The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self ... · PDF fileThe Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 2 The theory and practice of government has been

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The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability

Najwa Mordhah

PhD student

Old Dominion University

Public Administration and Urban Policy

2012

[email protected]:

5000 Powhatan Ave

23508 Norfolk, VA

Cell phone: 217-8196585

mailto:[email protected]

The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 2

The theory and practice of government has been shaped by the classic debate

between Herman Finer and Carl Friedrich in the history of public administration since the

1940s (Jackson,2009). Finer (1941) believes accountability has two meanings; one of them

is “…X is accountable for Y to Z” (p.336) and another one means that accountability is

“…an inward personal sense of moral obligation” (p.336). Finer thinks those two meanings

of accountability could be applied separately and he goes on to support external

accountability. According to Mulgan (2002), after a half century, the concept of

accountability has been changed and it goes beyond its core meaning of external control, as

used by Finer. Now, the need to include Friedrich’s inner accountability is imperative.

External accountability has many facets and Weberian bureaucracy is not the only

type of theory to apply strong control and accountability, but there are also technical,

political and managerial accountabilities in many public agencies (Callahan, 2007; Romzek

& Dubnick, 1987; Eikenberry, 2007). These types of accountability, however, conflict with

each other, and lead to blurring boundaries of accountability instead of applying stronger

ones (Romzek & Dubnick, 1987). For example, the disaster that happened in January 28th

1986, when NASA’s shuttle Challenger exploded and seven innocent lives were stolen, was

because of conflicting accountabilities (Romzek & Dubnick, 1987). They add that many of

NASA’s problems are generated because of the existence of multiple accountability systems

(political, managerial, bureaucratical, professional) in the same agencies.

Moreover, these situations could lead to corruption in which dishonest public

officials exploit opportunities for putting self above public interest. Miao(2010) states that

corruption “…has many negative impacts upon a given society, such as wasting public

resources, corrupting public morality, sabotaging government procedures and policies,


distorting justice…”(p.1). Even in the United States where there is a strong legislative base,

with severe penalties for corrupt behavior, corruption nevertheless abounds (Graycar &

Villa, 2011). Graycar & Villa (2011) analyze data from 100 successfully prosecuted cases

from New York City to investigate corruption in service positions in NYC. They conclude

that in one-fifth of the cases, funds were stolen and about 66% of the corrupt acts were

violations of existing regulations, and about 33% were crimes of opportunity for private

gain. Most importantly, they found that 80% of the cases involved indicate governance

capacity loss which means that government is incapable of providing safety or ensuring

standards.

Here, as it is discussed previously, if the government is losing its capacity to control,

this type of accountability, which depends on standards and principles, is not appropriate

anymore. Linda Galindo (2010) turns our attention to an essential point when she asserts

that the major problem in business today is a serious lack of accountability and personal

responsibility. She adds that to overcome this obstacle, personal accountability has to be

created. Accountability studies usually give attention to normative issues, and take their

eyes away from the need for real accountability which emerges from internal and personal

behavior. Mulgan (2002) states that the extension of the core accountability (external

accountability) is “…readily intelligible”(p.555). This study, however, believes in the

importance of self accountability as a type of accountability that does not conflict with the

core accountability but it goes hand in hand to provide more discipline for public servants to

work efficiently and effectively. It could be arguable that self or internal accountability is

related to subjectivity unless it is a skill that can be learned and enhanced. So, this study

suggests emotional intelligence as a way to enhance self accountability. Emotional


intelligence, is a concept that is related to “…the ability to manage oneself, the ability to

control one's emotions, and the ability to motivate oneself” (Latif,2006, p.81).

This paper argues that if it is hard to apply external accountability in public

organizations due to the lack of clarity of the boundaries of accountabilities and

governance capacity, it is imperative to look for accountability that emerges from

internal principles not external. Therefore, this paper aims to address the role of

emotional intelligence in shaping self accountability.

What is Accountability?

Accountability in public administration usually implies hierarchical bureaucratic

accountability and applies strong control from top to bottom. As Madison and Hamilton

(1959) point out:

“If men were angels no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern

men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In

framing a government which is to be administrated by men over men, the great

difficulty lies in this: You must first enable the government to control the

governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence on the

people is, no doubt, the primary control of the government; but experience has

tough mankind the necessity of auxiliary precaution” (p.337).

Strong control could apply accountability in different ways. However, accountability

has tended to be financial in nature, as Martin & Frahm (2010) argue, that because of the

focus on financial accountability, the concept of accountability has been reduced to

secondary importance. After, the concept of accountability expands to include efficiency,

quality and effectiveness. In doing so, Bovens (2010) defines Accountability or, more

precisely, being accountable, “…is seen as a positive quality in organizations or officials”


(p.946) and “…as one of the core attributes of good governance “ (Emdadul Haq

,2010, p.26)”. Afifuddin & Siti-Nabiha (2010) state that accountability is “…a relationship

which involves the giving and demanding of reasons for conduct…” (p.1134) and this

relationship could be between individuals, groups, government, organizations, in direct or

indirect ways.

Roberts (1991) turns our attention to crucial points that ‘…different forms of

accountability produce diversity of senses of our-selves and our relation to others”(p. 385).

He claims that those differences are created by two forms of accountability which are:

hierarchical and socializing. Roberts portrays hierarchical forms of accountability as

disciplinary power gives an individual sense of self. Roberts (1991) suggests that beside

the individualism that hierarchical accountability produces, socializing forms of

accountability are other possibilities of accountability which can set up a more rationally

grounded agreement. These socializing forms of accountability also aim at confirming the

self and, at the same time, they openly admit the interdependence and mutual relations of

the self and the other. Briefly, while socializing forms of accountability rely on informal

relationships with wide communication, the hieratical form focuses on individualism and

formal relationships with others.

Back to Finer - Friderich debates in which administrators in public sectors have to stand

with whether moral accountability or outward accountability. Finer (1941), however, raises

the theoretical views of accountability theory and how it is mostly intertwined with role

theory. Frink & Klimosk (2004) state that while role theory is defined as “…a way to

describe how organizations, as ‘‘contrived socials systems’’ manage to inculcate or produce

reliable behavior on the part of their members…” ( p.4), accountability theory “…refers to


the building of self-actions–standards perceptions”(p.9). They add that accountability theory

focuses on decisions or behaviors related to moral or ethical issues. Role theory, however, is

also related to ethical in some ways but it focuses more on function and job performance.

So, in order to integrate role theory and accountability theory, accountability in an

organization is seen as “…having to report or explain oneself to others in the future” (p.9).

However, accountability in the last view is what governmental agencies suffer from

and struggle with. There is ambiguity in determining who is accountable to whom and for

what, due to network governance and complicity (Bogason ,2006; Throne ,2009) which

leads to the fact that the government is losing its capacity to control (Graycar & Villa,

2011). In addition there are many divisions of accountability in the same public agency

which contradict each other (Romzek & Dubnick, 1987). Hence, what we need is another

type of accountability which emerges from individuals internally as a way to enhance

accountability in public organizations. This directs us to the next question: What is self

accountability?

Self accountability:

It is known that accountability is the goal when in fact we are far away from

achieving emotional or moral intent. Yet on the other, accounting based upon essential

measurements could be imperfectly considered as having absolute results when, in fact, they

practically serve goals of some people very well and others only poorly (Sulaiman,

2001).Moreover, Passyn & Sujan (2006) state that the ability to act based upon performance

measurements is different from the aspiration to act inherently in self-accountability. They

add that individuals must feel responsible and motivated to act if action is about to occur


even though they might not feel they are capable of action. Frijda (1986) and Passyn and

Sujan (2006) believe that emotions motivate and drive behavior and actions.

Samuel & Stewart (2009) point to the importance of establishing sustainable

accountability. They add that most thinkers believe there is no sustainable accountability.

The researchers think those thinkers are far from reality because they are looking for

enforced accountability and they ignore accountability that comes from self beliefs or moral

and ethical persuasion.

Depending on an empirical study, Passyn & Sujan (2006) report that emotions lead to

facilitative effects that enhance self- accountability dimensions, such as guilt and regret.

They add that even though the perception of self-accountability motivates intentions, the

drive for implementation or achievement requires the additional impetus of an emotional

experience. An emotion requires a confluence of appraisal. They also examine the role of

high self-accountability emotions in enhancing compliance with fear appeals. They find that

relative to straight fear appeals or adding hope, which ascribes low accountability to the self,

action- facilitative coping, intentions, and behaviors are enhanced by adding guilt and

regret, all of which induce feelings of high self-accountability. Consequently, depending on

previous results, it has to be noticed that self- accountability is a mixture of fear, hope, guilt,

regret and frequent self evaluation.

From a psychological perspective, Coelho (2010) states that confession and

repentance are important to enhance self – accountability and also significant to rehabbing

behaviors, and they require different steps. He emphasizes the recognition that one has done

wrong or not according to their deepest values is the first step to enhance self-

accountability. The next step is deciding to change to obtain self- satisfaction as a response


to the expression or confession of the painful truths about the self. “…vital to this

confession is some expression of regret or remorse for what one has done or caused” (p.38).

Briefly, self accountability might be considered as a distinguishable type of

accountability and it could be defined as self - monitoring emerging from strong motives

and characterized as frequent self- blaming and evaluating for any mistake whether small or

big. In addition it requires strong conscientiousness, experience and emotional motives.

These motives could be religious, ethical or spiritual.

Spirituality, however, can be seen “…as a form of intelligence because it predicts

functioning and adaptation and offers capabilities that enable people to solve problems and

attain goals” (Hosseini et al., 2010,p.179). Hossieini et al. (2010) add that psychologists’

conception of spirituality is extended by the conceiving spirituality as a sort of intelligence

which allows spirituality to be associated with rational processes and goal achievement.

They emphasize that type of intelligence which is related to spirituality could be emotional

intelligence. Emotional intelligence enables us “… to judge in which situation we are

involved and then to behave appropriately within it” (p.179).

The Marshmallow Test, which is discussed in Goleman’s book (1995), supports this

conception. The Marshmallow study divided children into four groups depending on

whether they were exposed to the rewards (marshmallow) or not, and whether or not the

children were advised how to distract themselves. The study finds that only those children

who were exposed to the rewards resisted them without having been advised on how to

distract themselves. This experiment leads us to conclude that “…there is perhaps no

psychological skill more fundamental than resisting impulse. It is the root of all emotional

self-control” (Goleman, 1995, p.81). It should be noted that Goleman discusses this


experimental test in his book to prove his assumption that emotional intelligence is the way

to apply self control, which is a facet of self accountability.

It is generally accepted that ethics and values are open to debate; what I consider as

values or ethics, others may not. So, the researcher thinks about a different concept, which

could be generalizeable. This idea opens a door to think about emotional intelligence and

whether it has a role in shaping self accountability, as it is suggested from previous

discussion. This is the next step that needs to be investigated.

Emotional intelligence:

The idea of the importance of emotional intelligence in shaping effective managers

is not new (Salovey and Mayer, 1990; Goleman, 1995). Salovey and Mayer (1993) define

emotional intelligence as “…the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express

emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the

ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions

to promote emotional and intellectual growth” (p. 47). Also emotional intelligence is

articulated as “… the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate

among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking” (Latif,2006,p.82).

Hurley et al. (2010) state that since emotional intelligence means the cooperative

relationship between emotion and intelligence, it could be viewed as an ability that enhances

the relationship between emotion and cognition. Emotional intelligence is also considered as

a group of many factors of one’s social and cognitive aspects and the linkage within the

explanation of emotion (Hassan et al. ,2009). Moon & Hur (2011) clarify that the current

conceptualization of emotional intelligence originated with Thorndike’s (1920) study, and it

has been gaining greater recognition and acceptance since Goleman published Emotional


Intelligence in 1995 and then his model in 1998. Furthermore, according to Goleman, 20%

of one’s accomplishments could be attributed to IQ while the rest are determined by

emotional intelligence.

The Goleman model (1998) views emotional intelligence as a form of various

competencies and skills that contribute to successful managerial performance (Bar-

on.2010). These abilities can be grouped into five core areas: self-awareness, self-regulation,

self motivation, social awareness and social skills. Self-awareness is the first component of

emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995; 1998). It includes a deep understanding of one's

advantages, disadvantages, strengths, weaknesses, motives, emotions and needs. It is

assumed that individuals who have high self-awareness are aware of how their feelings

affect them, their job performance and others and will have high self-confidence. Self

regulation is the second component in the Goleman Model. Self control, trustworthiness and

conscientiousness are some facets of self regulation. While self control means managing

spontaneous feelings and distressing emotions well, trustworthiness is influenced by

maintaining standards of honesty and integrity. Furthermore, conscientiousness represents

taking responsibility for personal action. More importantly, Goleman assumes that

individuals with this competence would meet commitments and, more importantly,

implement self accountability for meeting their objectives. Also Goelman emphasizes the

importance of motivation to succeed so he raises self motivation as the third competent. He

assumes that individuals behave according to their desire to achieve goals and to succeed, so

they demonstrate commitment and initiative. Goleman draws attention to social awareness

as a way to understand others by sensing others feeling and perspectives in order to develop


others. Finally, in order to direct people towards predetermined and desired situations, he

advocates social skills such as communication, leadership, and influence.

As it is stated before, self accountability is an internal feeling that enables

individuals to judge their selves according to the level of consciousness, awareness of their

selves and the strength of the motives to adjust their actions. Based on Goleman’s

definitions, it is apparent that emotional intelligence could have a role in shaping self

accountability. Explicitly, self awareness could be defined as knowing one’s internal states

and self-consciousness as awareness of inner thoughts (Cole & Rozell, 2011,p.94,95).

Moreover, self-regulation which includes self-monitoring refers to an internal ability to

adjust the behavior to external and situational factors (Cole &Rozell,2011) and to decrease

negative affect intensity (Velasco et al., 2006), and self motivation which indicates the

importance of motives to encourages individuals. Notably, there are many factors that seem

to be shared between self accountability and emotional intelligence such as: self monitoring-

internal feeling, consciousness, motives and awareness. Therefore, self accountability seems

to be correlated with emotional intelligence and this correlation has to be proven

statistically.

Goleman tries to prove that emotional intelligence is correlated with high

performance in education and organization to enhance managerial skills. Interestingly,

some scholars go beyond Goleman’s claim and argue that stress management, the ability to

cope with stress, is a component of emotional intelligence (Ramesan, 2009; WU, 2009).

Moreover, while some scholars see emotional intelligence as being an important aspect of

organizational management though incorporating capabilities such as self-motivation,

leadership and developing others (Hurley et al. ,2010), many scholars use the concept of


emotional intelligence to test its relationships with different factors. These studies will be

discussed in greater length in the next section.

Previous studies:

There are numerous amounts of studies that deal or examine emotional intelligence

in many ways and with diversity of topics. This discussion, however, is limited to studies

that might be related to the subject under study-self accountability. Adeoye & Torubelli

(2011) seek to explain the effects of emotional intelligence and human relationship

management on the organizational commitment of Nigerian civil servants. A qualitative

approach was applied with Simple of 300 participants from Ministries of Education, Local

government affairs, Civil service commission, Agriculture and Governors office of Bayelsa

and Oyo States. To accomplish the purpose of the study, three scales are used : Emotional

intelligence scales (EIS), Human relationship management scale (HRMS) and

Organizational commitment questionnaire (OCQ) were used to collect data from the

participants. The results indicate that when taken together, both independent variables were

effective in predicting organizational commitment.

Moon & Hur (2011) go on to support the results of previous study. Their study

examines how emotional intelligence (EI) affects emotional exhaustion resulting from

emotional labor, and how emotional exhaustion influences an individual’s job performance

in terms of organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Data from 295 retail sales

employees in South Korea are collected. Emotional exhaustion was found to be negatively

related to job performance in terms of organizational commitment and job satisfaction and

this result leads to confirm in the relationship between job performance (commitment and

satisfaction) and emotional intelligence (appraisals of emotions, optimism, and social skills).


However, they emphasize that emotional intelligence alone does not directly influence job

performance, because job performance is affected by intervening effects of the dynamics of

emotional interactions between individuals in the organization.

The researcher thinks previous results provide indicators to support the idea that

there are relationships between emotional intelligence and self accountability. One of them

is the relationship between emotional intelligence and commitment which has been proven

that it could be a good indicator to suggest relationships between emotional intelligence and

self accountability. Explicitly, since commitment refers to “… an employee’s feeling of

obligation to remain with the organization” (Adeoye & Torubelli, 2011, p.215) and self

accountability is an inner feeling of obligation that motivate the employee to do his duties

effectively, Emotional intelligence could be an predictor of self accountability too.

Additionally, Yaghoubi et al. (2011) examine the relationship of organizational

citizenship behavior (OCB) with emotional intelligence (El) of the followers. Organizational

citizenship behavior is defined in their study as “… voluntary and spontaneous behaviors

that extend beyond employees' normal job duties” (p.119). They add that organizational

citizenship behaviors describe actions in which employees are able to go beyond their set

role requirements. 114 respondents participated in this study to confirm the relation that

emotional intelligence was significantly correlated to conscientiousness, civic virtue, and

altruism of followers.

Hence, conscientiousness means the desire to do what is right; this behavior could

also encourage individuals to be accountable for their duties to themselves. Moreover,

Yaghoubi et al. (2011) define the variable conscientiousness as “…a particular individual is

organized, accountable and hardworking” (p.120). From a transformational view, if


emotional intelligence is correlated with conscientiousness (as it is assumed in Goleman

model (1998)) , and conscientiousness is related to self accountability, then emotional

intelligence would be correlated with self accountability.

Since self accountability deals with psychological views due to its relation to inner

and personality, so, the researcher thinks investigating psychological studies will open a

window of knowledge about emotional intelligence and self accountability. Mojgan et al.

(2010) examine Fathers' emotional intelligence and their response towards their Children's

Behaviors. They find that Pearson's correlation indicated that fathers with high El displayed

more positive responses to children's behavior while fathers with low El displayed more

anger responses to children's behavior. Obviously, the study shows how emotional

intelligence is related to positive behavior or positive psychology.

Bar-On (2010) notes that positive psychology is defined “…positive characteristics

and strengths that enable individuals to thrive … it is based on the belief that people want to

lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best within themselves, and to

enhance their experiences of love, work and play”(p.56) . In his study (2005), that aims to

explore the connection between emotional intelligence and positive psychology, he

concludes that the two constructs are highly correlated based on the factors of well being.

These factors include the ability to understand and accept one’s emotions and oneself in

general; the ability to achieve personal goals to enhance one’s potential; and the ability to

distinguish one’s feelings and put things in correct perspective. This means that those

individuals who have high emotional self awareness are those with an enhanced sense of

well-being. Hence, unarguably individuals, who seek to enhance self accountability, seek to


distinguish their feeling and implement the correct one to achieve their own goals.

Deductively, the more self awareness, the more self accountability.

On the other hand, some scholars go beyond testing emotional intelligence to testing

the implementation of emotional intelligence as an evaluating tool. Latif (2006) provides a

description of the planning and implementation of the management skills course and how

could be evaluated based on the pre and post emotional intelligence assessment. His study

figures out that the management skills course resulted in a significant improvement in

participants’ emotional intelligence. Additionally, Masciulli (2011) puts also his finger on

the possibility of shaping effective, ethical and public leaders by implementing emotional

intelligence skills. Interestingly, Masciulli (2011) strongly emphasizes the need of ethical

leaders in public organizations due to globalization, network governmental and

intergovernmental organizations, uncertain and complex times. He goes on to say that

emotional intelligence would develop masses of leaders’ thoughts by enhancing their

abilities of distinguish value and judge their performance of producing goods and providing

services.

At this point, self accountability in public sector is imperative and it has to be

addressed. Moreover, according to (Mulgan, 2002) “…internalized accountability was

proffered as a solution to the dilemma facing board members who felt they ought to be

publicly accountable but could not say to whom”, indeed, they accountable to their selves.

Self accountability in the public sector could be defined as an internal sense that goes

beyond the external accountability (political bureaucratical, managerial, professional) to

provide public interest honestly, efficiently and effectively. According to previous concepts

of self accountability, individuals in public sectors will be accountable to themselves in


addition to their accountabilities to others for providing public interest. They will frequently

judge their performances, and blame themselves for their mistakes and shortcomings. Those

individuals, who have higher sense of self awareness self consciousness, self monitoring and

self motivation, will have a high level of self accountability. Since these elements are

existent in the emotional intelligence model and self accountability definition, the study

considers these factors as indicators of the relationship between emotional intelligence and

self accountability. Moreover, since emotional intelligence is a skill that could be trained

and learned (Latif, 2006; Masciulli ,2011), as a consequence, self accountability may be

enhanced through emotional intelligence training. However, these concepts are based on

reviewing the literature and have to be addressed significantly.

Conclusion:

It seems to be hard to ignore the complexity and changes facing public administration.

It has to be noticed that the more complicated issue is how public administration can adapt

to these changes while maintaining accountability. If these changes are imperative and

inescapable, it is more than necessary to find a remedy for accountability’s dilemma. This

paper turns attentions to the concept that accountability is not limited to up-down control or

even financial control; it goes beyond that to be emerged from the inner as self

accountability. It is worthy to note that self accountability is necessary to enhance actions,

work, and relationships with others. If the development leads us to adapt new method, and

establish new theory and apply new practices, the consideration of self- accountability has to

be established and infused. .

Here, from the literature review and previous studies, it is apparent that emotional

intelligence has a role in shaping self accountability. Even though the researcher found no


explicit study investigating the relationships between emotional intelligence and self

accountability this does not mean there are no relationships nor the subject has less

importance. The researcher goes on with many scholars (Salguero & Fernández-Berrocal,

2010) to strongly recommend test these relationships statistically. This study would be

significant if the empirical investigation shows that self accountability is indeed correlated

to emotional intelligence.

.

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