGRAPHY HISTORY

. Reading and researchskills

..............................................

......................................................................................................................................

. Social skills .............................................. ............................................

. Descriptive skills .............................................. ............................................

. Schematic skills .............................................. ............................................

. Skills in synthesis .............................................. ............................................

[10]

4 Why is it imperative to state the objectives of any teaching activity? [5]

BibliographyBibliographyCarney, G & Rawling, E (ed). 1985. Teaching slow learners through Geography. Sheffield:

The Geographical Association.

Jordaan, SP, Vivier, JM, Barnard, CJ & Schutte, MA. [Sa] Didactics: History in the primaryschool. Pretoria: De Jager.

42

Unit 5Unit 5

Resources and mediaResources and media


. discuss different teaching media for teaching Geography and History,

. discuss the use of teaching media in particular learning situations,

. improvise a wide range of aids from easily obtained materials,

. name the advantages of specific teaching media,

. list the disadvantages of specific teaching media,

. select the most appropriate teaching medium to serve instructionalneeds for group teaching or individual self-paced learning,

. apply necessary planning prior to use in the classroom.

As a teacher you can make or break a subject lesson, depending on how the subjectmaterial is presented. A teaching medium is anything that a teacher may use to improve histeaching activities and the learning activities of the pupils. A teacher must select themost appropriate teaching medium to convey a particular concept or learning matter to thepupils.

Teaching media are usually used as supplements to instruction or for enrichmentpurposes. Whether the teacher is using one or a combination of these devices, their use mustbe exercised to maximum advantage and not merely included to ``brighten up'' a lesson(Holmes 1991:46). The aims and objectives of a lesson therefore play an important role hereand must always be the point of departure.

5.15.1 First order resources: the teacherFirst order resources: the teacherYou, as the teacher, control the teaching-learning situation as the main role player. You willplan the lesson and implement it in the classroom.

Traditionally the teacher has been the main source of information and knowledge for thepupils. You as a teacher must know your subject content and be thoroughly prepared so thatyou can reconstruct the learning content effortlessly.

As the teacher you would mainly make use of your voice (and body language) with dialogue,narrative and discussions as teaching methods, for instance:

. The narrative method or story-telling method must appeal to the intellect of the pupilsso that they do not remain passive listeners, but become active participants. The pupilsmust be taught to think intellectually in order to broaden their field of experience and tomaster reality.

. The narration must be related to the life-world of the child Ð and consequently theexperiences of the pupils must serve as the point of departure for any lesson content.

. The narration must be gripping, inspiring, enthusiastic and lively so that the pupils relive

43 PST103-E/1

the happening in their imagination. The tone of voice and the rate of narration must

vary. History lends itself exceptionally well to the narrative method. In order to

successfully apply the narrative method the following points must be borne in mind:

Ð Narration is dependent on language usage and has its origin in conversation. As you,

the teacher, are addressing children, the monologue is essentially a conversation.

Ð Explain concepts as you go along, so that the pupils will gain insight into the learning

content and not only hear meaningless words.

. The question-and-answer method can be incorporated into the narrative method. During

the narration, you (the teacher) can employ well-formulated questions to hold the

pupils' attention. This includes continually presenting a problem to the pupils. The pupils

must be motivated to ask questions or to voice an opinion themselves.

The successful use of this method depends on the following:

. Questions must be asked which force the pupils to apply their newly acquired

knowledge. They must be motivated to participate actively in the learning situation.

They can make use of their textbooks, books from the media centre or any other aid to

find the answer.

. Questions must be set in such a way that they develop and improve not only the memory

of the pupils, but also their intellect, leading pupils to consider ideas, guiding their

enquiries and helping them with decision making.

This method will enable you (the teacher) to determine whether or not you have succeeded

in presenting the learning content to the pupils in a meaningful way.

In the past it has been assumed that good teaching was the key to good learning. It is more

clearly recognized now that learning is an activity that must be performed by the pupil, not

something the teacher can do for or to the pupil. The teacher's job is to structure and plan the

lesson so that successful learning can take place, and this includes the use of teaching

media.

5.25.2 Second order resources: the spoken and writtenSecond order resources: the spoken and writtenwordword

In Geography the pupils are learning about their environment and the task of the History

teacher is to recreate the past. The teacher must bring the pupils into contact with reality and

to reach his/her goal he/she makes use of the written and spoken word, as a teaching

medium. Words are also supplemented by the use of suitable teaching media, either to impart

knowledge or to explain it.

The spoken word must be supplemented by note-taking and note-making. Considering

that this is the record that the pupils will use in revising information for tests and

examinations, it is clear that pupils' note-taking must be beneficial to their learning activities.

The writing/black/chalkboard is one of the most useful media in most classrooms, and in

many places, the only one. It still remains one of the most accessible teaching media

available to the teacher.

44

5.2.1 The writing/black/chalkboard

Read: Hurry 1991:15, 78±82Mathews et al. 1994:109±110

The writing/chalk/blackboard can be used in many ways which cover virtually all aspects ofthe lesson situation in Social Sciences. The teacher (you) can build up your main pointscheme on the blackboard and complete it later during the actualisation of the lesson. Thelearning content will determine whether the blackboard scheme will develop before orduring the lesson by means of a class discussion, or after the conclusion of the lesson. Theconcepts used in the lesson must be clear so that no doubt exists in the pupils' minds of whatthey are expected to contribute during the functionalising phase.

Use the blackboard before or during the lesson to:

. write up place, personal, new or strange names and words on one side of the board

. compile a brief summary of the main points

. draw appropriate sketches, maps, illustrations, timelines, diagrams and graphicpresentations necessary to explain the learning content/matter on the board

. compile brief exercises prior to the lesson for use during or after the lesson

. introduce movement into writing board work by using cardboard cut-outs

. display photographs and pictures which may be kept in place by means of magnets

The following should be avoided when using the blackboard

. writing long summaries or notes

. constructing elaborate maps or diagrams

. erasing written material immediately after writing it up, leaving no time for pupils toread or understand it

. untidy handwriting or scrawling

The blackboard, however, does also have its limitations, because it takes time to write on it,and the teacher must stand with his back to the class and consequently does not maintainproper communication with the pupils. If the schemes or diagrams are erased, they mustonce again be written on the blackboard when required.


Make a list of 5 advantages and 5 disadvantages of a blackboard duringthe presentation of a lesson.

Advantages Disadvantages

............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

45 PST103-E/1

5.2.2 Textbooks

Read: Mathews et al. pp 112±114

Textbooks are another kind of learning resource freely available to the teacher and pupils.Pupils must be taught how to use a textbook. It is not feasible for any primary school pupil toacquire any information from a textbook without supervision. Certain subject terminologyused in the textbook is totally foreign to them. The teacher must explain the terminology tothe pupils to make it meaningful to them.

The functionalising phase of the lesson is an ideal time for incorporating the textbook oradditional literature in a meaningful way. This learning content can be studied out oftextbooks or from duplicated notes supplied by the teacher.

Using a scheme as a basis, the pupils can complete the scheme in their workbooks makinguse of the textbook. This will help them to distinguish between the main and side causes ofeffects. After the lesson has been presented, the pupil's are required to study the learningcontent individually according to their own learning methods and make it their own. Theprocessing of a scheme is an ideal opportunity for differentiation because individual pupils'work will differ.

However, no textbook can cover all the learning content. This makes it necessary for pupilsto do research (in the media centre or at home) and may include the following:

. newspapers and magazines should be used judiciously. Articles that are dramatic innature should not be used merely to draw attention to things. Pupils need to be taught todiscriminate between what is significant and what is merely sensational.

You as teacher will have to choose between two types of news items namely

. articles and reports relating to the relevant part of the syllabus

. news items about current events, whether local or international, which provide thepupils with insight into the places where these events are taking place and what theevents mean in terms of the people-environment-space paradigm.

As much of this type of material might be too difficult for the pupils to understand, you willhave to highlight the essential detail.


Make a list of 4 advantages and 4 disadvantages of using the textbook asa teaching medium.


............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

46

5.35.3 Third order resources: teaching mediaThird order resources: teaching mediaTeaching media enable the teacher to bring the learning content as ``reality'' closer to the life-

world of the pupils. A teaching medium portrays a reality to the pupils which is ``different to

the world in which he is living'' (Jordaan [sa]:115). But teaching media must be functional

and should contribute to the development of the lesson and not be used merely as ``visual

material''.

As teaching in the primary school is aimed at the concrete and spectacular, the use of

teaching media can contribute to the teaching of the learning content.

Teaching media may be used to:

. introduce a lesson topic or class discussion

. illustrate a particular lesson topic

. stimulate the pupils' ``past image'' or image of the past

. explain the learning content

. test or impart knowledge and insight

. create interest in an excursion to be undertaken


Give other possible uses of teaching media during the presentation of a lesson

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

In the planning of teaching media for a lesson the teacher must keep the following points in

mind:

. which learning content the teaching media must furnish

. which teaching medium is most suitable in a particular case

. in which way it is to be implemented during the lesson

. at what stage of the lesson it will be used

. for what purpose it will be used

. will it, or can it, only be used once

. which wall decoration can be used during the lesson

5.3.1 Pictures, sketches, illustrations and photographs

Read: Hurry pp 35±40, 60±68, 78

Mathews et al. pp 110

Over the years the teacher can build up a large collection of pictures, sketches, illustrations

and photographs collected from various sources such as magazines, newspapers, embassies,

47 PST103-E/1

commercial enterprises. This type of material can be collected for each and every lessontheme.

As with all teaching media, any pictorial material should form an integral part of the lessonand always be relevant to the content of the lesson. Careful thought must go into the use ofeach item. The use of this type of teaching medium during the presentation of a lesson mustalways go hand in hand with the development of the reasoning process and insight, and forthat reason the use must be well planned. It is important to note that there must always be anobjective to the exhibition of a picture or similar item. The teacher must ask his pupils to``read'' and `ìnterpret'' all forms of visual material. The teacher must ask questions promptingpupils to analyse the content of these visual materials.

This type of visual material may be used during the course of the lesson, for displays on thebulletin board, project books, and so on. Suitable sketches, photographs, maps, pictures andillustrations appear in most textbooks. This material can be used during or after the lesson forevaluation and assessment.

Keep the following in mind when using pictorial material during the course of the lesson

. items must be large enough for all to see

. pupils should be taught to read and interpret pictorial language

. pictures and photographs may be used to make comparisons

The following should be avoided when using pictorial material

. flashing pictures in front of the class in quick succession

. showing too many items in one lesson

. passing material around the class

. walking around the class with too small pictures

. using pictures which are too small, unclear black and white photographs, etc.


Write down 5 advantages and 5 disadvantages of pictures, sketches andphotographs as teaching media.


............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

............................................................. .................................................................

48

5.3.2 The overhead projector

Read: Hurry pp 70±71Mathews et al. pp 110±111

The overhead projector should preferably occupy a permanent space in the front of theclassroom with a large enough screen for the size of the room and the amount of spaceavailable above the blackboard.

This apparatus is not too expensive and is easy to operate where electric power is available.Transparencies are large slides for use with an overhead projector from the front of a lightedroom. The overhead projector with transparencies can be used as a substitute for theblackboard and has the following advantages:

. No specialised technical knowledge is needed.

. Transparencies project a large brilliant picture for all to see in the classroom.

. The projector can be switched off at any time.

. Transparencies can be prepared prior to the lesson.

. The teacher can prepare the main point scheme he/she intends using during thecourse of the lesson, prior to the commencement of the lesson Ð and complete it orallywith the pupils.

. This scheme can be preserved and used again later for revision purposes in follow-uplessons with a view to tests or examinations.

. The teacher is able to write on a blank transparency during the presentation ifnecessary.

. The teacher can add to existing detail on the transparency while teaching.

. Transparencies have many uses as there are many different ways of preparing andpresenting illustrative material, for example by making use of overlays, the combineddetails of a sketch can be built up section by section.

. A wide variety of transparencies of atlas maps, sketches, diagrams, historicalphotographs, etc are available commercially.


List 5 disadvantages that you can think of using an overhead projector andtransparencies during a lesson.

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................

49 PST103-E/1

Inayear

Inamonth

Twodaystim

e

Tomorro

w

Today

Yeste

rday

Thedaybefore

yeste

rday

Recently

Acentury

ago

Very

longago

3 "

3 "

5.3.3 The timeline and timeline chart

Read: Mathew et al. Chapter 9

Geographical manifestation can be, and historical events are always, time-bound. It isimportant in the primary school to take into account the pupils' poorly developed sense oftime at this stage (see p 21 of this study guide) of their development. Pupils have anelementary understanding of the concept of time, but can become confused. Unless thepupils grasp historical events in their chronological order, they will have difficulty inunderstanding historical detail and the length of duration of events, and their place in thesequence of related events as well as simultaneous events. Understanding the passage oftime and being orientated in time becomes essential. As the pupils daily encounter aspects oftime and the passage of time in their life-world and environment, the concept of time can bedemonstrated to the pupils by means of an elementary timeline or time chart.

A timeline can serve as an ordering document to systematise the learning content in time. Itcan for example be affixed to the wall of a classroom where important dates which are learntduring the course of the year can be inserted in the appropriate position. Such a time chartmust be simple and not crammed with detail and each class should have its own timeline.


Study the following example of timelines (Jordaan [sa]:124) and draw upyour own timeline or timeline chart, taking a theme from the syllabus at theback of this guide.

TIMELINES

The Past The Present The Future

The word timeline

Birth of Christ

Before Christ (B.C.) After Christ (A.D.)

1500 500 500 1500 1652

B.C. B.C. A.D. A.D. A.D.

3000 2000 1000 0 1000 1997

B.C. B.C. B.C. A.D.

50

The Chronological Timeline

6 April 1652 Arrival of Jan van Riebeeck

1657 The First Free Burghers at the Cape

1662 Van Riebeeck leaves the Cape

1679 Simon van der Stel becomes Governor at the Cape

Establishment of Stellenbosch

1685 Van der Stel visits Namaqualand

1688 Arrival of the French Huguenots

1699 WA van der Stel replaces Simon van der Stel as Governor at the

Cape

A timeline to indicate main events over a short period of time

(Jordaan [sa]:124)

5.3.4 Film/motion pictures

Read: Mathew et al. p 111

The historical past and geographical present can easily be brought into the classroom bymeans of an educational film.

The film or motion picture can be used

. to show finer detail and movement

. to serve as an introduction to a lesson

. as a form of revision

. as background before an excursion, and so on.

The teacher's skill and experience increase the value of the film. The content of the film mustbe explained to pupils before the viewing by means of a short talk or scheme, so that theydon't view it passively as a means of relaxation. The film showing must be followed bydiscussions between the teacher and all the pupils. A class discussion, as well as a secondshowing, increases the value of the film. If pupils do not understand the language used in thefilm, the sound must be switched off and the teacher must do the narration. Pupils could berequired to give a written summary of the film after the second viewing.

5.3.5 Video recording

Read: Mathews et al. p 111

A video recording, like a motion picture, can be used to present information if it involvesmotion, describes processes, documents events, shows relationships, teaches a skill, and soon.

5.3.6 Filmstrips and slides

Read: Mathews et al. pp 110±111

Filmstrips and various slides are sometimes accompanied by a recorded commentaryconcerning the content and can be hired from the National Film Library, school library

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services, libraries and private companies or a teacher can build up his own collection of a

series of colour slides or slides with commentary recorded on an accompanying cassette.

You, as the teacher, will have to check the material beforehand, and to select for use only

those slides that conform to the objectives of the lesson. You can include the information

provided by the slides in a worksheet set on the relevant learning matter, for an assessment of

the pupils' work at the end of the lesson.

All these slides have the following advantages:

. Each slide (picture) can be discussed individually.

. Slides can be used as an introduction to a lesson or as revision; they should be

followed by a class discussion or written questions.

The disadvantages of using slides as teaching media could be that

. a darkened room is required which can also prevent pupils from writing down notes

or questions

. different projectors are required to project different types of slides


Use a topic from the syllabus at the back of this guide to incorporate some of

the above-mentioned media in a suitable lesson.

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5.3.7 Tape recorders

Read: Mathews et al. pp 111

The audio portion of audiovisual material should receive as much attention as the visual

elements as a good sound quality will enhance the visuals and vice versa. Cassette

recordings of material such as national anthems, or speeches from famous figures like

Winston Churchill, Martin Luther King, and Nelson Mandela can also be used as teaching

media in themselves.

5.3.8 Maps

Read: Hurry: Chapter 8, pp 77±78

Mathews et al.: Chapter 10

A map is the pictorial representation of part of the earth's surface. The map contains only

those features that are relevant for the topic under discussion. No matter what level of

Geography or History is being taught, maps should serve as the basic tools of the subject.

52


Identify the three most important characteristics of maps Ð refer to Hurrypp 41±42.

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Mapwork in History also forms an integral part of the lesson and must be closely related to themapwork which the pupils do daily in the Geography class. The pupils' historical thoughtprocesses are stimulated when you make use of geographical maps and influences to localisehistorical events. History happens in places, and the specific milieu of those places (physical,political, social, cultural, economic) affects the historywhich happens there.Without the aid ofa map it is difficult to realise distance, positions of mountains and rivers, trek movements, etc.

It is however, not only the position of places that is important in the orientation of an event.The teacher must point out that the climate and vegetation also have an influence on wherepeople settled and what they do.

5.3.9 Exhibitions, presentations, samples and models

Read: Hurry pp 71±77Mathews et al. pp 62±69

Both Geography and History lend themselves to this type of visual medium, which has thefollowing advantages:

. When a particular topic is being covered, mini-displays of relevant sample or subjectmatter can be exhibited on a table in the classroom.

. The teacher may refer to these items during the course of the lesson.

. The pupils may be allowed to handle these samples.

. Exhibitions of the pupils' work can be evaluated and assessed.

. The sand table can be used effectively as it is versatile and can easily be changed to suita particular topic.

. Pupils can be encouraged to bring their own material, such as pictures, models, etc.

. Sampling saves time and effort Ð as long as the sample is large enough the accuracy ofthis method is acceptable.

A news section on a noticeboard at the back of the classroom can be used forpresentations. Pupils should be encouraged to bring items of interest that should then bediscussed by the pupils and evaluated by the teacher. This gives the pupils the opportunity

. to express themselves verbally

. to become involved in interpreting world events

. to contribute to the knowledge of others

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The teacher should also always be on the lookout for relevant material. The items must bechanged and updated in keeping with the changing nature of people's interaction with eachother and the environment.

5.3.10 Computers

Computers are ideally suited for pupils' interaction with the learning matter at their ownlearning pace during the teaching situation.

There are some commercially available geographical and historical computer games andprograms. The computer as a teaching medium has many advantages and disadvantages.


Do your own research and compile a list of the advantages and disadvantagesof using a computer as a teaching medium.


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5.3.11 School library/media centre

Read: Mathew et al. Chapter 19

You as a teacher can, by integrating the school library or media centre into subject teaching,do much to improve the standard of teaching and to broaden the pupils' knowledge andarouse their interest.

The prime advantages of incorporating your lesson's activities with the media centre are tostimulate pupils

. to independently gather information from sources in the library

. to think critically of the content of the sources

. to form their own opinions

. to collect data systematically and logically

. to learn, act and create independently on their own initiative

. to enrich the learning content which has been presented

. to develop reading, writing and language skills

. to do elementary research

. to prepare a scientific report

. to do independent reading

54

5.45.4 Fourth order resources: beyond the schoolFourth order resources: beyond the schoolGeography and History should be presented as practical subjects in that they should involvethe pupils in plenty of activity. Practical work is any work that involves the pupils in doingsomething. Every lesson should have at least some practical work. Apart from practical workin the classroom it is also important to extend this practical work by taking the learningactivities into the outside world. Geography and History are both subjects that could moveout of the classroom into the world beyond the school.

5.4.1 Local events

Read: Hurry: Chapter 11Mathews et al. Chapter 11

The study of local history gives pupils the opportunity to study, at first hand, the marks left bytheir ancestors. Not all parts of a country and not all countries are as richly endowed withthese remains, but each and every area has its own specific climate, historic buildings,bridges, houses, roads, street names, documents and household utensils which may dateback many years.

Geography, more than any other subject, is an `òutdoor'' subject which lends itself to fieldwork. This means going out of the classroom and into the real outside world to study andobserve.

Where local events have any bearing on things geographical or historical, pupils should beencouraged to investigate them responsibly. Relevant information should be incorporatedinto appropriate sections of the syllabus, thereby supplementing the existing learningmaterial available. This is what helps to make and keep Geography and History alive.

Local history refers to the immediate environment of the school and the pupils and mayinvolve a study of personalities and happenings in the pupils' geographical surroundings.The greatest appeal of local history and geography lies in their immediacy. They deal withwhat is familiar in the life-world of the pupils and can be studied at first hand, leading pupilsfrom the known to the unknown.

The motive for research into local conditions is primarily to involve pupils in the investigationof real world situations with which they can readily identify. Responsible coordinated actionby primary school pupils can occasionally bring relevant issues into the public eye andprecipitate change. Field work can leave lasting impressions on the minds of pupils.


Name the attitudes that pupils can form when studying local geography andhistory Ð see Mathews et al. pp 88±89.

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55 PST103-E/1

5.4.2 Fieldwork, excursions and educational tours

Read: Hurry: Chapter 11Mathews et al. pp 90±95 + Unit 8

!! This section must be studied in correlation with study unit 8.

Fieldwork is only different from practical work in that it is an organised educational activityoutside the classroom. Fieldwork emphasises two basic didactic principles, namely

. that of activity Ð whereby the pupils learn best by doing something and

. that of observation and perception Ð whereby the pupils learn by the directobservation of phenomena.

The planning of fieldwork and excursions is very important, as is the preparation of the pupilsfor the tour. Only a limited number of themes can be covered in one excursion. The areachosen for the excursion must be easily accessible, and the financial aspect as well as thetime factor, stop-overs etc. must be taken in account in the planning of such an excursion.

After the initial planning and deciding on a topic, your fieldwork project may be divided intothree stages:

. Pupils must be prepared for the excursion, as fieldwork should be synonymous withobservations and accurate reports. Pupils must know prior to the excursion

Ð the purpose of the excursion

Ð what they are expected to study

Ð what they are to look for and observe

Ð how they are to look and observe

Ð how they are to make notes of their observation.

This will enable them to collect information in the field. A film or slides can be shown to fill inbackground information about the subject.

. You will have to supply the pupils, before the excursion, with duplicated notes which willserve as a guideline as to what information they must gather, as well as writtenassignments which pupils must complete during the excursion. You may organise theinformation by means of maps and diagrams or any other method you may have chosen.During the excursion enough time must be allowed for the answering of the questions,the drawing of sketches, the taking down of notes and the completion of questionnaires.

. After the excursion the gathered information must be discussed, analysed and interpretedby the teacher and pupils. During the discussion the pupils can compare their ownpersonal findings. The teacher will have to draw up a main point scheme which thepupils must complete after the excursion using their own notes. This is of educationalvalue as pupils learn to express their own opinions. A report-back after the excursion ortour is of prime importance and a written report must be based on the first two stages.

The advantages of fieldwork are:

. It can be undertaken to introduce or end a lesson theme.

. It can form a link between the theoretical and the practical aspects of the learningcontent, ie it links the classroom with the real world.

. It is learning by doing.

56

The disadvantages of fieldwork may be:

. Poorly planned fieldwork is no more than a holiday for the pupils.

. It can disrupt the normal school day.

. It involves certain costs and expenses.

. Some pupils may not regard fieldwork as part of the learning experience.


List some of the basic skills that pupils should acquire/develop throughfieldwork Ð see Hurry p 103.

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There are two approaches to fieldwork, namely

. field teaching, which involves the teacher giving a lesson in the field and

. field research, which adopts a more problem-solving attitude (Holmes 1991:37).


EXAMPLE OF FIELDWORK

It is recommended that before the excursion pupils be supplied with a set ofduplicated notes to serve as a guideline of the information they must gatherduring the expedition. For example, for a visit to the Pioneer House in Pretoria,the following questions can be set.

The Pioneer House in Silverton, Pretoria

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A VISIT TO THE PIONEER HOUSE

1. The house

1. Who were the first people to live in the house? Approximately when wasthe house built?

2. What material was used to build

(a) the walls(b) the roof(c) the ceiling(d) the floors

3. Which pieces of furniture are found in

(a) the lounge(b) the bedrooms

4. In what way does the kitchen differ from our modern kitchens?5. Name ten utility items in the kitchen.6. How did the people make and bake bread?

2. The outbuildings

1. What material was used to build the outbuildings?2. For what purpose were the outbuildings used?3. Where is the stock-pen (kraal) situated?

3. Water supplies

Where did the household get their water?

4. Fruit trees

1. What type of fruit trees are to be seen today?2. What is so special about the old vineyard?

(Jordaan et al. [sa]:135±136)

D Study the questions set and then attempt to formulate your own set ofquestions using another topic from the syllabus.

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58

5.55.5 Criteria for the selection of teaching mediaCriteria for the selection of teaching mediaYou as the teacher will be confronted with a host of problems in the application of teaching

media. In the selection of teaching media the following should be considered:

. The ``physical'' aspect of teaching media

Certain teaching media are expensive and although they might be extremely suitable for

use during a lesson or a series of lessons, it might be too costly to purchase these

teaching media.

Furthermore not all classrooms have the proper facilities for using these types of media

(eg electricity, darkened room, storage space).

. The development stages of the child (pupil)

It is important to keep the stages of development of the pupils in mind. Although children

develop at different rates and have their own particular interests and needs, it is possible

to make some general recommendations. The child learns with assistance of his five

senses, namely eyes Ð seeing (visual), ears Ð hearing (aural), nose Ð smelling,

tongue Ð tasting and skin Ð feeling (tactile). Through their senses children experience

and observe their life-world and environment. Teaching media could, by exploring these

aspects, bring the learning matter into the child's field of development.

By using teaching media during a lesson, different domains in the development of a

child will be addressed, namely

Ð cognitive domain Ð knowledge, information, and other intellectual skills

Ð affective domain Ð attitudes, values, appreciation

Ð psychomotor domain Ð skeletal-muscular use and coordination

These three domains must be kept in mind when audiovisual materials are planned and

developed and the objectives of the lesson are formulated.

. The teacher must decide in the lesson planning whether by using a teaching

medium the following didactic issues will be addressed:

Ð Will it make education more successful/productive through increasing the rate of

learning?

Ð Will it make learning more immediate by bridging the gap between the world inside

and outside the classroom?

Ð Will it make access to learning more equal for learners who ever they are?

Ð Will it make teaching more individual through providing resources so that learning

can take place according to the learner's own stage of development?

To evaluate the effectiveness of your teaching media you may ask these questions

formulated by Kemp (1980:71):

. How well do pupils accomplish the objectives upon which the materials are based?

. Do reactions indicate the materials are appealing to the pupils?

. If the materials do not meet the criteria of the objectives or lack appeal, what revisions

can be made?

. Are the arrangements for use of the material convenient for the teacher and pupils?

. What were the development costs (materials, time, etc)?

. What are the operational use costs (staff time, materials, facilities used)?

59 PST103-E/1

On the basis of the response to these questions, revise the material if necessary to maintain a

standard of effective teaching. Only by revising and keeping them up to date will your

audiovisual materials be kept relevant and maintained at your standards of quality and

effectiveness.

5.6 Concluding remarks5.6 Concluding remarksThe geography and history classrooms can be the most attractive rooms in a school due to

the pictures and models displayed in them on a permanent or semi-permanent basis, which

help to create interest in pupils.

The past years have seen great advances in the development of audiovisual media. You may

employ a wide range of these in innovative ways to convey information and illustrate

concepts in the teaching of Geography and History. But always keep in mind that the right

tool must be used for the job and with due recognition of its advantages and disadvantages.

Although you (the teacher) must at all times ensure the pupils' participation during the

course of the lesson, you will have to guard against the over-use of media in general, or the

over-use of a particular medium. Pupils can be bombarded with volleys of audiovisual

material which simply reduce the learning situation to a passive form of entertainment

(Holmes 1991:46).

5.7 Evaluation questions5.7 Evaluation questions1 What problems are to be guarded against with regard to the use of teaching media?

[5]

2 If you are teaching

Ð in a remote area with no electricity

Ð in a town or city with all modern facilities

what teaching media would you use in a specific lesson? Decide on a relevant topic

from the syllabus in the back of this guide. [20]

3 It is most important that an overhead projector be properly used. Incorrect usage will

distract from your teaching. Make a list of ``do's'' and ``don'ts'' relating to the use of the

overhead projector. [10]

4 Take any topic from the syllabus at the back of this guide and work out a relevant

blackboard scheme. [20]

5 List the types of teaching media under the following headings:

Audio, Visual and Audiovisual [20]

BibliographyBibliographyCorney, G & Rawling, E (ed). 1985. Teaching slow learners through Geography. Sheffield:


60

Frew, J. 1986. Geography fieldwork. London: Macmillan Education.

Holmes, P & Moorhouse, I. 1991. Geography method for primary teachers. Cape Town:MMC Classroom Series.

Jordaan, SP, Vivier, JM, Barnard, CJ & Schutte, MA (sa). Didactics: History in the primaryschool. Pretoria: De Jager.

Mays, P. 1974. Why teach History? London: Unibooks, University of London Press.

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Unit 6Unit 6

Lesson planning/PreparationLesson planning/Preparationa After studying this unit, you will be able to:

. plan individual daily lesson schemes,

. state your lesson's aims and objectives,

. collect and check whatever learning matter/material is needed for thepreparation of a lesson,

. name the resources that will be used,

. state the main features of an individual lesson,

. identify the different components for planning a lesson,

. plan the course of the lesson,

. compile a scheme of work for all or part of the Social Studies syllabus.

6.1 Introduction6.1 IntroductionSuccessful teaching involves thinking about lesson planning, learning content and teachingmethods. When planning a lesson the teacher must keep the following aspects in mind:

. the relevant content of the syllabi

. the formative stage of the pupils

. the duration of the lesson

. the aims and objectives of the particular lesson/theme

. the teaching methods

. the teaching media

. pupil participation

. assessment and evaluation

To start your lesson planning you will need a plan of action. This plan of action is reflected inyour scheme of work.

6.2 Scheme of work6.2 Scheme of workRead: Hurry: pp 159±163

Mathew et al. pp 135±140

As was stated, a scheme of work is a plan of action. It is the plan which enables teachers tobe effective in their teaching activities. There are basically three functions an effectivescheme of work should fulfil, namely

62

. it should help create learning situations in which pupils can learn

. it should outline the content of the work dealt with

. it should show how the work is to be distributed according to available time.

What then are the attributes of a good scheme of work?

To fulfil the above-mentioned functions, the following attributes of a good scheme of workare needed:

. it should be divided into sections according to themes

. there should be clearly-stated aims and objectives for each section of work

. it should contain brief notes on the teaching methods to be used, including details onpractical work and/or fieldwork to be done

. it should contain full details of all forms of assessment. Sections tested and topicsdealt with should also be listed.

The scheme of work enables the teacher to plan and prepare a particular lesson. Each lessonshould be amodel lesson. The successful presentation of a lesson, be it Geography orHistory, isprimarily dependent on the systematic and objective planning and preparation of the teacher.

Jordaan et al. ([sa]:65) agrees that the lesson scheme represents an orderly, systematicapproach by the teacher which creates conditions for the meaningful transfer of knowledge,aptitudes and attitudes, as well as a way of learning with the pupils.

Each lesson scheme will have at least the following components, namely

. educational aims and objectives

. the main points of the lesson: didactic/educational ground forms and teachingmethods

. didactic modalities: teaching media and black/writing/chalkboard scheme or notesto be handed out

. the course of the lesson:

introduction

statement of the problem

exposition of the learning content

actualisation of the learning content

functionalisation/conclusion

assessment and evaluation

. bibliography/references


After absorbing these facts, define a scheme of work in your own words.

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63 PST103-E/1

As a teacher, you will take your syllabus and formulate a work record. This record helps youwith lesson planning as well as indicating which work you have completed/still have tocomplete.

It is usually helpful to lay out the scheme of work on the left side of the page and to leave aspace on the right side, either for written reports on the work covered or for some kind ofsymbol which indicates that a certain section of work has been completed. Study thefollowing example from Holmes (1992:26):

Extract of Work record from Gr 5 syllabus

Topic Date Comment

Water resources of our region:

. main rivers and dams Map summary, catchment areas

. pollution and prevention V 15/8 + 17/8 Largest rivers and dams

. responsible water usage/

conservation V 22/8 Pupils' pictures, summary of

main culprits/users

This record of work planned for and completed makes it possible to check at any momentduring the year how much progress has been made. Remember that, although this is anoutdated example as regards the syllabus, it serves as an example of recording.


Design your own form of plan of presenting a scheme of work after studyingthe above-mentioned layout of a work record from a gr 5 syllabus. Use thesyllabi provided at the back of this guide/book. (Appendix)

Topic Date Comment

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As a theme cannot be dealt with during a single period, all themes are divided into separatelessons, as stipulated in the syllabus. Each lesson theme must be clearly specified, so thatthere is no doubt about which topic/learning matter will be dealt with during any specificlesson.

Let us concentrate on the components that each lesson scheme will consist of:

6.2.1 Educational objectives and aims

In formulating the educational objectives and aims the teacher must be fully aware of the

64

extent of the manoeuvrability/flexibility of the learning content and of the ways which the

pupils can apply with insight their acquired knowledge to their life-world.

The objectives are short term goals and include all that the teacher hopes to achieve by

the end of the lesson. (See study unit 4.) To assist the teacher in formulating the learning

objectives, he/she must write down the statement:

``By the end of the lesson the pupils should be able to ...''

Complete this statement by using sentences which include one or more of the following

verbs: understand, explain, discuss, evaluate, list, name, state, etc.

Note that these words/verbs reflect two concepts, namely

Ð understanding Ð understand, explain, discuss, and

Ð memory Ð list, name, state.


List more words/verbs that may be used in formulating lesson objectives.

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By formulating certain statements the teacher can follow the same approach to determine the

response of the pupils, namely

``By the end of the lesson the pupils should have ..........''

Ð developed and used the following skills ..........

Ð developed concepts of ..........

Ð knowledge of ..........

Whereas objectives are short term, aims are long-term goals and provide the ultimate

reasons for teaching Geography and History. These reflect the purpose of the lesson and

relate to the necessity for the pupils' understanding of the subject. The teacher could use the

following questions to help formulate his/her aims:

Ð Why has the topic been included in the syllabus?

Ð Of what value is the topic as a whole to the pupils?

Ð Does the topic elucidate the present?

Ð Does the topic show a particular trend?

65 PST103-E/1


Formulate two examples of aims Ð one for Geography and one for History

(see Hurry p 161. Also refer to the syllabi at the back of this guide).

Geography History

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After formulating the objectives and aims of the lesson, the teacher has to decide how to

achieve these, for example which teaching methods, teacher and pupil activities and

teaching and learning resources will be used during the lesson. For the course of action to

follow we look at the planning of the actual lesson.

6.2.2 The course of the lesson

(a) Introduction

In order to arouse the pupils' interest, the introduction must be short, to the point and only

take a few minutes. The skill with which the teacher plans the introduction will determine the

pupils' interest in the rest of the lesson. This can be achieved as follows:

. By means of a few specific and well chosen, thought-provoking questions, the learning

matter dealt with in the previous lesson which is relevant to the present lesson topic can

be revised or referred to, thus linking the two lessons. The introduction is the part of the

lesson where the teacher needs to link what the pupils know with the content of the new

learning content (material to be learned); between the known and the unknown. The

previous knowledge thus recalled can serve as an introduction to the learning content to

be dealt with in the present lesson.

. A brief class discussion can serve as a bridge between the pupils' existing knowledge

and experience from the previous lessons to the new knowledge which will be

introduced to them during the present lesson.

. A short story, pertaining to the learning content, can be narrated.

. Real objects, pictures, photographs, newspaper cuttings, cartoons and diaries, and so

on can be used.

Once the link has been established, the theme to be dealt with in the lesson should appear in

written form on the blackboard or overhead projector screen.

(b) Statement of the problem

The pupils are made aware of the fact that there are certain topics about which they have no

or very little knowledge, and should have more knowledge. The formulation of the statement

of the problem requires careful planning to ensure that the pupils do in fact come to the

realisation that there are certain topics of which they have little, incomplete or no knowledge.

66

It is the teacher's duty to state the problem in such a way that the pupils understand it. The

method of formulation must bring the problem into the life-world of the pupils. When

formulating the problem, the teacher must bear in mind the objectives and aims of the lesson.

!! The statement of the problem usually consists of a question, the

answer to which should be found in the body of the lesson.


Study the syllabus at the back of this guide and formulate separate problems

for a Geography and History lesson.

Geography History

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(c) Presentation of the learning content

By means of the presentation of the factual content of the lesson topic/learning content the

teacher will attempt to solve the problem that has been posed.

During the main body of the lesson the learning material/matter is systematically set out. The

pupils should be led into the new learning matter/material in such a way that they are

required to think and participate actively.

To implement all this the actual presentation of the lesson is planned and written down, for

instance:

. Write down a summary of the learning matter to be presented in point form for easy

reference while teaching.

. Plan exactly how and where you intend using your teaching media and methods and

introducing pupil activities.

It is a good idea to draw a margin on the right hand side of the page for reminder notes. Write

these notes in red or highlight them. Underline all dates, keywords, and phrases that should

be written on the blackboard during the lesson. By the end of the lesson these keywords, etc.

should form a summary of the important points of the lesson. Avoid writing down too much

on the blackboard as this uses up valuable teaching or pupil activity time.

(d) Exposition of the learning content

This includes a systematic setting out of the way in which the new learning content will be

introduced to the pupils.

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It is important that the pupils are at all times involved during the exposition of the learningcontent in order to ensure that they gain an insight into the learning content and make it partof their life-world. If the pupils do not master the concepts, the learning content will remainvague and meaningless to them.

The exposition of the new learning content takes place in accordance with the teachingmethods and incorporation of teaching media decided on by the teacher beforehand.Teaching media are usually an important element of this part of the lesson. By enabling theteacher to actualise the teaching effects they should serve to facilitate learning in ameaningful way (see study unit 5 ).

(e) Actualisation of the learning content

During the actualisation the teacher checks orally whether or not the pupils have in factmastered the learning content and made it their own. This determines whether or not theteacher has achieved his/her objectives. The pupils are given the opportunity of orallydiscussing each point of the main point scheme.

This part of the lesson usually includes some form of consolidation exercise, either oral orwritten, in which the pupils are required to actualise the learning matter and make it part oftheir life-world. Group discussions, oral questioning, worksheets and filling in informationon outline maps are some of the most common exercises.


Compile a list of more types of exercises that may be implemented at thisstage of the lesson. In this regard consult the two prescribed books.

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(f) Functionalisation/conclusion

A lesson should be drawn to a conclusion. The conclusion constitutes an essential rounding-off procedure. This may be done by

. a brief summary of the lesson

. questions or work to test understanding and insight.

After the lesson has been presented the pupils are given the opportunity of expressingthemselves in independent creative activity. Pupils are usually very keen to create, and withthe guidance of the teacher, they are given the opportunity to do independent work.

With due consideration of the lesson, the teacher can, in the planning of the pupils' activities,create possibilities for the practice of specific skills. The important thing to remember is thatthe conclusion should relate to the objectives and aims of the lesson, as well as the problemposed during the introduction.

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(g) Evaluation and assessment

!! This section must be studied in correlation with study unit 7.

Evaluation and assessment take place during or after the lesson in the form of questions putby the teacher to the pupils. In this way the teacher can determine whether or not he hassucceeded in the transfer of knowledge to the pupils and also whether he has achieved hisobjectives and aims.

(There are various aspects to consider during evaluation and assessment that will bediscussed in detail in the following unit.)


Study the following examples of lesson schemes. Compile your ownimproved scheme of a lesson layout to suit your specific needs.

Examples of lesson schemes

A Title: Drainage of the African continent (Grade 6)

Aims

. To engender an interest in the created world around us, with particular reference tothe physical features of Africa.

. To ensure that the pupils understand the concept of drainage and how it applies toAfrica.

Objectives

The pupils will:

. with the aid of a wall map and/or their atlases, identify the major highlands, rivers andlakes of the continent and complete a map of the above

. answer six questions on the drainage of Africa

. write a paragraph on the basic process of drainage.

Media material

. Wall map

. Blackboard

. Worksheets

Introduction

. Use a simple plaster of paris model of undulating terrain, and water it, to demonstratethe concept of drainage.

. Using a large map, ask questions about Africa to establish and supplement priorknowledge on the general relief of the continent.

Content

Using the map:

. reinforce prior knowledge of high and low areas on the continent

. refer to large river systems: sources, paths and terminals

. get pupils to identify large lakes and discuss adjoining river systems

. give facts about sizes and runoff volumes (make some comparisons)

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. briefly discuss the importance of these water bodies in meeting people's needs forwater, power and transportation

. orally consolidate by means of questioning

. hand out an outline map for pupils to fill in (match symbols with names), andquestions to answer (directions in which rivers flow, countries through which theyflow, those suitable/unsuitable for transportation, etc).

Conclusion

Ask pupils about their experience of rivers (swimming, boating, fishing, etc) and lead onto the relative size and importance of these water bodies, which may be local.

Instruction: any uncompleted work to be done at home.

(Adapted from Holmes 1991:32)

B Title: The Trek (Grade 5)

Introduction Methods, media skills

1 Why were the frontier farmers in theEastern Cape unhappy?

2 What form of transport did the farmersuse?

Picture of wagon & discussion of its size

3 What do you do when someone makesyou unhappy?

Pupils learn skill of application.

4 What would you have done if you hadbeen a frontier farmer at that time?

Allow time for discussion.

5 The frontier farmers decided to leave theirfarms and go and look for a new place tolive. Do you think this was an easydecision for them to make? Why not?Today you are going to imagine you arethose farmers.

Discussion. Pictures of farmers, etc.Point out dress, etc.

Presentation

1 Scouts had been sent to the interior tolook for suitable land.

2 Scouts returned with favourable reports.

Divide the pupils into ``families''. Each familyto decide who is the father, etc.

3 Imagine you were a frontier farmer andthat you have just been to a meetingwhere someone was telling you all aboutthe beautiful country in the interior. Hewas trying to persuade as many aspossible to join him on a trek to the newland.

4 After the meeting you go home and have adiscussion about joining the trek. List allthe advantages and disadvantages ofjoining the trek.

5±10 min

5 Each group to explain the reasons for theirdecision to stay or go.

6 Imagine you have all been persuaded togo on the trek. You must now decide whatyou must take with you. Consider thefollowing:

70

. How many oxen do you have? Willyou take them all?

Dimensions of wagon

. How many wagons do you have?How big is your wagon?

. What will the family do to earn aliving in the new land?

. What will you take to make thispossible?

. What will each person be able totake with them?

Remember it must fit on to the wagon.Make a list of everything you will takewith you, both for the trip and for yournew home.

7 Each group to explain why they havechosen to take various items.

8 Make a list of the things you will have toleave behind.

9 Tell the other groups what you will haveto leave behind and how you feel aboutit.

5±10 min

10 Mime the packing of your wagon and thefinal preparations to leave.

5±10 min

11 What is the last thing you will do or thelast place or person you will visit beforeyou leave? each pupil

12 Now you are packed and ready to leave.Be quiet and think about leaving and allyou are leaving behind. Think aboutgoing into the unknown. Each of youwill have a turn to tell the others whatyou will miss most by completing thissentence: ``When I go I will miss ...most''. each pupil

Conclusion

You should all have experienced, through your imagination, a little of what theVoortrekkers must have felt, the decisions they had to make about what they could andcould not take with them. Those of you who have moved from one town to another,from one province to another or even from another country, will understand how theVoortrekkers must have felt about leaving their homes.

(Adapted from Mathews et al. 1994:138±139)

Own improved outline

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6.3 Evaluation questions6.3 Evaluation questions1 Prepare a complete lesson (Geography or History) based on any aspect from the Gr 4±6

syllabus. Ensure that your scheme meets all the component criteria discussed in thestudy unit. (It is not necessary to produce the teaching or learning media that will beused, but your scheme should contain a clear description of them.) [20]

2 Discuss the attributes of a good scheme of work. [5]

3 Name the different components of a lesson scheme. [10]

4 What teaching and learning activities are expected during the

(a) presentation

(b) exposition and

(c) actualisation of the learning content. [9]

BibliographyBibliographyCorney, G & Rawling, E (ed). 1985. Teaching slow learners through Geography. Sheffield:


Frew, J. 1986. Geography fieldwork. London: Macmillan Education.

Holmes, P & Moorhouse, I. 1991. Geography. Method for primary teachers. Cape Town:MMC Classroom Series.

Jordaan, SP, Vivier, JM, Barnard, CJ & Schutte, MA (sa). Didactics: History in the primaryschool. Pretoria: De Jager.

Mays, P. 1974. Why teach History? London: Unibooks, University of London Press.

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Unit 7Unit 7

Evaluation and assessmentEvaluation and assessmentproceduresprocedures


. discuss the importance and value of evaluation in Geography andHistory,

. distinguish between the concepts evaluation and assessment,

. discuss the purpose of, and identify different assessment techniques,

. evaluate and critically analyse an exam paper,

. set a range of questions and memorandum for an exam or test on anysection of a given syllabus.

!! This unit is not to be studied in isolation and is to be studied togetherwith Hurry chapters 1, 6±10, 13 & 15 and Mathews et al. chapters 2,12, 15, 16 & 18

7.17.1 Evaluation and assessment: explanation of conceptsEvaluation and assessment: explanation of conceptsWith or without knowing it, a lot of our time is spent evaluating things, people andsituations. Whether it is our performance on the sports field, our finances or even in reflectionat the end of a working day, we are constantly in a process of evaluation. Evaluation,according to the Heinemann English Dictionary (Harber & Payton 1979:370) is an attempt``... to estimate the amount, quantity or value of [something]''. It thus goes without sayingthat an important aspect of any teaching situation is that of evaluation (and assessment).

Many people tend to equate the concepts of evaluation and assessment. As you will latersee, the concept of evaluation is a very broad term and includes assessment.

Why and what then do we evaluate in teaching?

Read: Hurry p 164±165 sections 16.1±16.3

In the clarification of the concepts of evaluation and assessment, we will make use of Hurry'sbook.

74


1 Why, according to Hurry, do Geography (and History) teachers need toevaluate effectively?

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2 What two elements, according to Hurry, does evaluation have to it?

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3 According to Hurry, what is the difference between evaluation (refer alsoto curriculum evaluation) and assessment?

evaluation:

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assessment:

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As teachers you will be involved in both evaluation and assessment. A lot of your time will bespent assessing pupils in the class situation. Let us now focus on the assessment of pupils.Assessment may be seen as involving three steps:

. generating and collecting evidence of achievement;

. evaluating this collected evidence against nationally agreed standards; and

. recording the findings of this evaluation (IEB 1996:48).

As learning, teaching and assessment are inextricably linked (CDWG 1996:20) it isnecessary to look at various types of assessment and how they manifest themselves.

7.2 Different types of assessment7.2 Different types of assessmentRead: Hurry pp 165±166, section 16.4

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1 What two assessment techniques does Hurry identify?

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2 What do you understand by each of these two techniques?

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3 Hurry gives various methods of assessment. Name them. Can you thinkof any other methods?

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As was mentioned in unit 3, education and training in South Africa has undergone a majorparadigm shift towards outcomes-based learning. Assessment has also been under thespotlight with an attempt to make it more developmental and less judgemental (IEB1996:2). This implies a shift from a focus on teacher input to learner outcome.Traditionally, assessment was mainly product-oriented in that emphasis was placed onreproducing facts and knowledge.

It is thus important to see how the Independent Examination Board (IEB) viewsassessment types. The IEB (1996:52±53) sees the three identified assessment types as``... distinct but overlapping elements of a coherent system for the holistic assessment oflearners''. How they will feature in teaching and learning situations will depend on thespecific needs of different categories of learners. These elements comprise:

. formal summative assessment, including the award of credits, qualifications and/oryear marks, and the recording and reporting of these; progress is assessed throughwritten, oral or practical examinations, tests or assignments, or a combination of these(this element can be internally or externally assessed and/or mode-rated)

. ongoing formal continuous assessment which provides for a variety of ways ofdemonstrating competence across a range of contexts; these should be structured sothat they can lead to the award of marks or grades which can be recorded and included

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in summative assessment; they should be based on interesting and demanding taskswhich motivate and support learning and should be accompanied by helpful feedbackto the learner as well as formal recording of results; some part of this must be based onthe observation of learners working in normal learning conditions, rather than at aspecific assessment task; (this element should be internally assessed and may beexternally moderated when appropriate)

. ongoing informal formative assessment which is designed to monitor andencourage learning progress, providing guidance to the learner in the form of self-assessment, and feedback through peer assessment and teacher assessment; mostimportantly, this kind of diagnostic assessment guides the teacher's planning andencourages the setting of appropriately differentiated tasks depending of the learner'sresponses (this element should be internally assessed and might, or might not, bemoderated).

As you will notice, there has been a move towards the use of continuous assessment ineducation and training (including the Intermediate phase) (IEB 1996:54). Although there isstill much to be said and debated about continuous assessment, we will discuss salientaspects of the topic.

7.2.1 Continuous assessment (CA)

As we have noted in the previous passages, assessment was in the past, mainly used to rank,select or certify learners.

CA is an attempt to put the function of supporting learners first and move away from theaforementioned narrow notion of assessment.

What then is continuous assessment (CA)?

CA can be seen as an approach to assessing a range of learning processes and productsthrough which teachers, parents and learners gain continual feedback on a learner'sprogress. In a nutshell, it involves gathering a series of marks from many kinds of learningexperiences on a continuous basis. Teachers can thus continuously gather marks on differentoccasions thus developing a profile on each pupil. This kind of assessment assists theprovision of support to learners, the placement and promotion of learners, and the timelyreconsideration of teaching programmes. It is important to assess both higher order thinkingand mechanical tasks (Educationalive 1996:8).

Although there is still much uncertainty as to CA, we will keep you informed on theclarification of the concept by means of tutorial letters during the year.


1 Do you think CA is a valid and practical form of assessment? Explain.

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Essay

Reading

Groupwork

Valentine's

poem

Oral:Literature

topics

Comprehension

Languagetest

Projectwork

Pupilattitude

TOTAL

Name

(a) Planning for continuous assessment

There is no set way in which you plan for continuous assessment. Every learner, school andteacher is different. It is up to every teacher to thoroughly analyse the situation in which he/she finds him/herself. Here are a few tips on how CA can be used in the classroom.

. Carefully identify the various types of assessment (formative or summative) that you canuse in your subject.

. Use a variety of testing methods as this gives you a more accurate picture of thelearner's ability.

. Decide what means of assessment you will use during or after each section of work.

. Devise a means of recording (eg by dividing the term into sections in your mark book)and evaluating tasks.

As was mentioned, there is no set form of continuous assessment. Consider the followingexample of a grade 11 mark sheet for English adapted from Educationalive (1996:9) and itspossible adaptation for Senior Primary Geography or History.

DIAGRAM 1

EXAMPLE MARK SHEET

1997

Term 1

Grade 11 50 20 10 20 25 30 10 35 20 220

Basi, B

Bayede, M

Bhengu, P

Bhungane, Z

Chonco, Z

Dlamini, M

Duma, I

Funeka, G

Gabela, Z

Gcabashe, B

Gumede, S

Khoza, M

Mavuso, P

Mazibuko, Z

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Critically evaluate the aspects assessed eg project work, reading, attitude, etc.Do you agree with these aspects and are they practically viable? Do you thinkthat you could use similar or adapted methods of assessment in SeniorPrimary Geography or History?

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7.37.3 The compilation of tests and examination papersThe compilation of tests and examination papersTraditionally, formal tests and examinations contributed largely to the teacher'sassessment of pupils with the predominant emphasis on the recall of knowledge and littleemphasis on skills, values and attitudes. Tests and examinations still have a major role to playin the assessment of pupils', however, they must be meaningful and valid in testing notonly knowledge, but also skills, values and attitudes. Similar questions to those asked in testsand examinations can also be asked in assignments and projects, task-sheets, notebooks andfieldwork to test knowledge, skills, values and attitudes on a continuous basis. Assessmenttechniques must be integrated into educational aspects such as lesson planning and mustnot be viewed in isolation. This aspect was discussed in unit 6.

Read: Hurry pp 167±180;Mathews et al. pp 127±134.

Although Hurry uses the heading ``Tests and examinations'', these sections must not beviewed as only applicable to these two aspects as they are applicable to most assessmentmethods (eg task sheets, fieldwork, etc).


1 Under what three categories does Bloom categorise educational aims andobjectives?

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2 Explain what you understand under each of these three categories.

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How do we know if our assessment is meaningful and valid?

It is quite obvious that we cannot expect a primary school child to only memorise facts orgive him/her a test where only application is required. Naturally the form of assessment mustsuit the child's development phase and contain a good balance of questions involvingknowledge, skills, values and attitudes.

Two types of questions can be used when assessing pupils in tests and examinations, namelythe essay and short-answer type. Hurry and Mathews et al. give a detailed discussion onwhat these question types entail, their pros and cons, types, etc. These question types mustalso take the child's development into account when assessing a pupil. Read these passageswell (Hurry pp 168±177 and Mathews et al. pp 128±134) before attempting to set up orevaluate an examination paper, task sheet test, or other test.

Page 128 of Mathews et al. gives an example of the percentage allocation of variouscognitive levels (take note that Mathews et al. do not include skills, values and attitudes),while on page 171 Hurry gives a matrix on how to balance a test or examination paper toensure that what is being tested is more or less balanced (Hurry includes a morecomprehensive matrix which includes skills, values and attitudes but leaves out certaincognitive levels). These are handy instruments to ensure a fairly balanced means of testing.Remember that these are only guidelines and are no way prescriptive and you as a teachercan draw up a balanced matrix to suit your own needs.

Let us now apply the knowledge that we have acquired and put it into practice.


Critically analyse the following Gr 6 Geography examination paper. Does itattempt to assess the pupils in a balanced manner? (Hint: draw up your ownmatrix). Does the paper assess suitable knowledge, skills, values andattitudes? What is your overall view of the paper? Is there a good balancebetween essay type and short-answer questions?

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MAP OF AFRICA

82

GR 6 GEOGRAPHY JUNE 1994__________________________________________________________________________

SECTION A

Question 1

Study the map of Africa and then answer the questions which follow. The numbers of the

questions correspond with those on the map:

1.1 Name this river.

1.2 Name this mountain range.

1.3 Name this lake which forms part of the Great Rift Valley of Africa.

1.4 Name this line of latitude which is found 2�8 North of the equator.

1.5 Name this island off the East coast of Africa.

1.6 Name this African State.

1.7 Name the capital city of this state.

1.8 Name the state which is situated here.

1.9 Which basin is situated largely in this state.

1.10 Name this mountain range. (10)

SECTION B

Question 2

Explain briefly what each of the following terms mean. Write down the term first and then

your explanation:

2.1 Equinox

2.2 SANAE

2.3 The Old World

2.4 Axis-rotation

2.5 Prevailing wind (5)

Question 3

Say whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. If you say FALSE, then correct

the statement:

3.1 The Namib desert is the largest desert in the world.

3.2 Swaziland is situated in Southern Africa.

3.3 Together Europe and Asia are known as the New World. (5)

Question 4

Choose the correct answer from those within brackets. Write down the answer only:

4.1 The (Limpopo, Zambezi, Orange, Zaire) river is the largest river in Africa.

4.2 When it is winter in Europe, it is (autumn, spring, summer) in South Africa.

4.3 (Indonesia, Sri-Lanka, Taiwan) is known as the spice islands.

4.4 Uranium is found in the town of (Tsumeb, Rossing, Karibib) in Namibia.

4.5 (North America, Asia, Africa) is the largest continent. (5)

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Question 5

Study the following map of Namibia's rainfall and answer the questions that follow:

NAMIBIA: RAINFALL

5.1 Which region has the highest rainfall and what is the reason for this? (2)5.2 What ocean current (A) flows off the West coast of Namibia and what effect does it

have on the rainfall in the coastal region? (2)5.3 In which region (North, South, East or West) would you choose to farm? Why do you

say so? (1)

SECTION C

Question 6

6.1 Name 4 reasons why the number of factories in Namibia are still limited. (4)6.2 You have been given the choice of living either in the Equatorial region or in the

Mediterranean region. Say where you would rather stay by comparing the two regions'climate. (4)

6.3 Who or what are the Maori's and where do they come from? (2)Total: (4072)=20+20 cummulative=[40]

7.4 Concluding remarks7.4 Concluding remarksThe importance of evaluation and assessment in a learning situation cannot be emphasisedenough. In order to make these functions reliable and balanced, a lot of thought andconsideration must go into their implementation.

7.5 Evaluation questions7.5 Evaluation questions1 Why do you think that it is necessary to evaluate (and more specifically, assess) in the

Senior Primary Phase? [5]

2 Draw up a test paper for Gr 5 for 30 marks for either Geography or History on any aspect

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of the syllabus. Make sure that you maintain a good balance in the type of questionsselected. Also provide your script with a memorandum. [50]

3 Design a CA mark sheet for any Geography or History class in the senior primary phasefor the first term. [Note: for the answering of questions 2 & 3, prescribed text books canbe acquired from a school situated close to you, while an example of a Gr 5 syllabus isgiven at the back of the study guide. You may also consult with other practisingteachers and get advice and tips.] [20]

4 Visit a local primary school and enquire as to their use of Continuous assessment (CA).Write a detailed report on your findings. [10]

5 Set three questions for either Geography or History of each of the following types, usingwork from the Gr 6 syllabus: multiple-choice; true or false; interpretation of maps(Geography)/interpretation of a historic picture (History). Also supply a markingmemorandum. [10]

BibliographyBibliographyEducationalive. 1996. Catch on to continuous assessment. 4(2):8±9.

Harber, K & Payton, G. 1979. Heinemann English Dictionary. London: HeinemannEducational Books.

Independent Examination Board (IEB). 1996. Draft recommendations for the developmentand implementation of assessment policy. Pretoria.

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Unit 8Unit 8

School and class managementSchool and class management

aAfter studying this unit you will be able to:

. discuss the value of a subject policy for Geography and History as an

aspect of school and class management,

. discuss the value of individual, group, class and field work in

Geography and History teaching,

. plan and execute certain aspects of the above-mentioned topics.

!! This unit is to be studied together with Hurry Chapter 3 and

Appendix 1 & 2 of Mathews et al.

It goes without saying that the teacher's most important task is the instruction and education

of his/her pupils to the best of his/her ability. This task requires that teachers plan and

coordinate their work in order to achieve the necessary learning outcomes. This entails good

school and class management. A means of achieving this is to work along the lines of a

policy. The Heinemann English Dictionary (Harber & Payton 1979:830) defines the noun

policy as `à plan or course of action or procedure''. The principal, in most cases, appoints a

departmental/subject head to administer a plan or course of action of a specific subject

according to the policy of the subject and school. It is understandable that the principal

cannot continually coordinate all the subjects presented at his/her school. He/she is

responsible for the broad school policy.

8.1 Subject policy of the school8.1 Subject policy of the schoolRead: Hurry pp 158±159 section 15.1

Mathews et al. pp 160±161

Although Mathews et al. do not go into as much detail as Hurry with regard to subject policy,

there is not much difference between the two as regards the broad outline.

!! Where then would it differ?

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Can you think of aspects where there would be differences between thepolicies of the two subject? Think in terms of broad as well as specific aspects.

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I think that you would agree that aspects such as the aims and objectives and specificschemes of work of the two subjects would differ.

!! It is all fine and well that one has to have a subject policy, but whereis it reflected practically?

All aspects mentioned with regard to subject policy can be reflected in an individualteacher's or subject head's subject file. Mathews et al. p 161 elaborate on this aspect andrefer specifically to its use by the departmental head. Naturally this person will have a morecomprehensive file, but (depending on what your school prescribes) there is nothing to stopindividual teachers creating their own file reflecting the subject that they are teaching.

8.2 Organising individual, group and fieldwork8.2 Organising individual, group and fieldworkEffective teaching and education not only depend on the effective organisation of subjectpolicy, but also the organisation of the classroom. These are but a few aspects that cancontribute to effective teaching.

When then would you use individual, group, class and fieldwork?

Naturally, one cannot be prescriptive about when a teacher should use one of the above-mentioned means of teaching. Whether you make use of group work, individual work,classwork or fieldwork depends on a host of factors. These may include:

. the size of the class

. the aspect that has to be taught

. the discipline of the class

. the available time

. the school policy, etc

Naturally, both individual and group work have their advantages and disadvantages.

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Name three advantages and three disadvantages of individual and groupwork that you can think of. If you are not yet a teacher, think of your own pastexperiences in school.

Individual work Group work

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Naturally, fieldwork can incorporate both individual and group work and is discussed in thefollowing passages:

Read: Hurry pp 102±113 and secs 11.10.2±11.10.3, 11.10.6;Mathews et al. pp 88±95


1 Define the concept ``field work''.

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2 What two basic didactical principles are met by field work? Explain.

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3 What value does field work have for the Geography or History pupil/student?

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8.3 Concluding remarks8.3 Concluding remarksEffective teaching depends on, amongst other aspects, effective school and classmanagement. In Geography and History this not only depends on a specific teacher'steaching of the subject but also the spelling out of a school's subject policy. Here the subjecthead (and headmaster) plays a cardinal role in leading his/her charges.

8.4 Evaluation questions8.4 Evaluation questions1 After a year of initial teaching, you start teaching at another school. When you meet the

principal, he informs you that, because you took Geography at Gr 12 level (and noteven at tertiary level), you have been appointed subject head for Geography. Up to nowthe subject has been neglected and it is your duty to ``pull it into shape''. You naturallywant to prove your worth and set about getting a policy drawn up to give fellowteachers direction. Describe how you would do the following (remember, you cannotjust think out these aspects, you have to consult literature, other teachers andprincipals):

1.1 Draw up a contents page for your subject policy file. [10]

1.2 Draw up a subject policy with regard to the execution of fieldwork. [6]

1.3 You note that once a term you have to do a book check or class visit to see thatteachers are in line with the subject's policy. Draw up certain criteria that you woulduse for either a book check or a class visit. [5]

1.4 How would you go about listing and evaluating all the school's media andresources pertaining to your subject? Remember that you can delegate work, butthat you have overall responsibility for the end product. [5]

2 What type of fieldwork would best be suited to the senior primary Phase? Why do yousay this? [4]

3 You are teaching in an urban school with no means of getting away from the schoolgrounds for a field trip. You wish to give your pupils fieldwork experience in the schoolgrounds on an aspect from the syllabus (choose any aspect from the Senior PrimaryGeography or History syllabus):

3.1 What preparation is necessary for the field work? [5]

3.2 List the aids that either you or your pupils will need in order to execute the fieldwork. [5]

3.3 Draw up a complete task sheet for a 40 minute period of field work activity on thetopic you chose. [15]

BibliographyBibliographyHarber, K & Payton, G. 1979. Heinemann English Dictionary. London: Heinemann

Educational Books.

89 PST103-E/1

AppendixAppendix

Department of Education (DE) 1996Department of Education (DE) 1996National Core Syllabus : History Grades 4±6National Core Syllabus : History Grades 4±6PretoriaPretoria

GENERAL REMARKS

1 AIMS

(The principles as set out in the Aims may be rephrased by Education Departments to suit their own

particular needs.)

1.1 To arouse in pupils an interest in and a love of the subject, and to awaken in them a desire to know more

about their own and other people.

1.2 To cause the pupil to view History as a record of the activities of people, of people in other times, and of

people in specific situations. The subject should be used therefore as a vehicle for moulding the pupil

into a person who will be able, initially, to take his/her place as a worthy member of a small community

and subsequently as a citizen of his own country and of the world.

1.3 The human aspect and drama in historical events rather than the accumulating of facts should be

stressed. The main purpose is to regard History in the light of its educational value as a formative subject

and not a factual one.

1.4 To place the emphasis on the moulding and development of the personality and character of the pupil.

1.5 To study the history of their country against the background of overseas events and more particularly

those which have a direct relationship with Western civilisation.

1.6 To give pupils a concept of time and the interrelationship between cause and effect; to lead them to the

realisation that the present is the heritage of the past, that the future is in its turn influenced by the

present, and that a knowledge of the past is necessary to explain and understand present-day

circumstances and problems.

1.7 When the pupils' knowledge is expanded and enriched in this way, everything comes to have greater

meaning for them, and they gain a clearer insight into and a deeper understanding of what they will

encounter in books, magazines, newspapers, on the radio, on television and in films.

1.8 To promote, through a systematic and sympathetic approach, a knowledge of the institutions, the

traditions, the ways of life and customs, the historical relics and achievements, the spiritual and cultural

values of the people of the past and of the present. This will lead the pupil to respect and value the

contributions of those who have gone before.

1.9 To bring pupils to the realisation that the well-being of their country is the responsibility of each of its

citizens.

1.10 To broaden the pupil's concept of time, space and reality.

1.11 To bring pupils to think for themselves, to work on their own under the guidance of their teacher and to

help the pupils to express themselves clearly and correctly both verbally and in writing in regard to

History and historical concepts.

1.12 To help the pupil to realise that man's life is meaningful, that man lives in an ordered society and that this

entails that man's deeds should bear the stamp of responsibility.

1.13 To make the pupil aware of the necessity for firm principles and religious beliefs.

1.14 To assist pupils to understand the world in which we live so that they will realise that every community,

farm, town, city and nation has its roots in the past.

2 GENERAL REMARKS

2.1 It is important that pupils should have an elementary knowledge of the methods used by the historian

when doing historical research.

2.2 The value of well planned educational excursions and the necessary follow-up by the teacher cannot be

over-emphasised.

90

2.3 Wherever possible History study should be correlated with other subjects.

2.4 Written assignments have a definite place and value in History teaching provided that they are tackled in

the right way and as long as the assignment falls within the scope of the pupil's ability. Scrap-books and

transcribing extracts from text-books should not be encouraged.

2.5 A history teacher in the primary school should take cognisance of what is done in lower grades in his/her

subject as well as of the content of syllabuses for the Junior Secondary Phase.

91 PST103-E/1

INSTRUCTIONAL OFFERING : HISTORY

CODE : 220515402

INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMME : GRADE 4

CODE : 602

SYLLABUS

1 HISTORY BASED ON OBSERVATION

1.1 Important people from the district/region.

Choose at least ONE of the following:

1.1.1 Art;

1.1.2 Architecture;

1.1.3 Music;

1.1.4 Science;

1.1.5 Literature.

1.2 People who served humankind.

Choose at least ONE of the following:

1.2.1 Explorers;

1.2.2 Leaders;

1.2.3 Humanitarians;

1.2.4 Scientists.

(These must reflect race and gender. A leader from the continent of Africa for 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 must be

chosen).

2 NARRATIVE HISTORY

2.1 History of families.

2.2 History of the school.

2.3 History of the district: places, peoples, buildings.

(Relevant to all communities).

92


CODE : 220515503


CODE : 603

SYLLABUS

1 SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY FROM 1652 TO + 1840 WITH THE EMPHASIS ON THE

ADVENTURES AND WAY OF LIFE OF THE PEOPLE

. From perspectives of both Khoikhoi and Dutch.

. Physical changes to the landscape from both perspectives.

. Change terminology (eg Bushmen, Hottentots).

. Have race balance.

. History not to be presented in such a way that it is seen to be starting from the Cape.

1.1 Pre-Colonial History

(Stone age and iron age people).

. Original inhabitants (broad overview).

1.2 Arrival of the Settlers at the Cape.

1.3 An introduction to the history of the province where it is applicable.

2 THEMES FROM GENERAL AND SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY (AT LEAST ONE OF THE

FOLLOWING THEMES SHOULD BE DEALT WITH)

2.1 The Middle Ages.

2.2 Way of life of people from an Ancient Civilization.

Choose from an African civilization including Egypt Ð eg Black Empire, Zimbabwe and Arab trade.

2.3 Development with regard to transport and means of communication:

2.3.1 Land;

2.3.2 Sea;

2.3.3 Air.

2.4 Explorers (each Department to indicate its own choice).

Emphasize exploration rather than discovery.

2.5 A comparative study of the lifestyles of various societies:

2.5.1 San;

2.5.2 Khoikhoi;

2.5.3 African farmers;

2.5.4 Colonists;

2.5.5 Slaves.

93 PST103-E/1


CODE : 220515604


CODE : 604

SYLLABUS

1 SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY (1840±1961): ``THE STRUGGLE FOR LAND''

Themes to be studied as a unit.

1.1 Movements of indigenous people

1.1.1 The Mfecane;

1.1.2 The Trek: Ð establishment of Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal.

1.2 The South African War.

1.3 Establishment of the Union of South Africa.

(Role of the Blacks to be included).

1.4 Establishment of the RSA.

2 THE ROAD TO DEMOCRACY

2.1 Resistance politics and recent democratic developments.

2.2 New governing structures.

3 THEMES FROM GENERAL AND SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY (AT LEAST TWO OF

FOLLOWING THEMES SHOULD BE DEALT WITH)

3.1 The development of transport:

3.1.1 Land;

3.1.2 Sea; and

3.1.3 Air (only a general survey is necessary).

3.2 A neighbouring state of South Africa.

3.3 Developments in the medical field (eg Jenner, Koch, Pasteur, Lister, Marie Curie, Rose, Fleming or more

recent contributions in this field may be chosen, the traditional medicine man (any three).

3.4 The development of communication (telecommunication, TV).

3.5 Mines and industries in South Africa.

Include the contribution of Blacks to the success of mining and the effects of mining on people's

lifestyles.

4 EVALUATION

In Grades 4, 5, and 6 evaluation should be done on a continuous basis and should not be limited to a

final examination only.

It is not desirable that the same subject-matter be repeatedly tested in the course of the year.

94

GEOGRAPHY

GRADES 4±6

GENERAL REMARKS

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Geography is the study of the relationship between man and his environment; and it is absolutely

essential to have a knowledge of the subject if man desires to adapt to the changing world he lives in

and to have an intelligent grasp of daily occurrences.

1.2 MAN with his inherent ability should always be the focal point of study and the relationship between

man and his environment should continually be emphasised.

1.3 The teacher should continually question himself why he is teaching the pupils a specific section of the

syllabus. Above all, the pupils should enjoy Geography.

2 AIMS

2.1 To lead the pupil to a closer acqaintance with:

2.1.1 his own country and its people;

2.1.2 other lands and peoples of the world; and

2.1.3 the natural phenomena of the earth in so far as he is able to understand them.

2.2 To enable the pupil to acquire some facility in the use of geographical aids such as posters, pictures,

graphs, maps, the atlas and the globe.

2.3 To develop in the pupil the power to reason and make simple deductions based on geographical

knowledge previously acquired.

2.4 To help the pupil to become aware of the definite relationship which exists between man and his

environment and to understand that man's activities and ways of living are really his efforts to adjust

himself to his surroundings and to use to advantage the resources available to him.

2.5 To develop in the pupil a concept of common humanity by:

2.5.1 leading him to take an interest in national problems of his own country;

2.5.2 encouraging a sympathetic attitude towards other races and their problems; and

2.5.3 creating a clearer understanding of the interdependence of the peoples of the world.

2.6 To stimulate an active interest in daily occurrences as depicted in newspapers, magazines, radio reports

and television broadcasts.

2.7 To cultivate in the pupil a sense of appreciation of, and reverence for, the beauty and wonders of nature,

consequently making his visits to other parts of his own country and to other countries richer and more

purposeful experiences. The need for conserving the natural environment and guarding against pollution

should be continually emphasised.

95 PST103-E/1

INSTRUCTIONAL OFFERING : GEOGRAPHY

CODE : 220515102


CODE : 602

SYLLABUS

. It is essential for the teacher in each grade to study the syllabus for the previous and the following grades in

order to avoid overlapping and to determine the depth of the instruction.

. The subject matter may be dealt with either systematically or thematically.

. Short assignments and written tasks which encourage the pupils to do reference work should regularly be

done in connection with any aspect of the syllabus and planned excursions to promote observation are

essential.

The centre theme is our town/city and the surrounding environment and when necessary the province in which

the pupil lives.

CONTENT

1 MAP WORK AND PRACTICAL WORK

1.1 Knowledge of the 4 main directions.

1.2 Plan of the classroom and the school grounds.

1.3 Plan of the immediate environment.

1.4 Simple plan of the more important streets of the village, town or suburb.

1.5 Simple map of the new province.

1.6 Links with other places.

2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES

How the people in our country produce the articles which are necessary in everyday life. Emphasis must

be placed on the activities in their own area and/or province. The approach must be observation of

acquaintance with these activities.

2.1 Commercial farming

2.1.1 Stock farming

. The cattle farm

OR

. The sheep farm

OR

. The poultry farm.

2.1.2 Agriculture (soil cultivation)

. The wheat farm

OR

. The maize farm

OR

. The fruit farm

OR

. The grape farm

OR

. The vegetable farm

OR

. Mixed and other kinds of farming like tobacco, sugar, cane, etc.

2.2 Subsistence Farming

2.3 Mining

2.3.1 Different kinds of mines, eg gold, diamonds, coal, iron, copper;

2.3.2 Minerals of importance in everyday use;

2.3.3 What a mine looks like.

96

2.4 Manufacturing industries

Choose at least THREE of the following:

2.4.1 Clothing and textiles;

2.4.2 Food;

2.4.3 Leather goods;

2.4.4 Timber;

2.4.5 Motor vehicle manufacturing;

2.4.6 Electrical and electronic goods;

2.4.7 Plastics;

2.4.8 Chemicals;

2.4.9 The informal sector.

2.5 Fishing

2.5.1 Freshwater fish;

2.5.2 Sea fish;

2.5.3 Crayfish;

2.6 Forestry

2.7 News geography

2.7.1 Emphasis on events within the neighbourhood.

97 PST103-E/1


CODE : 220515203


CODE : 603

SYLLABUS

. To determine the depth of the instruction and to avoid unnecessary overlapping the syllabuses of Grades 4

and 6 must be read.

. The central theme of Grade 4 `Òur town/city and the surrounding environment'' now expands to become

`Òur country'', with special reference to the pupil's own province.

. If the syllabus is studied systematically section 1 (practical work), section 4 (climate) and section 10 (news

geography) should receive attention throughout the year as it fits meaningfully into the work.

CONTENT


1.1 Direction (8 main directions).

1.2 Weather conditions, compilation of a wind rose and weather chart.

1.3 Day and night.

1.4 Map reading

1.4.1 The general introduction of our country by means of the map of the RSA.

2 THE POSITION OF OUR COUNTRY

2.1 Position in relation to the equator and the poles.

2.2 Position in the continent of Africa.

2.3 Position in relation to the most important continents and oceans of the world.

2.4 The size of the RSA in relation to other known countries (use the globe).

3 THE BUILD OF OUR COUNTRY

3.1 The coastline and coastal plain.

3.2 The Little Karoo and the Great Karoo.

3.3 The Plateau.

3.4 Mountain Ranges.

3.5 The eastern low-lying part.

3.6 Most important rivers of our country.

4 CLIMATE OF OUR COUNTRY

4.1 The main rainfall regions.

4.2 Temperature.

4.3 Height above sea level; the sea and ocean currents.

5 NATURAL VEGETATION

5.1 The main vegetation regions.

6 NATURAL RESOURCES OF OUR COUNTRY, UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION

7 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THE PRODUCTS OF OUR COUNTRY (the distribution, scope,

uses and economic importance)

7.1 Stock farming.

7.2 Soil cultivation.

7.3 Forestry.

7.4 Mining.

7.5 Fishing.

7.6 Manufacturing industries.

7.6.1 The five most important areas of concentration of manufacturing industries;

7.6.2 Explanation for the concentration in certain areas;

7.6.3 The most important industries in the concentration areas;

7.6.4 A study of one important industry from each of the five areas.

98

8 TRANSPORT IN OUR COUNTRY

8.1 Modes of transport and the most important traffic routes.

8.2 Explanation of our transport network.

8.3 Storage and containerisation.

9 THE POPULATION OF OUR COUNTRY

9.1 Distribution of population, outline and simple explanation.

10 NEWS GEOGRAPHY

Emphasise news items which have bearing on the RSA and our neighbours.

99 PST103-E/1


CODE : 220515304


CODE : 604

SYLLABUS

. In order to determine the depth of the study and to avoid unnecessary overlapping the syllabuses for Grades

5 and 7 must be read.

. The central theme is Africa, our continent.

CONTENT


1.1 Direction. Determine direction with aid of the compass, watch and shadow stick.

1.2 Climatic phenomena.

1.3 The seasons.

1.4 Map reading of the world; only orientation in connection with:

1.4.1 continents of the world;

1.4.2 the most important oceans and seas; and

1.4.3 the most important islands.

1.5 Appropriate practical work eg wall charts and models.

2 AFRICA: OUR CONTINENT

2.1 A general introduction by means of maps: political; physical; climate and vegetation.

2.2 Important issues in Africa

2.2.1 Resources;

2.2.2 Urban issues;

2.2.3 Rural issues;

2.2.4 Health;

2.2.5 Women in Africa.

3 A STUDY IN OUTLINE OF THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF AFRICA TOWARDS THE ESSENTIAL

RAW MATERIALS OF THE WORLD

4 NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES OF THE RSA

4.1 A geographical survey with emphasis on their political and economic relations with the RSA.

A Geographical study of at least two further politically and economically important African states which

are representative of different geographical regions eg Zambia, Angola, Kenya, Nigeria, Algeria and

Egypt.

5 NEWS GEOGRAPHY

Especially those matters pertaining to Africa.

5.1 Terms such as OAU, UDI, deÂ tente, etcetera, as well as coastal pollution as a result of shipping around

the Cape, must be emphasised.

Also included in this Appendix is an extract from the Western Cape Education Department's Standard 4 (Gr 6)

Geography Syllabus (WCED 1996:8, 25±30). This is an example of curriculum development at local level.

100

Overview of syllabus ...

Farming

Mining

Manufacturing

Fishing

Forestry

Africa: continent

Issues in Africa

Natural resources of Africa

Neighbouring states of South Africa

Physical world

Political world

Population

Transport and communications

Regional geogrphay

The earth in space

Climatology

South Africa: regional

Geomorphology

Settlement

Natural disasters

Biogeography

The learner has a growing ability to:

. reason; make assumptions

. establish cause and effect

. make judgements and generalisations

. solve problems

The learner is more comfortable with ...

. concrete examples and relationships

. basic concepts

. simple analysis and classification

. simple explanations and descriptions

VARIOUS

ASPECTS

STUDIED IN

GEOGRAPHY IN

GENERAL

Junior SecondaryPhase

Senior PrimaryPhase

2

3

4

5

6

7

AFRICA

LOCAL AND SOUTH

AFRICAN

LOCAL

ENVIRONMENT

~

!

Position and build of South Africa

Climate of South Africa

Natural resources

Natural vegetation

Production and products

Transport and population

101

PST103-E

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General geographic techniques and skills

Africa our continent Neighbouring countries of the RSA

Africa's raw materials News geography

3 3"

"

3

3

3

~

~

~

!

!

!

~

Standard four (Grade 6) geography syllabus

102

1. General geographic techniques and skills

Ideas for teachers ...

Learning

X

Content

1.1 Direction

1.2 Observation and recording (elementary)

climatic phenomena

1.3 Observation and recording of features related

to the seasons

1.4 Map reading of the world

1.4.1 Continents of the world

1.4.2 Most important oceans and seas

1.4.3 Most important islands

. revise the eight points of compass

. determine direction with aid of a compass,

watch and shadow stick

. to make observations of weather conditions

(seasonal) in order to determine the climate

of the region

. read and record from simple weather

instruments

. draw elementary graphs

. identify an ocean, sea and island

. ___________________________________

. observe the features related to the seasons,

eg length of day and night, prevailing

winds, types of precipitation, temperature,

effect of seasons on flora and fauna

. understand the concept of continents

. know the positions and names of the seven

continents

. compile a wall chart and/or construct

models of the African continent

. ___________________________________

Some guiding questions for teachers ...

Learner's should be able to ...

. How and where could you link this section with the rest of the syllabus?

. Why is a basic knowledge of the map of the world important?

. How can mapwork skills help to improve the learner's understanding of spatial

relationships on the map?

. How can mapwork activities be made more meaningful and practical?

. Continuation of work done in standards 2 and 3

(Grades 4 & 5)

. This section should be studied on a continuous

basis and integrated with the rest of the syllabus

wherever possible

. Use a variety of maps, eg atlas and media

. Visit a local weather station

. Establish own weather station at school

. Link mapwork with news geography

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

Teaching

X

. Determining direction

. Correct use and orientation of compass, watch and shadow

stick

. Observation and recording

. Recording

. Drawing and reading graphs

. Construction of simple weather instruments

. Discussion

. Research

. Identify continents, important oceans, seas, etc.

. Orientation

. General mapwork techniques

General techniques and skills to learn and practise ...

"

"

"

Standard 4 (Grade 6) geography syllabus

103

PST103-E

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2. Africa: our continent


Learning

X

Content

2.1 A general introduction by means of maps

2.1.1 Political

2.1.2 Physical

2.1.3 Climate and vegetation

2.2 Important issues in Africa

2.2.1 Resources

2.2.2 Urban issues

2.2.3 Rural issues

2.2.4 Health

2.2.5 Women in Africa

. locate the different political regions of Africa, egNorth Africa, southern Africa, West Africa, CentralAfrica

. locate most important states

. locate most southerly, notherly, westerly andeasterly points

. locate the positions of the equator and tropics inAfrica

. locate immediate seas and oceans

. locate islands along the coast

. observe regular coastline and absence of deepbays

. locate the coastal plain

. locate the lower African plateau

. locate Northern and Southern fold mountains

. locate important rivers and lakes

. define the difference between weather and climate

. ________________________________________

. understand the influence of climate on the naturalvegetation and human activities

. define a resource with reference to water, people,minerals, energy, natural products

. understand the concepts of urban and urbanisation

. identify and understand urban issues egovercrowding, transport, unemployment, diseaseand poverty, sanitation, housing, pollution, crime

. understand the concept rural

. identi fy and understand rural issues, egdepopulation, lack of arable land, irrigation,deforestation, type of farming, type of housing

. understand the influence of pests, disease and healthproblems

. identify plant and animal pests and diseases

. identify human diseases eg due to poor sanitation,dysintery, cholera

Learner's should be able to ...

. Integrate this section with news geography

. Integrate this section with general techniques and

skills

. Appreciate and understand other viewpoints

. An interdisciplinary approach is possible eg

linking with history

. Issue-based approaches

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

Teaching

X

"

"


. Which of these issues are relevant in your environment?

. How can this section be taught to develop a realistic perception of the relevant

issues?

. How can learners be encouraged to seek information for themselves?

. How can geography break down stereotypes?

. How can issues be taught in a way that will interest the learner?

. Identify the difference between political, physical and thematic

maps

. Reading map keys and symbols

. Identification of physical and political features on a map

. The location of various resources by means of map reading and

using symbols

. Discussion

. Group activity: simulation and role play


"


104

3. A study in outline of Africa's contribution towards the essential raw materials of the world


Learning

X

Content

3.1 A study in outline of the contributions of Africa

towards the essential raw materials of the world

. Integrate this section with general techniques andskills

. Identify the raw materials in the local environment

. Identify the raw materials used in consumergoods in the environment and trace the sourcethereof

. Identify raw materials in the local environmentwhich can be recycled

. Participation in local conservation projects

. Use graphs to present information

. Project/groupwork

Teaching

X

"

"

. How can news geography and mapwork skills be applied to this section?

. How can the learner be made aware of Africa's contribution to the raw materialsof the world?

. Are Africa's raw materials being over-exploited by developed countries?

. What kind of message do you think learners will get from this section of thesyllabus?

. _______________________________________________________________

"

. define raw materials

. categorise these primary products, eg

minerals, timber, agricultural products

. note where the primary products are produced

in Africa

. investigate what happens to these products eg

how they are transported and to which

locations

. appreciate the need for and uses of raw

materials

. appreciate the need for conservation

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

Learners should be able to ...


. Map reading (pictorial symbols)

. Project work through indirect observation, research, recording

. Discussion

. Role playing

. Building a model of a typical plantation, eg sugar



105

PST103-E

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4. Neighbouring countries of the RSA


Learning

X

Content

4.1 Geographical survey of neighbouring states

4.2 A geographical study of at least TWO further

politically and economically important African

states which are representative of different

geographical regions, eg Zambia, Angola,

Kenya, Nigeria, Algeria, and Egypt

. Integrate this section with general techniques and

skills and news geography

. Obtain relevant visual material from embassies,

travel agencies and libraries

. Make use of comparative studies

. Issue-based approaches

. Project and groupwork

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

Teaching

X

"

"

. How can news geography and mapwork skills be applied to this section?

. It is easy for this section to turn into a list of facts. How can it be made more

interesting for the learner?

. What should the learner at this stage know about the neighbouring countries?

. Why is it important to study countries in geography?

"

. define the concept `'neighbouring'' country

. define political and economic relations

. emphasise their political and economic

relations with the RSA

. observe physical geography and vegetation of

the country using a map eg position, relief,

drainage

. observe the climate and most important

products

. _____________________________________

. identify and understand local issues

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

Learners should be able to...


. Direction and map reading using keys/symbols

. Graphic presentation and interpretation of information

. Interpretation and discussion

. Problem solving in order to bring about co-operation between

neighbours

. Indirect observation through visual aids

. Oral presentation

General techniques and skills to learn and practise...


106

5. News geography

Ideas for teachers...

Learning

X

Content

5.1 Especially those events pertaining to Africa

. Linking news geography with maps

. Determining location of news events in relations

to the RSA

. Display on bulletin boards

. Use groupwork and role play to evaluate news

events

. Integrate news geography throughout the

syllabus

. Use a variety of sources relating to a particular

news item

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

Teaching

X

"

"

. How can news geography be taught to develop a learner's skills?

. How can learners be led to use information to form their own opinions and

make decisions?

. How can news geography be used to break down stereotypes?

. _______________________________________________________________

. _______________________________________________________________

"

. appreciate and understand other viewpoints

. extend the learner's vocabulary and familiarise

themselves with the terms used in the media

. become aware of social issues, eg rapid

urbanisation, illiteracy, poverty and disease,

exploitation, pollution

. _____________________________________

. _____________________________________

. _____________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

. _______________________________________

Learners should be able to...


. Read news

. Comprehend

. Identify issues

. Map reading and interpretation

. Debate, role-play, simulation

. Summarising

. Developing objectivity



Source: WCED 1996:8,25±30.

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