Third Edition

THE

SCIENCE

OF

WATER

Concepts and Applications

Frank R. Spellman

zO\ CRC Press\Cf*" J Taylor &Francis Croup

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business

Contents

lb the Reader xvii

Preface xix

Author xxi

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Still Water 3

Setting the Stage 5

Historical Perspective 7

Thought-Provoking Questions 8

References and Recommended Reading 8

Chapter 2 All about Water 9

How Special, Strange, and Different Is Water? 9

Characteristics of Water 10

Inflammable Air + Vital Air = Water 11

Somewhere between 0° and 105° 11

Physical Properties of Water 12

Capillary Action 12

Water Cycle 13

Specific Water Movements 14

Q and Q Factors 15

Sources of Water 17

Watershed Protection 18

Multiple-Barrier Concept 18

Watershed Management 19

Water Quality Impact 20

Watershed Protection and Regulations 20

Watershed Protection Plan 21

Reservoir Management Practices 21

Potable Water 21

Key Definitions 22

Surface Water 23

Location! Location! Location! 23

How Readily Available Is Potable Water? 23

Advantages and Discharges of Surface Water 26

Surface Water Hydrology 26

Raw Water Storage 27

Surface Water Intakes 27

Surface Water Screens 28

Surface Water Quality 29

Groundwater 29

Aquifers 29

Groundwater Quality 31

Groundwater under the Direct Influence of Surface Water 31

v

Contents

Well Systems 32

Well Site Requirements 33

Types of Wells 33

Shallow Wells 34

Deep Wells 34

Components of a Well 34

Well Evaluation 36

Well Pumps 37

Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements 37

Well Log 38

Well Maintenance 38

Well Abandonment 38

Water Use 39

Water Content of Crops, Goods, Beverages, Animals, and Industrial Products 40

Thought-Provoking Question 40

References and Recommended Reading 40

Chapter 3 Water Hydraulics 43

Terminology 43

What Is Water Hydraulics? 43

Water Balance 44

Basic Concepts 44

Stevin's Law 45

Density and Specific Gravity 46

Force and Pressure ' 48

Hydrostatic Pressure 49

Effects of Water under Pressure 49

Head 50

Static Head 51

Friction Head 51

Velocity Head 51

Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) 51

Pressure and Head 52

Head and Pressure 52

Flow/Discharge Rate: Water in Motion 52

Area and Velocity 54

Pressure and Velocity 54

Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli's Theorem 55

Conservation of Energy 55

Energy Head 55

Piezometric Surface 55

Head Loss 56

Hydraulic Grade Line 57

Bernoulli's Theorem 57

Bernoulli's Equation 58

Hydraulic Machines (Pumps) 60

Pumping Hydraulics 61

Well and Wet Well Hydraulics 62

Contents vii

Friction Head Loss 64

Flow in Pipelines 64

Pipe and Open Flow Basics 64

Major Head Loss 66

Minor Head Loss 68

Basic Pumping Hydraulics 68

Piping 68

Piping Networks 68

Energy Losses in Pipe Networks 69

Pipes in Series 69

Pipes in Parallel 70

Open-Channel Flow 70

Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 71

Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow 71

Open-Channel Flow Calculations 73

Open-Channel Flow: The Bottom Line 74

Flow Measurement 75

Flow Measurement the Old-Fashioned Way 76

Basics of Traditional Flow Measurement 76

Flow Measuring Devices 77

Open-Channel Flow Measurement Using Hydraulic Structures 85

Thought-Provoking Questions 88

References and Recommended Reading 89

Chapter 4 Water Chemistry 91

Chemistry Concepts and Definitions 91

Concepts 91

Definitions 92

Chemistry Fundamentals 94

Matter 94

Content of Matter: The Elements 95

Compound Substances 96

Water Solutions 98

Water Constituents 99

Solids 99

Turbidity 100

Color 100

Dissolved Oxygen 100

Metals 101

Organic Matter 101

Inorganic Matter 102

Acids 102

Bases 102

Salts 103

pH 103

Optical Phenomena: Water and Light 104

Common Water Measurements 106

Alkalinity 107

Water Temperature 107

vjjj Contents

Specific Conductance 107

Hardness 108

Water Treatment Chemicals 108

Disinfection 108

Coagulation 109

Taste and Odor Removal 109

Water Softening 110

Recarbonation 110

Ion Exchange Softening 110

Scaling and Corrosion Control Ill

Chemical Drinking Water Parameters Ill

Organics 112

Synthetic Organic Chemicals 113

Volatile Organic Compounds 113

Total Dissolved Solids 113

Fluorides 113

Heavy Metals 114

Nutrients 114

Thought-Provoking Question 115

References and Recommended Reading 115

Chapter 5 Water Biology 117

Biology and Microbiology: What Are They? 117

Water Microorganisms 118

Key Terms 118

Microorganisms in General.., 119

Classification of Organisms 119

Differentiation 121

Cells 121

Types of Cells 122

Bacteria 124

Structure of the Bacterial Cell 125

Bacterial Growth Factors 128

Destruction of Bacteria 128

Waterborne Bacteria 129

Protozoa 130

Microscopic Crustaceans 131

Viruses 132

Algae 132

Fungi 133

Microbiological Processes 133

Pathogenic Protozoa 134

Giardia 134

Cryptosporidium 140

Basics of Cryptosporidium 141

Cyclospora 144

Thought-Provoking Questions 145

References and Recommended Reading 145

Contents lx

Chapter 6 Water Ecology 149

Setting the Stage 150

Key Definitions 151

Levels of Organization 152

Ecosystems 153

Biogeochemical Cycles 154

Carbon Cycle 154

Nitrogen Cycle 155

Sulfur Cycle 156

Phosphorus Cycle 156

Energy Flow in the Ecosystem 158

Food Chain Efficiency 159

Ecological Pyramids 160

Productivity 161

Population Ecology 162

Stream Genesis and Structure 166

Water Flow in a Stream 168

Stream Water Discharge 169

Transport of Material 169

Characteristics of Stream Channels 170

Stream Profiles 170

Sinuosity 170

Bars, Riffles, and Pools 171

Flood Plain 171

Adaptations to Stream Current 174

Types of Adaptive Changes 175

Specific Adaptations 176

An Overview of Benthic Life 176

Benthic Plants and Animals 177

Benthic Macroinvertebrates 177

Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates 178

Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web 179

Units of Organization 180

Insect Macroinvertebrates 180

Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera) 180

Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera) 181

Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera) 182

True Hies (Order: Diptera) 183

Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) 184

Water Strider ("Jesus Bugs") (Order: Hemiptera) 186

Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera) 186

Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) 187

Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates 188

Oligochaeta (Family Tuificidae, Genus Tubifex) 189

Hirudinea (Leeches) 189

Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail) 189

Thought-Provoking Questions 190

References and Recommended Reading 190

x Contents

Chapter 7 Water Pollution 191

Sources of Contaminants 192

Radionuclides 194

Chemical Cocktail 194

Byproducts of Chlorine 195

Existing Regulations 197

Flocculants 198

Groundwater Contamination 198

Underground Storage Tanks 199

MtBE 199

Industrial Wastes 201

Septic Tanks 201

Landfills 202

Agriculture 202

Saltwater Intrusion 203

Other Sources of Groundwater Contamination 203

Self-Purification of Streams 204

Balancing the Aquarium 204

Sources of Stream Pollution 205

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 207

Water Supply, Use, and Wastewater Treatment 209

Animal Feeding Operations and Animal Waste Treatment 210

Thought-Provoking Question 213

References and Recommended Reading 213

Chapter 8 Environmental Biomonitoring, Sampling, and Testing 215

What Is Biomonitoring? 215

Biotic Index in Streams 217

Benthic Macroinvertebrate Biotic Index 218

Biological Sampling in Streams 218

Sampling Stations 220

Sample Collection 221

Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment 222

Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams 223

Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment 225

Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams 228

Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment 231

Post-Sampling Routine 233

Sampling Devices 233

Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor 233

Winkler Dissolved Oxygen with Azide Modification Method 233

Sampling Nets 234

Sediment Samplers (Dredges) 234

Plankton Sampler 235

Secchi Disk 236

Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment 236

Biological Sampling: The Bottom Line 236

Drinking Water Quality Monitoring 237

Is the Water Good or Bad? 237

Contents x'

State Water Quality Standards Programs 239

Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program 239

General Preparation and Sampling Considerations 240

Test Methods 244

Titrimetric Methods 244

Colorimetric Methods 244

Visual Methods 244

Electronic Methods 245

Dissolved Oxygen Testing 245

Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing 250

Temperature Measurement 253

pH Measurement 254

Turbidity Measurement 255

Orthophosphate Measurement 257

Nitrates Measurement 260

Solids Measurement 261

Conductivity Testing 266

Total Alkalinity 267

Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing 268

Apparent Color Testing and Analysis 276

Odor Analysis of Water 277

Chlorine Residual Testing and Analysis 278

Fluorides 279

Thought-Provoking Questions 279

References and Recommended Reading 279

Chapter 9 Water Economics 281

Introduction 281

Microeconomic Concepts 282

Water's Price, Cost, Value, and Essential Nature 284

Average, Marginal, and Total Economic Values 285

Why Water Prices May Fail to Encourage Efficient Use 286

Marginal Product Value of Water 287

Long-Run vs. Short-Run Values 288

Dimensions of Water That Influence Its Value 288

Macroeconomic Concepts 289

Sector View of the Economy 289

Water Use in Major Economic Sectors 289

Water Use and Sector Interactions 290

Water Use in an Open Economy 291

Thought-Provoking Questions 293

References and Recommended Reading 293

Chapter 10 Water Use and Availability 295

Off-Stream Water Use 295

Public Supply and Domestic Self-Supply 296

Water Use and the Public Supply 298

Future Supply 299

Future Demand and Availability 301

xii Contents

Value of Water Use 302

Why Domestic Water Rates May Fail to Encourage Efficient Use 302

Demand Elasticity for Domestic Water 303

Values from Water Transfer Programs 304

Methods for Valuing Water Supply Reliability 304

Methods for Valuing Domestic Water Quality 305

Off-Stream Water Use by Agriculture 306

U.S. Agricultural Sector 306

U.S. Agriculture in a Global Context 309

Livestock 314

Aquaculture 317

Supply and Pricing Issues 317

Water Quality Issues 328

Value of Water Use by Agriculture 330

Off-Stream Water Use by Manufacturing 331

U.S. Manufacturing Sector 331

Water Use by Manufacturing 333

Value of Water Use by Manufacturing 337

Off-Stream Water Use by Mining and Energy Resource Extraction 340

Mining 340

Energy Resource Extraction 341

Water Use by Mining and Energy Resource Extraction 342

Value of Water Use by Mining and Energy Resource Extraction 347

Off-Stream and In-Stream Water Use for Electric Power Generation 347

Generating Capacity and Generation 348

Distribution of Generation by State 349

Economic Importance of the Electric Power Generation Sector 349

Projected Future Generation 351

Water Withdrawals 352

Water Use in Cooling for Thermoelectric Power Generation 352

Hydropower 354

Water Resource Constraints 355

Water Quality Constraints 356

Interaction with Other Uses of Water 356

Challenges to Estimating the Value of Water 357

Estimates of the Value of Water in the Electric Power Sector 358

In-Stream Water Use by Commercial Fishing 359

Landings and Ex-Vessel Revenues 359

Employment 360

Links to Other Economic Sectors 360

U.S. Commercial Fishing and the Global Economy 361

Commercial Fishing and the Environment 361

Fisheries Regulation 361

Habitat Quality 362

In-Stream Water Use by Commercial Navigation 366

Cargo Shipping 366

Passenger Transportation 368

Economic Importance 369

Water Use by Commercial Navigation 370

Infrastructure Requirements of Commercial Navigation 370

Potential Effects of Climate Change on Navigation in the Great Lakes 372

Contents xii'

Influence on Other Uses of Water 373

Value of Water Use by Commercial Navigation 374

In-Stream Water Use by Recreation and Tourism 374

Travel and Tourism Industry 376

Water-Based Recreation: Participation and Expenditures 377

Overview of Water-Based Recreation 382

Competition in Recreational Water Use 382

Long-Term Challenges 383

Water Quality Issues Affecting Recreational Water Use 384

Market Value of Water Use 386

Non-Market Value Estimates for Water-Based Recreational Activities 386

Impact of Water Supply on Non-Market Recreational Use Values :. 387

Impact of Water Quality on Non-Market Recreational Use Values 389

Thought-Provoking Questions 391

References and Recommended Reading 392

Chapter 11 Water Treatment 401

Introduction 401

Dr. John Snow 401

Cholera 401

Flashback to 1854 London 402

From Pump Handle Removal to Water Treatment (Disinfection) 403

Conventional Water Treatment 403

Waterworks Operators 404

Purpose of Water Treatment 404

Stages of Water Treatment 405

Pretreatment 405

Aeration 406

Screening 406

Chemical Addition 406

Chemical Solutions 407

Chemical Feeders 409

Iron and Manganese Removal 411

Hardness Treatment 413

Corrosion Control 414

Coagulation 417

Flocculation 420

Sedimentation 420

Filtration 420

Disinfection 425

Thought-Provoking Questions 433

References and Recommended Reading 433

Chapter 12 Water Treatment Calculations 435

Introduction 435

Water Source and Storage Calculations 435

Water Sources 435

Water Source Calculations 436

Water Storage 442

xjv Contents

Water Storage Calculations 442

Coagulation, Mixing, and Flocculation Calculations 444

Coagulation 444

Mixing 444

Flocculation 445

Coagulation and Flocculation General Calculations 446

Determining Percent Strength of Solutions 449

Determining Percent Strength of Liquid Solutions 450

Determining Percent Strength of Mixed Solutions 450

Dry Chemical Feeder Calibration 451

Solution Chemical Feeder Calibration 452

Determining Chemical Usage 453

Paddle Flocculator Calculations 454

Sedimentation Calculations 455

Tank Volume Calculations 455

Detention Time 456

Surface Overflow Rate 457

Mean Flow Velocity 457

Weir Loading Rate (Weir Overflow Rate) 458

Percent Settled Biosolids 459

Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L) 459

Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day) 462

Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) 463

Particle Settling (Sedimentation) 463

Overflow Rate (Sedimentation) 466

Water Filtration Calculations 467

Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm) 468

Filtration Rate 469

Unit Filter Run Volume 471

Backwash Rate 472

Backwash Rise Rate 473

Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal) 473

Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) 474

Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm) 474

Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing 475

Percent Mudball Volume 476

Filter Bed Expansion 476

Filter Loading Rate 477

Filter Medium Size 478

Mixed Media 478

Head Loss for Fixed Bed Flow 479

Head Loss through a Fluidized Bed 480

Horizontal Washwater Troughs 482

Filter Efficiency 483

Water Chlorination Calculations 483

Chlorine Disinfection 483

Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) 484

Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 485

Breakpoint Chlorination Calculations 487

Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Feed Rate 488

Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate 490

Contents xv

Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions 490

Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite 491

Calculating Percent Strength Using Liquid Hypochlorite 491

Chemical Usage Calculations 492

Chlorination Chemistry 493

References and Recommended Reading 494

Glossary 495

Index 511