The Osprey 1Natural History Society of Newfoundland and Labrador

Fall 2008Volume 39 Number 4

THE

OSPREY__________________________________NATURE JOURNAL OFNEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR

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Executive HOME WORK FAX

Rita Anderson - President rita@play.psych.mun.ca 895-2564 737-8771 737-2430

Allan Stein - Vice President arstein@mun.ca 895-2056

Don Steele - Secretary dsteele@mun.ca 754-0455 689-4613 737-3018

Directors

John Jacobs - (Parks) jjacobs@mun.ca 738-3147 737-8194 737-3119

Marjorie Evans - (NLEN) marjjevans@nl.rogers.com 722-1925

R. J. (John) Gibson - (Fish) rjgibson@nf.sympatico.ca 726-2498

Dave Snow - (Indoor Program) wildtour@nfld.com 754-4094 722-3123 722-3335

Carolyn Walsh - (Membership) cwalsh@play.psych.mun.ca 745-5534 737-4738 737-2430

Len Zedel - (Oil) zedel@physics.mun.ca 754-3321 737-3106 737-8739

Edmund Hayden - Osprey Editor edhayden.osprey@gmail.com 738-0358 729-6208

Lois Bateman - Humber Rep. lbateman@swgc.mun.ca

THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR

P.O. Box 1013, St. John’s, NL A1C 5M3

Board of Directors March 2008 - 2009

Website: www.nhs.nf.ca e-mail: nhs@nhs.nf.ca

The Osprey is published quarterly by the Natural History Society of Newfoundland and Labrador. Opinions ex-pressed in The Osprey are those of the author and do not reflect necessarily those of the editor or of the society. Letters, articles and photographs about any aspect of natural history are welcome. Please submit documents in Microsoft Word through e-mail attachment using American Psychological Association (APA) style. Images and tables should be submitted as separate files, rather than embedded in the text, and they should be provided in a format compatible with photocopying in black and white. Writers replicating the work of someone else, including photographs and illustrations, should acquire permission in writing to reprint that work in The Osprey. The edi-tor will make formatting, stylistic and small editorial changes to submitted documents, but substantive editorial changes will be made in consultation with the author.

Please submit articles for the next edition to edhayden.osprey@gmail.comby March 25, 2009.

Cover photo by Peter Westley: A male Newfoundland brown trout ascends a small stream in the fall to spawn (photo is copyrighted and can be used only with permission of Peter Westley).

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ContentsThe Editor’s Note 134

Society Matters by Ed Hayden 136

One Trout, Two Trout, Brook Trout, Brown Trout by Peter Westley 139

Animal Signs in Winter by Michael Collins 144

Nature Notes Mating Mantis 146 Sapsuckers 149 Argentia - Argent 156

The Crow and Raven Deserve our Respect by John Horwood 147

Ask A Natural History Question ... About Dust by Allan Stein 149

Introduced Slug Limax Maximus by Lois Bateman and Michael Burzynski 150

Night Sky in Newfoundland by Fred Smith 153

The Quarterly Bug (European Earwig) by Dave Larsen 154

Sandy Pond Giveaway by Bill Montevecchi 155

Tuck-Walters Award 157 Membership Application and Renewal 159

THE OSPREYNATURE JOURNAL OFNEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR

Volume 39 Number 4 Fall 2008 ISSN 0710-4847 Publication Mail Registration # 8302

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With this edition, I celebrate my first anniversary as editor of The Osprey. The release of five editions between February and December, 2008, has been quite a challenging pace. I hope to continue this ambitious schedule by publishing an edition every two months until The Osprey is up to date in the fall. What a leisurely pace to look forward to in January 2010 with the release of quarterly editions!

I’ve been learning lots about natural history and publishing a journal during the past twelve months. I appreciated Kate Scarth’s generous assistance last year prior to her pursuit of graduate studies. And thanks to the wonderful writers in the natural history community for taking time to share your expertise and send me an array of fascinating environmental and nature essays, photos and illustrations. Finally, thanks to readers for your very kind comments on the quality of the journal and the stylistic changes.

I hope you’re enjoying the new features introduced this year, such as Ask a Natural History Question (send me your question, I’ll get an answer), Nature Notes sprinkled throughout the journal, Dave Larsen’s Quarterly Bug, Fred Smith’s Night Sky, and Society Matters to keep you up to date on the outings, lectures and environmental interventions of this small but active society.

In this edition, the amazing cover photo of a brown trout by Peter Westley, PhD candidate at MUN, accompanies his brilliant essay on their fascinating and sometimes bizarre rituals. Like many of us, I catch a meal or two of trout most summers, but having read Peter’s essay, I’ll carry with me a new appreciation of trout as I throw out a line or just watch the river flow.

In recent weeks around the Avalon Peninsula, as winter comes to an end, I’ve been paying closer attention to tracks in the snow and nibbles on shrubs during my hikes to Stiles Cove and Freshwater Bay since reading Michael Collins’s guide to identifying animal traces in winter.

In Lois Bateman’s intriguing article on the introduced Giant Slug (Limax maximus), you’ll want to see the stunning photo that accompanies it in

the electronic edition to truly appreciate its amazing pattern and colour. Bill Montevecchi shares his view about Sandy Pond and reminds us of the precious beauty of our natural heritage.

I’ve been fortunate to get permission from the late John Horwood’s family to reproduce articles that he had published in The Telegram some years ago, starting with The Crow and Raven in this edition. Roger Etcheberry’s report on the fall migration of birds at St. Pierre and Miquelon, along with the St. John’s Christmas Bird Count from Paul Linegar, will appear in the winter edition, to be released in April.

It’s been a great winter on the Avalon for hiking along the coast with ice grippers, but birders have been reporting fewer birds in the woods and at feeders these past months due to a poor cone crop. However, just getting out in the woods for a good walk most weekends with my dog Jupe and my brother has been truly delightful. At Gunners Cove in Freshwater Bay, sheltered from the bitterly cold wind but soaking up the midday sun and snug in a warm parka and drinking hot cocoa, watching the waves crashing in on the black cliffs across the bay is awesome. A Sunday afternoon just doesn’t get much better than that.

In an interview with Ian Brown published in a recent edition of the Globe and Mail, Jean Vanier, in response to a question about how he feels about aging, reflected on the beauty of every season in the lives of people and in nature. How right he is, and how lucky we are to have such stunning beauty to enjoy in all the seasons of our lives.

If you submitted an article recently that didn’t appear in the current edition, it will be out very soon, as I’ll have two more editions released shortly, one in April and another in June. Thank you for supporting The Osprey. I enjoy hearing from you and look forward to your comments, suggestions, articles, photos and illustrations.

Edmund HaydenEditoredhayden.osprey@gmail.com.

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Please re-new your mem-

bership for 2009

This is the last edition (volume 39, number 4) of The Osprey covered by your 2008 membership dues.

To continue receiving The Osprey and supporting the goals and programs of the society, please renew

your membership now for 2009 by sending your cheque for $25 along with the membership form (on the last page) to Carolyn Walsh, Membership

Secretary.

The Natural History Society of Newfoundland & Labrador invites you to participate in its programs

and appreciates your support.

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Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for Area South of the Grand BanksThe Canada-Newfoundland and Labrador Offshore Petroleum Board (C-NLOPB) is reviewing a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) prepared in 2003 that covers areas to the south of the Grand Banks. In addition to reviewing the existing document, the area being considered has been extended to reflect anticipated areas of exploration interest. As part of the review process, the C-NLOPB asked for input, and Allan Stein and Len Zedel submitted comments on behalf of the Natural History Society. The SEAs are intended to serve as a guide to companies as to what issues or topics must be addressed when preparing environmental assessments concerning offshore oil and gas activities. Our input at this stage of the assessment process is a valuable opportunity because it allows us to highlight areas of particular concern or interest from a naturalist’s perspective.

Labrador-Island Transmission LinkThe undertaking was registered on February 2, 2009, with public comments due by March 9, 2009, and the minister’s decision is due by March 19, 2009. The project involves the construction and operation of an approximately 1,200 km transmission line and associated infrastructure within and between Labrador and the island of Newfoundland. The transmission line will commence in Gull Island in central Labrador, cross the Strait of Bell Isle through submarine cables and end at a converter station at Soldiers Pond on the Avalon Peninsula. The steel lattice transmission towers will be approximately 43 m high, and construction tentatively will begin in 2011 and conclude in 2014. The society sent a response prepared by Allan Stein that requested a full environmental assessment, as should be the case for any project of this magnitude. The proposal to

Society MattersCOMPILED BY ED HAYDEN

build the line through Gros Morne National Park will likely be the most contentious aspect.

Offshore Petroleum Boards -- Waste Treatment GuidelinesThe offshore petroleum boards of Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia and the Beaufort area have commenced a review of the guidelines for treatment and disposal of wastes generated in offshore petroleum-related activities. In 2008 representatives of these boards, along with representatives of appropriate federal and provincial and territorial departments, including Environment and Fisheries and Oceans, and two representatives of environmental groups, revised “Guidelines Respecting the Selection of Chemicals Intended to be Used in Conjunction with Offshore Drilling and Production Activities on Frontier Lands.” Having revised the selection guidelines, they now move on to guidelines for the disposal and treatment of waste streams containing those materials. Allan Stein represents the society on both committees.

Proposed Lower Churchill Hydroelectric Generation ProjectThe federal and provincial governments announced the establishment of a five-member joint review panel for the proposed Lower Churchill Hydroelectric Generation Project. Leslie Griffiths and Herbert Clarke were appointed as co-chairs, and Meinhard Doelle, Keith Chaulk and James Igloliorte were appointed as panel members. On February 17, 2009, the proponent, Nalcor Energy, informed the public that it had submitted its enviromnmental impact statement to the joint review panel. However, there have been delays in printing and distributing the document, and, thus, the panel postponed the beginning of the consultation period until March 9, 2009.

The society presents a free indoor program on the third Thursday of each month except July and August at the MUN Botanical Garden and field events at various locations throughout the year. The board of directors is active in promoting natural history and protecting the environment; it meets monthly on the fourth Tuesday.

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Long Harbour Commercial Nickel Processing PlantThe Environmental Protection Plan for the construction phase of the Long Harbour Commercial Nickel Processing Plant has been released. The society submitted comments prepared by John Jacobs and Don Steele.

Land TrustRita Anderson attended a Land Trust meeting in December, 2008, organized by Krista Koch to discuss the future of the Lien farm, including the options of maintaining the organic farm and forming a natural history education centre, and the future of the O’Brien farm. Two working groups were established: one to look at how to protect land generally and another to meet with respect to the Lien farm. Rita will continue to meet with the second group to see how the Natural History Society might be involved.

Blue Octopus and Unicorn FishDr. John Green, biologist at Memorial University, gave an illustrated talk on ‘Blue Octopus and Unicorn Fish: Notes on the Natural History of the Indian Ocean Island of Rodrigues’ on November 20, 2008, at the MUN Botanical Garden. John provided insight into the ecology of this remote tropical getaway, a tiny volcanic island surrounded by a self-seeding coral reef.

Naturalists’ Christmas PartyOn December 18 the society, along with several other ENGOs, held a Nature Lovers’ Christmas Party at the Environmental Gathering Place. The room was full all evening as people dropped in to socialize with old friends and meet new ones from other groups. Lots of yummy food and lively conversation.

St. John’s Christmas Bird CountTwenty-three birders and several feeder watchers took part in the annual St. John’s Boxing Day Christmas Bird Count sponsored by the Natural History Society. Seventy-five species were observed

during the CBC and another five species during the count week, for a total of 17,456 individuals. See Paul Linegar’s full report in the next edition of The Osprey.

Voyages of Joshua – in Darwin’s Wake and BeyondOn January 15, in celebration of the 150th anniversary of the publication of Darwin’s The Voyage of the Beagle, boat builders, naturalists and explorers Mark and Fraser Carpenter presented an overview of their oceanic travels and chronicle of their 13-year, 75,000-mile world circumnavigation in the Newfoundland-built Joshua. The Carpenters treated a packed house to their thoughts and images of some of the planet’s last wild places.

Life of the Eastern Arctic2009 marks the polar centennial. One hundred years ago, Admiral Peary, Captain Bob Bartlett and a crew that included sled dogs and sailors from Newfoundland and Labrador participated in what is widely considered to be the first successful trip to the North Pole. To help commemorate our polar heritage, Ken Knowles, naturalist, arctic explorer and arctic historian, gave an illustrated lecture on Life of the Eastern Arctic, with an emphasis on adaptation, to a full house at the MUN Botanical Garden on February 19, 2009.

New Web Site for the SocietyIn response to our request on the Newfoundland and Labrador Environment Network’s electronic update, Aaron Goulding has volunteered to design a new web site for the society. Aaron works at MUN’s Department of Computing and Communications. Ed Hayden and Carolyn Walsh met with Aaron February 13 for an initial discussion and will meet again shortly when Aaron has a mock-up of the site ready for their review.

Canadian Nature Network (CNN) ForumAll members of the Canadian Nature Network (CNN) Forum, including the Natural History Society of Newfoundland and Labrador and

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Nature Canada, have now signed a Memorandum of Agreement that sets out a commitment to collaboration and identifies our purpose in working together and the methods we will use to make decisions. In 2009 the forum will focus on common project areas, including the Caretakers Network to care for our Important Bird Areas, protection of the boreal forest that spans the country and serves as a nursery for our beloved songbirds, the connection of Canadians to nature through our education programs, and the increased diversity within our organizations, which will enable us to reach many new audiences.

Protected Areas AssociationThe Natural History Society of Newfoundland and Labrador submitted a letter of support dated November 10, 2008, for an application by the Protected Areas Association for project funding to tailor and deliver educational sessions in communities throughout the province to focus on the unique features and significance of local ecoregions. The goal is to raise awareness so that people in communities throughout the province will come to support and initiate the protection and preservation of significant segments of their ecoregions. The Natural History Society has previously partnered with the Protected Areas Association on a range of issues, including the establishment of national parks (Torngat, Mealy Mountains) and provincial reserves (Bay du Nord, Mistaken Point, heritage rivers) and the preservation of existing protected areas and parks (Terra Nova and Gros Morne on snowmobile use, Windmill Bight on proposals to convert the park into a golf course, and the pine marten reserve).

Society FinancesThe society has detected financial irregularities, and an investigation is underway. An update will be provided at the annual general meeting in March. The Treasurer has been removed. Paul Linegar, who took on the Treasurer role briefly, has spent long hours helping the board sort things out. Don Steele assumed the role of Interim Treasurer

February 20, 2009.

Notices and Upcoming Events

Annual General MeetingThe society will hold its annual general meeting on March 19 at the MUN Botanical Garden. Volunteers are welcome to join the board of directors and to help arrange our indoor and outdoor programs.

Stream EcologyA mini-course entitled “An Introduction to Stream Ecology” is being offered at the Fluvarium on Monday evenings, March 2, 9 and 16, starting at 7.30 p.m. and lasting about an hour. The course is offered by Dr John Gibson of the Natural History Society. John Gibson is a retired scientist from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, specializing in stream ecology. The topics covered include: stream hydrology and morphology; sources of nutrients; the types of invertebrates and their adaptations to running water; the fish fauna of Newfoundland and Labrador; types of rivers and streams; and conservation of streams, with particular reference to the city rivers of St. John’s. The course is open to any interested person and should be of interest to anglers, students and people who walk the river trails. The course is free but limited to twenty people, first come first served. If you would like to attend, please register with either Bob Piercey at rpiercey@fluvarium.ca or by telephone at 754-3474 or John Gibson at rjgibson@nf.sympatico.ca or by telephone at 726-2498.

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There was a time, not long ago in the scheme of things, that I naively believed that trout and salmon were representative of fishes as a whole. Perhaps this is not surprising for a youngster raised in south-central Alaska, where Pacific salmon and trout are inexorably linked to the culture of the region. Indeed, like many, my first experiences with trout were during piscatorial pursuits, and it was not until I entered university did I begin to see and think about this group of organisms with more interest than mere recreation. I have come to realize that salmonids (the family of fish comprised of trout and salmon) are actually bizarre creatures. They are strange relative not only to you and me, but from other fishes

as well. The questions formed with ever increasing speed and intricacy as I budded into a fledgling biologist and naturalist: Why would fish go from freshwaters to saltwater and back again? Why do they come back to their home river if they do leave? Why would a female fish bury her offspring under a mound of gravel for months at a time? Why do all individuals of some species die after spawning while others do not?

This article attempts to describe and demystify some of this bizarre biology. I do not presume to attempt to cover it all, nor point out all variations among and within species. This variation is dizzying, and if you are not careful you can quickly get consumed

One trout, two trout, brook trout, brown trout: An overview of the wonderfully bizarre

biology of salmonidsby

PETER A.H. WESTLEYPhD candidate

Ocean Sciences CentreMemorial University of Newfoundland

pwestley@mun.caphone: 709-737-3465

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in its complexity without feeling like any foundations or unifying tenets exist. Thus, the goal here is to provide an overview into the world of salmonids by highlighting, as I see it, the essential aspects of salmonid ecology and life history.

Before we begin, let us briefly clarify some jargon. Trout is a grouping term for certain species of salmonids in genera Oncorhynchus, Salmo, and Salvelinus (charr). This terminology is largely convention as there are not unique traits that separate or unify trout and charr from salmon. In fact the brook trout (S. fontinalis), commonly called mud trout in Newfoundland, should more appropriately be called brook charr as they are members of genus Salvelinus (the same for their close relatives the lake ‘trout’). In contrast, the name salmon is generally applied to the more obligate sea-going members of Oncorhynchus (five Pacific species) and Salmo (one Atlantic species), but again this terminology resolves to little more than convention and jargon. This is confusing and can sometimes lead to miscommunication; thankfully, you can understand much of the biology and ecology of this group of organisms regardless of whether they are called salmon or trout.

With that out of the way let us start with an overview of the spawning biology of salmonids, which is similar for the preponderance of species and populations within species. In short, female fish compete with other females for access to breeding locations, and males compete with other males for access to reproductively active females. Thus, the breeding system of salmonids is characterized by intense intra-sexual selection (competition within sexes). The extent to which females exert mate choice is controversial and, as it will become clear, her choice can be overwhelmed by male aggressive behavior or alternative strategies. Upon successfully acquiring a suitable spawning site (often situated in moderate water flow and depth and in the proximity of up-welling currents), the female constructs a nest, or redd, in the streambed. This is impressive given that she has neither hands nor training in the subject (females do not learn this from their mothers) and for some they only get one chance to get it right. The redd is excavated by rapid tail beats of a female while turned on her side. Water resists compression and, when forced against the streambed by the female’s tail, works to kick small rocks and fine sediment downstream. This digging continues until the pit reaches an acceptable depth, at which time the female and her courting male

(who has been working to keep other interested males downstream) time their release of eggs and milt (sperm) to maximize fertilization success. Often, especially if the density of spawners is high, other males will also dart into the free side of the female (the chosen male can only guard one side of the female) and release their own cloud of milt, thereby contributing to spawning and offspring production even if they were not favored by the female. In some species, such as Atlantic salmon (S. salar) and Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha), males may play a different life-history strategy and not attempt to fight for access to females. Rather, these males mature young and small, without going to sea. Curiously, the extent to which males mature in this precocious state varies among species, populations, and individuals, and no satisfying explanation exists as to why some species produce precocious males while others do not.

The female then does something truly bizarre: she moves directly upstream of her newly deposited eggs (which are among the largest of the approximately 30,000 species of bony fishes) and proceeds to bury them. She completely covers her eggs with sediment, which, in a seeming paradox, actually protects her offspring while they develop over the course of several months. Additionally, females from some species will continue to guard her redd after spawning has completed and her partner has left. Interestingly, this extended redd defense is most common in the five species of Pacific salmon, presumably for reasons that we will discuss briefly. Furthermore, it is puzzling that it is the female and not the male that displays this care of their offspring. In the vast majority of fish species that exhibit parental care behavior, it is the male that provides the protection, often in the form of mouth brooding or nest defense. In the five species of Pacific salmon, all individuals, without exception, die after spawning.

This semelparous (one reproductive effort) life history strategy sets these individuals apart from other salmonids, which are iteroparous (capable of spawning multiple times). It was once believed that semelparous vs. iteroparous species were so different that Pacific species, such as rainbow trout, were grouped in the Atlantic genus Salmo. We have come to know (largely through the advent of molecular genetics) that Pacific salmonids are more closely related to themselves than to Atlantic salmonids, regardless of whether a species is iteroparous or semelparous. Semelparity is rare among fishes, and it is not entirely clear why the Pacific salmon

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have adopted this strategy. A partial explanation likely rests in the observation that semelparous species tend to be more productive (i.e., have more offspring per individual spawner) compared to iteroparous species. Thus, it seems like Pacific salmon have opted to forego the chance of future reproduction and invest all their energy into a massive one-time bout. These patterns of exceedingly large eggs, female care (in the form of nest building and defense), and programmed death for some species are just some of the many reasons that salmonids are bizarre fish.

Fertilized eggs develop into embryos under the gravel for a variable amount of time, depending on water temperature. When ready, individuals hatch out of the shell entering a larval life history stage referred to as alevins. These larval salmonids are completely dependent on the yolk resources they have obtained from their mother, which they carry with them in the form of a large abdominal sac. For the most part, life as an alevin includes trying to waste as little energy as possible while absorbing the maternal nutrients in their yolk sac. They remain under the gravel, safe from roving predators (including ecologists) and harsh unproductive spring conditions, emerging as free swimming and eating fish (termed fry) in late spring or early summer.

At this point, the fry stage, the variation in life history trajectories among species and populations becomes staggering, and generalizations are no longer possible. Some fish emerge as fry and spend their whole life in a small section of a flowing brook; some spend one year in a stream then move to a small pond; some spend two years then go to a large lake; some move back and forth to estuaries; some emerge directly into lakes and spend their whole life there. Some individuals exhibit a life history pattern that results in the ranking of salmonids as among the most bizarre of fish. Individuals of these species and populations spend a variable amount of time in freshwater (virtually no time to nine years or more) before undergoing a host of behavioral, physiological, and morphological transformations, all of which prepare them to become a marine fish. This transitional process to the smolt life history stage is referred to as the parr-smolt transformation. Many salmonid species are diadromous, exhibiting the ability to move between freshwater and saltwater. This ability is indeed rare among fishes (< 1% of all species), indicating that salmonids are atypical. More specifically, salmonids are anadromous, a form of diadromy where individuals move to marine waters for

feeding and return to freshwater for reproduction. If you can wrap your head around the benefits and costs of being anadromous, you are well on your way to truly understanding this group of fish. Leaving environments that are limited in space and food to forage in the vast productive Atlantic or Pacific oceans greatly increases potential for growth. Salmonids, for the most part, grow fast but die young. A five-year-old Chinook salmon may weigh over 30 kg, while an Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) of the same size would be decades old. Similarly, this high growth rate helps explain the young age at maturity and large size and number of eggs produced by females (presumably the reason why more females than males typically go to sea), setting them apart from most other teleost (bony) fishes. However, this growth potential comes at a cost. Predation at sea is markedly higher than in freshwater, and most of the individuals that brave the ocean pasture fail to return. The extent to which anadromy is passed between generations (is heritable) is not fully understood, but what is clear is that anadromous fish have the potential to beget non-anadromous fish and vice versa. It then becomes apparent that protecting the whole range of life history strategies is important for the long-term conservation of these species.

Those that do survive their time at sea return to freshwater to spawn once mature. However, individuals do not go to just any freshwater body to spawn, though clearly that would be an option. Rather, individuals return, or home, to their natal streams with a high level of fidelity (>95%). This iconic homeward migration has captivated the imagination of scientists and naturalists alike, and the intricacies of exactly how it is completed are not fully known. Olfactory cues (smell) are undoubtedly used once individuals arrive in freshwater, but how they navigate the open ocean and get within range of their home stream is still a mystery. Precise homing results in populations becoming isolated from one another on the spawning grounds. That is, for example, Exploits River salmon are more likely to spawn with other Exploits River fish than with individuals from the Gander River. And because conditions on the spawning grounds differ, individuals that survive well there become locally adapted to their home systems. This phenomenon of homing following migration and the resultant local adaptation is the primary driver of the logic to salmon fishery management. Individual populations or watersheds necessitate unique management and goals because overexploitation has

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direct impacts on future production (i.e., there is not input from other rivers).

Perhaps you are asking yourself what happened to the remaining five percent of migrating fish that do not home to their natal rivers. The failure to home, or the decision to stray, is an integral component of salmonid ecology and evolution. A simple thought experiment should serve to illuminate this point. For a moment, close your eyes and do your best to envision what the island of Newfoundland looked like approximately 12,000 years ago. If you saw a place more desolate, cold, and icy than it is today, you would be correct! During the Pleistocene (the last major ice age) Newfoundland was covered by the Laurentide Ice Sheet, which smothered all potential freshwater habitats. When the ice receded, stray salmonids from ice-free areas colonized the new habitats, founding the present-day populations of salmon and trout on the island (and explaining the absence of salt-intolerant species from Newfoundland). From this point of view it becomes clear that straying, in an evolutionary sense, is vital to the preservation of the group. Once the habitats were colonized, the processes of homing and reproductive isolation quickly led to the local adaptation of our current-day populations.

Just how pervasive is this local adaptation of salmonid populations in Newfoundland? Anglers often implicitly recognize locally adapted traits among populations when they know to target returning fish at different times (e.g., fish the Humber River in mid-June but travel to the Exploits in the first week of July). This phenomenon of freshwater return timing provides some of the best evidence of local adaptation. Fish spawned at high latitudes or elevations typically spawn earlier than fish spawned from lower latitudes, presumably as an adaptation to the long-term water temperature of systems. Adults have adapted their return and spawning timing to allow their offspring to incubate for the correct period of time (given the temperature) to ensure that they emerge when conditions are favorable in the spring. For example, if a fish spawned early in a very warm system where incubation is rapid, their offspring would emerge before spring and before conditions are conducive for feeding, growth, and survival. Individuals that do not make the ‘correct’ decision with regard to timing are quickly culled from the population, which serves to stabilize the optimal timing to spawn among systems and favors the locally adapted.

Brown trout (S. trutta), the sister species to

Atlantic salmon, were introduced to Newfoundland in the early 1880s and provide a rare opportunity to investigate local adaptation in young populations. Since their arrival and introduction, brown trout have spread (via anadromous straying) throughout the Avalon Peninsula and have established populations well into Trinity Bay (and likely beyond). The full extent of this migration and the evolutionary and ecological consequences of their spread (especially with regard to interaction with native salmonids) are not known. The evolutionary dynamics of this invasion constitute the subject of my PhD dissertation at Memorial University and were the focus of an extensive field sampling season in 2008. While the analyses and results are ongoing, what has become clear is that dramatic variation within and among populations exists. An examination of obvious traits such as color and morphology make this apparent.

The photographs shown in Figure 1. (below)of representative individuals from three brown trout populations on the Avalon Peninsula stand as a testament to this morphological variation. These patterns are not lost on local anglers who have been instrumental in my determining where to sample brown trout. I am frequently told about certain ponds that contain very skinny fish with large heads and about others that have light-colored, deep-bodied fish. They know where and when to target sea-going brown trout (referred to as sea trout) and have a better intuitive sense of migratory patterns than most biologists. Indeed, brown trout anglers in Newfoundland are well in advance of the science on the species here, an indication of both the cunningness of anglers and the paucity of research that has been done. It is my hope that the current research under way (in which I am playing a small part) will serve to further illuminate the power of local adaptation in nature and put Newfoundland brown trout in their rightful limelight.

To summarize, salmonids are a strange group of organisms and are bizarre even for fish. The following are the key points to understand much of their ecology and biology:

• Competition is fierce on the breeding grounds, with females competing with females for access to spawning areas and males competing with other males for access to receptive females.

• Females display the parental care in salmonids in the form of egg burial

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(which is strange among fishes) and nest defense. Most other fishes that display parental care are done by the male.

• Many salmonids are anadromous (spawn in freshwater but grow at sea). This conveys a great growth advantage, which has very important life history consequences (e.g., size and number of eggs a female can produce) but comes at a high cost (increase of mortality).

• Individuals that go to sea, home to natal rivers to spawn. This results in reproductive isolation of populations and local adaptation to spawning and

juvenile rearing condition.• Individuals that do not home are an

integral part of the evolutionary legacy of the salmonid group as all present-day habitats were at one time colonized by anadromous strays.

• Examples of locally adapted salmonid populations abound in Newfoundland, a prime example being the on-going colonization by straying brown trout.

Figure 1. Population variation in colour and morphology in colonizing Newfoundland brown trout.Top - Chance Cove, Avalon Peninsula; middle - Savage Creek, Outer Cove; bottom - Middle Rocky Pond Brook, Windsor Lake Tributary.

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PRINTS AND TRACKS

Whether we like it or not we are now well into the winter season. The ground is covered with snow and we are looking at a winter wonderland. While it may be cold and crisp outside, this is the time of year to get outdoors to breathe the fresh, cool air and go in search of animal tracks and traces.

Wherever you go, the most common tracks you will encounter will be those of the snowshoe hare (our rabbit) with its distinctive pattern of two larger hind feet and two smaller fore feet. The hare is well adapted to winter with its large snowshoe feet to enable it to travel over the surface of the snow without sinking into it. In readiness for winter the colour of its coat changes to white, giving it perfect camouflage against the snow, and fur grows around the feet to increase their surface area. Even though one might assume that when a hare runs its smaller fore feet would land ahead of the hind feet, but this is not the case! At full stretch, the hare’s hind feet land ahead of the fore feet, so if you are trying to follow the direction the hare went, remember which prints are in front. Hares are often found around the edges of forested areas, where the smaller deciduous shrubs and trees on which they prefer to feed are found. You may also find rounded depressions, or forms, in the snow where hares have sat while resting.

A smaller animal which produces a similar track pattern is the (introduced) red squirrel. Unlike many other members of the squirrel family, this one does not hibernate during winter but is active all winter long. Its tracks are specially common in wooded areas as it scampers from one tree to another. Its tracks are much smaller than those of the hare so it is very easy to distinguish between them, and besides, rabbit tracks do not disappear up trees as do those of squirrels! Another way of distinguishing between the two is to look at the

relative positions of the two front feet. When squirrels run, their two front feet land next to each other, whereas in the hare the two front feet are not usually next to one another.

One of the most recognizable prints in snow is that of the largest member of the deer family, the moose. This animal, as with other members of the deer family, possesses two large hooves on each foot which show well when the snow is not too deep. In softer snow the tracks may also show the smaller dew claws (vestigial toes) when the animal spreads out its feet to increase their surface area. The prints of the moose are larger and less rounded than those of the smaller woodland caribou. When the snow is deep, moose often congregate in wooded areas where there is food and protection; their well used pathways through the snow are referred to as moose yards.

Fox tracks can be quite common in winter but can be confused with their domestic cousins the dogs. Both have prints which show a large heel pad and four toe pads and claw marks. In good snow conditions it is sometimes possible to see a raised bar on the heel pad of the fox. The easiest way of distinguishing between dogs and foxes is from their tracks rather than by their individual prints. Foxes tend not to wander around as much as dogs, which are inquisitive, as any dog owner knows. Many wild animals ‘register’ when walking, that is they place their hind feet in the prints made by their front feet so each single ‘print’ is actually a double print made up of the fore and hind feet of the same side. By registering and placing their hind feet in the place where their front feet were, they ensure that the hind feet do not tread on twigs or suchlike and betray their presence to potential prey or predators. Foxes show clear registering in their tracks while dogs do not. In open areas fox tracks will be

ANIMAL SIGNS IN WINTER

BY MICHAEL COLLINSBiology DepartmentMemorial University

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fairly straight as compared with those of dogs. Sometimes fox tracks show the brush marks of its long tail. Coyote tracks are similar to fox tracks but do not show the raised heel bar, and their straddle (track width) is larger (10-15 cm) than those of foxes (8-10 cm).

Occasionally you will come across pairs of dainty tracks in the snow, sometimes at quite a distance from each other, as the animal scampers across the snow surface. Individual (registered) prints are no more than an inch (25 mm) long. These tracks belong to our smallest native member of the weasel family, the short-tailed weasel. Sometimes if you follow these tracks they just appear to stop as if the animal had just suddenly vanished! What has actually happened is that the weasel has detected a movement in the snow beneath and has dived into it in search of prey, usually a meadow vole. If you search around the area where the tracks vanish, you might be lucky enough to find the point at which the weasel re-emerged from the snow and continued on its way.

The mink, a larger and introduced member of the weasel family, has similar, but larger, prints, but is more often found in the vicinity of water. Mink and the larger river otter like to slide down snow-covered slopes in winter, producing furrows in the snow. The otter slide is usually easy to distinguish, as it is larger and shows webbed feet in the tracks.

When the snow is deep, our smallest mammals spend most of their time beneath the snow in tunnels they create. Occasionally one can spot very dainty tracks in the snow, usually starting a hole by a tree or similar object and vanishing later down another hole. These tracks belong to the meadow vole which, as we saw earlier, is a major item in the diet of the weasel in winter.

It is rare to see the tracks of our smallest mammal, the masked shrew, in winter since it too stays beneath the snow. However, when there has been a slight snowfall at the start of the season, it is

possible to see the dainty prints of the shrew, and where the snow is a little deeper one sees a furrow where the animal has pushed through the snow just like a snow plough.

Many birds are, of course, active in winter, but their tracks are not as easy to distinguish from one another. Crow tracks are usually fairly obvious from their size and the clear drag marks of the talons in the snow. Ptarmigan and the introduced ruffed grouse tracks are very obvious since one sees a long line of individual prints, with each print carefully placed in front of the previous one as the animal walked across the snow in search of food.

Ruffed grouse tracks clearly show the individual claw prints in the tracks, while the ptarmigans, which grow extra feathers around their toes in winter to increase their foot size, show larger prints but the individual toes are less distinct because of the feathers which have grown around them. Ptarmigan, like hares, change their plumage to white for the winter.

Owls tend not to spend much time on the ground and so their tracks are not commonly encountered, although snowy owls do spend time on more elevated areas of ground looking for their prey.

Woodpeckers and flickers have very distinctive prints as compared with other birds. While most birds show the familiar pattern of three toes pointing forwards and one backwards, the members of the woodpecker family usually show two toes pointing forward and two backwards, a good adaptation to walking up and down tree trunks.

FEEDING TRACESOf course prints and tracks in the snow are not the only evidence of animal activity in winter. Feeding traces can quickly allow the identification of the ‘feeder’ even in the absence of other tracks and traces. Snowshoe hares snip off buds of low-growing trees and shrubs, particularly birch, aspen and pin cherry, with their sharp incisors leaving a

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clean cut. Moose, on the other hand, have only lower incisors and tend to snap off the buds leaving a jagged edge. Look especially on native dogberries for evidence of moose feeding. While one might think that it would be difficult to confuse hare and moose feeding on the same plant merely because of height differences, one has to remember that in deep snow the hare and moose may be feeding at the same level, as the hare will be on top of the snow. Hares will also scrape the bark off trees with their sharp teeth, and the scrape marks will reveal the teeth marks.

Squirrels often store caches of food which they eat during the winter and, since they periodically feed at the same place, it is possible to find ‘middens’ of cone scales at these places.

Ptarmigan and ruffed grouse tend to feed at ground level on the buds of low-growing shrubs such as wild raisin. These birds snap off the buds cleanly with their sharp beaks. Hares can bite buds off much thicker branches than can grouse and ptarmigan, so it should be easy enough to distinguish between them.

SCATSBesides feeding traces, one should also look for evidence of scats, or droppings. The most obvious ones belong to moose and hares. Moose scats are ovoid and up to an inch in length, while hare scats are more spherical and much smaller (one half inch diameter). Both are usually found in numbers. Grouse and ptarmigan scats are also very distinctive and un-birdlike, as they are long and cylindrical. All of these scats are woody, betraying the food preferences of their owners. Fox scats are similar to those of their domestic relatives, the dogs, but are usually whiter, as they often eat plant as well as animal material. Vole scats are very small and ovoid in shape and not more than 5 mm long. Of course feathers and fur are also animal traces but are not often as easy to identify.

A winter walk in the snow can be very rewarding

and, even if you don’t see the animals themselves, there are usually plenty of tracks and traces that can be used to identify their owners.

Good tracking!

REFERENCE BOOKS

Collins, M., and Gullage, F. 1972. Animal tracks of insular Newfoundland. Provincial Park Interpretation Pamphlet # 11.

Collins, M., 1985. Nature detecting winter. Jesperson Press, St. John’s.

Miller, D. 1981. Track finder: A guide to mammal tracks of eastern North America. Nature Study Guild, Rochester, New York.

Murie, O.J. 1954. A field guide to animal tracks. Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston.

Stokes, D and Stokes, L. 1986. A guide to animal tracking and behavior. Little, Brown and Company, Boston.

Nature NoteMantis Mating

“The mating rites of mantises are well known: a chemical produced in the head of the male insect says, in effect, ‘No, don’t go near her, you fool, she’ll eat you alive.’ At the same time a chemical in his abdomen says, ‘Yes, by all means, now and forever yes.’ ”

Annie Dillard. (1974). Tinker at Pilgrim Creek. New York: HarperCollins.

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Historically, northern peoples, more than others, appear to have been impressed by ravens. Such diverse peoples as the Vikings and the native peoples of the Pacific Northwest have had ravens play very important parts in their mythologies. In fact, the Vikings used the raven on their standard, and so the raven became a fearful symbol to the peoples upon whom they preyed.

It is generally agreed by those who study animal behaviour that crows and ravens are the most intelligent of all birds, which is to say that their particular type of intelligence most closely resembles our own. Those who have kept ravens as pets, and have observed them closely have been very impressed by the way they do things just for fun. Often this takes the form of what we would call naughty behaviour, such as pulling the tail of a sleeping dog and then keeping just out of reach of the enraged animal, or creeping up behind an unsuspecting person and scaring his daylights out with an ear-splitting screech. They are also very good at imitating sounds and can mimic human speech in the manner of a parrot.

Crows and ravens are like humans in other ways besides their large and rather mischievous brains. Like us, they are omnivorous or opportunistic feeders and will feast on almost anything.

Farmers often regard crows and ravens as great enemies, and they do, indeed, sometimes eat seeds or capelin that were used as fertilizer or even feed on crops, especially grains, but they also do much good by eating insects and insect larvae as well as small rodents such as voles and mice. They also perform a service by cleaning up organic litter, especially the bodies of dead animals. An unfortunate aspect of this is that they will also prey on the nests of other birds and eat both eggs and nestlings.

Also, like humans, they are fond of their own company. There is scarcely anything more common than a flock of crows, unless it is a group of

The Crow and Raven Deserve our RespectBY JOHN HORWOOD

In the short days of December, when so many of our avian friends have already headed for the sunshine, it is nice to know that some of our native birds will still be around. Perhaps the most conspicuous of these are the members of the corvid, or crow, family, which in Newfoundland includes, besides crows and ravens, two kinds of jays and two kinds of chickadees.

There are about 120 species recognized world wide, and almost all of them exhibit those common traits that have made them rather notorious. That is to say, they are noisy and boisterous, often aggressive and voracious, and frequently show intelligence that is nothing short of astonishing.

There is nothing else quite like a flock of blue jays to throw a bird feeder into turmoil. But above all else, they are opportunistic and equipped for survival, adapting to humans and the great changes that we make in the environment. Often they can even turn such changes to their advantage.

However, of all the interesting members of this group, those that have really found their way into the human imagination are the crows and ravens, especially the ravens. These are perhaps the most maligned, abused and disliked of all birds, at least in our culture. There are many reasons for this unfortunate attitude. The most obvious is that they are black and, as everyone knows, black animals are an ill omen whether they be cats, panthers, wolves or sheep.

It is easy to imagine that if crows and ravens were grey and white, like herring gulls or Canada Jays, they would not evoke such strong emotions. If there is anything worse than an animal being black, it is being big and black; and when there are creatures that combine such characteristics with an uncanny intelligence, much given to stealing and playing practical jokes, it is enough to give us the shivers or to start Edgar Allan Poe writing scary poems.

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humans. The reason is simply that they, like us, have found that there is great advantage in being together. Not only are numbers a great help when actually fighting an enemy, but animals in groups help each other in important ways, such as finding food and detecting danger.

Ravens often work in pairs when stealing food from a dog or similar animal. One will approach the dog and antagonize it to the point where it leaves its food in a futile rush at its tormentor. Meanwhile, of course, the other raven seizes the abandoned food, and the curtain falls as both ravens retire to share the plunder.

If a predatory animal is perceived to be a threat, then a flock will declare war in no uncertain terms and play their trump defensive card in a tactic known as mobbing. The flock will gather over the object of attention and scream and dive bomb the hapless creature until, with its nerves unstrung, it does the only thing it can, which is to opt for a humiliating and harassed retreat.

We humans usually find humour in witnessing the mighty brought low. And so I have been amused on several occasions by seeing our cat, which usually stands very much on its dignity, being evicted from the alder bushes by blue jays. The cat leaves with its ears flattened and a look that very plainly shows painful humiliation. I have seen crows similarly ousting eagles without respect for their dignity. Some other birds, such as gulls and terns, will also mob in defence of their territories.

Black is a relatively rare colour for animals, so we may well ask why crows and ravens are black. But, then again, why not? Perhaps black is of value to them in promoting intimidation in their mobbing techniques. It is also the best colour for absorbing radiant heat, so this might give a black bird an advantage in a northern climate.

But there is a price to be paid in camouflage, except perhaps at night. Because their numbers

and intelligence tend to protect them from natural predators in daylight and because they are food gatherers and scavengers more so than hunters, camouflage may not be as important for crows and ravens as it is for many other species.

In Newfoundland, and possibly many other places as well, both crows and ravens are often indiscriminately called crows. This is not surprising because their differences are rather hard to distinguish at a distance, and, of course, these birds are quite wary of humans and it is usually at a distance that we see them. However, when seen together and at fairly close range, their differences are quite apparent.

A raven is appreciably larger than a crow, its bill is also much thicker and heavier compared to the size of the head, and the raven has a more ruffed and scraggy appearance when compared with the trimmer, sleeker crow. In flight it may be seen that the raven’s tail is wedge-shaped, while the crow’s is nearly square.

The flight of the raven appears more graceful and effortless, and they are often seen to soar about overhead in a manner reminiscent of a hawk. Crows, on the other hand, tend to flap along busily and seem to have a definite destination in mind. The old saying, “straight as the crow flies,” is not without reason.

In the wild, those birds produce a wide variety of sounds. But the sounds we most often hear are the hoarse croak of the raven and the much sharper caw of the crow. This also is of help in distinguishing them, since, as we walk through the woods, they are often more clearly heard than seen.

Although both crows and ravens have some of what we humans are likely to call nasty habits, the more we understand them the more we are likely to see that they deserve a measure of our respect, especially for their intelligence and adaptability, great qualities that have allowed them to evolve into

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some of the world’s most versatile and successful creatures.

This is the first in a series of nature articles by John Horwood reprinted here with permission of his brother Charlie Horwood. It was first published December 12, 1987, in The Evening Telegram.

Ask a Natural History Question

… about dust

Why is there so much dust on ledges in my home and at the office, even if it was cleaned recently? What is this dust mostly comprised of, where is it all coming from, and how is it getting into my house in St. John’s, with our airtight windows, and into my office at Confederation Building? Is it worse here than in other parts of the world? Finally, is there more dust now than fifty years ago, or does it just seem that way?

Thanks to Allan Stein for this response:

1. In a typical, fairly air-tight building, such as most modern homes and even the Confederation Building, most of the fibrous dust comes from broken fragments of clothing, rugs, paper, human hair and skin-flecks. It is mainly these fine fibres that are attracted electrostatically to computer and television screens. Heating systems cause air currents that blow these fibres about so they collect where air movement is minimal, like under your bed as dust bunnies.

2. Heavier particles generally are mineral in origin, such as soil carried in on clothing and shoes or blown in by wind. These particles come from stone or concrete wear as well. If you live next to a dirt road or barren lot, wind- blown dust can be annoying. Even paved roads with

considerable traffic can be major sources.

3. Generally, other things being equal, dust is worse the drier it is, so our climate helps reduce problems.

4. It is unlikely that dust has increased in homes and offices. Besides their daily floor sweeping, I recall my mother and my grandmother had a weekly schedule, including laundry on Monday, ironing on Tuesday and a thorough cleaning of the house on Saturday in preparation for Sunday visitors. Now, relatively few people are as diligent, even with vacuum cleaners replacing feather dusters and brooms!

5. The nature of household dust has changed. Tighter buildings, less gardening, more lawns and paved streets mean less wind-blown mineral dust. Fibrous material likely has increased, with carpets replacing canvas or painted wooden floors and a change from the rather coarse woolen and cotton fabrics to micro-fiber synthetics for clothing, bedding and curtains mean more and finer fibrous material drifts on air currents in our buildings.

6. Finally, a hermetically sealed structure with carefully chosen materials to minimize internally created dust would be much less dusty. The Space Station is an example.

Nature NoteSapsuckers

“Sapsuckers drill a whole bunch of holes, some-times rows and rows of them. These fill with, you guessed it, sap, that the bird, you guessed it again, sucks out. Except the second time, you guessed wrong. Sapsuckers have fuzzy-looking tips on their tongues; their tongues look almost like paintbrush-es. They dip these into the sap and slurp it back. They should be called sapslurpers.

Joey Slinger. (1996). Down and Dirty Birding. Toronto: Key Porter Books.

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During the 2005 Mushroom Foray Newfoundland & Labrador in Gros Morne National Park (September 2-4, 2005), a single specimen of the Great Slug Limax maximus Linnaeus, 1758 was collected at the Lomond Day-use Area by Dr. Faye Murrin of the Biology Department, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Lois Bateman of Sir Wilfred Grenfell College (MUN) in Corner Brook. The slug was found at the base of a specimen of the mushroom Leccinum snellii (Snell’s Bolete). Its cryptic spotted coloration so closely resembled the stem of the fungus (see photo below) that at first glance it was thought to be part of the mushroom!

This slug species, known in Newfoundland for many years from the northeast Avalon Peninsula, has not been officially recorded before from the west coast of the island.

“Except for a single 1989 report from Gander (probably an accidental occurrence), all previous Newfoundland records of Limax maximus are from the northeast Avalon, within a polygon encompassing Pouch Cove to Harbour Grace to Salmonier to Tors Cove to St. John’s. This peculiar distribution pattern parallels that of a small group of other introduced Newfoundland land molluscs, including, for instance, Cepaea nemoralis and Arion ater. This group of species seems to have been … first introduced to the St. John’s to Ferryland area through general settlement activities … within the last 200 years. “[Limax maximus was] certainly around in the late 1930’s, when Stanley Truman Brooks of

the Carnegie Museum collected [it] here. [Brooks and Brooks, 1940]” (John Maunder, pers. com., Nov. 2005).

Limax maximus is native to Europe and perhaps also to North Africa. It has been introduced to South Africa, North America, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and Hawaii (Schultes, 2008). In northeastern North America, the species has been recorded from a variety of locations since the 1880’s (Chichester and Getz, 1969), including Newfoundland. A recent on-line Canadian compilation contains records for only Ontario, Nova Scotia, British Columbia and Newfoundland (Forsyth, 2008). However, Canadian sightings continue to be reported sporadically from separated geographic areas, both in the scientific literature (eg. from Quebec by Duval, 1997) and on the Internet (eg. from the Bruce Peninsula, Ontario by Karstad, 2008). This would seem to indicate that although perhaps widely spread, the species is neither uniformly distributed nor present in large numbers.

During the summers since 2005, there have been a few additional reports of Limax maximus from western Newfoundland. These have not been from the Bonne Bay area but, in fact, have been from as far as 90 km to the southwest. In July, 2006, specimens were seen at two different locations within the city of Corner Brook (at a roadside area near Country Road by Leonard and Monique Vassallo, and in a Wilson Drive garden by Florence and Gary Hayter). In Pynn’s Brook, Marie Iams has seen Great Slugs along her rural

Introduced Slug Limax maximus Collected in Gros Morne National Park

First Report, Plus Some Additional Records, From Western Newfoundland

BY LOIS BATEMAN AND MICHAEL BURZYNSKI

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driveway in the summers of both 2007 and 2008. In 2008, Wally Skinner found that a Limax maximus had taken up residence in a beehive belonging to the Newfoundland Bee Company, which was situated near the top of the Iams’ driveway. At Pasadena, Michael Bennett found a few in his garden on Tamarack Drive in both 2007 and 2008, after having seen one in the same garden on one occasion in approximately 2004. Specimens or eggs may be arriving in western Newfoundland on camping or trucking vehicles from the St. John’s area. At only two of the five western Newfoundland

sites (Pynn’s Brook and Pasadena) have specimens of Limax maximus been seen in successive years, so it is not clear that there are established populations. However, we can probably expect to see more of these slugs in the next few years.

Limax maximus attracts attention whenever it is found – and its size makes it noticeable. It can grow to a length of 16 centimetres and exhibits a variety of colour patterns (Pilsbry, 1948), which usually include mottling, spots, and/or bands of darker grey or brown on a grey or brown background

(Barker and McGhie, 1984). It is often described as predatory on other slugs and invertebrates, presumably because it is faster moving than most slugs. However Barker (1999) claims it is not actually predatory and states that the slug’s diet consists of fresh or decaying plant material, fruit, mushrooms, and carrion. In an example more of scavenging than of predation, a study in British Columbia found that Limax maximus aggressively defends its daytime home sites and that it eats the other slugs that it kills in such situations, including smaller specimens of its own species (Rollo and

Wellington, 1979).

Like virtually all slugs, this species is simultaneously hermaphroditic (each individual has both male and female sex organs), and with copulation proceeding in two directions at once! It has an elaborate mating ritual involving aerial acrobatics. For photographs of the mating process see: www.members.optushome.com.au/awnelson/davidavid/slug/ http://snailstales.blogspot.com/2008/02/limax-maximus-mating-part-1.html http://snailstales.blogspot.com/2008/02/limax-

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maximus-mating-part-2_14.html

There is a great deal of fascination with this large slug so a Google search can produce several more sites with photos and videos. Both of the following sites have good photos and links to other sources: http://www.weichtiere.at/english/gastropoda/terrestrial/limax.html http://www.oregonstate.edu/Dept/nurspest (look under slugs and snails – “spotted leopard slug”)

The effect of this introduced slug on the native plants, animals, and fungi of western Newfoundland cannot be predicted. The species is usually described as neither numerous nor gregarious but it has been noted to cause damage to flowers and vegetable seedlings (Barker and McGhie, 1984).

The Lomond slug was sent to St. John’s and identification was verified by John Maunder, curator emeritus of natural history of the Provincial Museum of Newfoundland and Labrador. Special thanks are extended to John for his helpful suggestions during the writing of this article.

Photo Previous PageGreat Slug, Limax maximus, feeding on Leccinum snellii, found in Lomond Campground, September 2005. Photographed (without magnification) by Roger Smith for Gros Morne National Park.

• Barker, G. M. (1999). Naturalized terrestrial Stylommatophora (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Fauna of New Zealand 38, 1-253.

• Barker, G. M. & McGhie, R. A. (1984). The biology of introduced slugs (Pulmonata) in New Zealand 1. Introduction and notes on Limax maximus. New Zealand Entomologist 8,107-110.

• Brooks, S.T. & Brooks, B. W. (1940). Geographical distribution of the recent Mollusca of Newfoundland. Annals of the

Carnegie Museum 28, 53-75.

• Chichester, L. F. & Getz L. L. (1969). The zoogeography and ecology of Arionid and Limacid Slugs introduced into Northeastern North America. Malacologia 7(2-3), 313-346.

• Duval, A. (1997). La limace géante, Limax maximus. Le Naturaliste Canadien 121(1), 52-53.

• Forsyth, R. (2008). Towards a bibliography of the terrestrial molluscs of Canada. Land Snails of Canada. (http://www.mollus.ca/bibliography/speciesView.php?name=Limax_maximus

• Karstad, A. (2008, October). One response to “Limax maximus art critic”. theNatureJournal http://thenaturejournal.com/aletalog/?p=91

• Pilsbry, H.A. (1948). Land Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico). The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia Monographs. No 3, Vol 2(2) i-xlvii, 521-1113.

• Rollo, C. D. & Wellington, G. (1979) Intra- and inter-specific agonistic behavior among terrestrial slugs (Pulmonata: Stylommatophora). Canadian Journal of Zoology. 57,846-855.

• Schultes, F. W. (2008, December) Species summary for Limax maximus. AnimalBase, University of Gottingen, Germany. http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/home/species?id=340

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THE NIGHT SKY IN NEWFOUNDLAND

The star chart above shows the sky in eastern Newfoundland at 10:00 pm on 1 April 2009. The chart will be useful for March and April 2009.

You will notice that the chart shows East on the left and West on the right. However a star chart is intended to be held over the head looking up at the sky. Hold the chart up to the sky and rotate your body so that North on the chart point North from your location and now East and West appear on the correct sides. Note, the moon subtends an angle of 0.5o. This can be used as a guide in observing heavenly bodies that are near the moon.

MARCHDate Observation 1 Mercury is just south of Mars 3 Moon is north of the Pleiades 4 Moon first Quarter 8 Daylight Saving Time Begins Use binoculars to see the Beehive cluster of stars 3 moon diameters north of the moon 11 Full moon 18 Moon last quarter 20 Spring Equinox 9:14 am NDT 22 Jupiter three moon diameters south of moon 24 Mars south of moon 26 New moon 30 Moon north of the Pleiades

APRILDate Observation 2 Moon first Quarter 4 Moon south of the Beehive cluster – use binoculars 7 Saturn north of moon 9 Full moon 17 Moon last quarter 19 Jupiter south of moon 22 Venus two moon diameters south of moon and Mars 12 moon diameters south of moon 25 New moon 26 Pleiades just south of moon and Mercury 4 moon diameters south of moon. WARNING Do not use binoculars to view Mercury while the sun is still up, serious eye damage can result.

Produced by Memorial University of Newfoundland and The Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, St. John’s Centre. For more information contact frsmith@mun..ca

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No local insect is more reviled than the earwig, but this attitude is without justification. The earwig is harmless to humans, it does not bite, pinch, willingly enter ears nor spread disease or harbour pathogens. Earwigs may cause damage in the garden but are relatively minor pests. Although chemical control can seldom be justified, earwigs are the mainstay of the local pest control business.

Earwigs originated in Europe and were accidentally introduced into Newfoundland. Here they are only marginally established, occurring in urban areas but absent from the countryside. These insects are not particularly cold-hardy and depend upon warm sites such as around the foundations of houses or even in houses to survive the winter. It is in the fall that most people encounter earwigs. From September until the soil freezes, adult earwigs enter houses or gather around foundations in large numbers when searching for overwintering sites.

In the spring, the female earwig digs a burrow in which she lays her eggs. During incubation she remains with the eggs, cleaning them and protecting them from fungi. When the larvae hatch (they look like small editions of their mother), they remain in the nest for the first two instars, being fed by the mother or leaving the nest to forage but returning during daylight hours. In the last two larval instars the young leave the nest and forage freely. Earwigs are completely omnivorous, with food consisting of plants and

insects, alive or dead. As scavengers and predators they probably are more beneficial than harmful.

Earwigs are slowly spreading through Newfoundland towns. Shortly after the insects move into a new area, there is usually a huge population outbreak that lasts for a few years, then numbers subside to a more or less stable, low density. Many people panic at the high-density phase, but it is short-lived. Chemical control cannot be recommended. In the home, earwigs can be picked up by hand or vacuum. Outdoors, a trap made of laminated pieces of grooved boards is effective in collecting large numbers, but this has not been shown to be effective in reducing numbers. A parasitic fly has been introduced that may kill a large portion of the population, although its significance as a control factor

has not been studied.The function of the pincers is not really

known. They can open and close, but the muscles are weak and they cannot pinch strongly enough to act as a defence against a larger animal. They are larger on males than females (see illustration) and may have a courtship role or be used in contests between males. They may also be used to tuck the complexly folded hind wing away after flight.

Local earwigs seldom, if ever, fly. They disperse slowly and probably get around mainly by hitchhiking rides with humans. In this way, they will probably eventually establish in all towns on the island but the cold winters of Labrador will likely preclude them.

Note: My wife takes exception to the claim that earwigs do not pinch. Editor

THE QUARTERLY BUG

EUROPEAN EARWIG - FORFICULA AURICULARIA L.

BY DAVE LARSEN

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Atop the hills above Long Harbour, Placentia Bay in Newfoundland, Sandy Pond is surrounded by a lush evergreen forest. This beautiful, pristine water body is teaming with a healthy population of large brook trout. American eels also visit the pond following heroic migrations from the distant Sargasso Sea. During a recent visit with a friend from Germany, we observed signs of moose and fox and saw bald eagle, robins and gray jays. We enjoyed a magnificent afternoon in an idyllic setting. Sometimes, usually too often, we take these special places and experiences for granted. Sometimes we have to defend them. Sandy Pond is at a tipping point. Sandy Pond is large - 38 hectares in area -- and it’s deep. Those features that make it attractive for wildlife also have made it attractive to Vale Inco as a dumping site for acid-leaching waste from the nickel processing plant proposed for construction in Long Harbour. The company is proposing to dump about 400,000 tonnes of stone pollution into the pond over the 15-year projected duration of the project. The Williams’ government has

accepted this proposal. The rationale is that it is economically more viable to destroy Sandy Pond and kill every living thing in it than to require the company that will reap the environmental profits to build a costly artificial retaining pond. Yet we should not be surprised at the costs (investments) - constructive approaches are more expensive than destructive ones in the short-term. Constructive actions are also economically more sound in the long term, as the history of our industrial developments has clearly shown time and time again. The current environmental destruction-for-profit approach establishes a dangerous developmental precedent and strategy. Basic ethical questions need to be addressed. What value do we put on an aquatic ecosystem and the life that it nurtures? How much of our environment are we willing to destroy and kill to maximize corporate profits? If we can accept the destruction of Sandy Pond, what might we decide to destroy next, particularly if we are pressured by economic downturns? We need to accept our responsibility and to

The Sandy Pond give-away

BY BILL MONTEVECCHI

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embrace basic ethical principles to decide what is right and what is not. No one in Newfoundland or anyone elsewhere need ever apologize for demanding their birthrights to a clean unpolluted environment. Yet such demands are usually bastardized by developmental proponents as being anti-development. To appreciate the straightforward resolution of this conflict, one need only acknowledge the Vale Inco Health, Safety and Environmental Policy “to contribute to the enhancement of the environment through activities such as the protection and improvement of biodiversity and responsible land use planning” (http://vinl.valeinco.com/PDFs/HSE_Policy.pdf). So let’s get on with it. Developmental proponents emphasize the job creation value of industrial progress. Yet too often the obvious employment benefits that would accrue to constructive rather than destructive industrial approaches are ignored. The longer term health and societal costs virtually never flash on the radar screen, but this does nothing in actuality to diminish the burdens that will accrue if constructive approaches are skirted.

Under Canada’s Fisheries Act it is illegal to dump toxic chemicals into fish-bearing waters. Owing to pressure from mining interests, however, the Act’s Metal Mining Effluent Regulation was amended in 2002 to allow lakes, ponds and other water bodies to be classified as “tailing impoundment areas.” It’s just a matter of a definition on a piece of paper! Newfoundland and Labrador is a Canadian leader in aquatic degradation by mining industries. The provincial and federal governments have cooperated to allow Aur Industries to pollute Trout Pond and Gill’s Brook tributary in Buchans, Newfoundland, as toxic containment sites. These were the first water bodies in Canada to be legally destroyed by mining effluent. These actions were precedent-setting and have led to numerous proposals by mining companies to dump toxins into natural fish-bearing water bodies across Canada rather than create containment sites. In the US, the deliberate pollution of natural fish-bearing lakes is illegal. In Newfoundland and Labrador, the Williams’ government is employing third world environmental tactics in its promotion of global economic initiatives.

The Williams government’s role in this give-away is of major environmental, economic and ethical proportions. Premier Williams has been highly successful in his economic ventures for Newfoundland and Labrador. Yet the environment is another and

sadder story altogether. From the outset of his term in office, Premier Williams has preached almost on a daily basis the importance of keeping a promise without compromise. He has looked every Newfoundlander and Labradorian in the eye and promised no more corporate give-aways. By the action of his government with respect to Sandy Pond in Long Harbour, Placentia Bay, he has demonstrated something else - that sometimes it depends …

Article originally published as a Forum piece in the Telegram on 12 October 2008. Bill Montevecchi is a University Research Professor at Memorial University of Newfoundland.

Nature NoteArgentia

The first Roman Catholic parish in Placentia Bay was established at Argentia in 1831 by Father Pela-gius Nowlan, who came from Ireland. It included the communities of Great Placentia, the Cape Shore, Fox Harbour, Ship Harbour and all Placen-tia Bay communities as far west as Oderin. “The community was actually known as Little Placentia until 1904, when Father John St. John, the parish priest at the time, had the name changed to Argen-tia after a silver mine nearby – ‘argent’ being the French word for ‘silver.’”

Eileen Houlihan. (1992). Uprooted: The Argentia Story. St. John’s: Creative Publishers.

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This award is named in memory of Dr. Leslie M. Tuck and Captain Harry Walters.

Dr. Les Tuck was Newfoundland’s first Domin-ion Wildlife Officer, and Harry Walters was the Director of the Newfoundland Rangers Force. Following Confederation with Canada, Dr. Tuck headed the Canadian Wildlife Service in the province—a position he held for more than twenty-five years. In the latter part of his long and distinguished career, Dr. Tuck held the L. J. Paton Research Professorship in the Psys-chology Department of Memorial University. He was instrumental in the reactivation of the Natural History Society in the 1950’s. Captain Harry Walters served for many years as the Head of the Newfoundland Wildlife Division, which he was instrumental in establishing.

Both Walters, working provincially, and Tuck, working federally, were instrumental in estab-lishing our province’s first seabird reserves (Funk Island, Cape St. Mary’s, Witless Bay, and Hare Bay) and the former Avalon Wilder-ness Area. Their combined efforts put natural history awareness, protection and apprecia-tion on a solid footing in Newfoundland and Labrador. Although they were employed in resource conservation and management ca-reers, their enthusiasm and dedication tran-scended their duties, and it is for these quali-ties that the society has chosen to honor their memory with this award.

The Tuck/Walters Award is discretionary - it does not have to be given out every year. On the other hand, it may be given to more than one recipient if the Nominating Com-mittee feels this is appropriate. Successful candidates are individuals who have made outstanding and enduring contributions to the advancement of natural history appreciation

and protection in Newfoundland and Labrador, outside the parameters of their employment responsibilities.

Tuck/Walters Award Winners

Dr. Don Barton Gregory MitchellGeorge Brinson Michael NolanBill Davis Dr. Harold PetersDr. John Gibson Dr. Roger Tory PetersonDr. Leslie Harris Tony PowerStephen Herder Dr. Don SteeleCharlie Horwood Clyde TuckBernard Jackson Laura JacksonHenry Mann Lois BatemanJon Lien

For more information or to make a nomination for the Tuck/Walters Award, contact:

Dr. Bill MontevecchiChair, Tuck/Walters Award CommitteeCognitive and Behavioral Ecology ProgramMemorial University of NewfoundlandSt. John’s, NL A1B 3X9 Telephone: 737-7673 E-mail: mont@mun.ca

The Tuck/Walters AwardNominations are invited

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Available from the Natural History Society

• Getting to Know the Weeds - the Collected Writings of Charlie Horwood. Charlie was a faithful and long-serving member of the society. He was also a thoughtful and insightful naturalist with a gift for capturing his views of the natural world in writing. This 160-page book reproduces over fifty of Charlie’s best short pieces.Soft cover $14.95

• Society Lapel Pins - Back by popular demand. These four-colour enamel pins repro-duce the society’s The Osprey, originally designed by John Maunder, in blue, brown and white on a gold back: Oval.Lapel Pins $3.00

• Society Jacket Crest - These crests are based on the original “half moon” design drawn by Newfoundland artist Reginald Shepherd. They feature a stylized osprey snatching a fish. They are embroidered in five colours, and are approximately 4” wide by 1 3/4” high.Embroidered Crest $4.00

• Society Memberships - Any time is a great time to give a membership to the Natural History Society. The cost is $25.00 for one year. It includes four issues of The Osprey and notices of all society functions.

Watch for these articles in upcoming editions of The Osprey:

Plant Watch by Madonna Bishop

A Comparison of Tropical and Boreal Forest Diver-sity by Robin Day

St. John’s Christmas Bird Count by Paul Linegar

Choosing a Spotting Scope by Gene Herzberg

Tolkien Forest on the Avalon by Allan Stein

The Fall Migration in St. Pierre and Miquelon by Roger Etcheberry

Black Bear Encounters at Konrad Brook Biodiver-

sity Camp by Michael Burzynski

Index Electrofishing in St. John’s Rivers by R. John Gibson, Diana Baird, Dan Ficken, Eric Salter and Don Steele

Shorebird Trends by Jeanette Goulet at the Cana-dian Wildlife Service

The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth’s History -- a book review by John Jacobs

Update from the Burin Peninsula Environmental Reform Committee

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