Philippine resistance against Japan

During the Japanese occupation of the islands in WorldWar II, there was an extensive Philippine resistancemovement, which opposed the Japanese with activeunderground and guerrilla activity that increased overthe years. Fighting the guerrillas – apart from theJapanese regular forces – were a Japanese-formedBureau of Constabulary (later taking the name of theold Philippine Constabulary during the Second Repub-lic),[2][3] Kempeitai (the Japanese military police),[2] andthe Makapili (Filipinos fighting for the Japanese).[4]Postwar studies estimate that around 260,000 personswere organized under guerrilla groups and that membersof anti-Japanese underground organizations were morenumerous.[5][6] Such was their effectiveness that by theend of World War II, Japan controlled only twelve of theforty-eight provinces.[7]

Select units of the resistance would go on to be reorga-nized and equipped as units of the Philippine Army andConstabulary.[8] The United States Government officiallygranted payments and benefits to various ethnicites whohave fought with the Allies by the war’s end. However,only the Filipinos were excluded from such benefits, andsince then these veterans have made efforts in finally be-ing acknowledged by the United States. Some 277 sepa-rate guerrilla units made up of 260,715 individuals wereofficially recognized as having fought in the resistancemovement.[9]

1 Background

Further information: Japanese occupation of the Philip-pines and Military history of the Philippines duringWorld War II

The Attack on Pearl Harbor (called Hawaii Operationor Operation AI [10][11] by the Japanese Imperial Gen-eral Headquarters) was a surprise military strike con-ducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the UnitedStates naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morn-ing of December 7, 1941 (December 8 in Japan andthe Philippines).[12][13] The attack was intended as apreventive action in order to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleetfrom interfering with military actions the Empire ofJapan was planning in Southeast Asia against the over-seas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands,and the United States.[14]

Immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the

Japanese operations to invade the Philippines began.43 planes bombed Tuguegarao and Baguio in the firstpreemptive strike in Luzon. The Japanese forces thenquickly conducted a landing at Batan Island, and by De-cember 17, General Masaharu Homma gave his estimatethat the main component of the United States Air Forcein the archipelago was destroyed. By January 2, Manilawas under Japanese control and by January 9, Hommahad cornered the remaining forces in Bataan. By April 9,the remaining of the combined Filipino-American forcewas forced to retire from Bataan to Corregidor. Mean-while, Japanese invasions of Cebu (April 19) and Panay(April 20) were successful. By May 7, after the last ofthe Japanese attacks on Corregidor, General JonathanM. Wainwright announced through a radio broadcast inManila the surrender of the Philippines. FollowingWain-wright was General William F. Sharp, who surrenderedVisayas and Mindanao on May 10.[15]

Afterwards came the Bataan Death March, which wasthe forcible transfer, by the Imperial Japanese Army, of60,000 Filipino and 15,000 American prisoners of warafter the three-month Battle of Bataan in the Philippinesduring World War II.[16] The death toll of the march isdifficult to assess as thousands of captives were able to es-cape from their guards (although many were killed duringtheir escapes), and it is not known how many died in thefighting that was taking place concurrently. All told, ap-proximately 2,500–10,000 Filipino and 300–650 Amer-ican prisoners of war died before they could reach CampO'Donnell.[17]

2 Resistance in Luzon

2.1 USAFFE and American sponsoredguerrillas

Further information: Hunters ROTC, Raid at Cabanat-uan, Raid at Los Baños and List of American guerrillasin the Philippines

After Bataan and Corregidor, many who escaped theJapanese reorganized in the mountains as guerrillas stillloyal to the U.S. Army Forces Far East (USAFFE). Oneexample would be the unit of Ramon Magsaysay in Zam-bales, which first served as a supply and intelligence unit.After the surrender in May 1942, Magsaysay and hisunit formed a guerrilla force which grew to a 10,000-

1

2 3 RESISTANCE IN THE VISAYAS

man force by the end of the war.[18] Another was theHunters ROTC which operated in the Southern Luzonarea, mainly near Manila. It was created upon dissolu-tion of the Philippine Military Academy in the begin-ning days of the war. Cadet Terry Adivoso, refused tosimply go home as cadets were ordered to do, and be-gan recruiting fighters willing to undertake guerrilla ac-tion against the Japanese.[19][20] This force would laterbe instrumental, providing intelligence to the liberatingforces led by General Douglas MacArthur, and took anactive role in numerous battles, such as the Raid at LosBaños. When war broke out in the Philippines, some 300Philippine Military Academy and ROTC cadets, unableto join the USAFFE units because of their youth, bandedtogether in a common desire to contribute to the war ef-fort throughout the Bataan campaign. The Hunters orig-inally conducted operations with another guerrilla groupcalled Marking’s Guerrillas, with whom they went aboutliquidating Japanese spies. Led by Miguel Ver, a PMAcadet, the Hunters raided the enemy-occupiedUnion Col-lege in Manila and seized 130 Enfield rifles.[21]

Also, before being proven false in 1985 by the UnitedStates Military, Philippine President Ferdinand Marcosclaimed that he had commanded a 9,000-strong forceof guerrillas known as the Maharlika Unit.[22] Marcosalso usedmaharlika as his personal pseudonym; depictinghimself as a bemedalled anti-Japanese Filipino guerrillafighter during World War II.[23][24] Marcos told exagger-ated tales and exploits of him fighting the Japanese in hisself-published autobiography Marcos of the Philippineswhich was proven to be fiction.[25] His father, MarianoMarcos, did however, collaborated with the Japanese andwas executed by Filipino guerillas in April 1945, and Fer-dinand himself was accused of being a collaborator aswell.[26][27]

In July 1942, South West Pacific Area, became awareof the resistance movements forming in occupied Philip-pines through attempted radio communications to Al-lies outside of the Philippines; by late 1942, couriershad made it to Australia confirming the existence of theresistance.[28] By December 1942, SWPA sent CaptainJesús A. Villamor to the Philippines to make contactwith guerrilla organizations, eventually developing exten-sive intelligence networks including contacts within theSecond Republic Government.[28][29] In addition, throughthe Allied Intelligence Bureau's Philippine Regional Sec-tion, SWPA began to send operatives, and equipment,into the Philippines to make contact and supply guer-rilla organizations.[28][30] Unique to other guerrillas in thePhilippines were the Wa Chi, which was a resistanceunit composed of Filipino-Chinese and Chinese immi-grants. They were established to counter the Japanesesuspicion and abuse of the Chinese living in the coun-try, and had over 700 men strong. The movement wasaided by the American guerrilla forces and were alsosupported by anti-Japanese civilians and farmers livingin the outskirts.[31] In Nueva Ecija, guerrillas led by

Juan Pajota and Eduardo Joson protected the U.S. ArmyRangers and Alamo Scouts conducting a rescue mis-sion of Allied POWS from a counterattack by Japanesereinforcement.[32] Pajota and the Filipino guerrillas re-ceived Bronze Stars for their role in the raid.[33] Amongthe guerrilla units, the Blue Eagles were a specialized unitestablished for landmine and sniper detection, as well asin hunting Japanese spies who have blended in with thecivilian population.[34]

2.2 Hukbalahap resistance

Main article: Hukbalahap

As originally constituted in March 1942, the Hukbala-hap was to be part of a broad united front resistance tothe Japanese occupation of the Philippines.[35] This orig-inal intent is reflected in its name: “Hukbong Bayan La-ban sa mga Hapon”, which was “People’s Army Againstthe Japanese” when translated into English. The adoptedslogan was “Anti-Japanese Above All”.[36] The Huk Mil-itary Committee was at the apex of Huk structure andwas charged to direct the guerrilla campaign and to leadthe revolution that would seize power after the war.[36]Luis Taruc; a communist leader and peasant-organizerfrom a barrio in Pampanga; was elected as head the com-mittee, and became the first Huk commander called "ElSupremo".[36]

The Huks began their anti-Japanese campaign as five100-man units. They obtained needed arms and ammu-nition from Philippine army stragglers, which were es-capees from the Battle of Bataan and deserters from thePhilippine Constabulary, in exchange of civilian clothes.The Huk recruitment campaign progressed more slowlythan Taruc had expected, due to competition with U.S.Army Forces Far East (USAFFE) guerrilla units in enlist-ing new soldiers. The U.S. units already had recognitionamong the islands, had trainedmilitary leaders, and an or-ganized command and logistical system.[36] Despite beingrestrained by the American sponsored guerrilla units, theHuks nevertheless took to the battlefield only 500 menand much fewer weapons. Several setbacks at the handsof the Japanese and with less than enthusiastic supportfrom USAFFE units did not hinder the Huks growth insize and efficiency throughout the war, developing intoa well trained, highly organized force with some 15,000armed fighters by war’s end.[36] The Huks attacked boththe Japanese and other non-Huk guerrillas.[37]

3 Resistance in the Visayas

Various guerrilla groups also sprang out throughout thecentral islands of the Visayas. Like those in Luzon, manyof these Filipino guerrillas were trained by the Americansto fight in case the Japanese sets its sight towards Visayas.

3

Captain Nieves Fernandez. A Filipina schoolteacher who led theresistance in Tacloban.[38]

When the Americans finally surrendered the country tothe Japanese, these soldiers continued to fight, believingthat it was they who have surrendered and not them.[39]As such, they commanded loyalty to the Philippine Com-monwealth, and participated in many pivotal battles dur-ing the war besides their guerrilla activities. In Cebu,guerrillas and irregulars under Lieutenant Colonel JamesM. Cushing and Basilio J. Valdes aided in the Battle forCebu City.[40] They were also successful in their cap-ture of Maj. Gen. Takeo Manjom and his 2,000 sol-diers and munitions. Panay guerillas under Col. MacarioPeralta helped in the seizing of the Tiring Landing Fieldand Mandurriao district airfield during the Battle of theVisayas.[41] Major Ingeniero commanded the guerrillaforces in Bohol,[42] to which they were credited in the lib-eration of the island with their successful push inland andthe clearing of Japanese resistance, at a cost of only sevenmen. The guerrillas in the Visayas also collected intelli-gence that helped the Americans in the Battle of LeyteGulf and the American landing in Palo.[43]

Waray guerrillas under Captain Nieves Fernandez, a for-mer schoolteacher, fought the Japanese in Tacloban.[38]Being infamously known as a crackshot, Nieves exten-sively trained her men in combat skills and the making ofimprovised weaponry. She also led her men in the front,once taking out 200 Japanese soldiers with only 110 men,and the Japanese posted a 10,000 Pesos reward on herhead. The guerrillas in Leyte were also very instrumentalnot only in the opposition against Japanese rule, but alsoin the safety and aid of the civilians living in the island. Inthe book The Hidden Battle of Leyte: The Picture Diaryof a Girl taken by the Japanese Military by Remedios Fe-lias; a former comfort woman, revealed how the Filipinoguerrillas saved the lives of many young girls raped orto-be raped by the Japanese. In her vivid account of theBattle of Burauen, she recounts how the guerrillas man-aged to wipe out entire Japanese platoons off the variousvillages in the municipality, eventually saving the lives ofmany.[44]

4 Moro resistance in Mindanao

Main article: Moros during World War II

While the Moros were still unsuccessfully at war withthe United States, the Japanese invasion became a newthreat to their religion and culture.[45] Some of thosewho opposed the occupation, and a fighter for Moronationalism, were Sultan Jainal Abirin II of Sulu, theSulu Sultanate of the Tausug, the Maranao Moros livingaround Lake Lanao and ruled by the Confederation of sul-tanates in Lanao led by Salipada Pendatun. Another anti-JapaneseMoro unit, theMoro-Bolo Battalion led by DatuGumbay Piang, consisted of about 20,000 fighting men.As their name suggests, these fighters were known visi-bly by their large bolos and kris.[46] The Japanese MajorHiramatsu, a propaganda officer, tried convincing DatuBusran Kalaw of Maranao to join their side as “brotherOrientals”. Kalaw sent a response which goaded Ma-jor Hiramatsu into sending a force of Japanese soldiersto attack him, whom Kalaw butchered completely withno survivors.[47][48] The infamous juramentados brig-ands, who were veterans in fighting the Filipinos, Span-ish and the Americans, now focused their assaults on theJapanese, using their traditional hit and run as well as sui-cide charges.[49] The Japanese were anxious of being at-tacked by the resistance, and they fought back by murder-ing innocent civilians and destroying properties.[50]

During these times, the Moros had no allegiance withthe Filipinos and the Americans, and they were largelyunwelcoming of their assistance, sometimes even attack-ing them indiscriminately as well. The Moros also per-formed various cruelties such as thoughtlessly assaultingJapanese immigrants already living in Mindanao beforethe war.[51] The vicious warlord Datu Busran Kalaw, wasknown for boasting that he “fought both the Americansand the Japanese”, which took the lives of both Ameri-can agents and Japanese occupiers.[52] Nonetheless, theAmericans respected the success of the Moros during thewar. An American POW Herbert Zincke recalled in hissecret diary that the Japanese guarding him and otherprisoners were scared of the Moro warriors and tried tokeep as far away from them as possible to avoid gettingattacked.[53] The American Captain Edward Kraus rec-ommended Moro fighters for a suggested plan to cap-ture an airbase in Lake Lanao for eventually driving theJapanese occupiers out of the Philippines. The MoroDatu Pino sliced the ears off Japanese and cashed themin with the American guerilla leader Colonel Fertig atthe exchange rate of a pair of ears for one bullet and 20centavos.[54]

4 6 REFERENCES

5 Recognition

See also: Filipino American § World War II veteranbenefits

“Give me ten thousand Filipinos and I shall conquer theworld!"—Gen. Douglas MacArthur during his liberation ofthe Philippines, highly impressed by the Filipinos whofought with him.[55]

After the war, the American and Philippines governmentsofficially recognized some of the units and individualswho had fought against the Japanese. Recognition led tobenefits as veterans but not all claims were upheld; therewere 277 recognized guerrilla units out of over a thousandclaimed and 260,715 individuals were recognized fromnearly 1.3 million claims.[56] These beneficiaries are onlyavailable to the guerrillas and veterans who have servedfor the Commonwealth, and doesn't include the brigandgroups of the Huks and the Moros.[57]

Back then in 1944, only Filipino soldiers were deniedfrom being given benefits by the GI Bill of Rights, whichwas supposed to give welfare to all those who have servedin the United States Military irrespective of race, coloror nationality. Over 66 countries were inducted into thebill but only the Philippines were not allowed, describingthe Filipino soldiers as mere “Second Class Veterans”.[58]Then in 1946, the Rescission Act was enacted to man-date some aid to Filipino veterans, but only to those whohad disabilities or serious injury.[59] The only benefit theUnited States could only give at that time was the Im-migrant Act, which made the naturalization of Filipinoswho served inWorldWar II into American citizens easier.It was not until in 1996 when the veterans started seek-ing for recognition from the United States. Representa-tive Colleen Hanabusa submitted legislation to award Fil-ipino Veterans with a Congressional Gold Medal, whichbecame known as the Filipino Veterans of World WarII Congressional Gold Medal Act.[60] The Act was re-ferred to the Committee on Financial Services and theCommittee on House Administration.[61] The Philippinegovernment has also enacted laws concerning the benefitsof Filipino guerrillas.[62]

World War II guerrilla movement in the Philippines hasalso garnered attention in Hollywood films such as Backto Bataan, Back Door to Hell, American Guerrilla in thePhilippines, Cry of Battle and the more contemporaryJohn Dahl film The Great Raid.[63][64][65] Filipino andJapanese films have also paid homage to the valiancyof the Filipino guerrillas during the occupation, such asYamashita: The Tiger’s Treasure, In the Bosom of the En-emy,Aishite Imasu 1941: Mahal Kita and the critically ac-claimed Japanese film Fires on the Plain.[66][67][68] Therehave been various memorials and monuments erectedto commemorate the actions of the Fllipino guerril-

las. Among such as the Filipino Heroes Memorial inCorregidor,[69] the Luis Taruc Memorial in San Luis,Pampanga, Balantang National Shrine in Jaro, Iloilo Cityto commemorate the 6th Military District that liberatedthe provinces of Panay, Romblon, and Guimaras,[70] andthe NL Military Shrine and Park in La Union.[71] TheLibingan ng mga Bayani (translated to Cemetery of theHeroes), which houses many historical Filipino nationalheroes, erected a special monument to pay respect to thenumerous unnamed Filipino guerrillas who fought in theoccupation.[72]

6 References[1] Gordon L. Rottman (2002). World War 2 Pacific Island

Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 287–289.ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0.

[2] “The Guerrilla War”. American Experience. PBS. Re-trieved 24 February 2011.

[3] Jubair, Salah. “The Japanese Invasion”. Maranao.Com.Retrieved 23 February 2011.

[4] “Have a bolo will travel”. Asian Journal. Retrieved 24February 2011.

[5] “People & Events: Filipinos and the War”. PBS.org.WGBH. 1999. Retrieved 2 September 2014.Rottman, Gordon (20 August 2013). US Special WarfareUnits in the Pacific Theater 1941–45. Osprey Publishing.p. 43. ISBN 978-1472805249. Retrieved 2 September2014.

[6] Lapham, Robert; Norling, Bernard (1996). Lapham’sRaiders: Guerrillas in the Philippines, 1942–1945. Uni-versity Press of Kentucky. p. 225. ISBN 978-0813126661. Retrieved 2 September 2014.

[7] Caraccilo, Dominic J. (2005). Surviving Bataan And Be-yond: Colonel Irvin Alexander’s Odyssey As a JapanesePrisoner Of War. Stackpole Books. pp. 287. ISBN 978-0-8117-3248-2.

[8] Rottman, Godron L. (2002). World War 2 Pacific is-land guide. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publish-ing Group. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0. Retrieved7 May 2011.

[9] Schmidt, Larry S. (1982). American Involvement in theFilipino Resistance Movement on Mindanao During theJapanese Occupation, 1942–1945 (PDF) (Master of Mil-itary Art and Science thesis). U.S. Army Command andGeneral Staff College. p. 2. Retrieved 5 August 2011.

[10] Prange, GordonW., Goldstein, Donald, &Dillon, Kather-ine. The Pearl Harbor Papers (Brassey’s, 2000), p.17ff;Google Books entry on Prange et al.

[11] For the Japanese designator of Oahu. Wilford, Timothy.“Decoding Pearl Harbor”, in The Northern Mariner, XII,#1 (January 2002), p.32fn81.

5

[12] Fukudome, Shigeru, “Hawaii Operation”. United StatesNaval Institute, Proceedings, 81 (December 1955),pp.1315–1331

[13] Morison, Samuel Eliot The Liberation of the Philippines:Luzon, Mindanao, the Visayas 1944–1945 (History ofUnited States Naval Operations in World War II) Cas-tle Books (2001). pp. 101, 120, 250. ISBN 978-0785813149

[14] Fukudome, Shigeru. Shikan: Shinjuwan Kogeki (Tokyo,1955), p. 150.

[15] “Chapter VI: Conquest of the Philippines”. Reports ofGeneral MacArthur: Japanese Operations in the SouthwestPacific Area. Volume II – Part I. Department of the Army.1994 [1950]. LCCN 66060007.

[16] Bataan Death March. Britannica Encyclopedia Online

[17] Lansford, Tom (2001). “Bataan Death March”. In San-dler, Stanley. World War II in the Pacific: An Encyclope-dia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 157–158. ISBN 978-0-8153-1883-5.

[18] Manahan, Manuel P. (1987). Reader’s Digest November1987 issue: Biographical Tribute to Ramon Magsaysay.pp. 17–23.

[19] “Philippine Resistance: Refusal to Surrender”. Asia atWar. 2009-10-17. History Channel Asia.

[20] Mojica, Proculo (1960). Terry’s Hunters: The True Storyof the Hunters ROTC Guerillas.

[21] “Remember Los Banos 1945”. Los Banos LiberationMemorial Scholarship Foundation, Inc. 2008. Retrieved2009-10-17.

[22] McCoy, Alfred W. (1999). Closer than brothers: man-hood at the Philippine Military Academy. Yale UniversityPress. pp. 167–170. ISBN 978-0-300-07765-0.

[23] Paul Morrow (January 16, 2009). “Maharlika and the an-cient class system”. Pilipino Express. Retrieved July 18,2012.

[24] Quimpo, Nathan Gilbert. Filipino nationalism is a contra-diction in terms, Colonial Name, Colonial Mentality andEthnocentrism, Part One of Four, “Kasama” Vol. 17 No.3 / July–August–September 2003 / Solidarity PhilippinesAustralia Network, cpcabrisbance.org

[25] Robles, Raissa (May 17, 2011). “Eminent Filipino warhistorian slamsMarcos burial as a “hero"". Raissa Robles:Inside Politics and Beyond.

[26] Joseph A. Reaves (September 29, 1989). “Marcos WasMore Than Just Another DeposedDictator”. Chicago Tri-bune.“US Department of Defense official database of Dis-tinguished Service Cross recipients”.

[27] Robert Lapham, Bernard Norling. Lapham’s Raiders:Guerrillas in the Philippines, 1942–1945. University Pressof Kentucky.

[28] Hogan, Jr., David W. (1992). “Chapter 4: Special Op-erations in the Pacific”. U.S. Army Special Operationsin World War II. Washington, D.C.: Department of theArmy. pp. 64–96. ISBN 9781410216908. OCLC316829618. Retrieved 27 September 2014.

[29] Cannon, M. Hamlin (1954). War in the Pacific: Leyte,Return to the Philippines. Government Printing Office. p.19. ASIN B000JL8WEG. Retrieved 27 September 2014.

[30] “Guerrillas in the Philippines”. West-Point.Org. Re-trieved 27 September 2014. In May 1943 The PhilippineRegional Section (PRS) was created as part of AIB andgiven the task of coordinating all activities in the Philip-pines

[31] “How Chinese guerrillas fought for Philippine freedom”.ABS-CBN News. February 2, 2015

[32] Sides, Hampton (2001). Ghost Soldiers: The ForgottenEpic Story of World War II’s Most Dramatic Mission. pp.291–293. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-49564-1

[33] Hunt, Ray C.; Norling, Bernard (2000). Behind JapaneseLines: An American Guerrilla in the Philippines. Univer-sity of Kentucky Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0813127552.Retrieved 11 June 2013.

[34] Ceniza, Christian. “10 Chilling Photos That Show TheAtrocities Of War In The Philippines”. Ten Minutes.February 2, 2015

[35] Saulo, Alfredo B., Communism in the Philippines: an In-troduction, Enlarged Ed., Ateneo de Manila UniversityPress, 1990, p. 31

[36] Greenberg, Major Lawrence M. (1986). “Chapter 2:World War II and Huk Expansion”. The HukbalahapInsurrection. U.S. Government Printing Office. LCCN86600597.

[37] Sinclair, II, Major Peter T. (1 December 2011), “Menof Destiny: The American and Filipino Guerillas Dur-ing the Japanese Occupation of the Philippines” (pdf),dtic.mil (School of Advanced Military Studies), retrieved2 September 2014

[38] The Lewiston Daily Sun – Nov 3, 1944

[39] “Philippine Resistance: Refusal to Surrender”. TivaratiEntertainment. October 13, 2009

[40] Lofgren, Stephen (1996). Southern Philippines. TheU.S. Army Campaigns of World War II. Washington,DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History. ISBN 978-0160481406. p. 98

[41] “Tiring Landing Field, located in Cabatuan, Iloilo”.Cabatuan.com Center for Cabatuan Studies, IloiloAir-port.com.

[42] Barreveld, Dick J. (2015). Cushing’s Coup: The True Storyof How Lt. Col. James Cushing and his Filipino GuerrillasCaptured Japan’s Plan Z. Philadelphia: Casemate. ISBN978-1-612-00308-5.

6 8 EXTERNAL LINKS

[43] MacArthur, Douglas (1966). Reports of GeneralMacArthur: suppl. MacArthur in Japan: the occupation,military phase. U.S. Government Printing Office. OCLC407539.

[44] Felias, Remedios, The Hidden Battle of Leyte – the PictureDiary of a Girl Taken By the Japanese Military, BucongBucong (1999), pp. 12–18. Asin: B000JL8WEG

[45] Gross, p. 178.

[46] Arnold 2011, p. 271.

[47] Keats 1990, pp. 354–355.

[48] Schmidt (1982), p. 165.

[49] “Terror in Jolo”. Time Magazine. December 1, 1941. Re-trieved May 29, 2011.

[50] “Maniacal Moros”. Black Belt (Active Interest MediaInc.) 26 (12): 56. December 1988. ISSN 0277-3066.

[51] “80 Japanese Troop Ships Are Sighted Off Luzon” 1941,p. 7.

[52] First National ScientificWorkshop onMuslim Autonomy,January 14–18, 1987, p. 19.

[53] Zincke & Mills 2002, p. 47.

[54] A. P. 1942, p. 24.

[55] MacArthur, Douglas (1964). Reminiscences of Generalof the Army Douglas MacArthur. Annapolis: BluejacketBooks. ISBN 1-55750-483-0. p.103

[56] Schmidt (1984) p. 5.

[57] Schmidt (1984) p.6

[58] Nakano, Satoshi (June 2004). “The Filipino World WarII veterans equity movement and the Filipino Americancommunity” (PDF). Seventh Annual International Philip-pine Studies (Center for Pacific And American Studies):53–81. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 February2007. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

[59] Tiongson, Antonio T.; Gutierrez, Edgardo V.; Gutierrez,Ricardo V. (2006). Positively No Filipinos Allowed: Build-ing Communities and Discourse. Temple University Press.ISBN 978-1-592-13123-5.

[60] Richard Simon (30 January 2013). “Philippine vets stillfighting their battle over WWII”. Stars and Stripes. LosAngeles Times. Retrieved 10 February 2013.

[61] “Committees: H.R.111 [113th]". Congress.gov. Libraryof Congress. 3 January 2013. Retrieved 10 February2013.

[62] “Philippine government pensions for war veterans”. Offi-cal Gazzette. Retrieved July 26, 2015.

[63] Richard Jewell and Vernon Harbin, The RKO Story. NewRochelle, New York: Arlington House, 1982. p. 204

[64] Barber, Mike (August 25, 2005). “Leader of WWII’s“Great Raid” looks back on real-life POW rescue”. SeattlePost-Intelligencer. Archived from the original on August4, 2010. Retrieved March 15, 2010.

[65] Bulkley, Robert J.; Kennedy, John F.; Eller, Ernest Mac-Neill (2003). At Close Quarters: PT Boats in the UnitedStates Navy, Naval Institute Press, p. 24.

[66] “51 Countries In Race For Oscar”. Academy of MotionPicture Arts and Sciences. November 19, 2001. Archivedfrom the original on July 4, 2008.

[67] Yamashita: The Tiger’s Treasure 2001 directed by Chito S.Rono, retrieved 19 March 2012

[68] “JAPANESE FILM CITED; ' Nobi,' War Movie, WinsFirst Prize at Locarno Festival”. The New York Times.1961-07-31. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[69] Gonzalez, Vernadette V. (2013). Securing Paradise:Tourism and Militarism in Hawai’i and the Philippines.Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-822-39594-2.

[70] Villalón, Augusti (2007). Living Landscapes and CulturalLandmarks: World Heritage Sites in the Philippines. Art-Post Asia Books. ISBN 978-9-7193-1708-1.

[71] Fllipino government (2007). “Memorials for Fllipino vet-erans”. Official gazette (Fllipino national Press) 95 (32):1981. ISSN 0115-0421.

[72] Laputt, Juny. “Republic Memorial Cemetery at FortMcKinley”. Corregidor Island. Retrieved July 26, 2015.

7 Further reading• “U.S. Army Recognition Program of PhilippineGuerrillas.” (PDF). Headquarters, Philippine Com-mand, United States Army. National Archives andRecords Administration. 1948.

• General MacArthur’s General Staff (20 June 2006)[1966]. “CHAPTER X; GUERRILLA ACTIVI-TIES IN THE PHILIPPINES”. Reports of GeneralMacArthur. United States Army. pp. 295–326.LCCN 66-60005.

• Schmidt, Major Larry S. (1982). American Involve-ment in the Filipino Resistance Movement on Min-danao During the Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945.Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army Commandand General Staff College.

8 External links• “Alphabetical List of Guerrilla Units and Their FileCodes in the Guerrilla Unit Recognition Files”.Philippine Archives Collection. National Archive.

• “Roderick Hall Collection: On World War II inthe Philippines”. Filipinas heritage Library. AyalaFoundation.

7

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