The "Philistine" in "Sturm und Drang"Author(s): Estelle McIlvennaSource: The Modern Language Review, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Jan., 1938), pp. 31-39Published by: Modern Humanities Research AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3715801 .Accessed: 28/06/2014 10:17Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp .JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. .Modern Humanities Research Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend accessto The Modern Language Review.http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsTHE'PHILISTINE'IN'STURMUNDDRANG' ORIGINALLYconfined to the vocabulary of German university students, the expression 'Philistine'first found general favour in Germany towards theend of the eighteenthcentury to signify 'the bores, dullards, Children ofDarkness'.lThe earlyhistory ofthewordhasbeendiscussed by several scholars,2 whohaveshownhowitcametobeused by class- conscious studentsof theseventeenth century as a nickname for soldiers ofthe town-guard, andhow by a gradual process, whichculminatedin abrawl betweenthe undergraduates andtownsmenofJenain 1689, it cameintomore general useforthetradesmenandlandlords whomthe studentsheldin contempt. Itwas not,however, likely thatstudentswould long retainthe exclusiveuseofawordso pregnant with significance as 'Philistine', and itsoon spread toother circles, always connoting an idea of scorn and no longer confinedto anyparticular class.Itisnot surprising thatit firstbecame popular asatermofabusefor opponents. 'Wasweissich vondem unglaubigen Philister?'Vossexclaimsinhis poem atLeibniz' grave.3Hamann, inlettersto Herder, applies thetermtohis literary enemies.InOctober1772herails against thePhilistineswhohave reduced his salary,4 anda fewmonthslaterwrites:'Mein ganzer Einfall durch EinschlussalsIhr Liebhaber zu schreiben war eine blosse Chicane ummichandenPhilisternrachenzukonnen.'5In spite ofhis lifelong struggleagainst the 'Aufklarer', inwhomwehaveno difficulty in recognizing the precursors ofthosewhomtheRomanticscondemnedas Philistines, Hamanndidnotavailhimselfoftheterm'Philistine'in his literary works.Theuseofthewordinhis correspondencewould, however, indicatethatithad by thistimefoundits way intohis vocabulary of everyday conversation.Itis no wonder thenthat Herder, whowasindebtedtoHamannforso manyinspirations, sooncameto followhisleadin using awordwithwhichhehimselfmusthavebeen familiar from his undergraduate days. Itwas indeed inthecircle of the young StormandStresswritersof Strassburg, themselvesstudentsor younggraduates, thatitfirstcametobeusedintheintellectualand moral sense whichstill prevailsto-day. 'Philistine'came to signify the Carlyle, 1872. Sterling, I. vII, 41. 2 Fr. Kluge, Deutsche Studentensprache, Strassburg,1895; Wortforschung undWort- geschichte, Leipzig, 1912; A. Gotze, Deutsche Studentensprache, Berlin,1928; G. Schoppe, Germanisch-romanische Monatsschrift, 1922, x, 193. :Sdmtliche Gedichte, K6nigsberg, 1802. 4 Schriften, v,18, Berlin, 1821-43. 5 Ibid.,v, 21. This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsThe 'Philistine'in'Sturm und Drang' narrow bourgeois, lackinginsight and wanting in appreciation ofall the finer things of life, the very antithesisofStormandStressideals.Itis not merely acoincidencethat'Philistine'shouldnowfindits place in everydaylanguage; theuseoftheword mightquiteconceivably have long remainedastudent monopoly haditnotbeenfor the youngpoets who, whenstill undergraduates, foundthisforceful epitheteminently suitedto signify the bourgeois they all despised. Goethe's lettersof1771 disclose three uses of theterm. Writing in the autumnto Herder, he says it might havebeennot unpleasant forhis friendtohaveknownhimandhis strange viewsonlifeevenearlier. 'Demseinunwie ihmsei. Apostel oder Philister!Ichbleib firSie was ich war.'1Heis on sure ground here, for full well he knows thathe is no Philistine, andthat Herder, howevercriticalhe might be, couldnotso grossly misjudge him.'Philistine'denotes here aman withouta mission as opposed to 'Apostle', theidealofStormandStress. In another lettertoHerder at theend of the same year,2 Goethe relates howhehasbeen reading Hamann's Socrates, whichcontraststheheroic philosopher withthePhilistines surrounding him, unsympathetic and pharasaical. Goetheandhisfriendsfeelthemselvesinsome ways akin withSocrates by reasonofthe misunderstanding withwhich they also arereceived bycontemporary Philistines.In jesting versestoMerck aboutthis time, Goethe declares open war on Philistines, carping critics andtheir kind,3 and writing toKestnerin 1772,4 he again alludesin scathing termstoPhilistines' smug criticisms.Goethe's relentlesscam- paign against thePhilistineshad opened in earnest, revealing the genius' utter disgust of pettiness initsmanifoldand diverse forms. These earlyexamples are,however, all gleaned from correspondence, theliteratureofthese yearsdisclosing nouseoftheterm.Thiswould seemtoindicatethat although the expression had by nowbecome fashionable in the speech of the younger generation at Strassburg, ithad notas yet reachedthe literarylanguage.Naturally awordbut newly admittedtooralusewouldnotatoncebe adopted inthemorecon- servative language ofliterature.Herder'sfablesof1773furnishwhat appear tobethetwoearliest literary allusionstothePhilistineinits newsense.5Thefirstfabletellsofanambitiousstudentwho plans a wonderful futurebut eventually becomesamere sextonor a Philistine, just as a mouse which begins by seeking the sun to wife finds contentment 1 Briefe, ii,5,Weimar, 1887-1912.2Ibid.,i, 11. 3 Ibid.,ii,10, Dec.1771. 4 Ibid.,II,31, 10 Oct.1772. 5 Werke,I, 346,337,Berlin, n.d. Hempel. 32 This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsESTET,LEMCILVENNA intheendwithan ordinary mouse.AstheseversescontrastPhilistine with student, theolder meaning is perhaps still predominant. Inthe other fable,however, thetermseems to convey a more general meaning when applied toamonkwhocannotreadaHebrewbookhefindsin the monastery. We are indebtedtoGoethe'sWerther (1774) for thefirst important use oftheterminitsmoral andintellectualsense.Inhisletterof26 May, Wertherdescribesthe happy hourhe spentsketching twochildrenin theshadeofa limetree.This episode determined himtodevotehimself to Nature, whoalonemouldsthe great artist.Headmitsthatthereis much tobe said in praise of law and order and bourgeois society. A man who lives according torote or formula may never produce anythingvery bad, nor ishe likely tobecomeanintolerable neighbour oranotorious criminal, butontheother hand, a plethora ofruleswill eventually destroy in him thereal feeling of Natureand prevent itstrue expression. Werther nowdraws thefamouscontrastwhich gave thenew expression to Europegenerally. A young man spends allhistimewiththe girl he lovesandallhis money on making her presents. Then along comesa Philistine,'einMann imoffentlichenAmt',whoadvisesthe youth to make a wise divisionof his time, allotting certain hours towork and only his leisure to his maiden.He must keep his financial position in view and, credit permitting, makeheranoccasional present, onher birthday for instance.WerethelovertofollowthePhilistine's advice, he might becomeausefulmember of society, butitwouldbeanendtohis love, and were he an artist an end likewise to his art. The Philistineis incapable oftruelove.What passes forloveinhiscaseis somethingquitesuper- ficial, a pleasure whichhe indulges whenhehas nothing more pressing to occupy him.Hismaniafororder leadshimto regulate even love, which turns to habit; and present-giving also is rationalized and restricted to specific occasions. Although there is no other mention of the Philistine by name, the novel suggeststhroughout the misery Werther suffers from thePhilistinismof society. Philistines tryeverythingby theirownstandardof morality. Like Albert, they haveno understanding for passion. Withthe smug satisfactionof thePharisee they watcha drunkard or a madman without being movedto pity.They haveno eye for greatness, no appreciation of theintrinsic worth of life, of the things that really matter.For themall thatcountsis position,wealth, material prosperity. The pettiness of the ambassador, the'Amtmann's'failuretorealizethattherecanbean exception toeventhebestof rules, the prince's lackof personality and 33 M. L. R. XXXIII 3 This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsThe 'Philistine'in'Sturm und Drang superficialapproach to art, theofficials'blinddevotionto regulations fortheirown sake,unrelatedtolifeor circumstances-these areall Philistine traits,characteristicof the society of the time, a phase against whichtheStormandStresswriterswiththeirloveoflifeandfreedom feltbound torise up in rebellion. By reason ofthenovel'suniversal appeal, thementionof'Philistine' inWerther obviously did much toextendits use beyond university circles. Butitwas none thelessanew expression, and many authors and critics werenot yet convincedthatitwasa literary word, soin spite ofthe example set by Goethe, referencestothePhilistineare comparatively rare in theliterature of the next twentyyears. Thus the fact thatGoethe had availedhimself of the term inWertherdoes notin the eyes ofa critic who wrotein1775 justify itsuse by thewriter of Etwas iiber die Leiden des jungen Werthersund die Freuden des jungen Werthers:'DerVerfasser scheintausallenUmstandenunddemAusdruck Philisterein nochsehr unkritischesStudentchenzusein....'lTheauthorwascensuredfor applying Philistinetothe'Aufklarer'Fr. Nicolai,against whom Jung Stilling inthesame year directedhisSchleuder eines Hirtenknaben gegen den hohnsprechendenPhilister, den Verfasser des Sebaldus Nothanker, and wholater enjoyed the reputation of being amodelPhilistine.Forthis critic'Philistine'wasstillastudent expressionunworthy ofa place in literary criticism. Writteninthesame year as Werther, Goethe's Satyros refers tothe 'steifPhilister' who, barrenof appreciation forthe beauty of spring, wouldfar prefer toseehis cropsafely storedinthebarnthaninits gloriousstages of growth inthe field, here againrevealing the practical outlook.Wertherand Satyros furnishthe only directreferences tothe PhilistineinGoethe's earlyworks, butinmostofthemwe find satirical allusionstoPhilistine qualities. The Philistinismof the Flemish people leads to the downfall of Egmont. 'Philistr6sistdas Biirgertum, das einen Egmont seinem platten Sicher- heitsstreben opfert', writesKeferstein.2The fragment of the Wandering Jewcondemnsthenarrow-mindednessandthelackof insight which blind men to revelation.The Jahrmarktsfest zu Plundersweilern denounces the prudery and hypocrisy ofthePhilistinemoral code, hencefortha favourite subject ofattack.The wantofdiscernment of thosefor whom Frenchclassicaldrama istheonecriterionof good tasteandtowhom 1 Auserlesene Bibliothek der neuesten dt. Lit.1775 (Braun, Schiller undGoetheimUrteil ihrer Zeitgenossen, Leipzig,1882, I,156). 2 Biirgertum und Biirgerlichkeit bei Goethe,Weimar,1933, p. 47. 34 This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsESTETTLEMCILVENNA imitationmeansmorethan originality islikewisetouched upon. Das Neuste von Plundersweilern resumes thesatire of the contemporary moral codewithits arrogation ofallthe virtues, andscoffsatthePhilistines whoread voraciously butwithoutdiscrimination. Clavigo's fearof venturing on matrimony is subconsciously adread of being drawn intothebonds of Philistinism.The conflictbetween love and ambition, bourgeois happiness and freedom, is a favourite Storm and Stress problem which occupied Goethe himself.Hisloveoffreedom led himtodesert Friederike; hisfearof Philistinism, of marriage and domesticity, forcedhimtofleefromLiliandhercircleofrichtrades- people. Faust, likeGoethe himself, is disgusted withthePhilistinismof his contemporaries, thearid pedantry ofsuchunnatural people as Wagner, forwhombooksmeanmorethanlifeandNature. Yearning for theinfiniteand tiredofthesecluded lifeofa scholar, Faust longs to returntoNatureandfindamorevital occupation thanisafforded by booksalone.Hediscerns the inadequacy of learning derived from such asourceand begins todabblewith magic inordertodiscoverthe mysteries of lifeand the greatproblems of humanity: Dass ich erkenne was die Welt Im innersten zusammenhalt. Overcome with'Weltschmerz'hecries: In jedem Kleide werd ich wohl die Pein Des engen Erdenlebensfiihlen- Nur mit Entsetzen wach' ich morgens auf- Den Tag zu sehen, der mir in seinem Lauf Nicht einen Wunsch erfiillen wird, nicht Einen, Der selbst die Ahnung jeder Lust Mit eigensinnigem Krittel mindert, Die Schopfung meiner regen Brust Mit tausend Lebensfratzen hindert- Whatarethese tormentinggoblins oflifeifnotPhilistineswhokill higher thought? To experience human lifetothefullwithall its lights and shadows is Faust'saimwhen making his wager with Mephistopheles. Hehasno fearof suffering, butscornsPhilistine stagnation andcomfort.He realizesthe impossibility ofever finding satisfactioninabanallifeof pleasure, illustratedin the scene 'Vor dem Tor', where the unimaginative Philistines, contentwith beer, tobaccoand prettygirls, haveno concern forthewelfareofmankindat large. Itisthennowonder thatamuse- mentssuchasthoseofferedtoFaustinAuerbach'sKellerfailto attracthim. 3-2 35 This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions36The 'Philistine'in'Sturm und Drang' Wagner, the 'trockene Schleicher', is a typicalexample of the' Bildungs- philister', a term later popularized by Nietzscheto signify the intellectual Philistineswhocombineanarrowoutlookandlackof insight witha certainostensibleculture.In spite of thefactthat Wagner is imprinted inour memory asaridiculous figure in dressing gown and nightcap, it cannotbe denied thathe is a keen student.Hisfaultlies in the factthat he has allowed learning to oust the claims of Nature and original thought; he is a mere pedant who soon tires of forests and fields but finds unending joy inbooks.His knowledge is superficial; the mysteries of lifehaveno interestfor him and he shares the satisfactionof the 'Aufklarer'with the stateof science as he finds it, 'und wie wir's dann zuletztso herrlich weit gebracht'. AsGoethe said toRiemer on thetenthof May 1806:1 'Esist lacherlichwenndiePhilistersichder gr6sserenVerstandigkeit ihres Zeitalters riihmen und die friiheren barbarisch nennen.Der Verstand ist so alt wie die Welt, auch das Kind hat Verstand.' Applause is the breath of life to Wagner and all his studiesare inspired not by a loveof culture foritsownsakebutrather by thedesire for fame.Hecan imagine no greater blissthanuniversaladmiration.Hehaseveran eye to profit andfor thesakeof benefiting from hismaster's company willmixwith thecrowd whomhe wouldotherwiseshunascoarse and illiterate. Goethe's correspondence ofthis periodgivesinterestingsidelights on hisviewsofthePhilistine. Writing in1778 toOeser from whomhehad ordered a table, he says hehas quite made up hismindhowitistobe made, and jesting abouthisownloveof detail, admitsthatitisas difficult tomake something for him as for any Philistine, no matterhow particular he be.2Later Goethe tellsMerck of having sponsored a young man'stour throughGermany: 'undschrankemichnicht philisterhaft, wiedieneuestenKursachsendarauf ein, obdieser oder jener Berg dem Herzog vonWeimar geh6rt oder nicht',3 a sarcastic reference toGerman 'Kleinstaaterei'. Ina lettertoFrau vonSteinin 1777, Goethe describes thebetterside of Philistinism, using thewordasa synonym for 'Biirgertum'. This praise ofthe simplicity ofthe patriarchalway of living whichhis experiences inSesenheim had taught himto esteem,gives anearnest of his classical ideals.The'schonePhilisterei'in thehouse inGoslar where heis staying is highly beneficial.Hehas regained hisloveforthe sincerity ofthatclassaccountedlow by menbut certainly mostdear to God, andhaslearnedtovalueits very limitations.'Dasinddochalle 1 Goethe's Gesprdche, ed. Biedermann, Leipzig, 1889-96. 2 Briefe, in,232, 15 June1778.3 Ibid.,iv,310, 11 Oct.1780. This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsESTELTLE MOILVENNA Tugenden beisammen. Beschranktheit,Geniigsamkeit,grader Sinn, Treue, Freude iiber dasleidlichste Gute, Harmlosigkeit, Dulden, Ausharren.'l Inthisconnexionitis interesting tonotethe fragment onNaturein the Tiefurter Journalof1783. Though attributedto Tobler, itshows clearly theinfluenceofGoethe:'AuchdasUnnatiirlichsteist Natur, auchdie plumpste PhilistereihatetwasvonihremGenie.'Eventhe coarsestPhilistinismhas something ofthe genius ofNature. Tobler, a brother-in-lawof Lavater, spent thesummerof1781inWeimarand subsequently madeuseofthe expression 'Philistine'inlettersto Knebel.2 Goethe's faithful disciple, J.M. R. Lenz, naturally favoured a word his friend had introduced intoliterature.The sensitive,highlystrung young poet suffered like Goethe from thePhilistines'lack of understanding and sympathy. His misgivings as to being understood are reflected in several ofhis plays. Nowhere,however, doesheso directlyinveighagainst the Philistinesas in his satire Panddmonium Germanicum (1775), in which he depicts themas'bdeNachahmer des Lebens', devoidofcreative genius and originality.Stemming as they dothecourseof genius,they are primarily responsible forthesetbackinculture. Analysis meansmore tothemthanessence and beauty, and thedetailsofa poet'sprivate life interestthemmore thanhisart.Their distorteddesire for learning isa constant danger tothe power of original composition. Insteadof trying to develop their own talents, they become engrossed in empty speculations as tothe greatness of others and are ever on thelookoutfor sensational itemssuitablefortheir newspaper articles, asartistothemnomore thanatrade.There are severalbitteroutbursts against such 'Bildungs- philister' intherestofLenz' works, buthiscriticismisnever again so explicit asinthePandamonium. In a fragment of a novel of 1775, entitledDer Poet, Lenz writes:'Esist dasverdammte Philistergeschmeiss mitihrem Lobund Tadel, dasmich sokleinmacht.'3Hecanneverridhimselfofthefearthathisworks mightagain betakenfor Goethe's, ashad alreadyhappened. Notthat hethinksGoetheneeds enriching; a glance atGotz orWerther makes Lenzblushforshame.Itistheunwarrantedinterferenceof unsym- pathetic Philistinesthatembittershim. 'Einsamkeit,Einsamkeit, du alleinmachstmichbekanntmitmeinembesseren Selbst, undmein Daseinhort auf, einGericht zu sein.' 1 Briefe, iii, 191. 3 Goethe-Jahrbuch,1889, x, 62. 2 Quoted byKluge,Wortforschung,p. 38. 37 This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsThe'Philistine'in'Sturmund Drang' Inthe Hofmeister (1774), LenzusesthetermPhilistineintheold sense of a landlord housing students:'Esistein guter, ehrlicher Philister beidem ichwohne.'IntheSoldaten (1776), he refers tothe pettiness of Philistine existence, thistimeincontrastwiththesoldier'slifeof adventure.Carefree and irresponsible, thevariedlifeofasoldier ofthe timemustindeedhaveseemed glamorous and exciting when compared withthehumdrum bourgeois existence. Theterm'Philistine'isalsoused occasionally inletterswrittenand received by Lenz.InalettertoHerder in 1775, healludestotheun- comprehending RomanPhilistineswhowereblindtothe greatness of Coriolanus, again illustrating the idea that genius is condemned tosuffer thecold misunderstanding of theouter world.1 Writing toLenz in 1776, Schlosserdeclares thataPhilistineisnotborn but made, andthathis early training is responsible for his character. Everyone is endowed with his share of thosenerves which can be so tunedas never tolack response to spiritual vibration.2ToblameNatureforPhilistinisminmankind would notbe in keeping withStorm andStress belief inher infallibility. The Philistine, mostunnatural of all phenomena, isthe product of over- civilization. Herder, inanotherletterto Lenz, mentionsthathemust preach trialsermonsatWeimarafterEaster:'Nichtfiirden Herzog, versteht sich, sondern fiir die Stadtphilister, undmich ahndets, ich komme nichtlos.Dawerde ichsieallesehen.'3 Theheroof Klinger's drama, DieFalschen Spieler(1780) (in which the expression 'Philistine'twice occurs), is disgusted with the state of the world and the fettersof bourgeois society. When pursued by his relatives andthe girl who loves him, and urged toabandon hiswanton ways, he refuses tobe ledhome by a girl, 'diemich im Triumph in ihre Philister- zirkel fiihren wird'.He prefers the lawless life of freedom and adventure toamonotonousmarried existence.Thehero'sscorn isdirectednotso much againstparticular Philistinetraitsofthe bourgeois as against the cramping tiesofallmiddle-class life, itscaresand responsibilities, as compared withthe exciting, untrammelledlife enjoyedby adishonest adventurer. Although the use of the word was still generally confined tothe spoken language, itis not surprising tofind itin the personal correspondence of anolder authorlike Wieland, whodoes notuseitinhis literary works. Wielandmusthavebecomefamiliar withthe expression fromGoethe's works and the speech of the youngpoets whohad taken up theirabode 1 Briefe an und von Lenz (2 vols. Leipzig,1918), I,124, 28 Aug. 1775. 2 Ibid.,I,162, 13 Jan.1776. 3 Ibid.,I, 205, March 1776. 38 This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and ConditionsESTELLEMCILVENNA inWeimar.In1776WielandinformsMerck thatGoetheandheboth happen tobe buying a garden,'dergestalt, dasswir beide, ohnevor- gangige Abredeunsbeinahineinunddemselben Augenblick inden WeimarerPhilisterorden begeben haben',1 that is, they havebecome citizensofWeimar bybuying landthere. Writing toFrauRatin17772 afterthebirthofhis son, he says thatPhilistinismhasovercomethe spirit oftheworld inhim.Heisnow settling downto family lifeand findscontentmentin simplepleasures. Here again Philistinismisused synonymously withmiddle-class life, not necessarily ina derogatory sense.InalettertoMerck the followingyear, Wielandaskshimto answerhis questions asatradesmanwouldhis customer, 'Punktfur Punkt, soweiseund philistermassig alsdir's Gott giebt.'3 Itis interesting tonotethat by 1780 theDukeKarl August himself madeuseoftheterminhis correspondence. Inoneletterherefers to 'Philisterbonhomie',4 andinanotherto'derelendenPhilistereides Geschaftslebens',5 for whichnomanwasever intended. An example of theuse of'Philistine'in literary criticism of the period isfurnished byBurger inhis Nothgedrungene Nachrede tothe Gottinger Musenalmanach of 1782. When mocking those who wish to publish poetry without understandinggrammar and prosody, he says evenPhilistines wouldbeshockedatsuch attempts atverse.'Selbstehrliche Philister, ob sie gleich nur durch dieSchule gelaufen sind, wiirden die Handefiber dem Kopfezusammenschlagen, wennichvondiesem Greuel, densich gewiss niemand arggenugvorstellt, Proben vorlegen wollte'.Hedoes not give themcredit for much artistic appreciation, but thinkseven they would realize the atrocity of writing bad poetry. Theuseoftheword'Philistine'andthesatiredirected against the type had then steadilygained ground during the ten years which saw the riseandfalloftheshort-lived literarygeneration knownasStormand Stress.Theinfluenceofthe young writerswasoutofall proportion to theiractualachievementsinthefieldof literature, andtheirscornful attitudetowardsthis bugbear of the poet wascultivatedstillfurther by theirsuccessorsuntilitcameintheendtobeoneofthe outstanding characteristicsofGerman Romanticism. ESTELLEMCILVENNA. EDINBURGH. 1 Briefe anund von Merck, ed.K. Wagner, Darmstadt,1838, p.58, 25 March 1776. 2 Frau Rat, R. Keil, Leipzig, 1871, p. 93, 1 Dec.1777. 3 Briefe anund von Merck, p.139, 14 May 1778. 4 Ibid., p. 184, 31 May 1881. 5Knebels lit. Nachlass, ed. Varnhagen vonEnseandTh. Mundt,Leipzig, 1835,I,118, 17 July 1880. 39 This content downloaded from 91.213.220.103 on Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:17:21 AMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions