( 32 )

CHAPTER-II

THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The study of the related literature implies locating, reading and

evaluating reports of research as well as reports of casual observation

and opinion that are related to the individual's planned research project.

As observed by J.W. Best, "Practically all human knowledge can be

found in books and libraries. Unlike other animals that must start anew

with each generation man builds upon the accumulated and recorded

knowledge of the past.

The review of the literature is the basis of most of the research

projects in the physical sciences, natural sciences, social sciences and

humanities. It gives the scholar an understanding of the previous work

that has been done. It enables us to know the means of getting to the

frontier in the field of our problem. Until we have learnt what others,

have done and what still remains to be done in our area, we can not

develop a research project that will contribute to furthering knowledge

in our field. It provides ideas, examinations and theories of research,

valuable in studying the problem. In the words of Walter R. Borg,

( 33 )

"The literature in any field forms the foundation upon which all future

work will be built."

The author further observes that if we fail to build this foundation

of knowledge provided by the review of the literature, our work is likely

to be shallow and naive, and will often duplicate work that has already

been done better by someone else. Carter V. Good thinks, "The key to

the vast storehouse of published literature may open doors to sources

of significant problems and explanatory hypotheses, and provide helpful

orientation for definition of the problem, background for selection of

procedure, and comparative data for interpretation of results. In order

to be truly creative and original, one must read extensively and critically

as a stimulus to thinking."

LALITHA, CH. conducted a study on The Educational

Philosophies of Gandhi and Dewey from Andhra University in 1967.

The findings of the study were : (i) Gandhi was influenced by

Tolstoy, Ruskin and the Gita; Dewey by Hegelian idealism and William

James's pragmatism, (ii) Gandhi and Dewey differed in their conception

of truth. Gandhi identified truth with God, while Dewey regarded truth

as temporal and pragmatic. Both agreed that knowledge is acquired and

( 34 )

not innate. (iii) Gandhi formulated his theory of education, taking as his

ideal what he believed to be the ancient Indian way of life and

education, while Dewey took as his guiding lights, democracy, science

and progress. (iv) For Gandhi religion was connected with education but

Dewey was against inclusion of religion in curricula. (v) Dewey's ideal

democratic society was ever progressive and it was industrially and

technologically oriented. But Gandhi's ideas seemed to be less tenable

in this age of science.

SINGH, S.N. studied Bertrand Russell Ke Shiksha Sidhanto Ka

Adhyayan from B.H.U. in 1969.

The major finding of the study were (i) Russell accepts that the

aim of education is to create a worthy and noble man and a lofty

society. (ii) He considers that vitality, courage, sensitiveness and

intelligence are necessary for the development of personality. (iii) The

development of these qualities will form the character of the individual,

he will gain social efficiency and will be able to lead a happy life.

MISHRA, R.S. studied Shiksha Darshniko T.P. Nunn, Bertrand

Russell, Rabindranath Tagore evam Mahatma Gandhi par Prikertivadi

Darshan Ka Prabhav from Gorakhpur University in 1977.

( 35 )

The main finding of this study were (i) Bertrand Russell and T.P.

Nunn believes that man is free by birth. So for his natural development

it is necessary that he is given freedom (ii) Rabindranath Tagore and

Mahatma Gandhi favoured the natural development of child. They

assert that school environment should be completely free, flexible and

without any rigidity.

SINGH, B.P. conducted a study on the Developing Aims of

Education in India from Agra University in 1977.

The major findings were : (i) The investigation is divided into five

sections, namely Vedic, Buddhist, Muslim, British and past

Independence. In every section, details have been given regarding the

various aspects of education. (ii) The investigator has discussed the

ways of determining the educational aims : the measures to be adopted

for making current system of education more worth while; the emphasis

on vocation oriented education and work-centred education,

responsibilities of education and improvement of education.

PUTHIYATH, J.D. conducted a study on Educational Philosophy

of Swami Vivekananda from Bombay University in 1978.

( 36 )

The findings of this study were (i) education was defined as

physical health, the training of the intellect, and spiritual training for the

youth, and religion was established as related to other interests, science

and morality (ii) Swami Vivekananda believed that the child learned

through self education and things were made clear by his own power of

perception and thought; the teacher should be helper and a guide;

teaching should be adjusted to the needs of the children wherein the

teacher had sympathy for the child. (iii) He defined religion as

realization and stressed the need for religious education without

dogmas (iv) He felt that women education should be developed with

religion as the core and all other training secondary to it. (v) The

answer to progress, he claimed, was through mass education which

was not likely to be effective in poverty (vi) He believed in the universal

brotherhood of man, in the upliftment of mankind.

VENKATESWARLU, M. worked on the Educational Philosophy

as reflected in Mahabharata from Andhra University in 1978.

The major findings of the study were : The conviction (Sankhya)

of the existence of the self-same reality in all created beings was

conducive to self-confidence, appreciation and humility which were

basic to the right conduct which alone could bring about national

( 37 )

integration. (ii) The course of brahmacharya released tremendous will

power. (iii) The cultivation of virtues and a proper code of conduct were

more important than the achievement of skills or advancement in the

cognitive domain. (iv) Sacrifice as a means of creation was a law of

nature and also a law of God. (v) The educational Philosophy that was

in consonance with Sankhya philosophy of life was most suited in India

as her national educational philosophy. (vi) Ashramas were an

institution in appreciation of the principle of gradualness of human

evolution. (vii) The disciplines of food and dress were essential for

educators and the educand. (viii) The intellect that had undergone

sublimation, the Vedas, the functional Brahmin and the love of God

were the effective source of knowledge.

JAIN, K.C. conducted a study of the Educational Philosophy of

Lord Mahavir with relevance to Modern India from Punjab University in

1980.

The major findings of the study were : (i) Jainism was the religion

concerned with practical life. (ii) The naturalistic approach of Jainism

could be compared to that of Rousseau. Janism granted complete

freedom to an individual. (iii) Jainism was a philosophy of action. It was

a science and not a code of arbitrary rules and capricious

( 38 )

commandments. It emphasized the conative and practical aspect of

sadhana, and did not favour the traditional rituals and karmakand, No

doubt, Jainism emphasized the importance of change and novelty, but

its emphasis was on eternal truths of humanity, self-control and self-

realization. (iv) Thus, we had, in Jainism, a happy reconciliation of the

individualistic, socialistic, naturalistic, idealistic and pragmatic views of

education.

Sharma. N. conducted a study of the impact of the Western

Educational Thinkers on Modern Indian Education, from Kurukshetra

University in 1980.

The main conclusions were : (i) Modern Indian educationists had

so redesigned their pedagogical practices as to give due recognition to

the various teaching techniques propounded by some of the Western

educational thinkers. (ii) With the impact of Western educational

thinkers modern Indian educationists realized the essence of real

discipline in terms of suitable environment, smaller classes and better

understanding of the real needs of the children at different stages.

(iii) After the Western design, the educational institutions had been so

designed and developed as to make room for the all round development

of the child. (iv) The philosophy of the Western education thinkers had,

( 39 )

in a way, completely gripped the Indian mind and setting. The

educational policies and practices spoke of their impact in one form or

the other.

DUBEY, M. worked on Educational Philosophy in Upanishads

(Upanishado main shiksha darshan), from Sampurnanand Sanskrit

University in 1980.

The study revealed that : (i) the Upanishadic philosophy of

education aimed at arousing the spiritual vision of human beings for

living an active worldly life but all for attaining salvation (moksha).

(ii) The curriculum mainly consisted of two parts, para vidya - subjects

related to spiritual development and salvation and apara vidya -

subjects like the vedas, the Puranas, grammar, social customs,

mathematics, production etc. (iii) The teacher - taught relationship was

extremely cordial and the teacher behaved like a father (iv) The

methodology of teaching was shravana (hearing), contemplation,

discussion, question - answer, formulation, debate, inductive and

deductive logic, explaining and learning by doing. (v) The practice of

acquired knowledge was immensely emphasized.

( 40 )

Dev, B.R. conducted a study on the Spiritual element in the

Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi from MSU in 1981.

The study revealed that : (i) Gandhiji's life was mostly an effort in

spiritual growth to arrive at self-realization as well as God realization,

which is called the truth. Considering this as the goal, the means he

used were love and non-violence, and all taken together, he called it

the three fold path which according to him was 'a religion of service'

through which he wanted to establish moral and spiritual order in the

world society. The three fold path advocated by Gandhiji could be learnt

and followed in the class room situation. (ii) Gandhiji wanted man to be

proficient, efficient and productive by knowing himself and his

environment. Only then the person would see the possibility of spiritual

growth within himself.

KHANNA, P. conducted a study on Kilpatrick, W.H., as an

Educational Philosopher from Gorakhpur University in 1981.

The books and articles written by Kilpatrick along with the notes

and comments on them were carefully studied. The researcher tried to

trace the origin of Kilpatrick's philosophy and delineate his views

regarding philosophy and education. His thoughts regarding the life

( 41 )

process of human beings as foundation of philosophy, interdependence

of the individual and the society, thinking as active and creative

process, conscious morality as a social necessity, culture as the funded

capital of civilization, and democracy as a social force were thoroughly

probed. The study revealed the philosophical background of the project

method of teaching and how Kilpatrick tried to synthesize philosophy

and education.

CHAUHAN, B.P.S. studied Educational Philosophy of Swami

Dayanand from Meerut University in 1981.

This study revealed that : (i) Swami Dayanand advocated ancient

gurukul system of education in which brahmacharya was an essential

condition of the students life. He advocated love and service, inner

discipline, self realization and truth as the ultimate goals of life and

education (ii) His concept of education was spiritual, religious, social

and knowledge - oriented (iii) He stressed that students between the

age of six and eight only should be admitted to schools. Hindi should be

the medium of instruction and the objective should be the study of

Hindu culture and Sanskrit literature (iv) Dharma or true religion should

be followed in life. He advocated that the devotion to and worship of

only one God, the realization of self (soul) and material reality should

( 42 )

be the aims of education (v) He considered shravana, manan, and

nididhyasan, logic, question and answer methods to be essential for the

students and said that the teacher must follow the question and answer

method. (vi) He stressed the relationship of the teacher and the taught

as of father and son based on love and respect. (vii) He advocated the

need of well-defined curriculum for the teacher and the taught. The

nature of discipline for students was inner in which he fulfilled the aims

of life.

PURANDARE, P.G. studied Rabindranath Tagore's Educational

Philosophy, from Poona University in 1982.

The study revealed that : (i) Tagore's general philosophy dealt

with the concepts about God and nature. For him, God was imminent in

all beings. Man was His highest creation. Nature also was the

manifestation of God. (ii) According to his ethical and aesthetic

approach to life, man could realize himself and God through creative

activities like dramatics, literature and paintings etc. According to him,

aesthetics, the science of beauty, was the link between the human and

the divine. (iii) The main principles of his educational philosophy were

freedom and harmony with the natural and human surroundings.

(iv) Tagore's aim of education was an all-round development or

( 43 )

education for fullness. There was a lot of novelty in his methods. The

teacher and pupils used to sit in the shade of a tree and the act of

learning was carried on in the open. The students enjoyed full

freedom. (v) He advocated the view that real education is got from a

stimulating atmosphere. Every child should learn freely and

spontaneously from the book of nature. (vi) According to him, the child

should be free from all restrictions and impositions.

KAUR, A. worked on the Educational Philosophy of Sikh Gurus

from Punjabi University in 1983.

The study revealed : (i) According to the philosophy of the gurus,

Education is self realization in all its power and potentialities. (ii) The

main aims of education are individual development, social development

and preparation for a life for action. (iii) To educate children, methods

required are oral-cum-memorization, use of poetry and songs,

recitation, and play. (iv) The teacher is he who has realized the True

Lord and is a seeker of Truth. (v) The teacher prepares the disciples for

God. Realization and acquisition of real knowledge is possible through

His guidance. (vi) Intellectual, social and spiritual development is

possible only when there is a conscious Endeavour on the part of the

( 44 )

educand to disciple his life. (vii) A disciple is one who follows the

discipline of the gurus and is a fully dedicated soul and seeker of truth.

BAKHE, S.M. studied on the Educational Philosophy of

Lokamanya Tilak and Swami Vivekananda from Southern University in

1983.

The main findings were : (i) The aim of education was to enable

man to realize the highest in him. (ii) To Tilak and Swamiji, the function

of education was to tap and release the vast potential for actualizing

and fulfilling one's capabilities and finding a deeper meaning in life and

teaching was a learned profession. (iii) Service to man was the

condition of man's full spiritual development. Wisdom or highest

learning or noble qualities were not the end in themselves. Moral

heroism was the true fruit of education.

CHANDRA, S.S. studied Educational Philosophy of

Sri Aurobindo from Meerut University in 1984.

The major findings of the study were : (i)The educational ideas

and ideals of Sri Aurobindo were the outcome of the emerging period of

renaissance in India. (ii) The concept of integral education aimed at all-

round development of personality and realization of self through the

( 45 )

development of physical, vital, mental and psychic faculties. (iii) His

philosophy of education was a happy synthesis of idealism, spiritualism,

naturalism, realism, individualism and socialism, (iv) Physical education,

according to him, was to be based on yogic exercises. (v) In the

integral scheme of education neither the educator nor the educand was

solely important : rather both were unified in a common bond.

According to him, the teacher was the helper and the guide of the child.

The education he advocated provided full freedom to the individual

growth of the educand. His free progress system of education was

based on subjective evaluation by the teachers. (vi) According to him,

accelerated evolution from man to the supra-mental being was through

the practice of integral yoga and evolution of supermind. (vii) According

to him, realization of national soul and reorganization of collective

national life - laws, education and all other activities - aimed at

freedom, truth and maximum good of all and each nation.

AWASTHI, S. conducted a study on Aadhunika Pariprekshya

main Vedic Shiksha (in Hindi) from SSV in 1984.

The significant findings of the study were : (i) Philosophy, religion

and education were interwoven in the ancient Vedic system. (ii) The

main aim of education was self-realization through acquisition of

( 46 )

knowledge and to achieve the capacity for exploring the reality.

(iii) Methodology of education had three steps. Sravana (listening),

Manana (deliberation, reflection on topic thought), and Nididhyasana

(meditation), by which the realization of truth may be attained. In

addition to these inductive and deductive methods, discussion and

questioning were other popular methods of teaching. (iv) There was no

discrimination against women in education. Women had equal rights for

education in the Vedic period. They were also taught some of the fine

arts like dancing and singing.

MATHUR, J. studied an approaches to Educational Theory - A

philosophical probe from Delhi University in 1985.

The findings of the study were : (i) In the west philosophers had

been engaged in three kinds of activity, viz., speculative, normative and

analytical. (ii) Educational Philosophy came to bear upon it a distinction

through education as a process of human development and education

as a discipline or field of study. (iii) Philosophy of education meant

philosophy of the process of educating or philosophy of the discipline of

education. (iv) In the highly scientific west, the process of education

was studied through the manifest practices of instruction and learning

in the social institution called 'school'. The processes were studied by

( 47 )

persons belonging to the various disciplines of sociology, psychology,

economics, etc. (v) The discipline of education was seen to be in need

of analysis. This was concerned with analyzing the concepts of the

factual sciences of education, e.g. intelligence, growth, etc. (vi) It was

seen that the fragmented view of both philosophy and of education in

the West had led to a skepticism which proclaimed that philosophy was

not what education needed; what it needed was a theory as generated

by the factual sciences of sociology, psychology, etc. (vii) In the Indian

context the philosophy was seen as the practical way of life. Its role

was seen as one of nurturing and nourishing the spirit.

GUPTA, R.P. conducted a study on Educational thoughts of

Swami Vivekananda from Rohilkhand University in 1985.

From his study the researcher concluded : (i) Swami Vivekananda

laid stress on physical and mental development of students.

(ii) Education should develop a feeling of nationalism and international

understanding. (iii) Education should lead to the development of

character. (iv) Mother - tongue should be the medium of instruction.

(v) Education should be according to the aptitudes of the students.

(vi) Education should provide motivation for attainment of Nirvan.

(vii) Curriculum should include religious education, Vedantic education,

( 48 )

physical training, philosophy, geography, history, science, technical

subjects, vocational training, art, music, home science etc.

SAXENA, M. worked on the Educational philosophy of British

Idealism with special reference to T.H. Green and B. Bosanquet, from

Kurukshetra University in 1986.

The study revealed : (i) According to Idealism, ultimate reality in

an embodiment of mind and spirit. So any system which does not build

upon the mind or knowing subject, would give an inadequate picture of

reality. (ii) According to Green, the Ideal Forms not only represented

essences but also perfections; forms were not averages but ideals and

it is these which the mind longs to discover behind the veil of sense.

Education, therefore, is meant to train the young mind to visualize the

ends for which it should live. (iii) According to British idealism, the aim

of education is to prepare the individuals to become a good citizen and

work for the good of the nation, not through compulsion but habitually.

(iv) In Idealism, it is impossible to separate ethics and metaphysics

because all our values have relation to the whole universe.

(v) Education is an institution that prescribes desirable modes of

behaviour and is concerned with imbueing in younger minds with what

is normally good. (vi) Both green and Bosanquet profess that the

( 49 )

highest ethical ideal to be realized is the development of consciousness

to the highest level of rational activity. It implies that education has to

bring about a harmonious development of all aspects of man's nature.

(vii) Idealism requires culture to form part of the curriculum because

the cultured behaviour of man brings dignity in his conduct. (viii) For

Idealist, in an intellectual discipline, the main aim should be to bring

young minds to hold the truth as the highest value and train them to

refuse to yield to what is immoral and untrue. (ix) According to

Idealists, a man becomes moral by respecting the laws of his nation

and by serving his state. Green regarded state as the society of

societies and the root of moral law and weal. Education, therefore is

preparing individuals to be good citizens whose national character

would provide strength to the nation.

MISRA, SHIVA SARAN studied on the Educational Philosophy and

Teaching Method of Swami Vivekanand from Avadh University in 1986.

The study revealed : (i) Swami Vivekanand believed that the

foundation of all religions of the world was directly or indirectly based

on Vedant philosophy. Swamiji had great faith in the Vedas and

Upnishads. (ii) Along with spiritual education, he emphasized vocational

education also. In a broader sense, this was his basis for curriculum

( 50 )

design. (iii) Methods of teaching included contact, concentration, self-

experience, question answer, etc. (iv) Strong moral character and a

positive attitude towards pupils were essential for teachers. He

emphasized self-discipline. (v) Swamiji's thoughts had a balance of

idealism and pragamtism.

RAI, M. Pt. worked on Madan Mohan Malviya Ke Shaikshik

Vicharon Ka Adhyayan from BHU in 1986.

The major findings were (i) According to Malviya, education must

provide vocation to every individual. By means of education, human

personality could be developed. (ii) According to him, a students life

should be very simple as it was in ancient times of the Gurukul system.

A student's life must be dominated by religious thoughts. He was of the

view that for developing good discipline among students, the

atmosphere of the institution must be ideal, so that student could follow

the ideals. (iii) In his opinion, there was a strong relationship between

religion and education.

AGARWAL, KUSUM worked on the Educational philosophy of

Ram Tirth from Agra University in 1987.

( 51 )

Major findings of this study were : (i) Education should be based

on the ideals of life and should aim at bringing out the inner capacities

and developing the personality of the child in order to develop the

society ultimately. (ii) Indian ideals should be included in the curricula

at different stages of education. (iii) Practical knowledge of Vedanta

should be given to students. (iv) There should be a balance of the

material, spiritual, individual and social aspects in the educational

process. Love for nation should be one of the main aims of education.

(v) The curriculum should include philosophical as well as scientific

subjects. (vi) Teaching - learning process should be given due place to

interests, motivation, traits, self-experience, exercise, proceeding from

known to unknown, and the use of teaching aids.

BHAGWANTI conducted a study on Educational philosophy of

Dr. Radha Krishnan and its relevance for social change from Agra

University in 1988.

Major findings of his study were : (i) According to Dr. Radha

Krishnan, Education must be based on the cultural values of the Indian

heritage. (ii) Dr. Radha Krishan's philosophy is based on spiritual

consciousness. (iii) Dr. Radha Krishnan pleaded for unifying the

Western and Indian ideologies. (iv) Dr. Radha Krishnan recognized man

( 52 )

as a supreme creation and felt that his harmonious development

depends upon cultural development. (v) According to Dr. Radha

Krishnan, education should be organized in a logical sequence.

SHARMA, UMA RANI conducted a comparative study on the

educational ideas of Sarvapalli Radha Krishnan and Bertrand Russell

from Allahabad University in 1989.

Major findings of this study were : (i) The aims of school education for

Bertrand Russell were to help the pupil to reveal the mysteries of

nature; use his leisure wisely; excel in various vocational skills; earn his

livelihood; acquire all the qualities of a good citizen. He pleaded that

knowledge should be imparted for intellectual purposes. (ii) Sarvapalli

Radhakrishnan emphasised moral and spiritual training. (iii) Both

philosophers laid stress on games and sports for the healthy

development of the body. (iv) In the case of teachers. Russell gave

higher priority to research, Radhakrishnan, however, felt that teaching

was more important (v) Radhakrishnan was more concerned for

women's education vis-a-vis Russell's ideas in this regard.

GOYAL, G.K. conducted a study on Bertrand Russell aur

Mahatma Gandhi Ke Shaikshik Vicharon Ka Adhunik Samyik

Pariprekshya Main Mulyankan (in Hindi) from Meerut University in 2002.

( 53 )

The main findings of the study were (i) According to Gandhiji, the

ultimate aim of human life is emancipation, self-realization, and

knowledge of self. (ii) According to Russell, the main aim of education is

to bring about the individual development of the child in such a way

that he becomes a worthy member of human society (iii) Gandhiji

favoured discipline motivated from within. He was not in favour

punishing the children under any circumstances. (iv) Gandhiji was a

religious man. He accepted human service as the noblest religion. In his

views religious education is to incline the children towards service to

humanity. (v) According to Russell, religion weakens man, man does

everything whether good or evil in the fear of religion, therefore

religious education should not be provided in schools.

SHARMA, S. studied Rabindranath Tagore evam Bertrand

Russell Ke Shiksha Darshan Ka Tulnatmak Adhyayan from Meerut

University in 2004.

The main findings of the study were : (i) Tagore was in favour of

such education which could effect physical and spiritual development of

man, and he considered these as educational aims. (ii) Russell has

discussed several aims of education such as character and intellectual

development, development of scientific attitude and individuality

( 54 )

(iii) Tagore emphasized on nature and fine arts in his curriculum but

Russell has constructed different curricula for children of different levels

(iv) Tagore accepted discipline not as an external order but as an

internal feeling (v) Russell opposed harsh punishment and complete

freedom both; he supported the middle path. (vi) Tagore Transformed

religious education into humanist education. (vii) Russell opposed

religious education. In his views, religion weakens man, man does

everything whether good or evil in the fear of religion.

In a nut shell, we can say that S. Sharma, B.P.S. Chauhan,

G.K. Goyal, J.P. Puthiyath, P.G. Purandare, S.S. Chandra etc.

studied the educational views of Rabindranath Tagore, Swami

Dayanand, Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Vivekanand and found that they

were more inclined towards naturalism. All thinkers have expressed

their faith in God and instead of regarding nature as final truth, they

have seen the supreme truth in the form of sat, chit and anand. They

have laid emphasis on self-realization, regarding salvation as the

supreme aim of life. All have emphasized the inclusion of social, cultural

and humanistic subjects in the curriculum. Moral and spiritual

development has been the purpose of all of them. All have supported

religious education.

( 55 )

P. Khanna, C.H. Lathila and Uma Rani Sharma studied on

Western philosophers like Kilpatrick, Dewey and Russell and found that

their curriculum consists of activities and projects, leading to

reconstruction and re-oganization of experience. They have made an

original approach to the problems confronting man today and have

offered sound solutions for them. Bertrand Russell emphasized on the

individual development of the child. He favoured the scientific education

and was against the religious education.

On the basis of above researches the following conclusion is

drawn that through education curriculum logical thinking should be

developed. Bertrand Russell has been such a philosopher who created a

new revolution in the field of knowledge. His educational views will be

highly beneficial for those, who have to take the responsibility of the

development of the educational system of their country and the world

in the present and future age.