The Plural Is Sematically Unmarked

Alex de VriesEnis Kahrimanovic

Singular vs. Plural

• Plurality just means ‘more than one’

Plural?Plural does not always imply cardinality greater than one(1) a. You're welcome to bring your children.

b. You're welcome to bring your two or more children.(2) a. Every boy should invite his sisters. b. Every boy should invite his two or more sisters(3) a. No chairs are available. b. Two or more chairs aren't available.(4) a. Könnten Sie bitte etwas rücken Could pro.3PL please a little move

`Could you please move over.' b. Könnten Sie zwei bitte etwas rücken. Could pro.3PL two please a little move `Could you two please move over.'

Strong theory vs. Weak theory• Strong theory of the plural

[Sing](x) is defined if #x=1[Sing](x) x = wherever it is defined[Plur](x) is defined only if #x > 1[Plur](x) wherever it is defined

• Weak theory of the plural[Sing](x) is defined if #x=1[Sing](x) x = wherever it is defined[Plur](x) is always defined[Plur](x) = x wherever it is defined(Use plural only if singular is blocked)

Weak theory of the plural

(a) The boy, Kay, smiles(b) The boys, Kay and Hannes, smile.

Mixed reference

• You are welcome to bring your childrenYou are welcome to bring your childYou are welcome to bring your child or children

• You may bring your children if you have anyYou may bring your children if you have more than one

• Every boy should invite his sisters to the partyEvery boy should invite his sister to the party

Plural pronouns with singular reference

• Könten sie bitte etwas rückencould pro.3pl please a little move sideways“Could you please move a little?”

• Könntest du bitte etwas rückencould pro.2sg please a little move sideways

(very common in languages)

Old English vs. New English

• Thou speak’st in better phrase and matter then thou didst.

• Methinks you’re better spoken

Modern English lost singluar/plural distinction in 2nd person pronouns.

• Someone left their umbrella.

Brown and Levinson (1987)

• Frau Meier, ihre Nasen müssen operiert werden.Ms. Meier, pro.3pl nose-PL must-PL operated be“Ms. Meier, you must receive surgery on your noses”

Indefinites in downward entailing contexts

• Without artificial ingredients• If John had eaten any apples from the basket,

there would be at least one/two less in the basket.

Child performance

• Difference with adults:– Children acquire implicatures quite late (age 5)

Hypothese: Children at age 5 do not understand plural marking like an adult.

Experiment

• 5 test items: • Does a girl have noses?

• 8 contole items: • Does a fish have legs?

• Results– Test items:

– 4% adult-like

– Controle items– 97% adult-like

Explanation

• H1: Children do not percieve plural morphology

• H2: Children treat some questions in the same way as adults treat downward entailing enviroments

• Does a dog have tails?• Does a office have windows?

Adult performance

• Four questions:• Does a dog have tails?• Does a dog have two tails?• Does a goat have horns?• Does a goat have two horns?

Adult performance

• Four questions:• Does a dog have tails?• Does a dog have two tails?• Does a goat have horns?• Does a goat have two horns?

Explanation

• Sentences with a negative answer:• Conflict between singular and plural

(different truth values) Additional reading/processing time

• Sentences with a positive answer:• No conflict between singular and plural

(samo truth values) No additional reading/processing time

Conclusion

• Plural is ‘more than one’, but not always

• Strong vs weak• Mixed reference• Singel reference

• Child performance

• Adult performance

Discussion

Which dog has tails?

Discussion

• Every boy should invite his sisters to the party

• Every boy has more than one sisters?• At least on boy has more than one sisters?