TheSignandtheSeal

‘AndasconcerningtheArkoftheCovenant…theworkthereofismarvellous.Itcatcheth the eye by force, and it astonisheth the mind and stupefieth it withwonder. It is a spiritual thingand is full of compassion; it is aheavenly thingand is full of light; it is a thing of freedom and a habitation ofthe Godhead,WhosehabitationisinheavenandWhoseplaceofmovementisontheearth…’

KebraNagast,Ethiopia,thirteenthcentury

AlsobyGrahamHancock

JourneythroughPakistanEthiopia:theChallengeofHungerAIDS:theDeadlyEpidemicLordsofPovertyAfricanArk:PeoplesoftheHorn

Copyright©1992byGrahamHancock

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.

PublishedbyCrownPublishers,Inc.,201East50thStreet,NewYork,NewYork10022.MemberoftheCrownPublishingGroup.

CROWNisatrademarkofCrownPublishers,Inc.

LIBRARYOFCONGRESSCATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATIONDATA

Hancock,Graham.Thesignandtheseal:thequestforthelostArkoftheCovenant/GrahamHancock.p.cm.1.ArkoftheCovenant—Miscellanea.2.Ethiopia—Descriptionandtravel—1981–3.Hancock,Graham—Journeys—Ethiopia.I.Title.BM657.A8H361992916.304’7—dc2091-39041

eISBN:978-0-307-82904-7

v3.1

Contents

CoverOtherBooksbyThisAuthorTitlePageCopyright

Acknowledgements

ILegend1Initiation2Disenchantment

IIHolyArkandHolyGrail3TheGrailCipher4AMaptoHiddenTreasure5WhiteKnights,DarkContinent6ResolvingDoubts7ASecretandNever-EndingQuest

IIILabyrinth8IntoEthiopia9SacredLake10GhostinaMaze11AndDaviddancedbeforetheArk…

IVAMonstrousInstrument12Magic…orMethod?13TreasuresofDarkness

VWhereistheGlory?14TheGloryisdepartedfromIsrael15HiddenHistory16DooroftheSouthernCountries

VITheWasteLand17SuppingwithDevils18ATreasureHardtoAttain

References

Acknowledgements

FirstandforemostIwanttothankCarol,mypartneroftenyears,forthepreciousgiftsshegaveme.Ourmarriagedidnotsurvivethisbook. Ihopethatour friendshipwill.Thanks,too,tomychildren:SeanandLeila,LukeandGabrielle.You’vepaidaheavypriceforyourdad’s commitment to his quest. Imean tomake it up to you. I’m enormously grateful toDonaldandMurielHancock,toJamesMacaulay,andtoHaroldElborn,fortheirconstantsupport and interest, for their many readings of the evolving manuscript, and for thewealthofhelpfulsuggestionsandadvicethattheyhaveoffered.Iwouldalsoliketoputonrecord the appreciation that I feel for the invaluable contributions made by my friendsColin Skinner, Caroline Lasko, and Claire Lasko. As well as reading the manuscript atvariousstages,andcommentingonit,theyofferedmeconsolationandsolidarityintimesoftroubleandputuppatientlywithmyoftenexasperatingbehaviour.InEthiopia,ProfessorRichardPankhurstwasbothafriendandacolleaguetome.I’mhonouredtohaveworkedso closely with him. And in England I benefitted greatly from the input of a series ofresearch assistants: SadieMaine, AlexMacIntyre, ClaireWise, DavidMestecky and JuliaHallawell.Inaddition,myAnglophoneeditorsonbothsidesoftheAtlantic,TomWeldonatHeinemann,JimWadeatCrown,JohnPearceatDoubledayCanada,aswellasmyliteraryagents Bill Hamilton and Sara Fisher, have all shown an interest in this project and acommitmenttoitthathasbeenaboveandbeyondthecallofduty.Manyotherpeopleinmanydifferentwalksoflifehavealsohelpedalongtheway.Somewouldnotwanttobementionedatallandotherswill, Ihope, forgivemefornotsettingout here a list that would be too long for the available space. I cannot close, however,without expressing my very special thanks and gratitude to one person in particular –Santha,whotookmostofthephotographsinthisbookandwhosavedmylife.

GrahamHancock,March1992

PartI:Ethiopia,1983

Legend

Chapter1Initiation:1983

It was growing dark and the air of the Ethiopian highlands was chill when the monkappeared.Stoopedandleaningonaprayerstickheshuffledtowardsmefromthedoorwayof the sanctuary chapel and listened attentively as Iwas introduced to him. Speaking inTigrigna,thelocallanguage,hethensoughtclarificationthroughmyinterpreteraboutmycharacterandmymotives:fromwhichcountryhadIcome,whatworkdidIdothere,wasIaChristian,whatwasitthatIwantedfromhim?Iansweredeachofthesequestionsfully,squintingthroughthegloomasItalked,tryingtomakeoutthedetailsofmyinquisitor’sface.Milkycataractsveiledhissmallsunkeneyesand deep lines furrowed his black skin. He was bearded and probably toothless – foralthoughhisvoicewasresonantitwasalsooddlyslurred.AllIcouldbesureof,however,wasthathewasanoldman,asoldasthecenturyperhaps,thathehadhiswitsabouthim,and that he did not seem to be seeking information aboutme out of idle curiosity.Onlywhen hewas satisfiedwith everything that I had said did he condescend to shake handswithme.Hisgripwasdryanddelicateaspapyrusandfromthethickrobesthathewore,faintbutunmistakable,arosetheholyodouroffrankincense.NowthattheformalitieswereoverIgotstraighttothepoint.Gesturinginthedirectionof the building that loomed in shadowy outline behind us, I said: ‘I have heard of anEthiopiantraditionthattheArkoftheCovenantiskepthere…inthischapel.IhavealsoheardthatyouaretheguardianoftheArk.Arethesethingstrue?’‘Theyaretrue.’‘But in other countries nobody believes these stories. Few know about your traditionsanyway,butthosewhodosaythattheyarefalse.’‘Peoplemaybelievewhattheywish.Peoplemaysaywhattheywish.NeverthelesswedopossessthesacredTabot,thatistosaytheArkoftheCovenant,andIamitsguardian…’‘Let me be clear about this,’ I interjected. ‘Are you referring to the original Ark of theCovenant–theboxmadeofwoodandgoldinwhichtheTenCommandmentswereplacedbytheprophetMoses?’‘Yes.GodHimself inscribed the tenwords of the lawupon two tablets of stone.Mosesthenplaced these tablets inside theArkof theCovenant–whichafterwardsaccompaniedtheIsraelitesduringtheirwanderingsinthewildernessandtheirconquestofthePromisedLand.Itbroughtthemvictorywherevertheywentandmadethemagreatpeople.Atlast,whenitsworkwasdone,KingSolomonplaceditintheHolyofHoliesoftheTemplethathehadbuiltinJerusalem.Andfromthere,notlongafterwards,itwasremovedandbroughttoEthiopia…’‘Tellme how this happened,’ I asked. ‘What I knowof your traditions is only that theQueenofShebaissupposedtohavebeenanEthiopianmonarch.ThelegendsIhavereadsay thatwhen shemade her famous journey to Jerusalem shewas impregnated by KingSolomonandborehimason–aroyalprince–whoinlateryearsstoletheArk…’

Themonksighed. ‘Thenameof theprinceyouarespeakingofwasMenelik–which inourlanguagemeans“thesonofthewiseman”.AlthoughhewasconceivedinJerusalemhewasborninEthiopiawheretheQueenofShebahadreturnedafterdiscoveringthatshewascarryingSolomon’schild.Whenhehadreachedtheageoftwenty,MenelikhimselftravelledfromEthiopiatoIsraelandarrivedathisfather’scourt.Therehewasinstantlyrecognizedandaccordedgreathonour.Afterayearhadpassed,however,theeldersofthelandbecamejealous of him. They complained that Solomon showed him too much favour and theyinsistedthathemustgobacktoEthiopia.Thisthekingacceptedontheconditionthatthefirst-bornsonsofalltheeldersshouldalsobesenttoaccompanyhim.AmongsttheselatterwasAzarius,sonofZadoktheHighPriestof Israel,anditwasAzarius,notMenelik,whostoletheArkoftheCovenantfromitsplaceintheHolyofHoliesintheTemple.Indeedthegroup of youngmen did not reveal the theft toMenelik until they were far away fromJerusalem.Whenat last they toldhimwhat theyhaddoneheunderstood that theycouldnothavesucceededinsoboldaventureunlessGodhadwilledit.ThereforeheagreedthattheArkshouldremainwith them.And itwas thus that itwasbrought toEthiopia, to thissacredcity…andhereithasremainedeversince.’‘Andareyoutellingmethatthislegendisliterallytrue?’‘Itisnotalegend.Itishistory.’‘Howcanyoubesosureofthat?’‘BecauseIamtheguardian.Iknowthenatureoftheobjectthathasbeenplacedinmycare.’WesatinsilenceforafewmomentswhileIadjustedmymindtothecalmandrationalwayinwhichthemonkhadtoldmethesebizarreandimpossiblethings.ThenIaskedhimhowandwhyhehadbeenappointedtohisposition.Herepliedthatitwasagreathonourthat he should have been chosen, that he had been nominatedwith the lastwords of hispredecessor, and that when he himself lay on his death-bed his turn would come tonominatehisownsuccessor.‘Whatqualitieswillyoulookforinthatman?’‘LoveofGod,purityofheart,cleanlinessofmindandbody.’‘Otherthanyou,’Iaskednext,‘isanyoneelseallowedtoseetheArk?’‘No.Ialonemayseeit.’‘Sodoesthatmeanthatitisneverbroughtoutofthesanctuarychapel?’Theguardianpaused for a longwhilebefore answering thisquestion.Then, finally,hetoldme that in the very distant past the relic had been brought out during all themostimportantchurchfestivals.Morerecentlyitsuseinreligiousprocessionshadbeenlimitedtojust one occasion a year. That occasion was the ceremony known as Timkat which tookplaceeveryJanuary.‘SoifIcomebacknextJanuarywillIhaveachanceofseeingtheArk?’ThemonklookedatmeinawaythatIfoundstrangelydisconcertingandthensaid:‘Youmustknow that there is turmoil andcivilwar in the land…Ourgovernment is evil, thepeople oppose it, and the fighting comes closer every day. In such circumstances it isunlikely that the true Ark will be used again in the ceremonies. We cannot risk thepossibilitythatanyharmmightcometosomethingsoprecious…Besides,evenintimeofpeaceyouwouldnotbe able to see it. It ismy responsibility towrap it entirely in thick

clothsbeforeitiscarriedintheprocessions…’‘Whydoyouwrapit?’‘Toprotectthelaityfromit.’Irememberaskingmyinterpretertoclarifythetranslationofthislastpuzzlingremark:

hadthemonkreallymeant‘toprotectthelaityfromit’?Orhadhemeant‘toprotectitfromthelaity’?It was some time before I got my answer. ‘To protect the laity from it. The Ark is

powerful.’

AgreatmysteryoftheBibleInearlyOldTestamenttimestheArkoftheCovenantwasworshippedbytheIsraelitesastheembodimentofGodHimself,as thesignandthesealofHispresenceonearth,as thestrongholdofHispower,andas the instrumentofHis ineffablewill.1Built tocontainthetablets of stone uponwhich the TenCommandments had beenwritten, itwas awoodenchestmeasuringthreefeetnineincheslongbytwofeetthreeincheshighandwide.2Itwaslinedinsideandoutwithpuregoldandwassurmountedbytwowingedfiguresofcherubimthatfacedeachotheracrossitsheavygoldenlid.3BiblicalandotherarchaicsourcesspeakoftheArkblazingwithfireandlight,inflicting

cancerous tumours and severeburns, levellingmountains, stopping rivers, blastingwholearmiesandlayingwastecities.Thesamesourcesalsoleavenodoubtthatitwas,foraverylongtime,thecornerstoneoftheevolvingJewishfaith:indeedwhenKingSolomonbuilttheFirstTempleinJerusalemhissolemotivewastocreate‘anhouseofrestfortheArkoftheCovenantoftheLord’.4AtsomeunknowndatebetweenthetenthandthesixthcenturyBC,however,thisuniquelypreciousandpuissantobjectvanishedfromitsplaceintheHolyofHoliesofthatTemple,vanishedwithoutsongorlamentationintheScriptures–almostasthoughithadneverexistedatall.Theevidencesuggeststhatitwasalreadylonggonewhenthe armies of Nebuchadnezzar burned Jerusalem in 587 BC. Certainly it was not in theSecondTemplewhichwasbuiltovertheruinsoftheFirstaftertheJewshadreturnedfromtheirexile inBabylon in538 BC.Neitherdoes it seem tohavebeen takenasbootyby theBabylonians.Writingin1987,RichardElliottFriedman,ProfessorofHebrewandComparativeReligion

at the University of California, expressed a view shared by many scholars when hedescribedthedisappearanceofthesacredrelicas‘oneofthegreatmysteriesoftheBible’:

ThereisnoreportthattheArkwascarriedawayordestroyedorhidden.Thereisnotevenanycommentsuchas‘AndthentheArkdisappearedandwedonotknowwhathappenedtoit’or‘Andnooneknowswhereitistothisday’.Themostimportantobjectintheworld,inthebiblicalview,simplyceasestobeinthestory.’5

Indeedso.Aclose readingof theOldTestament revealsmore than twohundred separatereferences to theArkof theCovenantupuntil the time of Solomon (970–931 BC); after thereignofthatwiseandsplendidkingitisalmostnevermentionedagain.6Andthis,surely,is

thecentralproblem,therealhistoricalenigma:not,humannaturebeingwhatitis,thatanimmensely valuable golden chest should go missing, but – given its supreme religioussignificance–thatitshouldgomissingamidstsuchadeafening,improbablesilence.Likeablackholeinspace,oranegativephotographicimage,itisidentifiableinthelaterbooksoftheOldTestamentonlybywhatitisnot–itis,inshort,conspicuousonlybyitsabsence.Fromthisitseemsreasonabletosuggestthatsomesortofcover-upmayhavetakenplace

–acover-updevisedbypriestsandscribestoensurethatthewhereaboutsofthesacredrelicwouldremainforeverasecret.Ifsothenitisasecretthatmanyhavetriedtopenetrate–asecretthathasinspiredseveraltreasure-huntingexpeditions(allofwhichhavefailed)andalsooneenormouslysuccessfulHollywoodfantasy,Raidersof theLostArk,whichwas firstreleasedintheUSAandEuropein1981withHarrisonFordinthestarringroleasIndianaJones.IwaslivinginKenyaatthetimeandhadnoopportunitytoseethefilmuntil itfinally

arrivedinNairobi’scinemasearlyin1983.Ienjoyedthecombinationofaction,adventureandarchaeologyand I remember thinkingwhata sensation itwouldbe if someonewerereallytofindtheArk.Then,onlyafewmonthslater,ImadeanextendedvisittoEthiopiaduringwhichItravelledtothenorth-westofthewar-tornprovinceofTigray.Itwasthere,inAxum–theso-called‘sacredcityoftheEthiopians’7–thatIhadmyencounterwiththeguardianmonkreportedearlierinthischapter.

1983:acountryatwarOn 28May 1991, after years of brutal fighting, the government of Ethiopia was finallytoppled by a formidable coalition of rebel forces inwhich the Tigray People’s LiberationFronthadplayedaleadingrole.WhenIwenttoAxumin1983,however,theTPLFwasstilla relatively small guerilla force and the sacred city, although besieged, was still ingovernment hands. Other thanmyself, no foreigners had been there since 1974 when ateamofBritisharchaeologistshadbeendrivenoutby the revolution thathadoverthrownEmperorHaileSelassieandthathadinstalledoneofAfrica’sbloodiestdictators,Lieutenant-ColonelMengistuHaileMariam,asHeadofState.Lamentably the freeaccess that Iwasgranted toAxumdidnot result fromany special

enterpriseorinitiativeofmyownbutfromthefactthatIwasworkingforMengistu.Asaresult of a business deal that Iwas later bitterly to regret Iwas engaged in 1983 in theproductionofacoffee-tablebookaboutEthiopia–abookthatMengistu’sgovernmenthadcommissionedinordertoproclaimtheunderlyingunityinthecountry’sculturaldiversity,andtoemphasizetheancienthistoricalintegrityofthepoliticalboundariesthattherebelsweretryingsohardtoredraw.IthadbeenagreedbeforeIbeganworkthattherewouldbenoovertpromotionofthegovernment’scause,anditwaswrittenintomycontractthatnoparticular individuals(Mengistu included)wouldbepraisedorvilified.Nevertheless Iwasundernoillusionsabouthowtheprojectwasviewedbyseniorfiguresintheregime:theywouldnothavefootedthebills,orpermittedmetovisithistoricsitesforbiddentoothers,iftheydidnotthinkthatwhatIwasdoingwouldbehelpfultothem.EvensoitwasbynomeanseasyformetogettoAxum.Intenserebelactivityalongthe

mainroadsandaroundthesacredcityitselfmeantthatdrivingwascompletelyoutofthe

question.Theonlyoption,therefore,wastoflyin.Tothisend–togetherwithmywifeandresearcher Carol andmy photographerDuncanWilletts – I travelled first toAsmara (theregional capital of Eritrea)where I hoped that itmight bepossible for us tohitch a rideoverthebattlelinesononeofthemanymilitaryaircraftstationedthere.Standingonahighand fertileplateauoverlooking the fearsomedesertsof theEritreancoastal strip, Asmara is a most attractive place with a markedly Latin character – notsurprising since it was first occupied by Italian forces in 1889 and remained an ItalianstrongholduntilthedecolonizationofEritrea(anditsannexationbytheEthiopianstate)inthe 1950s.8 Everywhere we looked we saw gardens erupting with the colour ofbougainvillaea,flamboyantsandjacaranda,whilethewarm,sunnyairthatsurroundedushad an unmistakable Mediterranean bouquet. There was also another element that washardtomiss:thepresenceoflargenumbersofSovietandCubancombat‘advisers’wearingcamouflagefatiguesandcarryingKalashnikovassaultriflesastheyswaggeredupanddownthefragrantpastel-shadedboulevards.The advice that these thicksetmenwere giving to the Ethiopian army in its campaignagainst Eritrean separatists did not, however, appear to us to be very good. Asmara’shospitalswere crammed toburstingpointwith casualtiesof thewarand thegovernmentofficialswemetexudedanairofpessimismandtension.Ourconcernswereheighteneda fewnights later in thebarofAsmara’s rathersplendidAmbasoiraHotelwherewemettwoZambianpilotswhowereontemporarysecondmenttoEthiopian Airlines. They had thought that they were going to be spending six monthsexpandingtheirpracticalexperienceofcommercialflying.Whattheywereactuallydoing,however,was ferrying injured soldiers from thebattle fronts inTigrayandEritrea to thehospitals inAsmara.Theyhadtriedtoget theairlinetoreleasethemfromthishazardousduty;oncheckingthesmallprintoftheircontracts,however,theyhaddiscoveredthattheywereboundtodoit.AfterseveralweeksofalmostcontinuoussortiesinagedDC3passengerplanesconvertedtocarrywoundedtroops,thetwopilotswereshell-shocked,shakyandembittered.Theytoldus that they had both taken to the bottle to drown their sorrows: ‘I can’t sleep at nightunless I’mcompletelydrunk,’oneof themconfided. ‘Ikeepgetting thesepicturespassingthroughmymindofthethingsthatI’veseen.’Hewentontodescribetheteenageboywho,that morning, had been dragged aboard his aircraft with his left foot blown away by amine, and another young soldier who had lost half his skull after a mortar bomb hadexplodednearby.‘Theshrapnelwoundsaretheworst…peoplewithhugeinjuriesintheirbacks, stomachs, faces… it’s horrible… sometimes thewhole cabin is just swillingwithbloodandguts…wecarryasmanyasfortycasualtiesatatime–wayabovetheoperatinglimitsofaDC3,butwehavetotaketherisk,wecan’tjustleavethosepeopletodie.’Theywererequiredtoflythree,sometimesfour,missionseachday,theotherpilotnowadded. In thepastweekhehadbeen twice toAxumandonbothoccasionshisplanehadbeenhitbymachine-gunfire.‘It’saverydifficultairport–agravelrunwaysurroundedbyhills.TheTPLFjustsitupthereandtakepot-shotsatusaswelandandtakeoff.They’renotfooledbytheEthiopianAirlineslivery.Theyknowwe’reonmilitarybusiness…’Overjoyed to have found some sympathetic non-Russian and non-Cuban foreigners tosharetheirwoeswith,theZambianshadnotyetaskeduswhatweweredoinginEthiopia.

Theydid sonow, and seemedhighly amusedwhenwe replied thatwewereproducing acoffee-tablebook for thegovernment.We then explained thatweneeded toget toAxumourselves.‘Why?’theyasked,dumbfounded.‘Well,becauseit’soneoftheoldestandmostimportantarchaeologicalsitesandbecauseitwastherethatEthiopianChristianityfirstgotstarted.Itwasthecapitalforhundredsofyears.Ourbook’sgoingtolookreallysickwithoutit.’‘Wemightbeabletotakeyou,’oneofthepilotsnowsuggested.‘What–youmeanwhenyounextgotopickupwounded?’‘No.Youdefinitelywouldn’tbeallowedonthoseflights.Butadelegationofmilitarytopbrassaresupposedtobegoingtherethedayaftertomorrowtoinspectthegarrison.Maybeyoucouldhitcharidethen.Itwoulddependonwhatsortofstringsyou’reabletopullbackinAddis.Whydon’tyoucheckitout?’

IntoAxumWe spentmost of the next day on the telephone to Addis Ababa talking to theministerdirectlyresponsibleforourproject.Itwastouchandgo,buthisinfluencefinallydidgetusseatsontheflightthatourZambianfriendshadtoldusabout.Intheevent,however,theywerenottobeourpilots;afullyEthiopiancrewwasonboardtheDC3fortheshorthoptoAxum.Duringtheone-hourdelaybeforeourmorningtake-offfromAsmaraairport,andduringthe turbulent thirty-five-minute journey itself, I completed my background reading –reassuringmyselfintheprocessthatthevisitreallywasworthwhile.Theearlyhistoricalreferencespaintedapictureofanimportantandcosmopolitanurbancentre.InAD64,forexample,theanonymousauthorofaGreektradingmanualknownasthePeriplusoftheErythreanSeahadreferredtotheAxumiterulerasbeing‘aprincesuperiortomostandeducatedwithaknowledgeofGreek’.9SomehundredsofyearslateracertainJulian,ambassadorof theRomanEmperorJustinian,describedAxuminglowingtermsas‘the greatest city of all Ethiopia’. Theking, he added,was almostnaked,wearingonly agarment of linen embroidered with gold from his waist to his loins and straps set withpearls overhisbackand stomach.Heworegoldenbracelets onhis arms, a golden collararoundhisneck,andonhisheadalinenturban–alsoembroideredwithgold–fromwhichhungfourfilletsoneitherside.Whenreceivingtheambassador’scredentials,thismonarchapparently stood on a four-wheeled chariot drawn by four elephants; the body of thechariotwashighandcoveredwithgoldplates.10In the sixth century AD, amuch-travelledChristianmonk, Cosmas Indicopleustes, addedfurthercolourto the impressionconveyedbyJulian.Afterhisvisit to thecityhereportedthatthe‘four-toweredpalaceoftheKingofEthiopia’wasadornedwith‘fourbrazenfigures’of aunicorn, aswell as the skinof a rhinoceros ‘stuffedwith chaff’.Healso saw severalgiraffeswhichhadbeencaught‘bycommandoftheKingwhenyoungandtamedtomakeashowforhisamusement’.11These images of barbaric splendourwell befitted the capital ofwhat had by that timebecomethemost importantpowerbetweentheRomanEmpireandPersia–apower that

sent its merchant navies as far afield as Egypt, India, Ceylon and China and that hadadoptedChristianityasitsstatereligionasearlyasthefourthcenturyAD.ThestoryoftheconversionofEthiopiaispreservedinthewritingsofthefourth-centuryByzantine theologian Rufinius – an authority highly regarded by modern historians.Apparently a certain Meropius, a Christian merchant described by Rufinius as a‘philosopherofTyre’,oncemadeavoyagetoIndia,takingwithhimtwoSyrianboyswhomhewas educating in ‘humane studies’. The elder was called Frumentius and the youngerAedesius.OntheirreturnjourneythroughtheRedSeatheshipwasseizedofftheEthiopiancoast in an act of reprisal against theEasternRomanEmpirewhichhadbroken a treatywiththepeopleofthearea.Meropiuswaskilledinthefighting.Theboys,however,survivedandweretakentotheAxumiteKing,EllaAmida,whopromptlymadeAedesiushis cup-bearerandFrumentius–themoresagaciousandprudentofthetwo–histreasurerandsecretary.Theboyswereheldingreathonourandaffectionbythekingwho,however,diedshortlyafterwardsleavinghiswidowandaninfantson–Ezana–ashisheir.Beforehisdeath,EllaAmidahadgiventhetwoSyrianstheirfreedombutnowthewidowedqueenbeggedthem,withtearsinhereyes,to stay with her until her son came of age. She asked in particular for the help ofFrumentius–forAedesius,thoughloyalandhonestatheart,wassimple.Duringtheyearsthatfollowed,theinfluenceofFrumentiusintheAxumitekingdomgrew.He sought out such foreign traders who were Christians and urged them ‘to establishconventiclesinvariousplacestowhichtheymightresortforprayer.’Healsoprovidedthemwith ‘whateverwasneeded,supplyingsites forbuildingsandineverywaypromotingthegrowthoftheseedofChristianityinthecountry.’At around the time that Ezana finally ascended the throne, Aedesius returned to Tyre.Frumentius for his part journeyed to Alexandria, in Egypt – then a great centre ofChristianity–whereheinformedPatriarchAthanasiusoftheworksofaraccomplishedforthe faith in Ethiopia. The young man begged the ecclesiastical leader ‘to look for someworthymantosendasbishopoverthemanyChristiansalreadycongregated.’Athanasius,havingcarefullyweighedandconsideredthewordsofFrumentius,declaredinacouncilofpriests: ‘What otherman shall we find inwhom the spirit of God is as in theewho canaccomplishthesethings?’Hetherefore‘consecratedhimandbadehimreturnintheGraceofGodwhencehecame.’12FrumentiusaccordinglywentbacktoAxumasEthiopia’sfirstChristianbishopandtherehecontinuedhismissionaryendeavours–whichwererewarded,intheyearAD331,bytheconversionof thekinghimself.ThesurvivingcoinsofEzana’s reignrecord the transition:theearlieronesbearcrescentanddiskimagesofthenewandfullmoon;laterexamplesarestampeduncompromisinglywith the cross – amongst the earliest coins of any country tocarrythisChristiansymbol.13Importantastheseed-bedofEthiopianChristianity–andasthecapitaloftheEthiopianempirefromthefirstuntilapproximatelythetenthcenturyAD–Axum’sinterestintermsofourprojectwasneverthelessmuchbroader than this.Here, I read,wewouldcomeacrossmanyimposingpre-Christianruinsofgreatarchaeologicalmerit(includingtheremainsofseveral immense palaces), and also – stillwell preserved – themonuments forwhich thecitywasbestknown:itsancientobelisks,somemorethantwothousandyearsold,attesting

toahighlevelofadvancementinartandarchitectureatadatefarearlierthanthatofanyothercivilizationinsub-SaharanAfrica.NorweresuchphysicalartefactstheonlywitnessestoAxum’suniquestature.Tomyastonishment,thereferenceworksIhadwithmereportedthat according to Ethiopian legends the Ark of the Covenant was kept here in a smallchapel adjacent to an especially sacred church. The legendswere connected to Ethiopia’sclaimtohavebeentherealmofthebiblicalQueenofShebabutweregenerallydismissedbyhistoriansaspreposterousfictions.Having only recently seen the first Indiana Jonesmovie,Raiders of the Lost Ark, Iwasnaturally intrigued by the possibility – however remote – that the most precious andmystical relic ofOldTestament times, a relic believed to have been lost for almost threethousandyears,mightactuallyrestinthecityIwasabouttovisit.IthereforedecidedthatIwouldnotleavewithoutlearningmoreaboutthisstrangetraditionandIlookeddownwithrenewedinterestwhenthecaptainannouncedthatAxumwasdirectlybeneathus.TheDC3’sdescenttothenarrowrunwayfarbelowwasunorthodoxintheextreme–andquite alarming. Instead of the usual long, low and slow approach, the pilot brought theplanedownveryfastfromaconsiderablealtitudeinatightcorkscrewpatternthatkeptusatalltimesdirectlyabovethetown.This,oneofthemilitarymenridingwithusexplained,was so as tominimize the time thatwewouldbe a target for snipers in the surroundinghills.IrememberedwhattheZambianshadsaidaboutregularlygettinghitbymachine-gunfirewhenlandingatAxumandprayedsilentlythatthiswouldnothappentous.Itwasanunpleasantfeelingtobestrappedintoaflimsyseatinanarrowtubeofmetalhundredsoffeetabovethegroundandtowonderwhether,atanymoment,bulletsweregoingtostartplunkingthroughthecabinfloorandwalls.Fortunately nothing so bad happened that morning and we touched down safely. Iremembertheredgravelofthestrip,thedustthatflewupasthewheelsmadecontact,andthe sight of large numbers of Ethiopian soldiers – all armed to the teeth and dressed incombatfatigues–staringatusintentlyaswetaxiedtoahalt.Inoticedotherthingsaswell:trencheshadbeendugonbothsidesoftherunwayandtherewerenumerouspits,coveredwith camouflage netting, out of which protruded the barrels of heavy artillery pieces. Irecallseveralarmouredpersonnelcarrierslinedupnearthetowerandperhapshalf-a-dozenSoviet tanks. Parked off to one side, on the apron, therewere also twoMi-24helicoptergunshipswithrocketpodsvisiblebeneaththeirstubbystabilizingfins.Fromthebeginningtotheendofourvisit,Axumneverforasecondshedthejitteryandwatchfulatmosphereofacityundersiege.Wewerepermittedtostayonlyonenightbutwefeltasthoughourtimetherewasdrawn-out,protracted,almostinfinite.

Palaces,catacombsandobelisksOurworkbeganthemomentthatwearrived.Waitingtogreetusaswesteppeddownfromtheplanewas an elderlyAbyssinian gentlemanwearing a slightly threadbare three-piecesuitandamost splendidpatriarchalbeard. InquaintbutexcellentEnglish,he introducedhimselfasBerhaneMeskelZelelewandexplainedthathehadbeencontactedbyradiofromAddisAbabaandorderedtoguideusandactasourinterpreter.Hewasemployed,hesaid,bytheMinistryofCulture ‘tokeepaneyeontheantiquitiesofAxum’.Inthiscapacityhe

hadhelpedthearchaeologistsfromtheBritishInstituteinEasternAfricawhoseexcavationsof some of the city’s most interesting ruins had been interrupted by the revolution of1974.14‘It’ssonicetoseeotherBritishpeoplehereaftersuchalongtime,’heexclaimedasweintroducedourselves.Weclimbed intoavintageLandRoverwitha lime-greenpaint joband twoneatbulletholes in the frontwindscreen. ‘Fortunatelynoonewaskilled,’Zelelewreassureduswhenweaskedhimaboutthese.Laughingnervouslyaswedroveawayfromtheairfield,Ithenexplainedwhatwehadcometodo,listedthehistoricsitesthatwewantedtovisit,andtoldhimthatIwasparticularlyintriguedbyAxum’sclaimtobethelastrestingplaceoftheArkoftheCovenant.‘DoyoubelievethattheArkishere?’Iasked.‘Yes.Certainly.’‘Andwhereisitexactly?’‘Itisdepositedinachapelnearthecentreofthecity.’‘Isthischapelveryold?’‘No.ItsconstructionwasorderedbyourlateEmperor…in1965Ithink.BeforethattherelichadrestedformanyhundredsofyearswithintheHolyofHoliesofthenearbychurchofSaintMaryofZion…’Zelelewpaused,thenadded:‘HaileSelassiehadaspecialinterestin this matter, by the way … He was the two hundred and twenty-fifth direct-linedescendantofMenelik,sonoftheQueenofShebaandKingSolomon.ItwasMenelikwhobroughttheArkoftheCovenanttoourcountry…’Iwasall forvisitingthechapelatonce,butZelelewpersuadedmethat therewas littlepoint inhurrying: ‘youwillnotbeallowedanywherenear theArk.Where it rests isholyground.ThemonksandthecitizensofAxumprotectitandtheywouldnothesitatetokillanyone who tried to break in. Just one man is allowed to enter and he is the monkresponsibleforguardingtheArk.Wewilltrytomeethimlatertoday,butfirstletusgoandseetheQueenofSheba’spalace.’Afterwehadassentedtothisattractivepropositionweturnedontoabumpy,potholedroad that – had we been able to follow it all the way – would eventually have led ushundreds of miles south-west, through the gigantic peaks and valleys of the Simienmountains,tothecityofGondarnearLakeTana.InopencountrybarelyamilefromthecentreofAxum,however,westoppedwithinsightofanextensivelyfortifiedmilitarypostwhich,Zelelewexplained,markedthelimitofthegovernment-controlledsector.Hewavedexpressivelyatthenearbyhills: ‘EverythingelseTPLF,sowecannotgo.It’sapity.Therearesomanyinterestingthingstosee…There,justaroundthatcornerintheroad,arethegranitequarrieswhereallthestelaewerecut.Onestillremainspartiallyunexcavatedfromtherock.Andthere isabeautifulcarvingofa lioness. It isveryancient. Itwasput therebeforethecomingofChristianity.Butunfortunatelywecannotreachit.’‘Howfarisitexactly?’Iasked,tantalized.‘Veryclose,lessthanthreekilometres.Butthemilitarywillnotletuspastthecheckpointandiftheydidwewouldcertainlybetakenbytheguerillas.Evenhereweshouldnotstandaround for too long. Your foreign faceswill be noticed by the TPLF snipers. TheymightthinkyouareRussians anddecide to shoot at you…’He laughed: ‘Thatwouldbehighlyundesirable,woulditnot?Come,followme.’

Heledthewayintofieldstothenorthoftheroadandwequicklybegantostumbleacrosstheremainsofwhatmust,once,havebeenan imposingbuilding. ‘Thiswas theQueenofSheba’s palace,’ Zelelew announced proudly. ‘According to our traditions her name wasMakedaandAxumwashercapital. Iknowthat foreignersdonotaccept that shewasanEthiopianatall.Neverthelessnoothercountryhasastrongerclaimthanours.’Iaskedwhetheranyarchaeologyhadeverbeendoneonthesitetotestthelegends.‘Yes,inthelate1960stheEthiopianInstituteofArchaeologyconductedsomeexcavationshere…Ihelpedonthedig.’‘Andwhatwasdiscovered?’Zelelewmadeamournfulface.‘TheopinionwasthatthepalacewasnotsufficientlyoldtohavebeentheresidenceoftheQueenofSheba.’What the archaeologists had unearthed, andwhatwe now spent some time exploring,were the ruins of a great and well built edifice with finely mortared stone walls, deepfoundations and an impressive drainage system. We saw a still-intact flagstone floor –whichZelelewclaimedwasalargethroneroom–andanumberofstair-wellswhichhintedat the existence of at least one upper storey. There were also private bathing areas ofsophisticateddesignandawell-preservedkitchendominatedbytwobrickovens.Acrosstheroad,inafieldfacingthepalace,wetheninspectedanumberofrough-hewngranite stelae, some standingmore than fifteen feet high, some fallen and broken.Mostwereundecoratedbutone, the largest,wascarvedwith fourhorizontalbands, eachbandtoppedbyarowofcirclesinrelief–likeprotrudingbeamendsinabuildingmadeofwoodandstone.Thiscrudeobelisk,Zelelewtoldus,wasthoughtbythetownspeopletomarkthegraveoftheQueenofSheba.Noexcavationworkhadbeencarriedoutbeneathit,however,andthefieldwasnowentirelygivenovertofarmerswhogrewcropsfortheAxumgarrison.Evenaswetalkedwesawtwopeasantboysapproachwithanox,whichtheyharnessedtoa wooden plough. Oblivious to the history that lay all around them, and apparentlyindifferenttoourpresenceaswell,theybegantotillthesoil.Afterwehadfinishedtakingpicturesandnoteswedrovebackintothecentreofthecityandthenoutagaintothenorth-easttoanotherpalacecomplex,thisoneonahill-topwithcommanding views of thewhole area. Square in plan, the structuremeasured about twohundred feet on each side. The walls, which had long since crumbled, showed signs ofhaving originally been projected at the corners to form four towers – possibly the verytowerswhich,inthesixthcentury,themonkCosmashaddescribedasbeingadornedwithbrassunicorns.Beneath the fortress Zelelew then led us down steep stone stairways into a number ofunderground galleries and chamberswhichwere roofed andwalledwithmassive dressedgranite blocks that fitted precisely against one anotherwithout anymortar in the joints.Local tradition,he said, identified this cooldarkwarrenas the treasuryusedbyEmperorKaleb(AD514–542)andalsobyhissonGebre-Maskal.Withtheaidofaflashlightwesawthe empty stone cofferswhich laywithin – coffers believed tohaveonce containedgreatriches in gold andpearls.15 Further rooms, as yet unexcavated, extended into the hillsidefromthere,blockedoffbehindthickgranitewalls.Eventuallyweleftthehill-topfortressandmadeourwaydownintothecentreofAxumonagravelroad.Nearthebottomofthegradient,toourleft,wepausedtophotographa

large, open deep-water reservoir dug down into the red granite of the hillside andapproachedbymeansof rough-hewnstairways.Knownas theMaiShum, it seemed tousveryold–an impressionthatZelelewconfirmedwhenheremarkedthat itwasoriginallytheQueenofSheba’spleasurebath:‘Atleastsoourpeoplebelieve.SincethebeginningofChristiantimesithasbeenusedforbaptismalceremoniestocelebratetheHolyEpiphany,whichwecallTimkat.Andof course thepeasants still comehereeveryday todraw theirwater.’Asthoughtoconfirmthislastobservationhepointedtoagroupofwomencarefullydescendingthetime-wornstepsbearinggourdsontheirheads.Bynow,withoutanyofusreallynoticinghowthetimehadpassed,itwasalreadywellpast themiddle of the afternoon. Zelelew urged us to hurry, pointing out that we werescheduledtoflybacktoAsmaraatfirstlightthenextdayandthatwestillhadmuchtosee.Ournextdestinationwascloseby,theso-called‘ParkoftheStelae’–certainlythefocalpointofAxum’sarchaeologicalinterest.Hereweexaminedandphotographedaremarkableseries of giant obelisks carved from slabs of solid granite. Themost massive of these, atumbled fractured ruin,was believed to have fallen to the groundmore than a thousandyearspreviously.Initsheyday,though,ithadstoodonehundredandtenfeettallandmusthavedominated the entire area. I remembered from the reading Ihaddoneon the flightthatitsweightwasestimatedtoexceedfivehundredtons.Itwasthoughttobethelargestsinglepieceofstoneeversuccessfullyquarriedanderectedintheancientworld.This fallen stele was painstakingly hewn tomimic a high, slender building of thirteenstoreys–eachstoreycompletewithelaboraterepresentationsofwindowsandotherdetails,and demarcated from the next by a row of symbolic beam-ends. At the base could bediscernedafalsedoorcompletewithaknockerandlock,allperfectlycarvedinstone.Another fallen – but much smaller and unbroken – obelisk, Zelelew told us, had beenstolen during the Italian occupation of 1935–41, transportedwith enormous difficulty toRome by Mussolini, and re-erected near the Arch of Constantine. Since it, too, waselaboratelycarved–andthereforeofgreatartisticvalue–theEthiopiangovernmentwascampaigning for its return. In the meantime, however, it was fortunate that a thirddecoratedmonolithstillremainedinsituinthestelaepark.Withaflourishourguidenowpointedtothistoweringstoneneedle,morethanseventyfeethighandtoppedwithacurvedheadpieceshapedlikeahalfmoon.Westrolledovertoexamineitproperlyandfoundthat,likeitshugeneighbour,ithadbeencarvedtoresemblea conventional built-up structure – in this case a nine-storey building in the fashion of atower-house.Onceagain, themaindecorationonthefrontelevationwasprovidedbythesemblance of windows and of beams of timber supposedly inserted horizontally into thewalls.Theintervalsbetweeneachofthefloorsweredefinedbyrowsofsymboliclog-ends,andthehouse-likeappearancewasfurtherenhancedbythepresenceofafalsedoor.Severalotherstelaeofvaryingsizeswererangedaroundthisrefinedmonument–allofthemclearlytheproductsofanadvanced,wellorganizedandprosperousculture.Nowhereelse in sub-Saharan Africa had anything even remotely similar been built and, for thisreason, Axum was a mystery – its antecedents unknown, the sources of its inspirationunremembered.

ThesanctuarychapelAcrosstheroad,directlyoppositetheparkofthestelae,stoodaspaciouswalledcompoundcontaining two churches – one old and the other obviously much more recent. These,Zelelew told us, were both dedicated to SaintMary of Zion. The new one, which had adomed roof and a lofty bell-tower in the shape of an obelisk, had been built by HaileSelassie in the 1960s. The other dated back to themid-seventeenth century andwas theworkofEmperorFasilidas–who,likesomanyEthiopianmonarchsbeforeandsince,hadbeen crowned in Axum and had venerated the sacred city despite making his capitalelsewhere.We found Haile Selassie’s pretentious modern ‘cathedral’ as unpleasant as it wasuninteresting. We were attracted, however, to the Fasilidas construction which, with itsturretsandcrenellatedbattlements,seemedtous‘halfchurchofGod,halfcastle’–andthusto belong to a truly ancient Ethiopian tradition in which the distinctions between themilitaryandtheclergywereoftenblurred.InthedimlylitinteriorIwasabletostudyseveralstrikingmuralsincludingonedepictingthestoryofthelifeofMary,anotherthatoftheCrucifixionandResurrectionofChrist,andathirdthelegendofSaintYared–thesupposedinventorofEthiopia’seeriechurchmusic.Fadedwithage,thislatterworkshowedYaredperformingbeforeKingGebre-Maskal.Thesaint’s foothadbeenpiercedbya speardropped from themonarch’shandbutbothmenweresoentrancedbythemusicofsistrumanddrumthattheyhadnotnoticed.Notfarfromtheoldchurchweretheruinsofabuildingthatmustoncehavebeenveryextensivebutwasnowreducedtolittlemorethanitsdeeplyentrenchedfoundations.These,Zelelewexplained,were the remainsof theoriginal SaintMaryof Zion –whichhadbeenbuilt in the fourth century AD at the time of the conversion of the Axumite kingdom toChristianity.Sometwelvehundredyearslater,in1535,ithadbeenrazedtothegroundbyafanaticalMuslim invader,AhmedGragn(‘the left-handed’),whose forces sweptacross theHornofAfricafromHararintheeastand,atonetime,threatenedthecompleteextinctionofEthiopianChristendom.Shortlybeforeitsdestruction,this‘firstSaintMary’s’–asZelelewcalledit–wasvisitedbyanitinerantPortuguesefriarnamedFranciscoAlvarez.Ilaterlookeduphisdescriptionofit–theonlyonethatsurvives:

Itisverylargeandhasfivenavesofagoodwidthandofagreatlength,vaultedabove,andallthevaultsarecoveredup,andtheceilingandsidesareallpainted;italsohasachoirafterourfashion…Thisnoblechurchhasaverylargecircuit,pavedwithflagstones,likegravestones,andithasalargeenclosure,andissurroundedbyanotherlargeenclosurelikethewallofalargetownorcity.16

ZelelewrightlydatedthestartofconstructionworksonthefirstSaintMary’satAD37217–whichmeantthatthiswasquitepossiblytheearliestChristianchurchinsub-SaharanAfrica.Agreatfive-aisledbasilica,itwasregardedfromitsinaugurationasthemostsacredplaceinallEthiopia.ThiswassobecauseitwasbuilttohousetheArkoftheCovenant–which,iftherewasanytruthtothelegends,musthavearrivedinthecountrylongbeforethebirthof

Jesusandmustthenhavebeenco-optedbytheChristianhierarchyatsomepointafterthenewreligionhadbeenofficiallyadoptedbytheAxumitestate.When Alvarez visited Saint Mary’s in the 1520s – becoming, in the process, the firstEuropeantodocumenttheEthiopianversionofthelegendoftheQueenofShebaandthebirth of her only sonMenelik18 – the Ark was still in the Holy of Holies of the ancientchurch. Itdidnot stay there forverymuch longer,however. In the early1530s,with theinvading armies of Ahmed Gragn drawing ever closer, the sacred relic was removed ‘tosome other place of safekeeping’ (Zelelew did not know where). It thus escaped thedestructionandlootingthattheMuslimsunleasheduponAxumin1535.Ahundredyears later,withpeace restored throughout theempire, theArkwasbroughtback in triumph and installed in the second Saint Mary’s – built by Fasilidas beside therazed remains of the first.And there apparently it stayeduntil 1965whenHaile Selassiehad it moved to the new and more secure chapel put up at the same time as his owngrandiosecathedralbutannexedtotheseventeenth-centurychurch.It was in the grounds of Haile Selassie’s chapel that the guardian monk told me hisastonishingstoryabouttheArkandwarnedmethatitwas‘powerful’.‘Howpowerful?’Iasked.‘Whatdoyoumean?’Theguardian’sposturestiffenedandheseemedsuddenlytogrowmorealert.Therewasapause.Thenhechuckledandputaquestiontome:‘Haveyouseenthestelae?’‘Yes’,Ireplied,‘Ihaveseenthem.’‘Howdoyouthinktheywereraisedup?’IconfessedthatIdidnotknow.‘TheArkwasused,’whisperedthemonkdarkly,‘theArkandthecelestialfire.Menalonecouldneverhavedonesuchathing.’Onmy return to the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, I took the opportunity to conductsomeresearchintothehistoricalmeritsofthelegendthattheguardianhadrelatedtome.IwantedtofindoutwhethertherewasanypossibilityatallthattheQueenofShebacouldhavebeenanEthiopianmonarch.Andiftherewas,thencouldshereallyhavejourneyedtoIsrael in the time of Solomon – around three thousand years ago? Could she have beenimpregnatedby the Jewishking?Could shehavebornehima sonnamedMenelik?Mostimportantly,couldthatsonhavemadehiswaytoJerusalemasayoungman,spentayearthereathisfather’scourt,andthenreturnedtoAxumwiththeArkoftheCovenant?

Chapter2Disenchantment

QuestionsofthekindthatIneededtoaskinordertoevaluateAxum’sclaimtobethelastrestingplaceoftheArkoftheCovenantwerenotentirelywelcomeinAddisAbabain1983.Therewas stillacertainamountof revolutionary jingoism in theair less thannineyearsafterHaileSelassiehadbeenoverthrown(andlessthaneightafterhehadbeensmotheredwithapillowbythemanwhohadengineeredhisdownfall–Lieutenant-ColonelMengistuHaileMariam).Mistrust,hatredand rank fear couldalsobedetectedeverywhere:peoplerememberedbitterlytheperiodinthelate1970swhenMengistu’sforceshadunleashedthe‘Red Terror’ against those seeking to restore themonarchy. State-sponsored death squadshad roamed the streets rooting out suspects from their homes and executing themon thespot.Thefamiliesofthevictimsofthesepurgeshadthenhadtoreimbursethecostofthebullets used to kill their relatives before theywere allowed to claim back the bodies forburial.ItwasintheemotionalclimatefosteredbysuchatrocitiesthatIwasobligedtoconductmy preliminary research into a subject that had explicit connections with Ethiopia’s lastemperorandwith theSolomonicdynasty towhichhehadbelonged.Justhowclose theseconnectionsinfactwerewasmadecleartomewhenafriendpassedmeasamizdatcopyofa document prepared at the peak of Haile Selassie’s power and popularity – the 1955RevisedConstitution.Implementedwiththeintentofencouraging‘themodernEthiopiantoaccustomhimselftotakepartinthedirectionofalldepartmentsofState’and‘toshareinthemightytaskwhichEthiopianSovereignshavehadtoaccomplishaloneinthepast’,thisremarkable piece of legislation nevertheless contained the following unequivocalconfirmationoftheage-oldmonarchy’sDivineRighttorule:

TheImperialdignityshallremainperpetuallyattachedtothelineofHaileSelassieI,whoselinedescendswithoutinterruptionfromthedynastyofMenelikI,sonoftheQueenofEthiopia,theQueenofSheba,andKingSolomonofJerusalem…ByvirtueofHisImperialBlood,aswellasbytheanointingwhichHehasreceived,thepersonoftheEmperorissacred,HisDignityinviolableandHisPowerindisputable.1

IquicklyestablishedthatZelelew,ourguideinAxum,hadbeencorrectaboutatleastoneofthethingsthathehadtoldus:theEmperorhadclaimedtobethetwohundredandtwenty-fifthdirect-linedescendantofMenelik.Furthermore,veryfewoftheEthiopianstowhomItalkedinAddisAbaba–eventhemostrevolutionaryamongstthem–seriouslydoubtedthesacralpedigreeoftheSolomonicdynasty.Indeed,itwaswhisperedthatPresidentMengistuhimselfhadpluckedtheringofSolomonfromHaileSelassie’sdeadhandandnowworeiton his ownmiddle finger – as though, by this device, he could appropriate some of thecharismaandsupposedmagicalpowersofhispredecessor.

Suchwhispersandrumourswere interestingenough.Theydidnot,however, satisfymydesire for hard information about the Ark of the Covenant and about its mysticalassociationswith thedeposed ‘lineofHaileSelassie I’.Theproblemwas thatmostofmyEthiopian contacts were too terrified to tell me what they knew and shut up like clamswheneverImentionedtheArk,theformeremperor,orindeedanythingtodowiththepre-revolutionary period that might possibly be interpreted as seditious. I therefore onlymanagedtomakeprogresswhenaknowledgeablecolleaguearrived inAddisAbaba fromEngland–ProfessorRichardPankhurst,whomIhadinvitedtojoinmeasco-authorinthebookthatIwaspreparingforthegovernment.Grandsonof the famousEnglish suffragetteEmmelinePankhurst, and the sonof SylviaPankhurst – who had fought heroically alongside the Abyssinian resistance during theItalian occupation in the 1930s – Richard was, and remains, the leading historian ofEthiopia. In the time of Emperor Haile Selassie he had founded the scholarly and wellrespected Institute of Ethiopian Studies at Addis Ababa University. Shortly after therevolution in 1974 he had left the country with his family, but was now anxious to getreinvolved;ourbookproject,therefore,suitedhisownrequirementswellandhehadtakenafewdaysofffromhisworkattheRoyalAsiaticSocietyinLondoninordertodiscussourcollaborationonthetext.A tall but rather stoopedman in his late fifties, he had a diffident, almost apologeticmannerwhich–asIhaddiscoveredsometimepreviously–disguisedgreatself-confidenceandawickedsenseofhumour.HisknowledgeofEthiopianhistorywascomprehensiveandoneofthefirstmattersIdiscussedwithhimwastheArkoftheCovenantandtheseeminglyfar-fetchedclaim that itmightnowrest inAxum.Didhe think therecouldbeany factualbasisatalltothistradition?HerepliedthatthestoryofSolomonandShebathatIhadheardinthesacredcityhadanancient pedigree in Ethiopia. There were many versions of it, both oral and written.Amongst the latter the oldest still surviving was contained in a thirteenth-centurymanuscript known as the Kebra Nagast – which was greatly revered and which mostEthiopians believed to tell ‘the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth’. As ahistorian,however,hecouldnotacceptthis–particularlysincethehomelandoftheQueenof Sheba had almost certainly been located in Arabia and not in Ethiopia at all.Nevertheless he could not entirely dismiss the possibility that the legend might contain‘somescintillaofveracity’.TherehadbeenwelldocumentedcontactsbetweenEthiopiaandJerusaleminantiquity(thoughnotasfarbackasthetimeofSolomon)andtherecouldbeno doubt that Ethiopian culture did contain a strong ‘flavour’ of Judaism. This was bestillustrated by the presence in the country of a group of indigenous Jews – known as theFalashas–wholivedintheSimienmountainstothesouthofAxumandaroundtheshoresofLake Tana. There were also certain widespread customs (many of which AbyssinianChristians shared with their Falasha neighbours) which provided at least circumstantialevidence of early ties with Judaic civilization. These customs included circumcision, thefollowingoffoodproscriptionsveryclosetothoseoutlinedinthebookofLeviticus,andthepractice (still adhered to in isolated rural communities) of celebrating the Sabbath onSaturdaysratherthanonSundays.IwasalreadyawareoftheexistenceoftheFalashasandhadrequested(butnotyetbeen

granted) official permission to visit and photograph at least one of their villages on ournext field trip –whichwould takeus to LakeTana and thencenorthwards to the city ofGondarandhopefullyalsototheSimienmountains. Iknewnexttonothingabouttheso-called‘BlackJewsofEthiopia’,however,andaskedRichardtotellmemoreaboutthem.He replied that in physical appearance and in dress they were quite indistinguishable

from other Abyssinian highlanders. Their mother tongue, too, was indigenous, being adialectoftheAgawlanguagewhich–althoughnowrapidlybeingreplacedbyAmharic,thenational lingua franca – had once been spoken extensively in the northern provinces. Inshort,theonlyreallyuniquequalitythattheFalashaspossessedwastheirreligion–whichwasundoubtedlyJewish,thoughofaveryarchaicandidiosyncratickind.Theiradherencetoancientcustoms,longabandonedelsewhere,hadledanumberofromanticandexcitablevisitorstoproclaimthemas‘thelosttribeofIsrael’.AndinthelastdecadethisnotionhadreceivedtheofficialblessingoftheAshkenaziandSephardiChiefRabbisinJerusalemwhohaddefined theFalashasunequivocallyasJews–a status that rendered themeligible forIsraelicitizenshipunderthetermsoftheLawofReturn.But,Iasked,wherehadtheFalashascomefrominthefirstplace?Andhowexactlyhad

theybeenmaroonedinthemiddleofEthiopianearlytwothousandmilesfromIsrael?Richardadmittedthattherewerenoeasyanswerstothesequestions.Theviewaccepted

bymostscholarswasthatanumberofJewshadmigratedtotheAbyssinianmainlandfromsouth-westernArabia in the first and second centuries AD andhad subsequently convertedsomesectionsofthelocalpopulationtotheirfaith;theFalashaswerethereforeseenasthedescendantsoftheseconverts.Itwastrue,headded,thatanimportantJewishcommunityhad established itself in the Yemen following persecution by the Roman occupiers ofPalestine in the first century AD – so it was theoretically possible that missionaries andtraders had crossed the narrow Red Sea straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and entered Ethiopia.Neverthelessheknewofnohistoricalevidencewhichconfirmedthat thiswasreallywhathadhappened.AndwhatdidtheFalashasthemselvessay?Richardsmiled:‘ThattheyaredescendedfromKingSolomonofcourse…Theirlegendis

basically thesameas theChristianonebutabitmoreelaborate. If I remembercorrectly,they claim that Solomon not only made the Queen of Sheba pregnant but also hermaidservant – thus fathering not only Menelik but also a half-brother who founded adynastyofFalashakings.AlltherestoftheJewsinEthiopiatodayaresupposedtobethedescendants of the bodyguardmade up of the first-born sons of the elders of Israel whoaccompaniedMenelikwiththeArkoftheCovenant.’‘Anddoyouthinkthere’sanypossibilitythatwhattheysaymightbetrue–Imeanthat

theArkcouldreallyhavebeenstolenfromSolomon’sTempleinJerusalemandbroughttoAxum?’Richardmade awry face: ‘Frankly no. No possibility at all. As amatter of fact Axum

didn’t even exist in theperiodwhen this is supposed tohavehappened. It simplywasn’tthere…Look,Solomondied–Idon’tknowexactlywhenbutitmusthavebeenaroundthe940sor930sBC.IfMenelikwashissonthenitwouldhavehadtohavebeenaroundthosedates –maybe even ten or fifteen years earlier – that he brought the Ark to Axum. Butthere’sabsolutelynowaythathecouldhavedonethat.Yousee,Axumwasn’tfoundeduntil

atleastthethirdcenturyBC,perhapsnotevenuntilthesecondcenturyBC–inotherwordsaboutsevenoreighthundredyearsafterthesupposedtheftoftheArk.’‘Well,’Isaid,‘thatratherputspaidtothewholestorydoesn’tit?’‘Yes–although I expect it’s just feasible that theArkcouldhavebeenbrought to some

otherplaceinEthiopiawhichlatergotmixedupwithAxuminthetraditionsthathavebeenhandeddown.Thereare,however,manyotherfallacies,anachronismsandinaccuraciesinthe legend – which is why no historian or archaeologist worth his salt has ever beenpreparedtospendtimeinvestigatingit…NeverthelessnotallthethingsthattheFalashassayaboutthemselvesarecompletefantasiesandsomeaspectsoftheiroriginswouldmeritfurtherresearch.’‘What,forexample?’‘TheclaimImentionedthattherewasonceadynastyofJewishkingsinEthiopia…Ifwe

goback to say the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ADwe find quite a lot of evidence tosupportthatview–andit’sprobablethattheyhadamonarchicsystemlongbeforethenaswell. In fact, by all accounts, the Jews were once a force to be reckoned with in thiscountry: sometimes they even fought successfulwarswith theChristian rulers in order topreserve their independence. But over the years they gradually weakened and began todisappear.We know that their numbers were greatly reduced between the fifteenth andeighteenth centuries. And unfortunately they’ve continued to be in steady decline eversince.Thereareprobablynomore than twenty thousandof them leftnow–andmostofthemaretryingtogettoIsrael.’Richard and I worked together in Addis for the next three days – duringwhich time I

benefitedenormously fromthedetailedbriefings thathegavemeaboutEthiopiancultureandhistory.Thenhe returned toLondonandCarol,Duncanand I embarkedon the fieldtripthatwouldtakeustoLakeTana,GondarandtheSimiens.

Tabots:replicasoftheArkDriving out of Addis Ababa in the battered Toyota Landcruiser that the government hadprovided to facilitate our work we climbed the immense eucalyptus-covered shoulder ofMountEntotoandthentravelledinanorth-westerlydirectionformanymilesacrosshigh,bleakmoorlands.At Debra Libanos (the name means ‘Mount Lebanon’), we paused to photograph a

sixteenth-centurychurchwherethousandsofpilgrimshadcongregatedtocelebratethelifeand miracles of Tekla Haimanot, a famous Ethiopian saint. We saw normally shy andconservativemenandwomencastingoffalltheirclothestobathenakedinaspringofholywater. Possessed by the demanding spirit of their own religious fervour, they seemedenraptured,entranced,losttotheworld.Further north stillwe crossed the spectacular BlueNile gorge before finally arriving at

BaharDar, a small town at the southern tip of LakeTana, Ethiopia’smighty inland sea.Herewe spent several days puttering about on the reed-fringedwaters in a large diesel-engined launchprovided tousby theMaritimeAuthority.Wevisited someof the twentymonasteriesonthelake’snumerousislandsandphotographedtheirwonderfulcollectionsofoldilluminatedmanuscripts,religiouspaintingsandmurals.

Becauseoftheirliteral‘isolation’,welearned,thesemonasterieshadfrequentlybeenusedduring timesof trouble asplacesof safety for art treasures and for sacred relics fromallpartsofthecountry.Theirmainpurpose,however,wastoprovidetheirinmateswithpeaceandsolitude.Onemonktoldmethathehadnotlefthistiny,woodedislandfortwenty-fiveyearsandhadnointentionofeverdoingso.‘Bycuttingmyselfofflikethis,’hesaid,‘Igetrealhappiness.AllmydaysIhavebeenloyaltoGodandwillremainsountilIdie.Ihaveseparatedmyselffromthelifeoftheworld.Iamfreefromitsdistractions.’Everymonasticcommunityhaditsownchurch–andthesebuildings,usuallycircular inplan rather than rectangular, were often very old. Typically they would have an outerwalkway,openatthesidesbutcoveredbytheprojectingthatchoftheroof,thenaninnercircuit(thek’anemahlet)richlydecoratedwithpaintings,thenasecondcircuit(thekeddest,used for communion) which in turn surrounded a walled central enclosure (themak’das)containingtheHolyofHolies.IhadbeeninmanyEthiopianchurchesbefore,butthoseonLakeTanawerethefirstinwhichIbegantogetsomeideaofthesignificanceoftheHolyofHolies.Idiscoveredthateachoftheseinnersanctums–whichonlythemostseniorpriestscouldenter–containedan object regarded as being immensely sacred. Speaking through our governmentinterpreteratthefourteenth-centurymonasteryofKebranGabriel,Iaskedwhatthissacredobjectwas.‘Itisthetabot,’repliedmyinformant,ninety-year-oldAbbaHaileMariam.The word sounded familiar and, after amoment’s reflection, I remembered that I hadheard it in Axum when I had sat in the grounds of the sanctuary chapel talking to theguardianmonk:itwastheEthiopiannamefortheArkoftheCovenant.‘What does he mean by tabot?’ I asked our interpreter. ‘Does he mean the Ark of theCovenant?WewerejustinAxumacoupleofweeksagoandweweretoldthattheArkwasthere…’Ipaused,genuinelypuzzled,thenconcludedratherlamely:‘Idon’tseehowitcanbehereaswell.’Alengthydiscussionfollowed,intowhichseveraloftheothermonksweredrawn.ForawhileIdespairedofeverlearninganythingofsubstancefromthesepeoplewho–quietandwithdrawn until a moment before – were now garrulous, animated and argumentative.Eventually, however, with further probing from me and much clarification by theinterpreter,aclearpicturebegantoemerge.EveryOrthodoxchurchinEthiopia, itseemed,haditsownHolyofHolies,andineveryHolyofHolieswasatabot.Noclaimwasmadethatanyoftheseobjectswereactually theArkoftheCovenant.TherewasonlyonetrueArkandthat,properlyknownasTabotaZion,hadindeedbeenbroughtbyMeneliktoEthiopiainthetimeofSolomonandnowstoodinthesanctuarychapelinAxum.Alltheothersthroughoutthelengthandbreadthofthelandweremerelyreplicasofthatsacredandinviolableoriginal.These replicas, however, were important. Indeed they were supremely important.Symboliconseveral levels, itappearedfromwhatIwastoldthattheyfullyembodiedtheintangiblenotionofsanctity.AsAbbaHaileMariampainstakinglyexplainedtomeduringourinterviewatKebranGabriel:‘Itisthetabots,ratherthanthechurchesthattheystandin,thatareconsecrated;withouta tabotat itsheart, in itsHolyofHolies,achurch is justanemptyhusk–adeadbuildingofnogreaterorlessersignificancethananyother.’

TheblackJewsofEthiopiaWhenourworkattheislandmonasterieswascompletewereturnedtoBaharDarandthendrovenorth,aroundthecurvingeasternshoreofLakeTana,tothecityofGondar–foundedin the seventeenth century by Fasilidas, the same emperorwhohad rebuilt the church ofSaintMaryofZionatAxum.DuringthejourneyIhadtimetogivefurtherconsiderationtothetabottraditionthatIhadjustlearnedabout.At the very least, I remember thinking, it was intriguing and odd that the EthiopianChristiansshouldascribesomuchimportancetotheArkoftheCovenantthattheyfelttheneedtoplacereplicasofit ineverysingleoneoftheirchurches.TheArk,afterall,wasapre-ChristianrelicandhadabsolutelynothingtodowiththeteachingsofJesus.Sowhatonearthwasgoingonhere?InevitablyIbegantowonderagainaboutthevalidityoftheAxumiteclaimsconcerningtheQueenofSheba,KingSolomonandtheirsonMenelik.Perhaps,afterall,therewassomesubstance to the legends. The presence of indigenous black Jews in the country, whoseoriginseemedtobeshroudedinmystery,wasalsointriguing–andcould,itseemedtome,quite possibly be connected. I therefore found myself looking forward with interest tovisiting the Falasha settlements which I knew that we would encounter with increasingfrequencyonthenextstageofourfieldtrip.BeforeleavingGondar,however,wewerewarnedbyaseniorofficialthatweshouldonnoaccounttrytointervieworphotographanyEthiopianJews.UnderthecircumstancesIwas extremely frustrated by this, and even more frustrated – and annoyed – when ourinterpreterandofficialguideexplainedthereasonfortheban.Withanabsolutelystraightfacehetoldme:‘ThisyearthepositionofourgovernmentisthattheFalashasdon’texist.And if they don’t exist then obviously you can’t talk to any of them or take theirpictures…Itwouldbeacontradiction.’Less than tenminutes’ drive beyond the city limits, however, I spotted a Star ofDavidpositionedontopofahut inasmallvillagebythesideof theroad. ‘Comeon,Balcha,’ Isaidtotheinterpreter,‘that’saFalashahouseisn’tit?’Balchawasanintelligent,sensitiveandhighlyeducatedmanwhohadspentseveralyearsin the United States. He was vastly over-qualified for the government job he was nowdoing.HewasalsoquiteobviouslyimpatientwiththemorelunaticedictsofthebureaucratsinAddisAbabaand,indeed,withofficialsecrecyingeneral.AlthoughwehadalreadylefttheFalashavillagebehind I thereforemadeadeterminedeffort topersuadehimto letusturnback.Hecastmeadiscomfitedglanceoutofthecornerofhiseye:‘Reallyitisverydifficult.Weneverknowfromoneday to thenextwhat lineourbossesaregoing to take…Late lastyearIbroughtaCanadianfilmcrewtothatveryvillage…theywereinterestedintheJewsandtheyhadalltheofficialpermissionsandeverything.Anyway,theypokedaroundandaskedalotof leadingquestionsaboutreligiousfreedom,politicalpersecutionandsoon–allofwhichIhadtotranslate.AfterwardsIwasarrestedbythesecuritypoliceandlockedupforafewweeksaccusedoffacilitatinganti-statepropaganda.Doyoureallywantthattohappentomeagain?’‘No,of coursenot.But I’mcertain therewon’t be anyproblems. Imeanwe’re actuallyhere working for the government and trying to produce a worthwhile book about the

peoplesandculturesofthiscountry.Surelythatmakesabigdifference?’‘Notnecessarily.Lastyear,whenIcamewiththefilmcrew,theFalashasofficiallyexisted– the governmentwasn’t denying them – but I still ended up in jail. This year there aresupposedtobenoJewsinEthiopia,soIthinkifItakeyoutooneoftheirvillagesIwillbeinserioustrouble.’I had to admit that Balcha’s logic was faultless. As we drove on through increasinglymountainousterrain,Iaskedhimtoexplaintheofficialposition–ifhecould.Partoftheproblem,hereplied,wasthatmostof‘thebosses’inAddisAbababelongedtothedominantAmharaethnicgroup.TheFalashaslivedmainlyintheprovincesofGondarandGojjam –whichwere bothAmhara strongholds – and, as a result, therewas tensionbetween the two peoples. In the past there had been occasional massacres as well assustainedeconomicpersecution,andtheJewswerestilllookeddownuponanddespisedbytheir Amhara neighbours today. Since the revolution some efforts had been made toimprove the situation, butmembers of the ruling elite continued to suffer fromakindofcollective guilty conscience about the whole matter and did not want any foreigners‘stickingtheirnosesin’.Moreover,sincethebeginningofthe1980s,officialparanoiahadbeengreatlyheightenedbythestronganti-governmentlinetakenbyvisitingAmericanandBritish Jews,who had openly and vociferously expressed concern about Falashawelfare.‘Thishasbeenseenasmeddlinginourinternalaffairs,’Balchaexplained.As we talked I learned that there were other more complex considerations too.Instinctivelyloweringhisvoice–thoughourdriverspokenoEnglish–Balchapointedoutthat Addis Ababa was the Headquarters of the Organization of African Unity and thatEthiopia had joined other African states in ending its diplomatic relationshipwith Israelafter the last Arab—Israeli war. The fact was, however, that clandestine links did stillcontinuebetweenthetwocountries:indeedtheIsraeliswereprovidingacertainamountofmilitary assistance to the regime. In return for this help, some hundreds of Falashas hadquietly beenpermitted to emigrate every year to Israel. Theproblemwas, however, thatthousandsmorehad fled illegallyby trekkingacross theborder intorefugeecamps in theSudan–fromwhence,theyhoped,theymighteventuallybeairliftedtoTelAviv.Asaresultofall this, theentire issuehadnowbecomeverysensitive.Ontheonehandthe government feared that its covert guns-for-people dealwith the Israelismight at anymomentbeexposed,thuscausingmaximumembarrassmentwithintheOAU.Ontheotherhand therewas real resentmentat the fact that largenumbersofEthiopiancitizenswerebeing lured into refugeecamps inaneighbouringandnotentirely friendlycountry.This,Balcha said, made ‘the big-shots in Addis’ look as though they were no longer fully incontrol–whichwastruebutnotsomethingthattheywantedtopublicize.During thenext threedays Ihad little time togive furtherconsideration to theFalashaquestion. Our journey had brought us into the heart of the Simienmountains – an Afro-Alpinewilderness,allofwhichlayatmorethansixthousandfeetabovesealevel,muchatninethousandfeetormore,andanotinsignificantportionatthirteenthousandfeetplus.Thegiantoftherange,thesnow-cappedpeakofMountRasDashen,soareduptofourteenthousandninehundredandtenfeet–makingitthehighestpointinEthiopiaandthefourthhighestinthewholecontinentofAfrica.Atanaltitudeoftenthousandfeet,thecampthatwehadestablishedasthebaseforour

photographyandresearchwasfreezingcoldatnight–socoldthatwehadtokeepahugefirestokedandburning.Inthemornings,however,asthedawnmistsevaporatedbeneaththerisingsun,warmthfilledtheairandastonishingviewsunfoldedinalldirectionsoverasurreal landscapewhichancient seismicactivity, followedbymillionsofyearsoferosion,had left folded and fissured, cut through with steep valleys, and dominated by isolated,juttingcrags.Our treks frequently tookusupabove twelve thousand feeton to remote,unpopulatedheaths. At lower altitudes, however, we saw frequent signs of human habitation: grassymeadows thatprovidedgrazing for sheep,goatsandcattle, and terracedhillsidesdividedintoallotmentsandplantedwithcereals.Viewingthesetidysmallholdings,Ihadthesenseof a very old, long-established pattern of agricultural life and of a peasant culture thatprobablyhadexperiencednosignificantchangeinthepastcentury–noreveninthepastmillennium.There were a few Falasha communities – which, at Balcha’s insistence, we rigorouslyavoided.Themajorityofthepopulation,however,wereAmharaswholivednotinvillagesbutinsmallhamlets–usuallyofsixhousesorless–thattendedtobeinhabitedbysingleextendedfamilies.Typicallytheirhomeswerecircularstructureswithwallsmadeofwattle-and-daub or sometimes of stone, and with conical thatched roofs supported by woodenpolesrisingthroughthecentre.Thepeasantwhomwemetandtalkedtowerepoor,insomecasesverypoorindeed,andtheirliveswereclearlyruledbytheironrodsofsoilandseason.Neverthelesstheywerealsodignifiedandproudandthis,Balchatoldus,wasbecausetheyfelt–withgoodreason–thattheybelongedtoa ‘masterrace’.Overanastonishingperiodofmore thansevenhundredyears,fromAD1270untiltheoverthrowofEmperorHaileSelassiein1974,allbutoneoftherulersofEthiopiahadbeenAmharas.Itwastheirmother-tongue,furthermore–Amharic–thathadbeenadoptedasthecountry’sofficiallanguage.Inevitably,therefore,Amharaculture–expressedthroughanalmostuniversaldedicationtotheChristianfaith–hadhadanenormousimpact.Inthepastfewcenturies,wholetribesand peoples had become ‘Amharized’, and this process was still continuing in manydifferent parts of Ethiopia. In such a context, Balcha concluded, it was little short of amiracle that subject groups like the Falashas had managed to survive at all, let alonemaintaintheirowndistinctidentity.A maverick at heart, Balcha (who some years later defected to the United States)surprised us on our journey back to Gondar by ordering our driver to stop at the sameFalasha village that we had seen on our way out. ‘Go on,’ he said, ‘I’ll give you tenminutes.’Hethenfoldedhisarmsandpretendedtofallasleep.From themomentweclimbeddown from theLandcruiserwewerebesiegedbywomenandchildrenallshouting‘Shalom,Shalom’–which,itquicklytranspired,wasjustabouttheonlywordofHebrewthattheyknew.WithBalchasteadfastlyrefusingtointerpretforus,weat firsthad somedifficulty incommunicating; soon,however,we foundayoungmanwhospokesomeEnglishand,inexchangeforasmallsumofmoney,heagreedtoshowusaround.Therewasnotmuchtosee.Sprawledupaslopeatthesideoftheroad,thevillage–itwas calledWeleka –was dirty and seethingwith flies.Many of the peoplewho pressed

aroundusseemedtothinkthatweourselvesmustbeJewishandthatwehadcometotakethemawaytoIsrael.Othersrantowardsuswitharmloadsofsouvenirs–forthemostpartbakedclayrepresentationsoftheStarofDavidandofthesupposedbed-timescenebetweenSolomonandSheba.TheplaintiveearnestnesswithwhichtheseitemsweretoutedtouchedmeandIaskedourguidehowlongithadbeensincetherehadbeenanyforeignersheretobuytheirgoods.‘Notsinceyearbefore,’hereplied.Intheshort timewehadatourdisposalwephotographedwhatwecould.Herea loomstoodpositionedforaweaveraboveaholeintheground;therepiecesofironlayscatteredarounda fire, in the flickering flamesofwhichablacksmithwas forginganaxe-head; inonehutclaywasbeingbaked;inanotherwefoundawomanatworkfashioningpottery.TheAmharas,Balchatoldus later,despisedsuchlowlytrades– indeed, intheir language,thewordfor‘manualworker’(tabib)hadthesamemeaningas‘onewiththeevileye’.By the time we leftWeleka I felt thoroughly jaded. Partly prompted by what RichardPankhursthadtoldmeaboutthemedievalhistoryoftheFalashas,andpartlybecauseIwasintriguedbythepossibleconnectionofthispeopletotheArkoftheCovenantstorythatIhadheardinAxum,Ihadbuiltupsomeratherunrealisticandextravagantexpectations.Aromantic at heart, I had nurtured dreams of encountering a noble and ancient Judaiccivilization. The reality, however, seemed to be a degraded and impoverished peasantcultureoveranxioustopandertotheenthusiasmsofforeigners.Eventheplaceofworship,which the Falashas called amesgid, turned out to be filledwith chintzy gifts from Israel:boxesofmatsoswerestackedinonecornerandnobodycouldreadtheTorah–whichhadbeenprintedinTelAviv–becauseitwaswritteninHebrew.Just before we drove away I bought one of the miniature sculptures of Solomon andSheba in bed together. I have it still. At the time I remember thinking that its cheapworkmanship and sentimental imagery appropriately symbolized the deficiencies of thelegend itself. Disappointed and disenchanted I glowered out of the window of theLandcruiseraswemotoredbackintoGondar.

CoupdegrâceBy the end of 1983 I had entirely lost interest in the Axumite claim to the Ark of theCovenant.Thecoupdegrâce,however,wasnotdeliveredbythetawdryFalashavillagebutbywhatIsawwhenIfolloweduptheoneissuestilloutstandingafterthecompletionofourfieldwork–thequestionofthetabots,thereplicasoftheArk,whichwerelodgedineveryEthiopianChristianchurch.ThiscustomhadstruckmeasbeingofpossiblerelevanceandIwantedtofindoutmoreaboutit.I raised the matter in the late autumn of 1983 on a visit that I made to RichardPankhurst’s home in London’s elegant Hampstead district. Over tea and biscuits thehistorianconfirmedthat tabotswere indeedsupposedtobereplicasof theArkandadded:‘It’samostcurious tradition.As faras I’maware there’snoprecedent for it inanyotherbrandofChristianity.’I asked if he knew how long tabots had been in use in Ethiopia. He replied that hehonestlyhadnoidea.‘ThefirsthistoricalmentionwasprobablymadebyFatherFranciscoAlvarezwhovisitedthenorthofthecountryinthesixteenthcentury.Butit’sclear thathe

waswitnessingatraditionthatwasalreadyveryoldatthattime.’Richardthenpulleddownfromhisbookshelfaslimvolume,printedin1970,entitledTheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch.‘Thisisanofficialchurchpublication,’hesaid,‘let’shavealookandseeifitoffersanyenlightenmentonthesubject.’Therewas no index, butwe checked first in a chapter entitled ‘The Consecration of aChurch’.HereIread:

Theconsecrationofachurchisasolemnandimpressiveceremonywithritessymbolicofthesacredusestowhichtheedificeisdedicated.Thevariouspartsoftheserviceareofveryancientdate…TheTabot,orArk,previouslyconsecratedbythePatriarch,isinstalledwithgrandeurandisthechieffeatureoftheceremony.2

In another chapter, ‘Church Buildings’, I came across this passage: ‘It is theTabot whichgivessanctitytothechurchinwhichitisplaced.’3Finally,intheglossary,Ifoundthewordtabotdefinedsimplyas‘ArkoftheCovenant’.4InextaskedRichardifhehadanyideawhat tabots lookedlike. ‘TheBiblesaysthattheoriginalArkoftheCovenantwasawoodandgoldboxaboutthesizeofatea-chest.Dothetabotsfitthatdescription?’‘Well,no,I’mafraidtheydon’t.Ofcourselaypeoplearen’tsupposedtoseethematall.Evenwhenthey’rebroughtoutinprocessionthey’realwayscoveredinclothwrappings.Butthey’re certainlymuch smaller than thebiblical description.Weneedn’t speculate on thisthough. You can go and see some tabots for yourself at the British Museum. They werelooted fromEthiopia during theNapier Expedition toMagdala in the nineteenth centuryandbroughtbacktoEngland. Idon’t think they’reonpublicdisplayanymore,butyou’llfindthemintheEthnographicStoreinHackney.’The nextmorning, after I hadmade a few phone calls, I drove over toOrsmanRoad,LondonNI,wheretheEthnographicStorewaslocated.Itwasamodernandfundamentallyunattractivebuildingwithquiteahighlevelofsecurity: ‘Peoplesometimestrytobreakinhereandnickourstuff,’explainedthecaretakerasIsignedin.Hetookmeinalifttooneoftheupperfloorsandthenintoanenormouswarehouseofaroomcompletelyfilledwithrowsofmetalfilingracks.Theseextendedfromfloortoceilingandwereseparatedonlybynarrowwalkwaysbadlylitbyoverheadfluorescenttubes.Thecaretakernowconsultedavoluminousindex,mutteringincomprehensiblytohimselfashedidso.‘Ithinkit’sthisway,’hesaidfinally.‘Followme.’AswewalkedIwasremindedirresistiblyoftheclosingsceneinRaidersoftheLostArk–the scene inwhich the sacred relic is sealed in awooden crate and dumped in a federaldepositoryamidstthousandsofotheranonymouscontainers.Thisparallelcontinuedwhen,after quite a few false turns in themaze of shelves,we finally arrived at the right spot.Here,withacertainamountofceremony,thecaretakerpulledout…alargebox.I felta thrillofexcitementasheopened itup. Inside,however, therewasnothing thatboreeventheremotestresemblancetomyimageoftheArkoftheCovenant.Separatedbysheets of crêpe paper there were, instead, nine wooden slabs, some square, somerectangular,noneexceedingeighteeninchesinlengthandwidth,andnonemorethanthreeinchesthick.ThemajoritywereveryplainbutallborewritingwhichIrecognizedasGe’ez,

theancientliturgicallanguageofEthiopia.Afewwereadditionallyengravedwithcrossesandotherdevices.Iaskedthecaretakertocheckhisindex.Couldhepossiblyhavemadeamistake?Couldwebelookingatthewrongthings?Hesquintedatthelistinhishands,thenreplied: ‘No.Nomistake.Theseareyour tabotsallright.FromtheHolmescollection.BroughtbackbytheBritishExpeditiontoAbyssiniain1867/8.That’swhatitsayshere.’Ithankedhimforhistroubleandleft,satisfiedthatIhadfinallylaidthewholemattertorest.Thesepathetic lumpsofwoodweresupposedtobereplicasof thesacredrelic in thesanctuary chapel at Axum. Whatever that relic might be, therefore, one thing was nowabsolutelyclear:itwasnottheArkoftheCovenant.‘Sothat’stheendofthat,’IrememberthinkingasIsteppedoutontoOrsmanRoadandrantomycarthroughadismalshowerofrain.Icouldnothavebeenmorewrong.

PartII:Europe,1989

HolyArkandHolyGrail

Chapter3TheGrailCipher

It was in 1983 that I visited Axum and learned at first hand about Ethiopia’s audaciousclaimtobethelastrestingplaceoftheArkoftheCovenant.IhadbeenlivinginAfricaatthe time. In 1984 I moved to England with my family. Nevertheless in the years thatfollowedIcontinuedtotravelregularlytoAddisAbaba,producinganumberofpublicationsfor the government and generally strengthening my contacts with those in power –includingPresidentMengistuHaileMariamhimself.Thedictatorhadabadreputationforabusing human rights but I cultivated him assiduously and won a number of usefulprivileges as a result – notably access to many areas that were normally closed toforeigners. If I hadwanted to look further into the Arkmystery there is no doubt that Iwouldhavebeenstronglyplacedtodoso.Iwasjustnotinterested,however.Ithereforedidnotfeelevenatwingeofregretwhen,attheendof1988,theforcesoftheTigrayPeople’sLiberationFrontlaunchedamassiveoffensiveagainstAxumandcaptureditinasingledayofbloodyhand-to-handfighting–duringwhichmorethantwothousandofthegovernmentstroopswerekilledorcaptured.AtthatstagemyinvolvementwiththeMengisturegimehadbecome so close that the rebels’ success meant the doors of the sacred city were noweffectivelyclosedtome.ButIhadnoparticularreasontowanttogobackthereanyway.OratleastsoIthought.

TheQueenofShebaatChartresI spent most of the second half of 1988 and the first quarter of 1989 writing theaccompanying commentary for an illustrated book focussing on the historic northernregionsofEthiopiaandonthereligiousceremoniesandcustomsofthepeopleslivingthere.This project was not commissioned by the government but was the work of twointernationally renowned photographers, Angela Fisher and Carol Beckwith1 – both ofwhomwereclosefriendsofmine.Becauseofthenatureofthesubject,Ihadtodosomequitedetailedbackgroundresearchintoseveraldifferentethnicgroups–amongstthemtheFalashas,theindigenousblackJewsoftheEthiopianhighlandswhomIhadfirstencounteredin1983.Atthesametime,becauseofitsformativeroleinAbyssinianreligiousculture,IfounditnecessarytoreadanancienttexttowhichProfessorRichardPankhursthadlongbeforedrawnmyattention.CalledtheKebra Nagast (‘Glory of Kings’) this text dated from the thirteenth century AD and hadoriginallybeenwritteninGe’ez.Itcontainedtheearliest-survivingversionofthestorytoldtomeinAxumabouttheQueenofShebaandKingSolomon,thebirthoftheirsonMenelik,andtheeventualabductionoftheArkoftheCovenantfromtheFirstTempleinJerusalem.An English translation had been made in the 1920s by Sir E. A.Wallis Budge, formerlyKeeperofEgyptianandAssyrianAntiquitiesattheBritishMuseum.Itwasoutofprint,butImanagedtoobtainaphotocopywhichIstudiedcloselyanddrewonatvariousstagesinthe

bookIwaswriting.My manuscript was not finalized until the end of March 1989. In April, wanting acompletebreak,IwentonholidaytoFrancewithmyfamily.WehiredacarinParisandthen,withnoparticularitineraryinmind,headedsouth.OurfirststopwasVersailleswherewespentacoupleofdayslookingatthepalaceandatthechâteaux.ThenwewentontoChartres,alovelyoldtowninthedépartementofEure-et-LoirethatisfamousforitsGothiccathedral–acathedraldedicated,likethegreatchurchatAxum,toSaintMarytheMotherofChrist.Chartres has been an important Christian site since at least the sixth century AD and afocal point for the cult of the Madonna since the ninth century when Charles the Bald,grandsonof the famousCharlemagne,presented the townwith itsmostpreciousreligiousrelic–aveilsaidtohavebeenwornbyMarywhenshegavebirthtoJesus.Intheeleventhcentury the churchbuiltbyCharles theBaldwasburntdownandanew,muchenlarged,cathedral was erected on its foundations. Following classical, ‘Romanesque’ designprinciples that emphasizedhorizontal solidity, this cathedral, too,was badly damagedbyfire. Subsequently, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, its surviving shell wasextensivelymodifiedandenlargedinthenew,soaring,upward-strivingstylethatcametobeknownas ‘Gothic’.IndeedthehighnorthtowerofChartrescathedral,completedintheyear1134,isthoughttobetheworld’searliestexampleofGothicarchitecture.2Thesouthtowerwasaddedoverthenexttwodecades,aswerefurtherfeaturessuchasthewest-facingRoyalPortal.Then,inaconcentratedburstofbuildingbetween1194and1225mostoftherest of the superb Gothic exterior was put in place – remaining intact and virtuallyunalteredeversince.3WhenIvisitedChartreswithmyfamilyinApril1989Iwasinitiallymuchlessinterestedinthehistoryofthecathedralthaninitsspectacularandgloriousbeauty.Itwassuchavastconstruction,withsomuchcomplexsculpturearounditswalls,thatIrealizeditmighttakea lifetime to get to know it properly.We had other things to do and see, however, anddecidedtostayinthetownforjustthreedaysbeforemovingontowardsthesouth.I spent the greater part of those three days walking slowly around the cathedral,gradually imbibing itspowerfulandnuminousatmosphere– the remarkable stainedglasswindowstellingbiblical storiesand illuminating the innergloomwithstrangepatternsoflight,theenigmaticlabyrinthmappedoutwithpavingstonesinthecentreofthenave,theflying buttresses supporting the soaringwalls, the pointed arches, and the overwhelmingsensationofharmonyandproportionconveyedbythegraceandagilityofthearchitecture.Guidebooks that I had purchased stressed that nothingwas accidental here. The entireedificehadbeencarefullyandexplicitlydesignedasakeytothedeeperreligiousmysteries.Thus,forexample,thearchitectsandmasonshadmadeuseofgematria(anancientHebrewcipher that substitutes numbers for the letters of the alphabet) to ‘spell out’ obscureliturgical phrases in many of the key dimensions of the great building.4 Similarly thesculptors and glaziers – working usually to the instructions of the higher clergy – hadcarefullyconcealedcomplexmessagesabouthumannature,about thepast,andabout thepropheticmeaningof theScriptures inthethousandsofdifferentdevicesanddesignsthattheyhadcreated.Thestatuesandwindowswereinthemselvesworksofartandbeautythatwere capable, at the most superficial level of understanding, of providing satisfaction,

moral guidance and even entertainment to the viewer. The challenge, however, was todelve deeper and to decode the information concealed beneath themore obvious surfaceinterpretationsofthisorthatsetofsculptures,thisorthatarrangementofstainedglass.5Iwas initially rather unconvincedby arguments like these and found it hard to accept

thattherecouldbeanythingmoretothebuildingthanitsoutwardappearance.Gradually,however, as I explored furtherand joined several specialist tours, I began to see that thevaststructurewasindeedakindof‘bookinstone’–anintricateandprovocativeopusthatcouldbeapproachedandunderstoodatseveraldifferentlevels.Soonenough, therefore, I too started toplay thegame–and several times entertained

myself by trying to work out the deeper significance of various pieces of statuary thatcaughtmyeye.WhenIthoughtIhadfoundthecorrectanswertoaparticulararrangementortableauIwouldthencheckintheguidebookstoseewhetherIwasrightornot.Thensomethingunexpectedhappened.Oppositethecathedral’ssouthporchIstoppedfor

asnackinacafécalledLaReinedeSaba.MyrecentreadingoftheKebraNagastcontainingtheEthiopianlegendoftheQueenofShebawasstillfreshinmymindandIaskedoneofthewaiterswhythisnamehadbeenchosen.‘BecausethereisasculptureoftheQueenofShebaintheporchoverthere,’heexplained.My curiosity aroused, I crossed the road and climbed the seventeen steps to the ornate

porch – which consisted of a wide central archway sandwiched between two slightlynarrowerbays.Here,onalmosteveryavailablesquareinchofmasonry,werehundredsandhundredsofstatuettesandmanyfull-sizestatues.Icouldfindnone,however,thatseemedobviouslytorepresenttheQueenofSheba.IthereforecheckedintheguidebooksIhadwithme,themostdetailedofwhich,Chartres:GuideoftheCathedral,toldmewheretolook:

Theinnerarchivoltoftheouterarchhastwenty-eightstatuettesofkingsandqueensoftheOldTestament:werecogniseDavidwithhisharp,Solomonwithasceptre,andtheQueenofShebaholdingaflowerinherlefthand.Atthetop,thefourmajorprophets,bearded,talkwithfourminorprophetswhoarecleanshaven.6

The book also informedme that thewhole of the south porch had been built in the firstquarter of the thirteenth century – the same century inwhich theKebraNagast had beencompiled inEthiopiato tell thestoryof theQueenofSheba,Menelikandthetheftof theArk.ThisstruckmeasanamusingcoincidenceandI thereforeexaminedthestatuetteof the

Queen of Shebawith some considerable interest. I could see absolutely nothing about it,however,thatmadeitspecialinanyway–otherthanthefactthatitseemedtobealittleoutofplaceintheaugustcompanyofalargenumberofJewishmonarchsandprophets.IknewthataccordingtotheKebraNagast thequeenhadbeenconvertedtoJudaism,7 but Ialso knew that the relatively short biblical account of her visit to Jerusalem made nomention of this. In Chapter 10 of the book of Kings and in Chapter 9 of the book ofChronicles – the only places where she was specifically named in the Scriptures – shearrivedatSolomon’scourtaheathenandapparentlyleftthereaheathenstill.8Itwasherpaganism, therefore, that made her the odd one out – unless, of course, the builders ofChartres cathedral had been familiar with the Ethiopian story of her conversion. This,

however,seemedmostunlikely–indeedtheOldTestamentdidnotevenhintthatshemighthave come fromEthiopia at all and themajority of scholars believedher tohavebeen aSouthArabianmonarchwhohadhailedquite specifically fromSabaorSabaea inwhat isnowtheYemen.9Imightverywellhaveleftthematterthere,asaminoranomalyamongstthesculptures

inthesouthporchofChartrescathedral, ifIhadnotdiscovered,byreadingfurtherinmyguidebook,thattherewasasecondstatueoftheQueenofShebainthenorthporch.Thatporch, too, had been built between the years 1200 and 1225, and was devoted to anextensiveportrayalofOldTestamentthemes.10

TheArkandtheinscriptions

Isuppose,onthatfirstvisit,thatIspenttwohoursinthenorthporchtryingtopuzzleouttheconvolutedstoriestoldbythesculptures.TheleftbaycontainedseveralrepresentationsoftheVirginMaryandoftheinfantChrist

togetherwithOldTestamentprophetslikeIsaiahandDaniel.Therewerealsomoraltales–notablyonewhichportrayedthetriumphoftheVirtuesovertheVices,andanotherwhichdepictedthebeatitudesofthebodyandsoulasdescribedbythegreattwelfth-centuryclericSaintBernardofClairvaux.The central baywas dominated by a group ofOld Testament patriarchs and prophets,

notablythefigureofMelchizedek–themysteriouspriest-kingofSalemdescribedinChapter14of thebookofGenesis and inPsalm110.11 Abraham,Moses, Samuel andDavidweretherealso,aswereElishaandSaintPeter.OtherscenesincludedtheGardenofEden,withits four rivers, and the Virgin Mary crowned and seated on the heavenly throne besideJesus.ItwasintherightbaythatIfoundtheQueenofSheba.Thistimeshewasnotanobscure

statuetteonthearch,ashadbeenthecaseinthesouthporch,butratherafull-sizestatue.Shewasplacednext toa figureofSolomon,whichmadesensegiven thebiblicalcontext.Whatimmediatelycaughtmyeye,however,wasthatbeneathherfeetcrouchedanAfrican– described in one of my guidebooks as ‘her negroid servant’,12 and in another as ‘herEthiopianslave’.13No further details were given. Nevertheless I had seen enough to be satisfied that the

sculptors who had worked in the north porch of Chartres in the thirteenth century hadwantedtoplacethequeenunmistakablyinanAfricancontext.ThismeantthatIcouldnolonger so easilydismiss thepossibility that those sculptorsmighthavebeen familiarwiththeEthiopiantraditionsaboutherwhich, in the thirteenthcentury,hadbeen setdown intheKebraNagast.That,atleast,wouldexplainwhyanapparentlypaganmonarchhadbeengivensomuch importance in the iconographyofaChristiancathedral:asnotedabove, ithadonlybeen intheKebraNagast,andnot in theBible, thatshehadbeendescribedasaconvert to the true faith of the patriarchs. At the same time, however, it raised anotherdifficult question: how and by what means could the Ethiopian story have filtered intonorthernFranceatsoearlyadate?Itwaswithsuchthoughtspassingthroughmymindthat,onacolumnbetweenthecentral

and right-hand bays, I came across a piece of sculpture that was to have an evenmorepowerful impact on me. Miniaturized – no more than a few inches high and wide – itdepictedaboxorchestofsomesortbeingtransportedonanox-cart.Beneathit,incapitalletters,werecarvedthesetwowords:

ARCHACEDERIS

Movingonaroundthecolumninananti-clockwisedirectionIthenfoundaseparatescene,badlydamagedanderoded,which seemed to showaman stoopingover the sameboxorchest.Therewasaninscriptionhere,too,alittledifficulttomakeout:

HICAMICITURARCHACEDERIS(orpossiblyHICAMITTITURARCHACEDERIS,orHICAMITITURARCHACEDERIS,orevenHICAMIGITURARCHACEDERIS).

The style of the letteringwas archaic, jumbledup andobscure. I realized that itmust beLatin,oraformofLatin.However,havingbeenobligedbymyschoolmasterstoabandonthatsubjectattheageofthirteen(onaccountofmyownlinguisticincompetence),Imadeno attempt at a full translation. It seemed to me, however, that the word ARCHAmustmean‘Ark’–asinArkoftheCovenant.Icouldalsoseethattheboxorchestdepictedinthesculptureswasabouttherightsize(scaledagainst theotherfigures) tohavebeentheArkdescribedinthebookofExodus.14If Iwascorrect in thisassumption, I reasoned, then thepositioningofan imageof theArkwithinaveryfewfeetofanimageoftheQueenofShebastrengthenedthehypothesisthatthebuildersofChartresmight,insomeasyetunexplainedway,havebeeninfluencedbytheEthiopiantraditionssetdownintheKebraNagast.Indeedthefactthesculptorshadplacedthequeensounambiguously inanAfricancontextmadethishypothesis lookmuchmoreplausible than ithad seemedwhen ithad first occurred tome in the southporch. Ithereforefeltthatitwouldbeworthmywhiletoestablishwhethertheminiaturizeddeviceson the columnswere really images of theArk and toworkout themeaningof the Latininscriptions.Isatdownonthepavingofthenorthporchandporedthroughmyguidebooks.OnlytwoofthemmadeanymentionatallofthedecorationsonthecolumnsIwasinterestedin.OneofferednotranslationoftheinscriptionsbutconfirmedthatthescenesdepicteddidindeedrelatetotheArkoftheCovenant.15Theotherprovidedthefollowingtranslation–whichIfoundinteresting,butalsorathersuspect:

ARCHACEDERIS:‘YouaretoworkthroughtheArk.’

HICAMITITURARCHACEDERIS:‘Herethingstaketheircourse;youaretoworkthroughtheArk.’16

EvenmyschoolboyLatinwassufficienttosuggestthattheseinterpretationswereprobablyincorrect. I therefore decided that I would have to refer the matter to an expert forclarificationanditoccurredtomethatinjustafewdaysIwouldbepassingquitecloseto

thehomeof amanwellqualified tohelp–ProfessorPeterLasko, anarthistorianandaformerdirectoroftheUniversityofLondon’sCourtauldInstitute,whonowspentsixmonthsof every year living in southern France. The father of a close friend ofmine, Lasko hadmadea lifetimestudyof thesacredartandarchitectureof themedievalperiodandcouldprobablygivemeanauthoritativeopinion–oratanyratepointmeintherightdirection.AccordinglyIcarefullycopiedouttheinscriptionsandthenstooduptotrytoproduceasketch of the whole north porch. As I was doing so I noticed something else that waspossibly significant: the Ark tableau, though standing to the front of the porch on thesupporting columns, was positioned exactly midway between Melchizedek, the OldTestamentpriest-kingwhosestatuedominatedthecentralbay,andthestatueoftheQueenof Sheba, which dominated the right-hand bay. Indeed I found that I could draw a neattriangle connectingupall threepiecesof sculpture –withMelchizedekand theQueenofShebaateitherendof the longbaseand theArkof theCovenantat theapexof the twoshortersides.Norwasthisall.AsIstudiedthelayoutofimagesinthetwobaysIrealizedthattheArkonits littlecarthadbeendepictedasmovingaway fromMelchizedekanddirectly towardstheQueenofSheba–alongthesideofthetriangleIhaddrawn.Giventhecrypticnatureofmuch of the sculpture at Chartres, and the way in which different figures were oftendeliberatelyjuxtaposedinordertotellstoriesandconveyinformation,itseemedtomethatthisparticulararrangementwasunlikelytohavebeenaccidental.Onthecontraryitlookedvery much like another piece of evidence to support my evolving hypothesis that thebuilders of Chartres must, somehow, have been exposed to the Ethiopian legend of theQueenofShebaasrelatedintheKebraNagast.Thoughtherewasfartoolittletogoonheretojustifyanyfirmconclusions,itwasatleastpossiblethatthecuriousiconographyofthenorthporchdidcontainechoesofthetraditionthattheArkoftheCovenanthadbeentakenaway from ancient Israel (represented by the priest-king Melchizedek) and to Ethiopia(representedbytheQueenofSheba).I thereforepaid special attention to the statueofMelchizedekbefore leaving thenorthporch.HehadcaughtmyeyewhenIhadfirstarrived,butnow,asIsketchedhim,Ibeganto noticemore details. Dangling beneath his right hand, for example,was a censer verysimilar to those that Ihadoftenseen inuse inEthiopianchurchservices–wherecopiousquantities of incense were routinely burned.Meanwhile he held in his left hand a long-stemmedchaliceorcupcontainingnotliquidbutrathersomesortofsolidcylindricalobject.I searched throughmyguidebooksagain,but could findno reference to the censerandonly conflicting explanations of the cup.One source said thatMelchizedekwas intendedheretobeviewedasaprecursorofChristandthatthechaliceandtheobjectwithinitwerethusmeant to represent ‘thebreadand thewine, thesymbolsof theEucharist’.17 Anothercaptioneditsphotographofthestatuewiththesewords:‘MelchizedekbearingtheGrailcupoutofwhichcomestheStone’,andthenadded(somewhatpuzzlingly):

WiththiswemayconnectthepoemofWolframvonEschenbach,whoissaidtohavebeenaTemplar–thoughthereisnoproofofthis–forwhomtheGrailisaStone.18

Nonethewiser,Ieventuallyleftthenorthporchandjoinedmywifeandchildreninthe

gardens behind the great cathedral. The next day we drove south from Chartres in thedirectionofBordeauxandBiarritz.Andsometimeafterthat,nowheadingeasttowardstheCôte d’azur,we arrived in thedépartement of Tarn-et-Garonne near the city of Toulouse.There, with the aid of a good map, I eventually found the home of the art historianProfessor Peter Lasko whom I had telephoned from Chartres and who had expressed awillingnesstotalktomeaboutthesculpturesinthenorthporch–though,hehadmodestlyadded,hecouldnotclaimtobeanexpertonthem.

AnEthiopianconnection?IspentanafternoonwithPeterLaskoathishouseinthevillageofMontaigudeQuercy.Adistinguished, grey-hairedman in his sixties, I hadmet him several times before and heknewthat,asawriter,IspecializedinEthiopiaandtheHornofAfrica.HethereforebeganbyaskingmewhyIhadsuddenlytakenaninterestinmedievalFrenchcathedrals.I replied by outlining my theory that the sculptures I had seen in the north porch ofChartresmight in somewayhavebeen influencedby theKebraNagast: ‘Melchizedekwithhis cup could representOld Testament Israel,’ I concluded. ‘Hewas priest-king of Salem,afterall,whichanumberofscholarshaveidentifiedwithJerusalem.19ThentheQueenofShebawithherAfricanservantcouldrepresentEthiopia.AndthenwehavetheArkbetweenthetwo,goinginthedirectionofEthiopia.SothemessagewouldbethattheArkhadgonefromJerusalem toEthiopia–which isexactlywhat theKebraNagast says.Howdoes thatsoundtoyou?’‘Tobeperfectlyhonest,Graham,itsoundspreposterous.’‘Why?’‘Well … I suppose it’s just possible that Ethiopian traditions could have filtered intoEuropeasearlyas the thirteenthcentury– in fact, come to thinkof it, therehasbeenatleastonescholarlypaperwhichdoessuggestthatthiscouldhavehappened.Iratherdoubtthatviewmyself.Nevertheless,eveniftheKebraNagaststorywasknowninChartresattheright time I just don’t seewhy anyonewould have feltmotivated to translate it into theiconography of the cathedral. That would have been a most peculiar thing to do –particularly in the north porch which is mainly about the Old Testament forerunners ofChrist.Melchizedek is there for that very reason, by theway. He’s specifically identifiedwithChristinthebookofHebrews.’20‘He’sshownholdingacupinthesculptureandthere’salsosomekindofcylindricalobjectinthecup.’‘Probablymeanttorepresentbread–thebreadandthewineoftheEucharist.’‘That’swhatoneofmyguidebookssays.Butthere’sanotheronewhichidentifiesthecupwiththeHolyGrailandwhicharguesthatthecylindricalobjectisastone.’PeterLasko raisedaquizzicaleyebrow. ‘I’veneverheard sucha thingbefore. It soundseven more far-fetched than your theory of an Ethiopian connection …’ He pausedreflectively,thenadded:‘Thereisonethingthough.ThatscholarlypaperwhichImentioned–theonethattalksaboutEthiopianideasfindingtheirwayintomedievalEurope…’‘Yes.’‘Welloddlyenoughit’sabouttheHolyGrail.IfIrememberrightlyitarguesthatWolfram

vonEschenbach’sGrail –whichwasa stone,not a cup–was influencedby some sort ofChristianEthiopiantradition.’I sat forward in my chair: ‘That’s interesting … Wolfram von Eschenbach was alsomentionedinmyguidebook.Whowashe?’‘One of the earliest of the medieval poets to concern himself with the Holy Grail. Hewroteabook-lengthworkonthesubjectcalledParzival.’‘Isn’tthatthenameofanopera?’‘Yes,byWagner.HewasinspiredbyWolfram.’‘AndthisWolfram…whendidhewrite?’‘Latetwelfthorearlythirteenthcentury.’‘InotherwordsatthesametimethatthenorthporchofChartrescathedralwasbuilt?’‘Yes.’Webothremainedsilentforawhile,thenIsaid:‘Thepaperthatyoutoldmeaboutwhichargues thatWolfram’sworkwas influencedbyEthiopian traditions– Idon’t supposeyouhappentorememberthetitleofitdoyou?’‘…Ah.No.I’mafraidnot.ItmusthavebeenatleasttwentyyearsagowhenIreadit.Itwasby someoneorotherAdolf, I think.Thatnamesticks inmymind,anyway.WolframwasaGermansoyoureallyneedtotalktoaspecialistinMiddleHighGermanliteraturetofindoutmoredetails.’SilentlyresolvingthatIwoulddojustthat,IthenaskedPeterifhecouldhelpmewithatranslationof the inscriptions thathad so intriguedmeatChartres.Myguidebook, I toldhim, had rendered ARCHA CEDERIS as ‘You are to work through the Ark’ and HICAMITITURARCHACEDERISas‘Herethingstaketheircourse;youaretoworkthroughtheArk.’Theseinterpretations,however,wereinhisviewcompletelywrong.ARCHAcertainlymeant Ark and CEDERIS was most probably a corruption of FOEDERIS – meaningCovenant. On this reading, therefore, ARCHA CEDERIS would translate very simply andlogically as ‘Ark of the Covenant’. Another alternative, however, was that the wordCEDERISwasintendedasaformoftheverbcedere–meaningtoyieldortogiveuportogoaway.Thetensewasunorthodox,butthebesttranslationofARCHACEDERISifthiswasthecasewouldbe‘theArkthatyouwillyield’(or‘giveup’or‘sendaway’).As to the longer inscription, the problem was the obscurity of the fourth letter of thesecondword.Myguidebookhadpresumedittobeasingle‘T’.Itwasmuchmorelikelytobe an abbreviation representing adouble ‘T’, however (because therewasnoLatinwordspeltAMITITURwithasingle‘T’).Ifadouble‘T’hadindeedbeenintendedthenthephrasewouldreadHICAMITTITURARCHACEDERIS,meaningsomethinglike‘Hereitisletgo,theArk that you will yield’, or perhaps ‘Here it is let go, Oh Ark, you are yielded’, oralternatively–ifCEDERISwasacorruptionofFOEDERIS–‘Hereitisletgo,theArkoftheCovenant’.Itwasalsopossible,however,thatthefourthletterofthesecondwordwasa‘C’ofsomekind (whichwasactuallywhat it looked like). If so then the relevantphrasebecameHICAMICITURARCHACEDERIS–whichwouldtranslateeitheras‘HereishiddentheArkoftheCovenant’,or‘HereishiddentheArkthatyouwillyield’(or‘giveup’or‘sendaway’).‘Eventheword“hidden”isn’tdefinite,’concludedPeterasheclosedhisLatindictionary.‘Amiciturinthiscontextcouldequallywellmean“coveredup”–althoughthatdoesconvey

thesamesortofideadoesn’tit?Idon’tknow.Thewholething’sabitofapuzzlereally.’Iagreedwholeheartedlywithhimonthispoint.Thewholethingwasindeedapuzzle.Itwas,moreover,apuzzlethatIfeltchallenged,intriguedandtantalizedbyandthatIverymuchwantedtosolve.DuringtheremainderofmyholidayinFrancemythoughtskeptwanderingbacktothenorthporchofChartreswhereIhadseenthelittlesculptures.WhatIcouldnotforgetwasthewayinwhichthereliconitsox-carthadappearedtobemovingtowardstheQueenofSheba;norcouldIdismissfrommymindthepossibilitythatthissuggestedmovementorajourneytowardsEthiopia.I knew that I was indulging in wild speculation for which there was no academicjustificationwhatsoever and I fully acceptedPeter Lasko’s argument that the sculptors ofChartreswould not have allowed themselves to be influenced by an Ethiopian legend intheirchoiceofsubjectmatter.This,however,leftmewithamuchmoreexcitingpossibilitytocontemplate:perhapsthoseresponsibleforthenorthporchofthecathedral(whichhadalso been called ‘the door of the initiates’21) had been drawing a crypticmap for futuregenerationstofollow–amapthathintedat the locationof themostsacredandprecioustreasure that theworldhadeverknown.Perhaps theyhaddiscovered that theArkof theCovenantreallyhadbeenletgo,oryielded(orsentaway?)fromIsrael inOldTestamenttimesandthat ithadsubsequentlybeenhidden(orcoveredup?)inEthiopia.Perhapsthiswasthetruemeaningofthelittlesculptureswiththeirpuzzlinginscriptions.Ifsothentheimplications were truly breathtaking and the Axumite traditions that I had so readilydismissedin1983would,attheveryleast,meritaclosesecondlook.

Mary,theGrailandtheArkWhenIreturnedfromFranceattheendofApril1989Isetmyresearchassistanttoworkontheproblemof the scholarlypaper thatPeterLaskohadmentioned tome. Iknew that itmighthavebeenwrittenbysomeonenamedAdolfandIknewthatthesubjectmatterhadtodowithapossibleEthiopian influenceonWolframvonEschenbach’s storyof theHolyGrail. I did not know where, or when, the paper had been published, or even in whatlanguage,but Iadvisedmyresearcher tocontact theuniversities to see if therewereanyspecialistsonmedievalGermanliteraturewhomightbeabletohelp.WhilewaitingforanansweronthisIwentoutandboughtanumberofdifferentversionsof theGrail ‘romance’.These includedChrétiendeTroyes’sConteduGraal, leftunfinishedbytheauthorinAD1182,22SirThomasMalory’sLeMorteD’arthur,amuchlaterepicdatedtothemid-fifteenthcentury,23andlastbutnotleastParzival,whichWolframvonEschenbachwas thought to have written between the years 1195 and 121024 – dates that coincidedalmost exactlywith themain phase of constructionwork on the north porch of Chartrescathedral.IbegantoreadthesebooksandinitiallyfoundMalory’sthemostaccessible–sinceithadbeenthe inspirationforanumberofstoriesandfilmsdealingwiththequest fortheHolyGrailthatIhadenjoyedasachild.I quickly discovered, however, that Malory had presented an idealized, sanitized andaboveallChristianized account of ‘the only true quest’.Wolfram’s story, by contrast,was

moreearthy,providedamoreaccurateportrayaloftherealitiesofhumanbehaviour,and–most important of all – was completely devoid of New Testament symbolism where theGrailitselfwasconcerned.InMalorythesacredrelicwasdescribedasa ‘vesselofgold’carriedbya ‘perfectcleanmaiden’andcontaining ‘partof thebloodofOurLordJesusChrist’.25This, as Iwaswellaware,waspreciselytheimagethathadlongbeenenshrinedinpopularculture,wheretheGrailwasalwaysportrayedasacuporabowl(usuallythatinwhichJosephofArimatheacaughtafewdropsofChrist’sbloodwhentheSaviourhungsufferingonthecross).ImyselfhadbeensoinfluencedbythisconceptionthatIfounditdifficulttothinkoftheGrailasanythingotherthanacup.WhenIturnedtoWolfram’sParzival,however,IfoundconfirmationofwhatIhadlearnedinFrance,namelythattherelic–althoughcarriedbyamaidenjustasinMalory–wasdepictedasastone:

Howeverillamortalmanmaybe,fromthedayonwhichheseestheStonehecannotdieforthatweek,nordoeshelosehiscolour.Forifanyone,maidorman,weretolookattheGralfortwohundredyears,youwouldhavetoadmitthathiscolourwasasfreshasinhisearlyprime…SuchpowersdoestheStoneconferonmortalmenthattheirfleshandbonesaresoonmadeyoungagain.ThisStoneiscalled‘TheGral’.26

Iwasstruckby thisoddandcompelling imagery,and it raisedanaggingquestion inmymind: why should theMorte D’arthur have depicted the Grail as ‘a vessel’ when the farearlierParzivalhadunambiguouslydescribeditas‘aStone’?Whatwasgoingonhere?IinvestigatedfurtherandlearntfromoneauthorityonquestliteraturethatMalorywas‘merely embroidering a theme, the meaning of which [he] did not understand’ when hewrotetheMorteD’arthur.27ThatthemehadbeenmostdefinitivelyspelledoutinWolfram’sParzival and inChrétiendeTroyes’sConteduGraal,28 both ofwhichweremore than twohundredyearsolderthantheMorte.Encouragedby thisadvice I turned tomycopyofChrétien’sunfinishedstoryand therereadthefollowingdescriptionoftheGrail–thefirstinliterature(and,forthatmatter,inhistory).AsinbothWolframandMalory,thepreciousobjectwascarriedbyadamsel:

Onceshehadenteredwiththisgrailthatsheheld,sogreataradianceappearedthatthecandleslosttheirbrilliancejustasthestarsdoattherisingofthesunandthemoon…Thegrail…wasofpurerefinedgold[and]wassetwithmanykindsofpreciousstones,therichestandmostcostlyinseaorearth.29

Atnopoint,Idiscovered,didChrétien’smanuscriptexplicitlystatethattheGrailwasacuporbowl.Itwasclearfromthecontext,however,thatthiswaspreciselywhathesawitas.Inseveralplaceshereferredtoacentralcharacter–‘theFisherKing’–being‘servedfromthegrail’,30andlateradded:‘he’sservedwithasingleconsecratedwaferbroughttohiminthatgrail–thatsupportshislifeinfullvigour,soholyathingisthegrail’.31Oncheckingfurther I learned that theveryword ‘grail’was itselfderived from theOldFrenchgradale(Latingradalis)meaning‘awideandsomewhathollowed-outvesselinwhichdeliciousfoodisserved’.InthecolloquialparlanceofChrétien’sdaygradalewasoftenpronouncedgreal.

Andeveninmorerecenttimesgrazal,grazau,andgrialcontinuedtobeusedinpartsofthesouthofFrancetodenotereceptaclesofvariouskinds.32Here, therefore,was theorigin ofMalory’s conceptionof the sacredobject as a vessel.Otherthanthementionof‘aconsecratedwafer’,however,Chrétien’streatmentofferednounequivocalconnectionswithChristianity(noteveninthenotionoftheGrailbeinga‘holything’–whichcouldaseasilyhavebeen inspiredbytheOldTestamentasbytheNew33).LikeWolfram, theFrenchpoetdidnotmentionChrist’sbloodatallandcertainlydidnotsuggestthattherelicwasacontainerforit.It followed that the ‘sacredblood’ imagery associatedwith theGrail in popular culturewas a gloss added by later authors – a gloss that broadened, but also to some extentobscured, theoriginal theme.Witha littlemoreworkon the subject Iwasable to satisfymyselfthatthisprocessof‘Christianization’hadbeensponsoredbytheCistercianmonasticorder.34AndtheCisterciansintheirturnhadbeenprofoundlyinfluencedandshapedbyoneman–SaintBernardofClairvaux,whohadjoinedtheOrderintheyear1112andwhowasregardedbymanyscholarsasthemostsignificantreligiousfigureofhisera.35This same Saint Bernard, I then discovered, had also played a formative role in theevolution and dissemination of theGothic architectural formula in its early days (he hadbeenattheheightofhispowersin1134whenthesoaringnorthtowerofChartrescathedralhadbeenbuilt,andhehadconstantly stressed theprinciplesof sacredgeometry thathadbeen put into practice in that tower and throughout the whole wonderful building).36Moreover, long after his death in 1153, his sermons and ideas had continued to serve asprime sources of inspiration for the further evolution of Gothic architecture and also forstatuaryandsculptureslikethoseIhadseeninthenorthporchatChartres.37Theprincipalbridgebetweentheearliernon-Christianversionsof thestoryof theHolyGrailandthestylizedNewTestamenttract that ithadbecomebyMalory’s timehadbeenformed by the so-called Queste del Saint Graal – compiled by Cistercian monks in thethirteenth century.38Moreover, although hewas already deadwhen this great anthologywas begun, it seemed tome that the strong hand of Saint Bernard could also be seen atwork here – reaching out from beyond the grave as it were. I arrived at this conclusionbecause, in his extensive writings, this immensely influential cleric had propounded amysticalviewofChrist’sblood,aviewthatwasincorporatedbythecompilersoftheQuesteintotheirnewconceptoftheGrailitself.39FromnowonWolfram’sStonewascompletelyforgottenandChrétien’s‘vessel’,althoughpreserved,wasfilledupwiththebloodofChrist.What I found interesting about this notion was the way in which it had immediatelybegun to be interpreted by the church. In hymns, sermons and epistles, I learned,subsequentgenerationsofChristians all overEuropehadgone togreat lengths to equatethe Grail symbolically with the Blessed VirginMary – to whom, I remembered, Chartrescathedralhadbeendedicated.Thereasoningunderlyingthispiousallegorywasasfollows:theGrail (accordingtotheQuesteandother later recensionsof the legend)contained theholybloodofChrist;beforeshegavebirthtohim,MaryhadcontainedChristhimselfwithinherwomb;therefore,QED,theGrailwas–andalwayshadbeen–asymbolforMary.40Accordingtothislogic,MaryTheotokos, the ‘GodBearer’,wasthesacredvesselwhohadcontainedtheSpiritmadeflesh.Thus,inthesixteenth-centuryLitanyofLoretto,41shewasthevasspirituale(spiritualvessel),thevashonorabile(vesselofhonour),andthevas insigne

devotionis(singularvesselofdevotion).42Whydidthissymbolismattractmyattention?QuitesimplybecausetheLitanyofLorettohadalso referred to theBlessedVirginasarca foederis43 –which, as I already knew,wasLatinfor‘theArkoftheCovenant’.Iresearchedthiscoincidencefurtheranddiscoveredthatthe Litany was not the only place in which it cropped up. In the twelfth century, theredoubtableSaintBernardofClairvauxhadalsoexplicitlycomparedMarytotheArkoftheCovenant–indeedhehaddonesoinanumberofhiswritings.44AndasearlyasthefourthcenturySaintAmbrose,theBishopofMilan,hadpreachedasermoninwhichhehadarguedthattheArkhadbeenapropheticallegoryforMary:justasithadcontainedtheOldLawintheformoftheTenCommandments,soshehadcontainedtheNewLawintheformofthebodyofChrist.45Iwas subsequently todiscover that concepts like thesehadpersisted into the twentiethcentury and had been woven into the fabric of modern Christian worship. On a trip toIsrael,forexample,IcameacrossasmallandbeautifulDominicanchurchbuiltin1924anddedicatedAlaVièrgeMarieArched’alliance–inotherwords‘TotheVirginMaryArkoftheCovenant’.ThechurchstoodatKiriath-Jearim,overlookingtheroadbetweenTelAvivandJerusalem,anditsseven-metresteeplewastoppedoffwithafull-sizedrepresentationoftheArk.Therewerealsoseveralpaintingsofthesacredrelicarrangedaroundtheinteriorwallsof the building itself. During my visit I was given the following (very ‘Ambrosian’)explanationof thededication– andof the symbolism–bya senior churchofficial, SisterRaphaelMikhail:

‘WecompareMarytoalivingArk.MarywasthemotherofJesus,whowasthemasteroftheLawandoftheCovenant.ThetabletsofstonewiththeTenCommandmentsoftheLawwereplacedinsidetheArkbyMoses;soalsoGodplacedJesusinthewombofMary.SosheisthelivingArk.’

It seemed to me highly significant that both the Ark and the Grail, apparently sodifferent, should nevertheless have been compared repeatedly to the same biblicalpersonality, and in exactly the sameway. IfMarywas both a ‘living Ark’ and a ‘livingGrail’,Ispeculated,thensurelythissuggestedthatthetwosacredobjectsmightnotinfacthavebeensoverydifferent–thattheymight,indeed,havebeenoneandthesamething.This struck me as a truly electrifying possibility. And, farfetched though it at firstappeared, it did shed interesting light on the choice and juxtaposition of statuary in thenorthporchofChartrescathedral. If Iwascorrect thenMelchizedek’s ‘Grail’ cupwith the‘Stone’insideitwouldatonelevelhaverepresentedMarybutcould,atanother,havebeenintendedtoserveasanesotericsymbolfortheArkoftheCovenantandforthestonetabletsthatithadcontained.Suchaninterpretation,Ifelt,addedconsiderableweighttothehypothesisthattheothericonographyofthenorthporchsignalledtheremovalofthesacredrelictoEthiopia.ButIalso realized that I had no really firm grounds on which to base a conclusion of thismagnitude – only coincidence, guesswork and a strong intuition that I might be on tosomethingimportant.Ihavealwaysbeeninclinedtofollowmyintuitionstoseewheretheylead.However,itseemed tome that if Iwasgoing to involvemyself inaproper, thorough,expensiveand

time-consuming investigation then I needed something rathermore solid to go on than afewhappyaccidentsandpresentiments.Ididnothave towait long. In June1989my researcher finallymanaged to locate theacademicpaperthat,accordingtoPeterLasko,hadsuggestedapossibleEthiopianinfluenceon the portrayal of the Holy Grail in Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival. Theencouragementgiventomebythatpaperlaunchedmeonthequestthatwastodominatemylifeforthenexttwoyears.

Literaryinfluence–orsomethingmore?Thepaper,entitled‘NewLightonOrientalSourcesforWolfram’sParzival’,hadappearedin1947 in the academic journal PMLA (Publications of the Modern Languages Association ofAmerica).46 The authorwasHelen Adolf, a highly regardedmedievalistwho had taken aspecial interest in the literarypedigreeof theHolyGrail.The thesis that sheput forward(for which she admitted that she was indebted to two earlier authorities47) was thatWolfram – although largely influenced by Chrétien de Troyes – must also ‘have known,besidesChrétien,aGrailstoryinOrientalsetting’.48When I began to readHelen Adolf’s paper Iwas already aware, from the backgroundresearch that I had done, that Chrétien de Troyes had effectively ‘invented’ the Grail in1182.Priortothatdateithadexistedneither inhistory,nor inmyth.Mostauthoritiesonthe subject agreed that there were earlier legends – dealing, for example, with magiccauldrons,heroicquests,anddeedsofchivalrydonebyKingArthurandhisKnights–whichthe courtly poets and raconteurs had drawn upon to add texture to their Grail stories.49Theseolderlays,however,whichhadbeenhandeddownbywordofmouthfromgenerationtogeneration,hadbeentoowellknown,too‘triedandtested’, inshorttoofamiliartoalland sundry, tohaveprovided the creative impulse for thedistinct cycleof romances thatChrétieninitiatedinthelatetwelfthcentury.ThegreatFrenchpoethadnever finishedhis famousConteduGraal.Withinavery fewyears,however,WolframvonEschenbachcapitalizedonthegoodstartthathadbeenmade,extendingandcompletinghispredecessor’sstory–whileatthesametimeratherchurlishlyaccusing Chrétien of ‘doing wrong’ by it and adding that his own German text was the‘authentictale’.50Whatmadesuchprotestationsseemoddwas the fact thatWolframhadobviously liftedmanydetailsdirectlyfromtheConteduGraaland,byandlarge,hadremainedfaithfultoitsplotandcharacters.51Indeedtherewasonlyoneglaringlyobviousdifference–thebizarreinnovationofmakingtheGrailaStone.Themotiveforthisinnovationdid,therefore,looklike a genuine mystery to some scholars. It could not have been a simple mistake onWolfram’spart–hewasmuchtoocleverandprecisearaconteurtohavemadeanerrorofsuchsignificance.Theonlyreasonableconclusion,therefore,wasthathehaddescribedtherelicinthewayhedidforsomespecialreasonofhisown.Itwas to precisely this question thatHelenAdolf addressed herself in her short paper.AndsheofferedananswertoitthatIfoundmostintriguing.Somehoworother,sheargued,Wolframmusthavegainedaccess to theKebraNagast, enjoyed the storyabout theArkoftheCovenantbeingremovedfromJerusalemtoAxum,anddecidedtoworkelementsofit

intohisownParzival.The influencewasonly ‘indirect’, shethought;nevertheless themostlikelyexplanationforthecuriouscharacterofWolfram’sGrailcouldbetracedtotheuse,‘inevery Abyssinian church’, of what she described as ‘a so-called Tabot, a slab of wood orstone’.52AdolfexplainedthatthispracticehaditsoriginsinthereligioustraditionssetdownintheKebraNagast–anobservationthat Iknewtobecorrect. In1983Ihad learnedthatTabotwas the local name for the sacred relic – believed to be the Ark of the Covenant – thatMenelikhad supposedlybrought fromJerusalemand thatwasnowkept in the sanctuarychapelatAxum.Moreover,asthereaderwillrecall,Ihadsubsequentlydiscovered,asAdolfalsoaffirmed,thateachandeveryEthiopianOrthodoxchurchpossesseditsowntabot.Theseobjects,whichwereoftenspokenofasreplicasoftheoriginalinAxum,werenotboxesorchests but took the form of flat slabs. The ones I had seen had all beenmade of wood.Researching the matter further, however, I discovered that many were indeed made ofstone.53OnthebasisofseveralcomparisonsAdolfassertedthatWolfram,too,hadknownthisandhadderivedhisGrail-StonefromtheEthiopian tabot.Shealsopointedout thatnotall thecharacters in Parzival had been borrowed from Chrétien de Troyes; there were a fewadditionalfigureswhoseoriginsweremysteriousandwhomightwellhavebeeninspiredbytheKebraNagast.ShecouldoffernosolidexplanationastohowtheGermanraconteurcouldhavebecomefamiliarwiththeKebraNagastbutsuggestedrathertentativelythatwanderingJewsmighthavebrought it toEurope. In themedievalperiod, shepointedout, ‘theJewswerenotonlythemediatorsbetweenArabsandChristians ingeneral.TheyhadaspecialstakeinEthiopia,wheretheyformed,andstillform,animportantpartofthepopulation.’54I foundAdolf’s arguments persuasive but extremely limited in scope. She had confinedherselftothespecializedfieldofliterarycriticism,andaccordinglyherconcernshadbeenofanentirelyliterarynature.HavingsetouttoprovethepossibilityofaconnectionbetweentheKebraNagast andParzival (with the former ‘indirectly influencing’ the latter) she hadbeen quite happy to stop when she felt she had achieved this goal. I was enormouslygratefultoher,however,becauseshehadopenedmyeyestosomethingfarmoreexciting–somethingofinfinitelygreatersignificance.OnthebasisofthecomparisonscitedearlierbetweentheArkoftheCovenant,theHolyGrail,andMarytheMotherofChrist,IhadalreadybeguntowonderwhethertheidentitiesoftheArkandtheGrailwerereallyasdistinctandseparateastheyseemedatfirstsight.Now it occurred to me that if Wolfram’s Grail looked as if it had been influenced byEthiopian traditions concerning theArk then therewas just a chance that there could bemoretothis–perhapsmuchmore–thanHelenAdolfhadeverguessed.Tocutalongstoryshort,IbegantowonderwhethertheGermanpoetmightnothavedeliberatelyconstructedhisfictionalGrailasakindof‘code’fortherealandhistoricalArk.Ifsothenthequestthatformed the central theme of Parzival could also be a code that might, like some cryptictreasuremap,pointthewaytothelastrestingplaceoftheArkitself.IhadalreadybecomeintriguedbythepossibilitythatasimilarcodeinthenorthporchofChartrescathedral–thoughcarvedinstoneratherthanwritteninabook–mighthintthattherelichadbeentakentoEthiopia.ItwasthereforewithrealenthusiasmandexcitementthatIsetouttotryto‘decode’Parzival.

Celestialwriting,lawsandoraclesItseemedtomethatmyinitialtaskshouldbetodeterminewhetherWolfram’sGrailcouldindeedhavebeendesignedasasortofcryptogramfortheArkoftheCovenant.TothisendI decided that I would temporarily postpone further examination of the Ethiopianconnection suggested by Adolf. Instead I would look for direct parallels between thecharacteristics of the Grail and the characteristics of the Ark as described in the OldTestament and other ancient Jewish sources. Only if those parallels proved persuasivewouldtherebeanypointingoingfurther.The first thing that attracted my attention was the way in which Wolfram hadtransformedChrétien’sGrailcup–orvessel–intoastone.ItoccurredtomethattheFrenchpoet’sdescriptionoftheGrailhadbeensufficientlyvagueandmysticaltoallowWolframtoimpose an identity on it, tomould his predecessor’s rather imprecise concept of a sacredreceptacleintoashapethatsuitedhisownpurposes–inshorttodefinethatreceptaclebyspeakingnotdirectlyofitbutofitscontents.TheArkoftheCovenantwas,afterall,areceptacletoo,anditdidindeedcontainastone–orrathertwostonetabletsuponwhichtheTenCommandmentshadbeeninscribedbythefingerofGod. I therefore found it intriguing thatWolfram’sGrail, like theTabletsof theLaw,bore–fromtimetotime–theimprintofacelestialscriptwhichsetoutcertainrules.55Therewere other such coincidences – for example, the oracular function that theGrailplayedforthecommunitythatdependedonit:

WefellonourkneesbeforetheGral,wheresuddenlywesawitwrittenthataknightwouldcometousandwereheheardtoaskaQuestionthere,oursorrowswouldbeatanend;butthatifanychild,maidenormanweretoforewarnhimoftheQuestionitwouldfailinitseffect,andtheinjurywouldbeasitwasandgiverisetodeeperpain.‘Haveyouunderstood?’askedtheWriting.‘Ifyoualerthimitcouldproveharmful.Ifheomitsthequestiononthefirstevening,itspowerwillpassaway.ButifheaskshisQuestioninseasonheshallhavetheKingdom.’56

The Ark, too, frequently served as an oracle, dispensing advice that was crucial to thesurvival of the Israelites. In the book of Judges, for example, where the identity of GodHimselfwasoftencompletelyfusedwiththatoftheArk,Ifoundthispassage:

AndthechildrenofIsraelenquiredoftheLord,(fortheArkoftheCovenantofGodwasthereinthosedays,andPhinehas,thesonofEleazar,thesonofAaron,stoodbeforeitinthosedays),sayingShallIyetagaingoouttobattleagainstthechildrenofBenjaminmybrother,orshallIcease?’AndtheLordsaid,Goup:fortomorrowIwilldeliverthemintothinehand.57

IalsocameacrossamuchlaterbiblicalpassagewhichstatedthatithadbecomerarefortheArkactuallytospeakandthat‘visions’werenow‘uncommon’.Nevertheless,astheprophetSamuellaydown‘inthehouseoftheLord,wheretheArkofGodwas’,avoiceissuedforthfromthesacredrelicwarning:‘Behold,IwilldoathinginIsraelatwhichboththeearsof

everyonethathearethitshalltingle.’58Neitherwere utterances and visions the onlyways inwhich the Ark communicated itsoracularmessages.LiketheGrail,italsousedthewrittenwordfromtimetotime–notablytoimparttoKingDavidtheblueprintfortheTemplethathissonSolomonwastobuild.59

Theweightofsin,thegoldencalf,andstonesfromheavenAsmyresearchprogressedIdiscoveredmanyothersharedcharacteristicslinkingtheGrailto theArk–andparticularly to theTabletsofStone.Oneexampleconcerned theway inwhichtheweightoftherelicseemedtobespirituallycontrolled.AccordingtoWolfram:‘theGral[whileitmaybecarriedbythepureofheart]issoheavythatsinfulmortalscouldnotliftitfromitsplace.’60In this, I thought theremightwell be a connection to an ancient Jewish legendwhichdescribed themomentwhen theprophetMoses descended fromMount Sinai carrying theTabletsofStone,thenfreshlyinscribedwiththedivinewordsoftheTenCommandments.AshecameintocamptheprophetcaughtthechildrenofIsraelintheactofworshippingthegoldencalf,asinsounspeakablethat:

Allatoncehesawthewritingvanishfromthetablets,andatthesametimebecameawareoftheirenormousweight;forwhilethecelestialwritingwasuponthemtheycarriedtheirownweightanddidnotburdenMoses,butwiththedisappearanceofthewritingallthischanged.61

InWolfram’scrypticprosethegoldencalf,too,madeanappearance.Itdidso,moreover,ina context so crucial that I felt certain that the author was using it quite deliberately toconveyamessage–amessagefurtheridentifyingtheGrailwiththeArk:

TherewasaheathennamedFlegetanis[IreadinChapter9ofParzival]whowashighlyrenownedforhisacquirements.ThissamephysicuswasdescendedfromSolomon,begottenofIsraelitishkinallthewaydownfromancienttimes…HewroteofthemarvelsoftheGral.Flegetanis,whoworshippedacalfasthoughitwerehisgod,wasaheathenbyhisfather…[and]wasabletodefineforustherecessionofeachplanetanditsreturn,andhowlongeachrevolvesinitsorbitbeforeitstandsatitsmarkagain.Allhumankindareaffectedbytherevolutionsoftheplanets.WithhisowneyestheheathenFlegetanissaw–andhespokeofitreverentially–hiddensecretsintheconstellations.HedeclaredtherewasathingcalledtheGral,whosenamehereadinthestarswithoutmoreado.‘Atroop[ofAngels]leftitonearthandthenrosehighabovethestars,asiftheirinnocencedrewthembackagain.’62

Tomymindwhatwas really important about thispassagewas theway inwhich it usedFlegetanis (with his intriguingly Solomonic and Jewish/pagan background) to signal anastraloriginfortheGrail.Why important? Simply because some of the most serious biblical scholarship that IstudiedarguedthattheTabletsofStonecontainedwithintheArkoftheCovenanthad,in

reality, been two pieces of a meteorite.63 Neither was this merely some latter-dayinterpretation thatcouldnothavebeensharedbyMosesandby theLeviticalpriestswhoattendedtheArk.Onthecontrary,sinceancienttimes,SemitictribessuchasthechildrenofIsraelhadbeenknowntoveneratestonesthat‘fellfromheaven’.64The best illustration of this custom, since it had continued intomodern times,was the

specialreverenceaccordedbyMuslimstothesacredBlackStonebuilt intoacornerofthewallof theKa’aba inMecca.Kissedbyeverypilgrimmaking theHaj to theholy site, thisstonewasdeclaredbytheProphetMuhammadtohavefallenfromheaventoearthwhereitwasfirstgiventoAdamtoabsorbhissinsafterhisexpulsionfromtheGardenofEden;lateritwaspresentedbytheangelGabrieltoAbraham,theHebrewPatriarch;finallyitbecamethecornerstoneoftheKa’aba–the‘beatingheart’oftheIslamicworld.65Geologists, I learned, unhesitatingly attributed a meteoric origin to the Black Stone.66

Likewise the pairs of sacred stones, known as betyls, that some pre-Islamic Arab tribescarried on their desert wanderings were believed to have been aerolites – and it wasrecognizedthatadirect lineofcultural transmissionlinkedthesebetyls (whichwereoftenplacedinportableshrines)withtheBlackStoneoftheKa’abaandwiththestoneTabletsoftheLawcontainedwithintheArk.67IthendiscoveredthatbetylshadbeenknowninmedievalEuropeaslapisbetilis–aname:

stemmingfromSemiticoriginsandtakenoveratalatedatebytheGreeksandRomansforsacredstonesthatwereassumedtopossessadivinelife,stoneswithasoul[thatwereused]fordiverssuperstitions,formagicandforfortunetelling.Theyweremeteoricstonesfallenfromthesky.68

In such a context, I found it hard to believe thatWolframhadmerely been indulging inflightsoffancywhenhehadspecifiedameteoricoriginforhisGrail-Stone.Notonlydidheuse his character Flegetanis to this end but also, a few pages further on, he provided astrangealternativenamefortheGrail–‘Lapsitexillis’.69AlthoughIcameacrossavarietyofinterpretationsfortherealmeaningofthispseudo-Latinepithet,70themostplausiblebyfarwasthatithadbeenderivedfromlapisexcaelis(‘stonefromheaven’),lapsitexcaelis(‘itfellfromheaven’),orevenlapis,lapsusexcaelis,‘stonefallenfromheaven’.71Atthesametimeit seemed tome that the bastardizedwords Lapsit exillis were quite close enough to lapisbetilis to raise the suspicion that the German poet had intended a deliberate – andcharacteristicallycryptic–pun.

Benedictions,supernaturallight,andthepowerofchoiceAnotherandquitedifferentareaof comparison lay inWolfram’s repeateddescriptionsoftheGrailasasourceofblessingandfertilityforthosepure-heartedpeoplewhocameintocontactwithit.Tociteoneexampleamongstmany,72IfoundthispassageinChapter5ofParzival:

Whateveronestretchedoutone’shandforinthepresenceoftheGral,itwaswaiting,onefounditallreadyandtohand–disheswarm,dishescold,new-

fangleddishesandoldfavourites…fortheGralwastheveryfruitofbliss,acornucopiaofthesweetsofthisworld.73

It seemed to me quite probable that this description echoed an ancient Talmudiccommentarywhichhaditthat:

WhenSolomonbroughttheArkintotheTemple,allthegoldentreesthatwereintheTemplewerefilledwithmoistureandproducedabundantfruit,tothegreatprofitandenjoymentofthepriestlyguild.74

I foundanevenclosercorrespondencebetweentheArkandtheGrail in theotherworldlyluminescencesaidtohavebeengivenoffbybothobjects.TheHolyofHoliesinSolomon’sTemple(wheretheArkwasinstalledbeforeitmysteriouslyvanished)wasaplaceof‘thickdarkness’ according to the Bible.75 Talmudic sources recorded, however, that: ‘The HighPriestofIsraelenteredandleftbythelightthattheHolyArkissuedforth’–aconvenientstateofaffairsthatchangedaftertherelicdisappeared.FromthenonthePriest‘gropedhiswayinthedark’.76The Ark, therefore, was a source of paranormal lambency: a dazzling radiance was

emitted by it – as numerous biblical passages confirmed.77 In similar fashion Chrétien’sGrail, which I thought thatWolfram had been happy to accept (because it provided thereceptaclepartoftheArkcipherthathethencompletedwithhisStone),sentoutaradiance‘sogreat…that…candleslosttheirbrilliancejustasthestarsdoattherisingofthesunormoon.’78Chrétien’sGrailwaslikewisemadeof‘puregold’79whiletheArkwas‘overlaidwithpure

gold,withinandwithout’80andwascoveredwithalid(knownasthe ‘mercyseat’)whichwasalso‘ofpuregold’.81ButitwasnotfromthispreciousmetalthatArkandGrailderivedtheirlight-generatingquality;ratherthiswastheproductoftheirsharedimpregnationwithafierycelestialenergy.Anditwasthissameenergy(castforthbytheTabletsofStoneaftertheTenCommandmentshadbeen inscribedupon themby the fingerofGod) that causedMoses’facetoshinewithaneerie,supernaturalbrilliancewhenhedescendedfromMountSinai:

Ashecamedownfromthemountain,MoseshadthetwoTabletsoftheTestimonyinhishands.Hedidnotknowthattheskinonhisfacewasradiant…AndwhenAaronandallthesonsofIsraelsawMoses,theskinonhisfaceshonesomuchthattheywouldnotventurenearhim.82

IthereforethoughtitnotentirelycoincidentalthatWolfram’sGrail-Stone,onitsveryfirstappearance in Parzival, was carried in procession in the hands of a certain Repanse deSchoyewhoseface‘shedsuchrefulgencethatallimagineditwassunrise.’83

Theheaven-destinedheroRepanse de Schoye was a ‘Princess’84 and was also ‘of perfect chastity’.85 Her mostimportantcharacteristic,however,was that theGrailhadchosenher: ‘Shewhom theGral

suffered to carry itself’,Wolfram explained, ‘had the nameRepanse de Schoye…By heralone,nootherIamtold,didtheGralletitselfbecarried.’86Suchphrasesseemedtoimplythattherelicpossessedakindofsentience.Andlinkedtothis was another quality: ‘No man can win the Gral,’ Wolfram stated in Chapter 9 ofParzival, ‘other than onewho is acknowledged in Heaven as destined for it.’87 The samepoint was then forcefully reiterated in Chapter 15: ‘Noman could ever win the Gral byforce,excepttheonewhoissummonedtherebyGod.’88Thesetwonotions–oftheGrailexercisingpowersofchoiceandofitbeingaprizetobewononly by thosewhowere ‘Heaven-destined’ –were of great importance inWolfram’soverallschemeofthings.Iconcluded,moreover,thatprecedentswereprovidedforbothoftheminbiblicaldescriptionsoftheArkoftheCovenant.InNumbers10:33,forinstance,itchose the route that the children of Israel were to take through the desert, and it alsodeterminedwhere they should camp.Meanwhile in thebookofChronicles therewas thisexampleofcertainindividualsbeing‘Heaven-destined’fortheArk:

NoneoughttocarrytheArkofGodbuttheLevites;forthemhaththeLordchosentocarrytheArkofGodandtoministeruntoit.89

ItwasnotintheBible,however,thatIfoundtheclosestcorrespondencesbetweentheArkof theCovenantandWolfram’s sentient,Heaven-destinedGrail.Thesecamerather in theKebraNagast, which told the story of the Ark’s abduction to Ethiopia. In Sir E. A.WallisBudge’sauthoritativeEnglish translation90 I cameacross thispassage inwhich the sacredrelicwasreferredtoalmostasthoughitwereafeminineperson(who,likeallladies,couldchangehermind):

AndasforwhatthousayestconcerningthegoingoftheArkoftheCovenanttotheircity,tothecountryofEthiopia,ifGodwilleditandsheherselfwilledit,thereisnoonewhocouldpreventher;forofherownwillshewentandofherownwillshewillreturnifGodpleaseth.91

NextInotedthefollowingstrangereferenceswhichseemedtoimplythattherelicpossessedintelligence and also that the honour of keeping it was granted as a result of heavenlypredestination:

TheArkgoethofitsownfreewillwhithersoeveritwisheth,anditcannotberemovedfromitsseatifitdoesnotdesireit.92

WithouttheWillofGodtheArkofGodwillnotdwellinanyplace.93

But the chosen ones of the Lord are the people of Ethiopia. For there is thehabitationofGod,theheavenlyZION,94theArkofHisCovenant.95

Last but not least, in Chapter 60 of the Kebra Nagast, I found a lengthy lamentationsupposedlyutteredbySolomonwhenhelearnedthattheArkhadbeenabductedbyhissonMenelikfromtheHolyofHoliesoftheTempleinJerusalem.Atthemomentofhisbitterest

griefanangelappearedtohimandasked:

‘Whyartthouthussorrowful?ForthishathhappenedbytheWillofGod.TheArkhath…beengiven…tothyfirst-bornson…’AndtheKingwascomfortedbythisword,andhesaid,‘ThewillofGodbedoneandnotthewillofman.’96

Could this not be, I wondered, exactly what had been in Wolfram’s mind when he hadwritten that ‘noman could everwin theGral by force except the onewho is summonedtherebyGod’?Inotherwords,iftheGrailwasindeedacryptogramfortheArkthenmightnottheprototypefortheGermanpoet’s‘Heaven-destined’herohavebeennoneotherthanMenelikhimself?To answer this question I readParzival again. I was not looking, however, for literaryinfluencesfromtheKebraNagast–asHelenAdolfhaddone–butratherforthepresenceofexplicitcluesembeddedwithinthetextwhichpointedinthedirectionofEthiopia.Iwantedtoknowwhethertherewasthereanythingatall tosuggestthatEthiopiamight infactbeWolfram’s mysterious Terre Salvaesche97 – the land of the Grail and, therefore, byimplication,thelandoftheArk.

Chapter4AMaptoHiddenTreasure

My readings of Parzival during the spring and summer of 1989 had brought a startlingpossibility tomyattention: the fictional object knownas theHolyGrail couldhavebeendevisedtoserveasacomplexsymbolfortheArkoftheCovenant.Thisinturnhadledmetoformulateanotherhypothesis–namelythatbehindWolframvonEschenbach’sHeaven-destinedGrailhero, theremight lieanother figurewho,once recognized,wouldpoint thewaytotheheartofthemysteryofthewhereaboutsoftheArk–afigurewhoserealidentitythe poet had therefore disguised beneath layers of arcane and sometimes deliberatelymisleadingdetails.Thisfigure,Isuspected,mightbenoneotherthanMenelikI–thesonoftheQueenofShebaandKingSolomonwho,accordingtoAbyssinianlegends,hadbroughtthe Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia. If there was anything at all to this speculation, Ireasoned, thenImighthopeto findfurthercluesembeddedinParzival–crypticclues thatmightbeobscuredbyfrequentfalsetrails,thatmightbescatteredhereandthereamongstwidelyseparatedchapters,thatmightbecalculatedlyvagueandambiguous,butthatwould,nevertheless, serve to reinforce the Ethiopian connection if only they could be gatheredtogetherandmadesenseof.

EbonyandivoryIfoundthefirstofthesecluesearlyinthetextofParzivalinachapterwhichspokeofafar-offlandcalled‘Zazamanc’wherethepeople‘wereallasdarkasnight’.1Tothislandcameawandering European aristocrat, ‘Gahmuret of Anjou’,2 and there he fell in love with nolesserpersonagethanthequeen–‘sweetandconstantBelacane’.3In‘Belacane’Icouldnothelpbuthearanechoof ‘Makeda’,theEthiopiannamefortheQueenofShebathatIhadfirstbecomeacquaintedwithwhenIhadvisitedAxumin1983.Iwas also aware that this samemonarchhadbeen known inMuslim tradition asBilquis.4Since I was by this time quite familiar withWolfram’s love of neologisms, and with histendencytomakeupnewandfancifulnamesbyrunningoldonestogether,itseemedtomerashtotallytorejectthepossibilitythat‘Belacane’mightbeakindofcompositeof‘Bilquis’and‘Makeda’–anddoublyrashsincethepoetdescribedherasa‘duskyqueen’.5WhenIlookedmorecloselyattheloveaffairbetweenBelacaneandGahmuret,recountedat length in the first chapter ofParzival, I found further echoes of theKing Solomon andQueenofShebastorytoldintheKebraNagastandalso,withminorvariations,inarangeofotherEthiopian legends. In this connection I felt itwas not accidental thatWolframhadgone toconsiderable lengths tomake it clear thatGahmuret– likeSolomon–waswhite,whileBelacane,likeMakeda,wasblack.For example, after thearrivalof the ‘fair complexioned’Angevinknight6 inZazamanc,Belacane observed to her hand-maidens: ‘His skin is a different colour from ours. I onlyhope this is no sore point with him?’7 Certainly it was not, because her romance with

Gahmuretblossomedinthefollowingweeks,onethingledtoanother,andeventuallythecoupleretiredtoherbedroominthepalace:

TheQueendisarmedhimwithherowndarkhands.Therewasamagnificentbedwithasablecoverlet,whereanewthoughprivatehonourawaitedhim.Theywerenowalone:theyoungladies-in-waitinghadlefttheroomandclosedthedoorsbehindthem.TheQueenyieldedtosweetandnoblelovewithGahmuret,herheart’sowndarling,littlethoughtheirskinsmatchedincolour.8

Theloversmarried.BecauseBelacanewasanunbaptizedheathen,however,andGahmuretaChristianwithmanydeedsofchivalrystilltodo,hefledZazamancwhenshewas‘twelveweeksgonewithchild’9andleftheronlythisletter:

‘LikeathiefIhavesailedaway.Ihadtostealawaytospareourtears.Madam,IcannotconcealitthatdidyoubutlivewithinmyriteIwouldlongforyoutoalleternity.Evennowmypassiongivesmeendlesstorment!Ifourchildhastheaspectofaman,Iswearhewillbebrave.’10

LongafterhisdepartureGahmuretcontinuedtosufferagoniesofremorsesince‘theduskyladywasdearertohimthanlife’.11Laterheproclaimed:

‘NowmanyanignorantfellowmaythinkthatitwasherblackskinIranawayfrom,butinmyeyesshewasasbrightasthesun!Thethoughtofherwomanlyexcellenceafflictsme,forifnoblessewereashieldshewouldbeitscentre-piece.’12

SomuchthenforBelacaneandGahmuret.Butwhatoftheirchild?

Whenhertimecametheladywasdeliveredofason.Hisskinwaspied.IthadpleasedGodtomakeamarvelofhim,forhewasbothblackandwhite.TheQueenfelltokissinghiswhitespots,timeandtimeagain.ThenameshegaveherlittleboywasFeirefiztheAngevin.Whenhegrewupheclearedwholeforests–somanylancesdidheshatter,punchingholesinshields.Hishairandallhisskinwereparticolouredlikeamagpie.13

WolframcouldhardlyhavefoundamoregraphicwaytoemphasizethatFeirefizwasahalf-caste – theproductof aunionbetweenablackwomanandawhiteman.Thishalf-casteFeirefiz,furthermore,wastogoontoplayacrucialroleinthestoryofParzival.Hisfather,the amorous Gahmuret, returned to Europe after deserting Belacane and there marriedanotherqueen,acertainHerzeloyde,whomheimmediatelysetaboutmakingpregnant.Hethenabandonedheralso,wentofftohaveseveralmoreadventures,earnedgreathonourina series of battles, and eventually managed to get himself killed. ‘A fortnight later,’Wolfram related,Herzeloyde ‘was delivered of a babe, a son so big in the bone that shescarce survived.’14 That sonwas Parzival himself, the eponymous hero ofWolfram’s taleand–throughGahmuret–thehalf-brotherofFeirefiz.15

In the Kebra Nagast and other relevant Ethiopian legends there were, I discovered,numerousparallelstothecomplexofrelationshipsinvolvingGahmuret,Belacane,Feirefiz,Parzivaletal. These parallelswere often of an indirect kind; nevertheless I had come toexpectsuchtantalizinghintsfromWolframandIbecameincreasinglyconfidentthathewaslayingdownatrailofcluesthat–throughsnaresandmazes–wouldleadmetoEthiopiaintheend.The constant references to the contrasting blackness and whiteness of Belacane and

Gahmuret had been unmissable features of the opening sections of Parzival. In theKebraNagasttheloverswereKingSolomonandtheQueenofSheba.LikeGahmuretandBelacanetheyhadretiredtobedtogether.16LikeGahmuretandBelacane,oneofthem(inthiscaseMakeda)haddesertedtheotherandgoneonalongjourney.17LikeGahmuretandBelacanethe fruit of their union had been a half-caste son, in this caseMenelik.18 And again likeGahmuret and Belacane, the difference in their colourwas repeatedly emphasized in therelevant text, in this case the KebraNagast. In a typical scene the Jewish monarch wasupbraidedforMenelik’sabductionoftheArkinthefollowingunambiguousterms:

ThysonhathcarriedawaytheArkoftheCovenant,19thysonwhomthouhastbegotten,whospringethfromanalienpeopleintowhichGodhathnotcommandedyoutomarry,thatistosayfromanEthiopianwoman,whoisnotofthycolour,andisnotakintothycountry,andwhois,moreover,black.20

There were, in addition, certain parallels between Menelik and Feirefiz which wentbeyondtheirsharedidentityashalf-castes.Amongstthese,forexample,wasthecuriosityoftheveryname ‘Feirefiz’.What languagedid itbelong to, andwhat – if anything–did itmean? I checked and discovered that literary critics had quite firm ideas on this subject.Mostinterpretedthestrange-soundingepithetasacharacteristicWolframneologismbasedontheFrenchwords‘vairfils’meaning,literally,‘piebaldson’.21Anotherschoolofthought,however,deriveditequallyplausiblyfrom‘vraifils’–‘trueson’.22IntheKebraNagastitselfIcouldfindnocomparisondirectlyreflectingeitheretymology

(although,inChapter36,Solomondeclared,onfirstbeingintroducedtoMenelik:‘Lookye,this ismy son’23). In a somewhat different but equally ancient Ethiopic recension of thesame legend, however (translated into English in 1904 by Professor Erno Littman ofPrincetonUniversity),themomentofthemeetingbetweenSolomonandMenelikwasalsodescribed,andcontainedthispassage:

AtonceMenelikwenttohimandtookhishandtogreethim.ThensaidSolomon:‘Thouartmytrueson’.24

‘Vraifils’,inotherwords!

DeviousmechanismsCoincidences like these made it increasingly difficult for me to resist the notion thatWolframhadindeedlinkedhisFeirefizwithMenelik.Whyshouldhehavedonethat?Not,I

speculated,becausehehadbeeninfluencedbytheKebraNagast(asthescholarHelenAdolfhadsuggestedinthe1940s25)butratherbecausehehadknownthefinalrestingplaceoftheArkoftheCovenanttobeinEthiopia,andbecausehehadsetouttoencodethisknowledgewithinthestoryofParzival–whichwasthusakindofliterary‘treasuremap’thatusedtheGrailasacryptogramfortheArkitself.Wolframhadbeenaddictedtoingenioustricks–toaspeciesofverballegerdemainthat

wasasbafflingasitwasentertaining.Ifelt,however,thatIwasbeginningtoseethroughmostofhisillusionsandalsotorecognizethedecoysthathesofrequentlysetupinordertolure his readers away from the secret that lay hidden at the heart of his story. I wasthereforeundisturbedbythefactthatitwasnotFeirefizhimselfwhowasdepictedasbeingonaquestfortheGrail–norFeirefizwhowaseventuallyaccordedthehonouroffindingthe precious relic. Such an outcomewould have providedmuch too direct and obvious apointer.And,besides,Wolframcouldnothaveaffordedtoallowtheheathenhalf-castesonofablackqueentobecometheheroofaromancewrittenfortheamusementofmedievalEuropeanChristians.Forthesereasons,itseemedtomethatthecleverGermanpoethadbeenquitecontentto

letall-white,all-goodParzivalwinthroughtothenon-existentGrail–whichwastheonlythingthatmostofhisaudiencewouldbeinterestedin.Meanwhile,forthediscerningfew,itwouldbeFeirefiz–thetrueson–whowouldpointthewaytotheArk.I realized,however, that Ineededsomethingmoresolid tosupport thishypothesis than

justaseriesofcoincidences–nomatterhowsuggestiveand intriguing thesecoincidencesmight seem. I therefore set about the brain-bending task of combing throughParzival yetagain.EventuallyIfoundwhatIwaslookingfor.Irememberedfrommypreviousreadingsthat

Feirefiz had endedupmarryingRepanse de Schoye26 – the pure and perfect Grail-bearerwho, surrounded by an aura of sanctity and power, had appeared and disappearedconstantly throughout the story. Now I came across a small but highly significant detailcontained ina single line that Ihadmissedbefore: according toWolfram’s ‘happily-ever-after’ conclusion, the son of Feirefiz and Repanse de Schoye had been named ‘PresterJohn’.27Itwasobvioustomeatoncethatthiscouldbeamomentousclue. Iknewthatthefirst

Europeans to arrive in Ethiopia had addressed the monarchs of that country as ‘PresterJohn’.28 I also knew that the legendary founder of the self-styled ‘Solomonic’ dynasty towhichthosemonarchshadbelongedhadbeenMenelikI–thesupposedsonofSolomonandthe Queen of Sheba. I therefore could not help but be excited to read that Repanse deSchoye had given Feirefiz ‘a son named “John” ’ and, moreover, that ‘They called him“PresterJohn”,and,eversince,theycalltheirkingsbynoothername.’29ItwouldhavebeenveryniceifIhadbeenable,thereandthen,todemonstratethatthe

land of theGrail –Terre Salvaesche –was in fact the same as the land ruled by ‘PresterJohn’.Suchadirectlinkagewould,attheveryleast,haveenormouslystrengthenedwhatIwas coming to think of as my ‘treasure map’ theory of Wolfram’s work. Unfortunately,however, there was not a single shred of evidence in Parzival to support this view: thelocation of Terre Salvaesche was never spelled out in anything other than the mostdreamlikeandindefinitetermsandatnopointwasitsuggestedthatitskingwas ‘Prester

John’.Iwasabout toconclude that Ihadmarchedoptimistically intoanextremelydepressingculdesacwhenIdiscoveredthattherewasanothermedievalGermanepicinwhichPresterJohn did become the guardian of the Grail. Called Der Jüngerer Titurel (‘The YoungerTiturel’),itwaswritteninastylesoclosetothatofParzivalthatscholarshadlongattributedit toWolfram himself (this attribution dated back to the thirteenth century).30 Relativelyrecently,however, thehandofaslightly laterauthorhadbeendetected.Thought tohavebeenacertainAlbrechtvonScharfenberg, thisauthorwasbelievedtohavecompiled ‘TheYoungerTiturel’between1270and1275 (about fiftyyearsafterWolfram’sdeath)and tohavebaseditonpreviouslyuncirculatedfragmentsofWolfram’sownwork.31 IndeedAlbrecht’sidentificationwith ‘hismaster’32hadbeen socomplete thathehadactually claimed tobeWolfram, ‘adopting not just his name and subject matter but also his mannerisms as anarratorandeventhedetailsofhispersonalhistory.’33Iknewthattherewasawellestablishedtraditioninmedieval literatureof laterwritersextending and completing the work of their predecessors. Wolfram’s Parzival had itselfgrownoutofChrétiendeTroyes’soriginalstoryoftheHolyGrail.Nowitseemedthatithadbeenlefttoathirdpoet,Albrecht,toprovideanendingtothatstory–anendinginwhichtheGrailfounditslastrestingplace.This last resting place, as ‘The Younger Titurel’ stated clearly,was the land of PresterJohn.34 I thoughtithighlysignificantthatsuchastatementexistedintheliteratureoftheGrailand,moreover, that ithadbeenmadebyaWolframacolytewhoappeared tohavehadprivilegedaccesstothenotesandjottingsofWolframhimself.This,inmyopinion,wasjustthesortofdeviousmechanismthat‘themaster’mighthavesetupinordernottohaveto spell outhisEthiopian secret toobluntly inParzival –while at the same timeensuringthatthatsecretwouldbetransmittedtofuturegenerations.Perhapsthisconclusionwaswarranted;perhapsitwasnot.Itssignificance,however,layless in its academicmerits than in the fact that it encouragedme to takeWolfram’sownbriefmentionof‘PresterJohn’seriously–andthustoperseverewithwhatturnedouttobeanexhaustingbutultimatelyfruitfulinvestigation.The purpose of that investigation was to find the answer to a single question: whenWolframtalkedof‘PresterJohn’couldhehavehadanEthiopianmonarchinmind?Thefirst indicationswere thathehadnot; indeedhestatedplainly that ‘PresterJohn’s’birthhadtakenplacein‘India’35–acountryofwhichFeirefizwasapparentlythekingandtowhichheandRepansedeSchoyehadreturnedaftertheadventuresdescribedinParzivalwereover.Tocomplicatethepicturefurtherthesameparagraphthenwentontoadvisethat‘India’was also known as ‘Tribalibot’ (‘Here we call it “India”: there it is “Tribalibot” ’36).CheckingbackIfoundearlierpassagesinwhichFeirefizhadbeenspokenofasthe‘LordofTribalibot’37–whichwasconsistentenoughsinceInowknewthathisson‘PresterJohn’hadultimately succeeded him as the ruler of Tribalibot/India.However, I could hardly forgetthatFeirefizwashimselfthesonofBelacanetheQueenof‘Zazamanc’.IwasthereforenotsurprisedtolearnthatWolframhadalsoreferredtoFeirefizasthe‘KingofZazamanc’.38The only reasonable conclusion to be drawn from this confetti of exotic titles andappellationswasthat‘Zazamanc’,‘Tribalibot’and‘India’wereall,infact,thesameplace.

ButcouldthisplacepossiblybeEthiopia?Wasn’titmuchmorereasonabletoassume–sincehe had actually named it – thatWolfram had had the subcontinent of India inmind allalong?Idecidedtoresearchthereal,historicalpedigreeof‘PresterJohn’toseeifthiswouldshedanymorelightontheproblem.

ArealkingThe name ‘Prester John’, I discovered, had been completely unknown before the twelfthcentury – a century during which European Crusaders had occupied the Holy City ofJerusalemforacontinuousperiodofmorethaneightyyears(theywerefinallyexpelledbythe Saracens in 1187).Historians agreed that the very firstmention of Prester John hadbeenmaderoughlyhalf-waythroughthisperiod–in1145intheChronicleofBishopOttoofFreisingen.ClaimingthathisinformantwasaSyrianchurchman,thebishophadwrittenofacertain ‘John,kingandpriest [rexet sacerdos]’, aChristianwho lived in ‘theuttermostEast’where he commanded enormous armieswhich, apparently, hewished to put at thedisposalofthedefendersofJerusalem.This‘PresterJohn–forsohewaswonttobestyled’wassaidtobesorichthatheusedasceptreofsolidemerald.39Subsequently, in1165,a letterpurportingtohavebeenwrittenbyPresterJohnhimselfand addressed to ‘various Christian kings, especially to the Emperor Manuel ofConstantinople and the Roman Emperor Frederick’,40 was circulated widely in Europe.Filledwith themostpreposterous, legendaryand supernatural claims, this lengthyepistlestated,interalia,thatthePrester’srealmwasdividedintofourparts‘fortherearesomanyIndias’.41The next development came in 1177 when Pope Alexander III (writing from Venice)addressed a letter to his ‘dearest son in Christ, John, illustrious and magnificent King of theIndians’.42Although thePope certainlybelieved thathewas replying to theauthorof the1165 letter he made it clear that he had also had information about ‘the Prester’ fromanothersource.Hespoke,forexample,ofhispersonalphysician,‘theleechPhilip’,whohadapparently been approached in Jerusalem by the Prester’s emissaries. Significantly theseemissaries,whowere referred to as ‘honourable persons of themonarch’s kingdom’, hadexpressedtheirruler’sdesiretobegrantedsomethingthathadnotevenbeenmentionedinthe 1165 letter – a sanctuary in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.43Respondingtothisrequest,thePopecommented:

Themorenoblyandmagnanimouslythouconductestthyself,andthelessthouvauntestofthywealthandpower,themorereadilyshallweregardthywishastotheconcessionof[analtar]intheChurchoftheLord’sSepulchreatJerusalem.44

Therewasmuchthatwaspuzzlinginthesetwelfth-centurydocuments.ButtheonethingthatwasclearfromallofthemwasthatPresterJohn,inhisearliestincarnations,hadbeenexplicitlyassociatedwith‘India’.AsIlookedmoredeeplyintothewholeissueIwasabletoconfirmthatthiswasindeedthecase:againandagain‘thePrester’s’realmswerereferred

toasIndiaor,moreloosely,‘theIndies’.Itwasquiteobvious,however,thatnoneofthemedievalauthoritiesconcernedhadhadanyfirmideaintheirownmindsastowhereexactlyIndiaand/ortheIndieswere.Anditwasequallyobvious,whentheytalkedabout‘India’,thattheywereonlyrarelyspeakingofthe subcontinent itself. The majority of the references were quite clearly to some otherplace,perhapsinAfrica,perhapselsewhere–althoughnobodyreallyseemedtoknow.As I researched the subject further I began to understand what the source of all thisuncertaintymighthavebeen:formorethanathousandyearsbeforetheearliestmentionofPresterJohnaprofoundterminologicalmuddlehadexistedinwhich‘India’hadfrequentlybeenconfusedwith‘Ethiopia’.IndeedfromthefirstcenturyBC(whenVirgilhadwrittenoftheNilerisingin‘India’),untilatleastthetimeofMarcoPolo–whenallthecountriesthatborderedontheIndianOceanwerestill referredtoas ‘the Indies’45 – the terms ‘Ethiopia’and‘India’appearedtohavebeenusedasthoughtheywerecompletelyinterchangeable.The classic example of this lay in the works of Rufinius, the fourth-century ByzantinetheologianwhohadcompiledthedefinitiveaccountofEthiopia’sconversiontoChristianitythat I had studied in 1983.46 The details of this important treatise (which included placenamessuchasAxumandhistoricallyrecognizedfiguressuchasFrumentiusandKingEzana)confirmed beyond all doubt that the country Rufinius had talked about had indeed beenEthiopia;neverthelesshehadreferredtoitthroughoutas‘India’.47This had happened, as one historian explained, because ‘the early geographers hadalwaysregardedEthiopiaasthewesternpartofthegreatempireofIndia’.48Moreover, itseemed that this same geographical mistake, coupled with the curious letters that hadcirculatedinthetwelfthcentury,hadhelpedtocreatetheimpressionthatPresterJohnwasanAsiatic,indeedanIndian,king.This impression, thougherroneous,hadprovedsotenaciousthat itwasstill inevidencelongafter ‘thePrester’hadceasedtobeamythical figure–andlongafterhisrealmshadbeenfirmlylocatedintheHornofAfrica.Inthelatethirteenthcentury,forexample,MarcoPolo provided some insight into the conventionalwisdom of his erawhen hewrote that‘AbyssiniaisalargeprovinceandiscalledmiddleorsecondIndia.TherulerofthiscountryisaChristian.’49Similarly,inthefourteenthcentury,theFlorentinetravellerSimoneSigoliwasstillspeakingof‘PrestoGiovanni’asamonarchdwellinginIndia;this‘India’,however,was a land which bordered on the dominions of the Sultan of Egypt and its king wasdescribedasbeingthe‘masteroftheNile’,theflowofwhichintoEgypthewasbelievedtobe able to control.50 Rather later,when the first official Portuguese embassywas sent toEthiopia in the sixteenthcentury, itsmembersbelieved that theyweregoing tomeet ‘thePresterJohnoftheIndies’.Theauthorisedaccountofthismissionwassubsequentlywrittenby Father Francisco Alvarez, who disembarked at the Red Sea port ofMassawa in April1520 and then spent the next six years travelling overland around Ethiopia. Despite thisarduousphysicaltourofwhatwasunmistakablypartoftheAfricanmainland,thetitleofhisworkcontinuedtoreflecttheoldterminologicalconfusion:‘VerdaderaInformacamdasterrasdoPresteJoamdasIndias’(‘TruthfulinformationaboutthecountriesofthePresterJohnoftheIndies’).51Throughouthis scholarlyand informativebook,Alvarezalwaysreferred to theEmperorof Ethiopia as ‘the Prester’ or as ‘Prester John’.52 I was also able to establish thatmuch

earlierthanthis–in1352–theFranciscanGiovannideMarignolli,apostoliclegateinAsia,hadspoken(inhisChronica)of‘EthiopiawherethenegroesareandwhichiscalledthelandofPresterJohn’.53Similarlyin1328acertainFriarJordanus‘Catalani’hadreferredtotheEmperor of the Ethiopiansi ‘quem vos vocatis Prestre Johan’.54 And, later, in 1459, FraMauro’s well regarded map of the then known world indicated a great city within theboundaries of present-day Ethiopia with the rubric: ‘Qui il Preste Janni fa residentiaprincipal.’55Surveying all the conflicting references before me I felt literally dazed: sometimes, itseemed,Prester Johnhadbeenunambiguously located inEthiopia; on other occasions hehadbeenlocatedinEthiopiabutspokenofastherulerofthe‘Indies’;andsometimeshehadbeen located in India itself – or elsewhere in the far east. Behind all this confusion,however,thereseemedtobenodoubtthattherealPresterJohn,thesourceofallthemyth-making,mustallalonghavebeentherulerofEthiopia–theonlynon-EuropeanChristiankingdomthathadexistedanywhere in theworld inmedieval times, and therefore theonlymodelthatWolframcouldpossiblyhavedrawnonwhenhehadtalkedofan‘India’beingruledby‘PresterJohn’,theChristiansonofFierfizandRapansedeSchoye.Fora finalandhopefullydefinitivewordI turnedtotheEncyclopaediaBritannica,whichobserved:

Itisnotimprobablethatfromaveryearlydatethetitle‘PresterJohn’wasassignedtotheAbyssinianking,thoughforatimethisidentificationwasovershadowedbytheprevalenceoftheAsiaticlegend.Atthebottomofthedoubleallocationtherewas,nodoubt,thatconfusionofEthiopiawithIndiawhichisasoldasVirgilorperhapsolder.56

Significantlyformypurposes,theEncyclopaediaconcludeditsentrywithareferencetotheexchange of letters between the Pope and Prester John that, as noted earlier, had takenplaceinthesecondhalfofthetwelfthcentury:

HowevervaguemayhavebeentheideasofPopeAlexanderIIIrespectingthegeographicalpositionofthepotentatewhomheaddressedfromVenicein1177,theonlyrealpersontowhomthelettercanhavebeensentwasthekingofAbyssinia.Letitbeobservedthatthe‘honourablepersonsofthemonarch’skingdom’whomtheleechPhiliphadmetwithintheEastmusthavebeentherepresentativesofsomerealpower,andnotofaphantom.Itmusthavebeenarealkingwhoprofessedtodesire…theassignationof…analtaratJerusalem.MoreoverweknowthattheEthiopicChurchdidlongpossessachapelandaltarintheChurchoftheHolySepulchre.57

Indeedso.Infact,asIwassoonabletoascertain,thechapelandthealtarhadfirstbeengrantedtoEthiopiaintheyear1189–andnotbythePope(whobythenwasnolongerinaposition to distribute such favours) but by theMuslim general Saladin who had wrestedJerusalem from the hands of the Crusaders in 1187.Most important of all, these specialprivilegesintheHolySepulchrehadbeenobtainedfortheEthiopianOrthodoxChurchasaresultofadirectappealtoSaladinbynolesserpersonthantheKingofEthiopiahimself.58

These events had taken place just a decade before unknown stonemasons in northernFrancehadleftenigmaticrepresentationsoftheHolyGrail,oftheArkoftheCovenant,andofanEthiopianQueenofShebainthenorthporchofChartrescathedral–andalsojustadecadebeforeWolframvonEschenbachhadbegun towritehisParzival. It seemed tome,moreover, that suchcoincidenceswereunlikely tobe just coincidences.On thecontrary, Inow felt that the circumstantial evidence very strongly supportedmyhypothesis that theChartres sculpturesandWolfram’s remarkablenarrativepoemhadbeenexplicitlycreatedto serve as esoteric treasure maps. And, though not actually marked with an ‘X’, thereseemedtobe littledoubt that thespot identifiedbythesemapsas thehidingplaceof thetreasurecouldonlybeEthiopia–thelandofPresterJohn,thelandthathadprovidedthelastrestingplaceofthefictionalHolyGrail,andthus(ifmytheorywascorrect)thelandinwhichtheArkoftheCovenant,therealobjectthattheGrailsymbolized,wouldbefound.Now,however,otherquestionspresentedthemselves:

•How,inthelatetwelfthcentury,couldinformationthattheArkmightrestinEthiopiapossiblyhavereachedaGermanpoetandagroupofFrenchiconographers?•Whatconnectedtheformertothelatter?–fortheymusthavebeenconnectedinsomewayiftheyhadbothproducedworksofartencodingthesamemessage.•Finally,whyshouldanyonehavechosentoexpressthesecretoftheArk’slocationinastoryandinsculptures?Ihadalreadyconcludedthatthismighthavebeendonetoensuretransmissionofthesecrettofuturegenerations.Atthesametime,however,thecodeused–particularlybyWolfram–hadbeenexceptionallydifficulttocrack.Imyself,withalltheresearchresourcesofthetwentiethcenturyatmydisposal,hadonlygotasfarasIhadbecauseIhadbeentoAxumandhadthusbeenpredisposedtoacceptthattheArkmightbeinEthiopia.Inthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies,however,thatadvantageshouldnothavebeenavailabletoanyone.FromthisitfollowedthatthehiddenmessageofParzivalcouldnothavebeendecodedinthemedievalperiodatall–unlesstherehadbeenpeoplewithaccesstosomeveryspecialandprivilegedknowledge.Sincetherewouldhavebeennopointincreatingacodethatnoonecouldcrack,itseemedtomelogicaltoassumethatsuchpeoplemusthaveexisted.Butwhocouldtheyhavebeen?

IdidfindonegroupofEuropeanswhofittedthebillperfectly.AspartoftheCrusadingarmy of occupation they hadmaintained amassive presence in Jerusalem in the twelfthcentury: they had been there in 1145 when the Prester John legends had first begun tocirculate, and theyhad still been there in1177whenenvoysof theKingofEthiopiahadvisited theHolyCity seekinganaltar in theChurchof theHolySepulchre.Directcontactbetween Ethiopians and members of this European group would therefore have beenperfectlypossible.Thegroupinquestionwas,moreover,highlysecretiveandmaderegularuseofcodesandciphersinitsfar-flunginternationalcommunications.Itwas,inaddition,agroupthathadbeeninvolvedwiththeevolutionanddisseminationofGothicarchitecture inEurope(andquitespecificallywiththearchitectureandiconographyofChartrescathedral).Finally,and

mostimportantly,itwasagroupthatWolframvonEschenbachhadseveraltimesmentionedbyname–anamethatIhadalsocomeacrossinconnectionwiththecuriousGrailcupthatthesculptorsof thenorthporchofChartrescathedralhadplaced in the lefthandof theirimposingstatueof thepriest-kingMelchizedek59 (which, incidentally,wasalmost theonlydepictionofMelchizedekinthewholeofmedievalEurope60).What then was the name of this strangely influential, powerful and widely travelledgroup?Itsfullandformaltitlewasthe‘PoorKnightsofChristandoftheTempleofSolomon’61–but itsmemberswere better known simply as ‘Templars’, or as Knights Templar. Itwas,fundamentally,a religiousorder,anorderofwarriormonks,and throughoutmuchof thetwelfthcenturyithaditsheadquartersinJerusalemonthesiteofSolomon’sTemple–thesamesitefromwhichtheArkoftheCovenanthadinexplicablyvanishedinOldTestamenttimes.

1EthiopianchurchpaintingshowingKingSolomonandtheQueenofSheba.AccordingtoEthiopiantraditiontheirsonstoletheArkoftheCovenantfromtheTempleinJerusalemandbroughtittoEthiopia.

2Thispainting,fromIsrael,depictsthevenerationoftheArkoftheCovenantinOldTestamenttimes.RegardedasthesignandthesealofGod’spresenceonearth,theArkwasthemostsacredrelicoftheancientJudaicfaith.

3MaingroupofstelaeatAxum.

4Sectionofthefallenstele.At500tonnesinweightandmorethan100feettall,itwasthelargestsinglepieceofstoneeverquarriedintheancientworld.

5AccordingtoAxumitetraditionsthepowersoftheArkoftheCovenantwereusedtoraiseupthistoweringstele.Itstands70feettallandweighs300tonnes.

6AnEthiopianpaintingdepictingthelateEmperorHaileSelassie,deposedin1974.

7ArebelwallpostershowingthebrutalityoftheEmperor’ssuccessor,PresidentMengistu.

8FalashaartefactsportrayingthesupposedbedroomscenebetweenSolomonandSheba.HaileSelassieclaimedtobethe225thdirect-linedescendantofthisunion.

9Falashamarketwoman.

10InoneoftheislandchurchesonLakeTanaaChristianprieststandsguardatthedoorwaytotheHolyofHolies.

11ChartresCathedral,France.OneoftheearliestandfinestexamplesoftheGothicstyleofarchitecturethatblossomedsuddenlyandmysteriouslyinthetwelfthcenturyAD.

12SculptureofMelchizedek,priest-kingofancientIsrael,inthenorthporchofChartresCathedral,Accordingtosome

authoritiesthecupinhishandistheHolyGrailandtheobjectcontainedwithinitisastone.

13TheQueenofSheba(centralofthethreefigures),herEthiopianslaveatherfeet,inthenorthporchofChartresCathedral.

14TableauinthenorthporchofChartresCathedraldepictingtheremoval,tosomeunstateddestination,oftheArkoftheCovenant–whichisshownplaceduponanox-cart.

15AsectionofthestrangeinscriptionbeneaththeArktableau.

Chapter5WhiteKnights,DarkContinent

AccordingtoEmmaJung,analyst,lecturerandwifeoftheeminentpsychiatristCarlGustavJung, theway in which the literary genre of the Holy Grail appeared at the end of thetwelfth century was both sudden and surprising. In an authoritative study of the Graillegend(whichsheundertookonbehalfoftheJungFoundation)shearguedthatsomethingof great significance must have lain behind this abrupt and dramatic materialization.Indeed she went so far as to suggest that in Chretien de Troyes’s Conte du Graal andWolfram’s Parzival – the first two exemplars of the genre – it was almost ‘as if asubterraneanwatercoursehadbeen tapped’.1Whatmight that ‘subterraneanwatercourse’havebeen?Theanswer,Ithought,layintheperiodofhistoryinwhichtheGrailromancesbegantocirculate.This,afterall,wastheeraoftheCrusades–anerathathadbroughtEuropeansinto close contact with Arab and Judaic culture for the first time and that saw theoccupationofJerusalembyChristianarmiesforeighty-eightyears(fromAD1099until therecaptureoftheHolyCitybySaladinin1187).Itwasin1182–theeighty-thirdyearoftheoccupation–thatChrétienproducedhisversionoftheGrailstory.AndshortlyafterthefallofJerusalemWolframvonEschenbachstartedworkonhisownParzival.IthereforefounditdifficulttoresisttheconclusionthattheseearlyrecensionsoftheGrailromancemusthavebeenbasedonsomethingthathadhappened–oronmaterialthathadcome to light – during the period that Jerusalem had been under the full control ofEuropeanforces.IlookedverycarefullyatthetextofParzivaltoseewhethertherewasanyevidencetosupport thisconjectureanddiscoveredthatWolframhadonseveraloccasionsmadementionofamysterioussourcenamed‘Kyot’–aman,hesaid,whomhehadrelieduponheavilyforhisinformationandwhofortunatelyhadbeen:

abaptizedChristian–otherwisethistalewouldstillbeunknown.NoinfidelartwouldavailustorevealthenatureoftheGralandhowonecametoknowitssecrets.2

ThiswasbynomeanstheonlyplaceinParzivalwheretheGermanpoethadhintedthattheremighthavebeenmore tohisGrail thanat firstmet theeye. Iwasalreadysatisfiedthatthis ‘somethingmore’couldwellhavebeentheArkof theCovenant–therealobjectthat lay behind the beautiful fictional symbol. Now as I studied the widely scatteredreferences to ‘Kyot’ it occurred tome that this shadowy figure,whose identitywasneverclarified,couldhavebeenthesourcewhohadintroducedWolframtothesecretoftheArk’shidingplaceinEthiopia.Referredtoatonepointas‘Kyot,whosentustheauthentictale’,3hewasclearlyveryimportant.Butwhowashe?TherewerefewobviouscluesinParzivalitself.HereKyotwasspokenofasa‘Master’4andthereitwassuggestedthathismothertonguehadbeenFrench.5Butbeyondsuchhintsthere

wasverylittletogoon.Ithereforeturnedtotheliteraryscholarsandfoundthatseveralofthem had identified Kyot quite specifically with a twelfth-century French poet, Guyot deProvins,whohadmadeapilgrimagetoJerusalemshortlybeforetherecaptureoftheHolyCitybytheSaracens6–andwhohadalsobeenattachedforawhiletothecourtoftheHolyRomanEmperorFrederickBarbarossa.7ThislatterfactcaughtmyeyebecauseIknewthatFrederick–likeWolfram–hadbeenaGermanby birth (before his election as Emperor in 1152hehadbeenDuke of Swabia8).And Ialsoknew(seepreviouschapter) that this sameFrederickhadbeenoneof the twomonarchs specifically named amongst the various Christian kings to whom the ‘letter ofPresterJohn’hadbeenaddressedintheyear1165.InvestigatingfurtherIthenlearnedsomethingelse–somethingthatturnedouttobeofmajorimportance:Guyot/KyothadbeencloselyassociatedwiththeKnightsTemplar9who,according to Emma Jung’s study, ‘were considered to be the guardians of Solomon’sTemple’.10IalsoknewthatitwasfromSolomon’sTemplethattheArkoftheCovenanthadmysteriouslydisappearedinOldTestamenttimes.Iwasthereforeexcitedtodiscoverthat,inParzival,WolframhaddescribedtheguardiansoftheGrailas‘Templars’11andhadreferredtothem,flatteringly,as:

anobleBrotherhood…who,byforceofarms,havewardedoffmenfromeveryland,withtheresultthattheGralhasbeenrevealedonlytothosewhohavebeensummonedtoMunsalvaeschetojointheGralCompany.12

WereWolfram’s‘Templars’thesameasthefamousmilitaryorderofthatname?I found that the word translated into English as ‘Templars’ had, in the Middle HighGerman of Parzival, been Templeis.13 Amongst the scholars there was some debate aboutwhatexactlyhadbeenmeantbythis.Theconsensus,however,wasthatthetermwas ‘anobviousvariantoftheregularformstemplarius,templier,Eng.Templar’14andthatWolfram’s‘OrderofKnighthooddedicatedtotheserviceoftheGral’couldthereforebe‘identifiedwiththeorderoftheKnightsTemplar’.15I then remembered that one of the guidebooks I had used on my visit to Chartrescathedralhadspokenof ‘WolframvonEschenbach,whoissaidtohavebeenaTemplar–thoughthereisnoproofofthis’.16OnfurtherinvestigationIwasabletoestablishthattherehad indeed been persistent rumours to this effect.17 I also learned that several wellrespected scholarshad suggested that theGermanpoetmighthimselfhavepaidavisit totheHolyLandwhilstwritingParzival.18

Diggingforhiddentreasure?IhadbeenintriguedbyEmmaJung’sassertionthattheTemplarsinWolfram’stime‘wereconsideredtobetheguardiansofSolomon’sTemple’.Ihadnotunderstoodwhythisshouldhavebeenso.However,whenIbegantoresearchtheorder,Idiscoveredthatithadderiveditsofficial title(‘ThePoorKnightsofChristandof theTempleofSolomon’) fromthefactthatitsJerusalemheadquartershadbeenlocatedonthesummitofMountMoriah–whereSolomon’sTemplehadstooduntilitsdestructionbytheBabyloniansin587BC.ThatTemple

hadbeenbuiltinthetenthcenturyBCanditsexplicit–indeeditsonly–purposehadbeentoserve,astheBibleputit,as‘anhouseofrestfortheArkoftheCovenantoftheLord’.19By identifying themselveswithSolomon’sTemple, therefore, it seemed tome that there

wasaveryrealsenseinwhichtheknightshadalsoidentifiedthemselveswiththeArkoftheCovenant. And my feeling that this was so strengthened as I began to investigate thecurioushistoryoftheorder.TheTemplars,Ilearned,hadbeenfoundedbynineFrenchnoblemenwhohadmadetheir

way to theHoly Land in AD 1119 – twenty years after Jerusalemhad been captured andoccupied by the European powers. The twelfth-century historian, Archbishop William ofTyre, noted that ‘foremost and most distinguished’ amongst these nine men ‘were thevenerableHughdePayensandGodfreydeStOmer.’20OncheckingfurtherIdiscoveredsomethinginteresting.HughdePayens,whowasinfact

the firstGrandMasterof theOrder,21hadbeenborn in thevillageofPayens,eightmilesnorthof thecityofTroyes in theoldFrenchcountyofChampagne.22Moreover itseemedthat the nine founders were all from the same region.23 In this there were severalcoincidences:

1Chartres,withitsgreatcathedral,had–inboththetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies–beenadominionoftheCountsofChampagne.24

2Oneoftheoriginalnineknights,AndrédeMontbard(wholaterbecamethefifthGrandMaster),wasanuncleofSaintBernardofClairvaux25–whowashimselfanativeofChampagne.ThisenormouslyinfluentialclerichadtakenaspecialinterestbothinGothicarchitectureandintheGrailromances.26

3ThecityofTroyes,soclosetothebirthplaceofHughdePayens,thefirstTemplarGrandMaster,wasalsothehomeofChrétiendeTroyes,the‘inventor’oftheHolyGrail.4HughdePayenswasacousinoftheCountofChampagne,27and,intheyear1125,theCountofChampagnejoinedtheTemplars.28

5WhenChrétiendeTroyesrosetoprominenceratherlaterinthetwelfthcenturyhisprincipalpatronwastheCountessofChampagne.29

Noting this string of coincidenceswith some interest, Iwent on to learnmore about theearlyhistoryoftheTemplars.There was much that was strange. Perhaps strangest of all, however, was the way in

whichthenineoriginalknightswerereceivedbyKingBaldwinIofJerusalemin1119.AssoonastheyhadarrivedintheHolyCitytheytoldhimthattheywantedtoestablishtheirheadquartersontheTempleMount30–where themonarchhadrecentlyconverted theAl-AqsaMosque to serve ashis own royal palace.Rather astonishinglyhe complied at oncewith their request,giving them, for theirexclusiveuse,a largepartof the formermosqueanditsoutbuildingsimmediatelyadjacenttothefamous‘DomeoftheRock’,whichmarkedthesitewhereSolomon’sTemplehadoncestood.31Thereafter, likelatter-dayarchaeologistswithanimportantdigtocomplete,theknights

lived, ate, sleptandworkedon thisuniquelyprecious site: indeed foralmost sevenyearsaftertheirarrivaltheyrarelyleftitandadamantlyrefusedadmissiontoanyoutsideparty.InpublicpronouncementstheyhaddeclaredthattheirmissionintheHolyLandwasto‘to

keep the road from the coast to Jerusalem free frombandits’.32 I could findno evidence,however, tosuggest that theytookanysteps to fulfil thismissionduringthose first sevenyearsoftheirexistence;onthecontrary,asoneauthorityputit,‘thenewOrderapparentlydidverylittle’ inthisperiod.33Besides,simple logicsuggestedthatninemencouldhardlyhaveprotectedanybodyonahighwayalmostfiftymileslong–andtheirnumberstayedatnineuntiltheywerejoinedbytheCountofChampagnein1125.Moreover,themembersofanolderandfarlargermilitaryorder–theKnightsofSaintJohn–werealreadydoingthejobofprotectingpilgrimswhentheTemplarsarrived.34Icouldonlyconclude,therefore,thatHughdePayensandhiscolleaguesmusthavehad

someother,undeclared,purpose.Asnotedabove, they largelyconfined themselves to theprecinctsoftheTempleMountduringthefirstsevenyearsoftheirsojourninJerusalem–andthissuggestedverystronglythattheirrealmotivemusthavehadtodowiththatveryspecialsite.FromthebeginningtheirbehaviourwassecretiveandIfound,asaresult,thattherewas

noreallyhardevidenceaboutwhattheyhadbeenuptothere.Itseemedatleastpossible,however, that theymight have been looking for something, and this suspicion deepenedwhenIlearnedthattheyhadindeedusedtheiroccupancyoftheTempleMounttoconductquiteextensiveexcavations.BecausetheTempleMounttodaycontainsthethirdandfourthmostsacredsitesofIslam

–theDomeoftheRockandtheAl-AqsaMosque–modernarchaeologistshaveneverbeenpermitted to work there. In recent years, however, Israeli teams have operated freelyimmediately to the south of the Mount, and there they found the exit-point of a tunnelwhichtheyidentifiedashavingbeingdugbytheTemplarsinthetwelfthcentury.35Intheirofficialreportthearchaeologistsstated:

Thetunnelleadsinwardforadistanceofaboutthirtymetresfromthesouthernwallbeforebeingblockedbypiecesofstoneanddebris.Weknowthatitcontinuesfurther,butwehadmadeitahard-and-fastrulenottoexcavatewithintheboundsoftheTempleMount,whichiscurrentlyunderMoslemjurisdiction,withoutfirstacquiringthepermissionoftheappropriateMoslemauthorities.Inthiscasetheypermittedusonlytomeasureandphotographtheexposedsectionofthetunnel,nottoconductanexcavationofanykind.Uponconcludingthiswork…wesealedupthetunnel’sexitwithstones.36

And that was all that was known, or could be said, about the Templar tunnel. Thearchaeologistshadonlybeenabletoconfirmthatitcontinuedfurtherthantheythemselveshadbeenallowedtogo.Extendinginwardsfromthesouthernwall,however,Irealizedthatit might well have penetrated into the very heart of the sacred precincts, quite possiblypassingdirectlybeneaththeDomeoftheRockahundredorsometrestothenorthoftheAl-AqsaMosque.TheDomeof theRock, Idiscovered,was sonamedbecausewithin it layahuge stone,

known to the Jews as the Shetiyyah (literally the ‘Foundation’). When the Temple ofSolomonhadbeenerectedonthisexactspotinthemid-900sBC,theArkoftheCovenanthadbeenplacedontheShetiyyah,whichhadformedtheflooroftheHolyofHolies.37Then, in587BC, theTemplehadbeendestroyedby theBabyloniansandmostof thepopulationof

Jerusalemhadbeencarriedoffintoexile.Therewasnoevidence,however,tosuggestthattheconquerorshadalsocarriedofftheArk;onthecontrary,itappearedtohavevanishedintothinair.38Subsequentlyalegendbegantocirculatewhichprovidedapossibleexplanationforwhathadhappened–anexplanationthatwasacceptedbymostJews.Accordingtothislegend,onlymomentsbefore theBabylonian lootershadburst into theHolyofHolies, the sacredrelichadbeenhiddenawayinasealedandsecretcaverndirectlybeneaththeShetiyyah.39Expressed as itwas in a variety of Talmudic andMidrashic scrolls, and in the popularapocalypse known as the ‘Vision of Baruch’40 – all of which were still very much incirculation in Jerusalem in the twelfth century AD – it occurred to me that the Templarsmight easily have learned the details of this intriguing legend. Moreover, with a littlefurtherresearch,Iwasabletoestablishthattheycouldwellhavedonesosomeyearsbefore1119– thedateof theirofficialarrival inJerusalem.HughdePayens, the founderof theorder, hadmade apilgrimage to theHoly Land in1104 in the companyof theCount ofChampagne.41 The twomen had then returned to France andwere known to have beentogether there in1113.42Threeyears laterHughwentbacktotheHolyLandalone43 andthenreturnedoncemore–thistimetogathertogethertheeightknightswhotravelledwithhimin1119andwhoformedthenucleusoftheTemplarorder.Themore I thought about this sequenceof events themore likely it seemed tome thatHugh and the Count of Champagne could, on their 1104 pilgrimage, have heard of thestartlingpossibilitythattheArkoftheCovenantmightlieconcealedsomewherewithintheTemple Mount. If so, I speculated, then was it not also probable that they could haveformulatedaplantotrytorecoverthesacredrelic?Anddidthisnotexplainthedeterminedmanner inwhich thenineknightshad takencontrolof theTempleMount in1119–andalsothemanyothercuriositiesoftheirbehaviourintheearlyyearsoftheorder’sexistence?IfoundtangentialsupportforthisconjectureinEmmaJung’sauthoritativestudyoftheGraillegend.There,inanexcursus,thepsychoanalystarguedthattheEuropeanoccupationofJerusaleminthetwelfthcenturyhadbeeninspired,atleastinpart,byabeliefthatsomepuissant, sacred and incalculably precious relic lay concealed in that city. As shecommented:

Thisdeeply-rootedconceptofhiddentreasurecontributedtothefactthatthesummonstoliberatetheHolySepulchreawakenedaresoundingecho[and]imparted[an]inflammatorymotivepowertotheCrusades–ifitdidnotactuallycausethem.44

TherecouldhavebeennotreasuremorepreciousormoresacredthanthelostArkoftheCovenant–which,inacenturythatwasunusuallyobsessedwiththerecoveryofreligiousrelics,45couldwellhave looked like theultimateprize. It thereforeseemedtomenot justpossible, but actually highly probable, thatHugh de Payens and his backer the Count ofChampagnecouldindeedhavebeenmotivatedbyadesiretofindtheArk–andthattheycouldhaveestablished theTemplars, and takencontrolof theTempleMount, inorder toachievethisgoal.If so,however, then they failed in theirobjective. In the twelfthcentury,asoneexpert

putit,‘theassetvalueofafamousrelicwasprodigious’.46Possessionofarelicasuniquelysignificant as theArkof theCovenantwould, in addition,havebrought enormouspowerandprestige to itsowners.Fromthis it followed, that if theTemplarshad found theArk,they would certainly have brought it back to Europe in triumph. Since that had nothappeneditseemedtomequitesafetoconcludethattheyhadnotfoundit.Yet rumours persisted that they had found something in their seven years of intensivedigging on the Temple Mount. None of these rumours had any academic authoritywhatsoever–butsomewereintriguing.Accordingtoonemysticalwork,whichattemptedtoaddresswhattheTemplarshadreallybeenuptoinJerusalembetween1119and1126:

TherealtaskofthenineknightswastocarryoutresearchintheareainordertoobtaincertainrelicsandmanuscriptswhichcontainedtheessenceofthesecrettraditionsofJudaismandancientEgypt,someofwhichprobablywentbacktothedaysofMoses…Thereisnodoubtthat[they]fulfilledthisparticularmissionandthattheknowledgeobtainedfromtheirfindswastaughtintheoraltraditionoftheOrder’s…secretcircles.47

Nodocumentaryproofwasofferedtobackupthisattractiveassertion.Inthesamesource,however,IwasinterestedtonoteanamethatIhadcomeacrossseveraltimesbeforeinmyresearch – Saint Bernard of Clairvaux,whoherewas said (againwithout any supportingevidence)tohavesentthenineknightstoJerusalem.48IalreadyknewthatBernardhadbeenthenephewofoneoftheninefounderknights.Iwas also aware that he had joined the Cistercian order in 1112, that he had become anabbotby111549andthathehadrisentoapositionofconsiderableprominenceinFrenchreligious circles by 1119 when the first Templars had arrived in Jerusalem. I thereforethought that itwouldbemostunwise todismissoutofhand thepossibility thathemighthave played some role in the formulation of their mission. This suspicion intensifiedconsiderablywhenIbegantolookintowhathadhappenedtotheTemplarsaftertheirfirstcurioussevenyears.

Atrade-off?Latein1126HughdePayenssuddenlyleftJerusalemandreturnedtoEuropeaccompaniedbynoneotherthanAndrédeMontbard,50theuncleofSaintBernard.TheknightsarrivedinFrancein1127and, inJanuary1128,participatedinwhatwastobethemostsignificanteventintheearlyhistoryoftheTemplars.ThateventwastheSynodofTroyes,whichhadbeenconvenedwiththeexplicitobjectiveofprocuringtheChurch’sofficialbackingfortheTemplarorder.51Threethingsparticularlyinterestedmeaboutthisimportantmeeting.First,ittookplaceinthehometownofthepoetwho,someyearslater,wastoinventtheHolyGrail;second,itwaspresidedoverbySaintBernard,inhiscapacityasitssecretary;52andthird,duringthecourse of the Synod, itwasBernardhimselfwhodrewup the formalRule of theKnightsTemplarthat,henceforth,wastoguidetheevolutionanddevelopmentoftheorder.53Ifmy suspicionswere justified, therefore, it seemed that the original nine knights had

initially been preoccupied with their excavations on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.Whateverelse theymighthaveunearthedthere,however, ithadbecomeclear to themby1126 that they were not going to find the prime object of their search, the Ark of theCovenant. This realization had made it necessary for them to consider their future:specifically,havinglosttheirraisond’être,shouldtheysimplyceasetoexistasanorder,orshouldtheytrytoforgeahead?Historyshowed that theyhad indeedsufferedacrisisof identity in1126, that theyhadresolveditanddecidedtoforgeahead,andthattheyhadenlistedthepowerfulsupportofSaintBernardinthisenterprise.AttheSynodofTroyeshedrewuptheirRuleandobtainedthefullbackingoftheChurchfortheirexpansion.Andthereafter,inaseriesofsermonsandglowing panegyrics such as De laude novae militae,54 he vigorously promoted the youngorder–thususinghisownprestigeandinfluencetoguaranteeitssuccess.Theresultswerespectacular.NewrecruitsflockedinfromalloverFranceandlaterfrommany other parts of Europe as well. Donations of land and money were received fromwealthypatrons,andpoliticalpowerquicklyfollowed.Bythelatetwelfthcenturytheorderhad become phenomenally rich, was operating a sophisticated international bankingsystem,55andownedpropertiesthroughouttheknownworld.Andallthis,inasense,itowedtotheinterventionofSaintBernardin1128–andtohiscontinued solidarity and support in the years that followed. Had he played this role onbehalfof theTemplarspurelyoutofa senseofaltruism?Orhad theyperhapsgivenhimsomethinginreturn?Rememberingthatthe1130swerethedecadeinwhichGothicarchitecturehadsuddenlyandmysteriously burst upon the scene in France, remembering that Bernard had been aprime mover in the dissemination of the Gothic formula, and remembering too thepersistent rumours that the Templars had gained access in Jerusalem to some deep andancientsourceofknowledge,Icouldnothelpbutwonderifthishadbeenthetrade-off.Tobe sure, the knights had failed to find the Ark of the Covenant. But what if, in theirexcavations on the TempleMount, they had unearthed scrolls, manuscripts, theorems orblueprints relating toSolomon’sTemple itself?What if thesediscoverieshad included thelost architectural secrets of geometry, proportion, balance and harmony that had beenknowntothebuildersofthepyramidsandothergreatmonumentsofantiquity?Andwhatifthe Templars had shared these secrets with Saint Bernard in return for his enthusiasticbackingfortheirorder?These speculations were not entirely without foundation. On the contrary, one of theoddities of the Templarswas the fact that they had been great architects. In 1139, PopeInnocentII(whosecandidacy,incidentally,hadalsobeenenthusiasticallybackedbySaintBernard56),grantedtheorderauniqueprivilege– theright tobuildtheirownchurches.57Thiswasaprivilegethattheysubsequentlyexercisedtothefull:beautifulplacesofworship,often circular in plan like the Temple Church in London, became a hallmark of Templaractivities.The knights also excelled in military architecture and their castles in Palestine wereexceptionallywell designed andvirtually impregnable. Foremost amongst these imposingfortresseswasAdit(ChâteauPélérinorCastlePilgrim)which,Idiscovered,hadbeenbuiltintheyear1218bythefourteenthGrandMasteroftheTemplars,WilliamofChartres58– in

whosenamewasrevealedyetanotherconnectiontothegreatGothiccathedral.StandingtothesouthofHaifaonaspuroflandsurroundedonthreesidesbythesea,Aditinitsheydaywaswellsuppliedwithorchards,freshwater,andvegetablegardensandevenpossesseditsownharbourandship-yardtogetherwithajettytwohundredfeetlong.OftenbesiegedbytheSaracensbutnevercaptured,ithadbeencapableofshelteringasmanyasfourthousandpeople.Itsmassivewalls,restingonunusuallydeepfoundations,weremorethanninetyfeethighandsixteenfeetthick59–andweresowellmadethatlargesectionsofthemstillsurviveintact.ThesitewasthoroughlyexcavatedbythearchaeologistC.N.Johnsin 1932. He concluded that the skills of the Templar architects and masons had beenastonishinglyadvancedbycomparisonwiththenormintheMiddleAgesandhad,indeed,been‘exceptional’evenbymodernstandards.60TheTemplarsalsobuiltextensivelyinJerusalemwheretheycontinuedtomaintaintheirheadquarters on the Temple Mount until the Holy City was recaptured by the Muslimgeneral Saladin in 1187. I learned that a German monk named Theoderic had made apilgrimagetoJerusalemin1174–atwhichtimehereportedthatall thebuildingswithintheprecinctsoftheDomeoftheRockwerestill‘inthepossessionoftheTemplarsoldiers’.61Headded:

Theyaregarrisonedintheseandotherbuildingsbelongingtothem…BelowthemtheyhavestablesonceerectedbyKingSolomon…withvaults,arches,androofsofmanyvarieties…Accordingtoourestimationtheywillholdtenthousandhorseswithgrooms.62

Infactthe ‘stables’hadnotbeenerectedbyKingSolomon,butdatedbacktothereignofHerod theGreat (around the time of Christ). The vaults, arches and roofs, however, hadbeentheworkoftheTemplarsthemselves,whogreatlyextendedthesesubterraneanhallsandwhowerethefirstandonlypeopletousethemtoaccommodatehorses.63Theoderic’seyewitnessaccountoftheTempleMountin1174continuedwiththesewords:

Ontheothersideofthepalace[i.e.theAl-AqsaMosque]theTemplarshavebuiltanewhouse,whoseheight,lengthandbreadth,andallitscellarsandrefectories,staircaseandroof,arefarbeyondthecustomofthisland.Indeeditsroofissohighthat,ifIweretomentionhowhighitis,thosewholistenwouldhardlybelieveme.64

The‘newhouse’thatTheoderichadreferredtoin1174was,unfortunately,knockeddownin the 1950s during some renovations undertaken on the Temple Mount by the Muslimauthorities. TheGermanmonk’s testimonywas, however, valuable in itself – andwhat Ifoundmostvaluableaboutitwasitsbreathlesstone.ClearlyhehadregardedtheTemplars’architecturalskillsasalmostsupernaturallyadvancedandhadbeenparticularlyimpressedbythesoaringroofsandarchesthattheyhadbuilt.ReviewinghisstatementsIthoughtitfarfromaccidental that soaringroofsandarcheshadalsobeen thedistinguishing featuresoftheGothicarchitecturalformulaasexpressedatChartresandotherFrenchcathedralsinthetwelfth century – cathedrals that I knew were regarded by some observers as‘scientifically…farbeyondwhatcanbeallowedforintheknowledgeoftheepoch’.65

AndthisbroughtmebackagaintoSaintBernardofClairvaux.Lookingmorethoroughlyintowhatwasknownabouthislifeandideas,Iwasabletoconfirmmyearlierimpressionthat his influence on the iconography of the Gothic cathedrals had been massive, butindirect,takingtheformmainlyofgroupsofsculpturesandofstained-glasswindowsthathad been inspired by his sermons and writings, often after his death.66 Indeed, in hislifetime,Bernardhad frequentlyopposed theunnecessaryproliferationof images andhadstated:‘Theremustbenodecoration,onlyproportion.’67Thisemphasisonproportion,harmonyandbalanceinarchitecturewas,Iknew,thekeyto the strange magic of Gothic architecture and, as I became more familiar with SaintBernard’s thinking, I realized that itwas in this area that his influence on the design ofChartres and other cathedrals had been most profound. In those great edifices, theintroduction of a number of remarkable technical innovations like ribbed vaulting, ogivearchesandflyingbuttresseshadenabledthebuilderstousegeometricalperfectiontogiveexpression to complex religious ideas. Indeed, in a very real sense, it seemed thatarchitectureandfaithhadmerged in twelfth-centuryGothic to formanewsynthesis.ThissynthesishadbeensummedupbySaintBernardhimselfwhenhehadasked‘WhatisGod?’– andhad then replied to his own rhetorical questionwith these surprisingwords: ‘He islength,width,heightanddepth.’68Gothicarchitecture,asIalreadyknew,hadbeenbornatChartrescathedralwiththestartofconstructionworkonthenorthtowerin1134.This,Inowlearned,wasnoaccident.Intheyearsimmediatelypriorto1134BernardhadcultivatedaparticularlyclosefriendshipwithGeoffrey theBishopofChartres,69 inspiringhimwithan ‘uncommonenthusiasm’ fortheGothicformula70andholding‘almostdailynegotiationswiththebuildersthemselves’.71Interestingthoughitwasinitself,thegreatsignificanceofthispieceofinformationformypurposeslayinthefactthat‘theyearsimmediatelypriorto1134’werealsotheyearsimmediatelyaftertheSynodofTroyes,atwhichSaintBernardhadobtainedofficialChurchrecognition for the Order of the Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon.HistorianshadneverbeenabletoaccountadequatelyforthesuddenwayinwhichGothicarchitecture had emerged in France in the 1130s. But my earlier speculation that theTemplarsmighthavehadahandinitnowlookedincreasinglyplausible.ReviewingalltheevidenceIhadgatheredIfeltsatisfiedthattheycouldindeedhaveunearthedontheTempleMountsomerepositoryofancientknowledgeconcerningthescienceofbuilding,andthattheycouldhavepassedonwhattheyhadlearnedtoSaintBernardinreturnforhissupport.MoreoverTemplarinterestintheArkoftheCovenant,andtheTemplarconnectionswithWolframandwithChartres, also ratherneatly tied together the twocryptic ‘maps’ that IbelievedIhadidentified(onecarvedinstoneinthenorthporchofthecathedral,theotherencodedintheplotofParzival).Those‘maps’hadappearedtosuggestthatEthiopiawasthelastrestingplaceoftheArk.ThequestionInowneededtoaddress,therefore,wasthis:howcouldtheTemplarshavecometotheconclusionthatthesacredrelic(whichtheyhadfailedto findafter sevenyearsofdigging in Jerusalem)had in factbeen removed toEthiopia?Whatcouldhaveledthemtothinkthisway?Apossibleanswer,Idiscovered,layinJerusalemitself–whereanexiledEthiopianprincehad sojourned for a quarter of a century before returning to his homeland to claim hiskingdomin1185.72NotmuchmorethanadecadelaterWolframbegantowritehisParzival

andworkstartedonthenorthporchofChartrescathedral.

AnEthiopianprinceinJerusalemThenameoftheprincewhohadspentsolonginexileinJerusalemwasLalibela.Ibecameinterestedinhimbecauseofthe‘letterofPresterJohn’referredtointhelastchapter.Thatletterhadbeenwrittenin1165andIknewthatin1177PopeAlexanderIIIhadwrittenaletterofhisownto‘PresterJohn’inresponsetoarequestfrom‘thePrester’s’emissariesfortheconcessionofanaltarandachapelintheChurchoftheHolySepulchreinJerusalem.AccordingtotheEncyclopaediaBritannica, ‘theonly realperson’ towhomthePope’s lettercouldhavebeensentwastheKingofEthiopia.73IhadthereforenaturallywonderedwhichkinghadsatontheEthiopianthronein1177.OnresearchingthematterIhaddiscoveredthat it had been a man named Harbay and that the concession requested had not beengrantedtohimbutrathertohissuccessor,Lalibela.Neither Harbay nor Lalibela had stemmed from the line of monarchs supposedlydescendedfromKingSolomonandtheQueenofShebathroughMenelikI.InsteadtheyhadbothbelongedtoausurperdynastyknownastheZagwewhichhadruledinEthiopiafromroughlyad1030until1270whentheSolomonidswerefinallyrestoredtothethrone.74ThiswasaperiodofEthiopianhistoryaboutwhichverylittlewasknown.Iwasabletoconfirm,however,thattheSolomoniclinehadbeeninterruptedaroundAD980andthatthiscoup d’état had been the work of a tribal chieftainess named Gudit, who adhered to theJewishfaithandwhoseemedtohavebeenmotivatedaboveallelsebyadesiretoobliteratetheChristianreligion.AtanyratesheattackedAxum,razedmuchoftheancientcitytotheground,andsucceededinkillingitsSolomonicemperor.TwooftheroyalprinceswerealsomurderedbutathirdescapedwithhislifeandfledtotheprovinceofShoa,fartothesouth,where he married and produced children, thus ensuring the survival of the old dynasty,althoughinmuchreducedcircumstances.75Guditwas the head of a large tribal confederation known as theAgaw – towhich theFalashas, the indigenous black Jews of Ethiopia, also belonged.76 Although it was by nomeans certain that she had left any direct successor, historians accepted thatwithin fiftyyearsofherdeathmostofnorthernEthiopiahadbeenunitedunder theZagwemonarchswho,likeher,wereallofAgawextraction.In its early days this dynasty could – again like Gudit – have been Jewish.77 If so,however (and the case was not proved), it had certainly converted to Christianity wellbefore the birth of Prince Lalibela – which took place in the ancient mountain town ofRoha,inwhatisnowtheprovinceofWollo,aroundtheyear1140.The younger half-brother of KingHarbay, Lalibela appeared to have been destined forgreatnessfromthemomentwhenhismothersawadenseswarmofbeessurroundinghimashelayinhiscrib.Recallinganoldbeliefthattheanimalworldcouldforetellthefutureofimportantpersonages, the legendssaidthatshehadbeenseizedbythespiritofprophecyandhadcriedout‘Lalibela’–meaning,literally,‘thebeesrecognizehissovereignty’.78Thustheprincereceivedhisname.TheprophecythatitexpressedcausedHarbaytofearforthesafetyofhisthronetosuchanextentthathetriedtohaveLalibelamurderedwhilehewasstillababeinarms.Thisfirstattemptfailed,butpersecutionsofonekindoranother

continued for several years, culminating in the administration of a deadly poison thatplunged the young prince into a cataleptic sleep. Ethiopian legends said that the stuporlasted for three days, during which time Lalibela was transported by angels to the first,secondandthirdHeavens.TherehewasaddresseddirectlybytheAlmightywhotoldhimtohaveno anxiety as tohis life or future sovereignty.APurposehadbeenmappedout forhim,forwhichreasonhehadbeenanointed.AfterawakingfromhistrancehewastofleeEthiopiaandseekrefugeinJerusalem.Hecouldrestsecure,however, thatwhenthetimewasrighthewouldreturnaskingtoRoha,hisbirthplace.Moreoveritwashisdestinythathewouldbuildanumberofwonderfulchurchesthere,thelikeofwhichtheworldhadneverseenbefore.GodthengaveLalibeladetailed instructionsas to themethodofconstructionthatwastobeused,theformthateachofthechurcheswastotake,theirlocationsandeventheirinteriorandexteriordecorations.79Legendandhistorycoincidedatthispointinasinglewelldocumentedfact:LalibeladidindeedsufferalongperiodofexileinJerusalemwhilehishalf-brotherHarbaycontinuedtooccupythethroneofEthiopia.80Thisexile,Ilearned,beganaroundtheyear1160–whenLalibelawouldhavebeenabouttwentyyearsold–andendedin1185whenhereturnedintriumphtohisowncountry,deposedHarbayandproclaimedhimselfking.81From that date onwards therewere reliable chronicles of his rule,which lasteduntil AD1211.82HemadehiscapitalatRoha,wherehehadbeenbornandwhichwasnowrenamed‘Lalibela’ inhis honour.83 There, perhaps in fulfilment of his legendary vision, he almostimmediatelysetaboutbuildingelevenspectacularmonolithicchurches–churchesthatwereliterallycarvedoutofsolidvolcanicrock(Imyselfhadvisitedthosechurchesin1983someweeksaftermytriptoAxum,andhadfoundthattheywerestillplacesoflivingworship).NeitherdidLalibela forgethis twenty-five-yearsojourn in theHolyLand–manyof thefeatures of which he attempted to reproduce in Roha-Lalibela. For example, the riverrunningthroughthetownwasrenamed‘Jordan’;oneoftheelevenchurches–BetaGolgotha–wasspecificallydesignedtosymbolizetheChurchoftheHolySepulchreinJerusalem;andanearbyhillwascalledDebraZeit(‘MountofOlives’)sothatitmightrepresenttheplacewhereChristwascaptured.84Notcontentwithmakinghiscapitalakindof ‘NewJerusalem’, theEthiopiankingalsosought, throughout his reign, to maintain close links with Jerusalem itself. There was, Idiscovered,nothingparticularlynewaboutthis.SincethelatefourthcenturyADclergyfromtheEthiopianOrthodoxChurchhadbeenpermanentlystationedintheHolyCity.85 IthadbeenadesiretoincreaseandconsolidatethispresencethathadledtoHarbay’srequesttoPopeAlexander III to grant the concessionof analtar anda chapel in theChurchof theHoly Sepulchre.Nothing had come of that – other than the Pope’s rather tentative lettersentin1177inreplytoHarbay’sinitialapproach.Adecadelater,however,therehadbeentwoimportantdevelopments:in1185LalibelahadseizedtheEthiopianthrone,andin1187SaladinhaddriventheCrusadersoutoftheHolyCityandhadforcedJerusalem’sEthiopiancommunity,togetherwithotherEasternChristians,tofleetoCyprus.86TheroyalchroniclesshowedthatLalibelahadbeendeeplydisturbedbythisturnofeventsand,in1189,hisenvoyshadmanagedtopersuadeSaladintoallowtheEthiopianstoreturnand also to grant them, for the first time, a key site of their own – the Chapel of theInventionof theCross, in theChurchof theHoly Sepulchre.87 Subsequently, in relatively

modern times, theseprivilegeshadagainbeen lost; inconsequence, I learned,Abyssinianpilgrimswerenowobligedtomaketheirdevotionsontheroofofthechapel–wheretheyhadestablishedamonastery.88TheyalsostillpossessedtwootherchurchesinJerusalemaswellasasubstantialPatriarchatesituatedintheheartoftheOldCitywithinafewminutes’walkoftheChurchoftheHolySepulchre.Bothintermsofforeignanddomesticpolicy,andalsointermsofarchitecturalexpressionand spiritual development, Lalibela’s reign had represented the zenith of the Zagwedynasty’s powers and achievements. After his death a steep decline set in. Finally, in AD1270,hisgrandsonNaakutoLaabwaspersuadedtoabdicateinfavourofYekunoAmlak–amonarchclaimingSolomonicdescent.89Thereafter,untilHaileSelassiewasdeposedduringthecommunistrevolutionof1974,allbutoneofEthiopia’semperorshadbelongedtotheroyallinethattraceditsheritageback,throughMenelikI,toKingSolomonofJerusalem.

ApatternofcoincidencesReviewing what I had learned about Lalibela’s illustrious reign, I realized that it fittedperfectly into thebeguilingpatternof coincidences that I hadalready identifiedasbeingassociatedwiththeCrusades,withtheTemplars,andwiththetwelfthcentury:

•Attheverybeginningofthetwelfthcentury(ormoreproperlyin1099,thelastyearoftheeleventhcentury)JerusalemwasseizedbytheCrusaders.•In1119theninefoundingknightsoftheTemplarorder–allFrenchnoblemen–arrivedinJerusalemandtookupresidenceonthesiteoftheoriginalTempleofSolomon.•In1128SaintBernardofClairvauxwonofficialchurchrecognitionfortheTemplarsattheSynodofTroyes.•In1134workstartedonthenorthtowerofChartrescathedral,thefirst-everexampleofGothicarchitecture.•In1145thename‘PresterJohn’wasfirstheardinEurope.•In1160PrinceLalibela,thefuturemonarchofEthiopia,arrivedinJerusalemasapoliticalexilefleeingthepersecutionsofhishalf-brotherHarbay(whothenoccupiedthethrone).•In1165aletterpurportingtohavebeenwrittenby‘PresterJohn’andmakingaseriesofawe-inspiringclaimsaboutthesizeofhisarmies,hiswealthandhispower,hadbeencirculatedinEuropeaddressedto‘variousChristiankings’.•In1177PopeAlexanderIIIissuedaresponsetotheabovedocumentbut,significantly,madereferenceinittoanothercommunicationthathehadreceivedsomewhatlater–arequestfrom‘PresterJohn’tobegrantedanaltarintheChurchoftheHolySepulchreinJerusalem.Itseemedthatthisrequesthadbeenlodgedby‘thePrester’s’emissarieswhohadspokentothePope’spersonalphysicianPhilipduringavisitthatthelatterhadmadetoPalestine.(The‘PresterJohn’whohadaskedforthisconcessioncouldonlyhavebeenLalibela’shalf-brotherHarbaywho,in1177,wasstillonthethroneof

Ethiopia.)•In1182theHolyGrailmadeitsfirst-everappearanceinliterature(and,forthatmatter,inhistory)inanuncompletednarrativepoembyChrétiendeTroyes.•In1185PrinceLalibelaleftJerusalemandreturnedtoEthiopiawherehesuccessfullydeposedHarbayandseizedthethrone.Almostimmediatelythereafterhebeganbuildingagroupofspectacularrock-hewnchurchesinhiscapitalRoha–laterrenamed‘Lalibela’inhishonour.•In1187JerusalemfelltotheMuslimforcesofSultanSaladinandtheCrusadersweredrivenout,alongwithmembersoftheEthiopiancommunityintheHolyCity–whosoughttemporaryrefugeinCyprus.(SomeTemplarsalsowenttoCyprus–indeed,afterthefallofJerusalem,theknightsboughttheislandwhichbecame,forawhile,theirheadquarters.90)•In1189emissariessenttoSaladinbyKingLalibelamanagedtopersuadetheMuslimgeneraltoallowtheEthiopianstoreturntoJerusalemandalsotograntthemaprivilegethattheyhadneverenjoyedbefore,thesameprivilegethatHarbayhadsoughtfromthePopein1177–namelyachapelandaltarintheChurchoftheHolySepulchre.•Betweentheyears1195and1200WolframvonEschenbachbegantowriteParzival,whichcontinuedtheearlierworkdonebyChrétiendeTroyesandwhich,intheprocess,transformedtheGrailintoaStone,incorporatedmanyEthiopicelementsintothestory,andspecificallymentionednotonly‘PresterJohn’butalsotheTemplars.•AtexactlythesametimeworkstartedonthenorthporchofChartrescathedralwithitsEthiopicQueenofSheba,itsGrail(containingaStone),anditsrepresentationoftheArkoftheCovenant.

TheTemplars,Gothicarchitecture,theHolyGrailandthenotionthatsomewhereintheworld there existed a powerful non-European Christian king called ‘Prester John’ hadthereforeallbeentheproductsofthetwelfthcentury.Andinthatsamecentury,justbeforeParzivalwaswrittenandthenorthporchofChartrescathedralbuilt,afutureChristiankingof Ethiopia – Lalibela – had returned to his homeland to claimhis throne after spendingtwenty-fiveyearsinJerusalem.It seemed tome, fromeverything I had learned, that all thesemattersmusthavebeenintricately connected by some common factor that had remained hidden from history,perhapsbecause ithadbeendeliberatelyconcealed.ProofpositiveofaTemplarquest forthe lostArkof theCovenant, first inJerusalemandthen later inEthiopia,wouldprovidethat hidden but common factor – the missing link in the complex chain of inter-relatedevents,ideasandpersonalitiesthatIhadidentified.Iknew,atleastforthemoment,thatIhadgoneasfarasIcouldwiththepartofmyinvestigationthatrelatedtoJerusalem.Butwhat aboutEthiopia?Was there really any evidence at all that theTemplarsmighthavegone there to look for theArk – and that theymight subsequentlyhavearranged for theresultsoftheirquesttobeencodedbyWolframinthearcanesymbolismofhis‘StonecalledtheGral’?

‘ThosetreacherousTemplars…’The firstbreakthroughcamewhen I receivedanEnglish translationof the full textof theletter supposedly written by Prester John himself to various Christian kings in the year1165. Unlike Pope Alexander III’s letter to Prester John, written in 1177 (which was agenuine document intended, as I nowknew, for Lalibela’s half-brotherHarbay) the 1165letter was regarded with great suspicion by scholars. Its date was authentic, but it wasthoughtmostunlikely that it couldhavebeenwrittenbyanyonewitha realclaim to thetitle‘PresterJohn’–anditwasthereforeregardedasanelaboratehoax.91As I read it I could understand why. If the writer was to be believed his ‘realms’contained,amongstotherthings:‘wildharesasbigassheep’;‘birdscalledgriffinswhocaneasilycarryanoxorahorse into theirnest’; ‘hornedmenwhohavebutoneeye in frontandthreeorfourintheback’;‘othermenwhohavehoofedlegslikehorses’;‘bowmenwhofromthewaistuparemen,butwhoselowerpartisthatofahorse’;thefountainofyouth;a‘sandysea’fromwhich‘everypieceofdebris…turnsintopreciousstones’;‘thetreeoflife’;‘seven-headed dragons’ – and so on and so forth.92 Just about everymythical beast andobject ever dreamed of, it seemed, was to be found in the land of Prester John.Whereexactlythislandwaslocated,however,wasnowherespecifiedintheletter–exceptintheloosereferencetothe ‘manyIndias’quotedinthepreviouschapter(areference,asInowknew, that was more likely to have applied to Ethiopia than to the subcontinent).Moreover,scatteredhereandthereamongstthefabulouscreatureswereotheranimalsthatdidseemtobelongtotherealworld: ‘elephants’and‘dromedaries’, forexample,andalso‘unicorns’with‘asinglehorninfront’whichsoundedverymuchlikerhinoceroses–allthemoresosince,apparently,theyweresometimesknownto‘killlions’.93Suchdetailsmademewonderwhetherthewriterofthelettermighthavebeensomethingmore than a hoaxer – might, in fact, have had direct knowledge of Ethiopia (where, ofcourse, camels, elephants, lions and rhinoswere all to be found).My suspicion that thismight have been so deepened when I noticed that mention was also made of ‘KingAlexanderofMacedonia’inacontextthatlinkedhimto‘GogandMagog’.94Thiscaughtmyeye because I remembered that Alexander, Gog and Magog had been connected in analmostidenticalmannerinaveryancientEthiopicmanuscriptknownastheLefafaSedek,the‘BandletofRighteousness’,95whichwassupposedlyunknownoutsideAbyssiniauntilthenineteenthcentury.Anotherpointof interestwas that ‘PresterJohn’claimed in the letter thathisChristiankingdomcontainedlargenumbersofJews–whoseemedtobesemi-autonomousandwithwhom wars were often fought. Again this had a certain flavour of genuine Ethiopianconditions: following the tenth-century Jewish uprising by Gudit (which had temporarilyoverthrowntheSolomonicdynasty)therehadinfactbeenseveralhundredyearsofconflictbetweenEthiopia’sJewsandChristians.96All inall, therefore,despitethemanyfantasticandobviouslyapocryphalaspectsoftheletter, I was not disposed to believe that it was entirely an imposture. It seemed tome,furthermore, that its primeobjectivemighthavebeen to impress and scare theEuropeanpowers to whom it was addressed. In this regard I noted in particular the frequentreferencesthatitmadetothesizeof‘thePrester’s’armedforces–forexample:

Wehave…forty-twocastles,whicharethestrongestandmostbeautifulintheworld,andmanymentodefendthem,towittenthousandknights,sixthousandcrossbowmen,fifteenthousandarchers,andfortythousandtroopers…Wheneverwegotowar…knowthatinfrontofustheremarchfortythousandclericsandanequalnumberofknights.Thencometwohundredthousandmenonfoot,notcountingthewagonswithprovisions,andtheelephantsandcamelswhichcarryarmsandammunition.97

Thiswasunmistakably fighting talk,butwhatwasmostnotableabout itwas that itwascloselytiedtosomethingelse–specific,andhostile,mentionoftheTemplars.Inasectionapparentlyintendedforthe‘KingofFrance’thelettersuggested:

ThereareFrenchmenamongyou,ofyourlineageandfromyourretinue,whoholdwiththeSaracens.Youconfideinthemandtrustinthemthattheyshouldandwillhelpyou,buttheyarefalseandtreacherous…mayyoubebraveandofgreatcourageand,pray,donotforgettoputtodeaththosetreacherousTemplars.98

ReviewingthisominoussuggestioninthecontextoftherestofthebizarreletterIaskedmyself a question: in the year 1165,which candidate for the role of ‘Prester John’ couldpossibly havehad amotive (a) to try to frighten off theEuropeanpowers in general byboasting of his own overwhelming military strength, and (b) to attempt to smear theKnightsTemplarinparticularandtorequestthattheyshouldbe‘puttodeath’?The answer I came upwith was Harbay, who, in 1165, had been the reigning ZagwemonarchofEthiopia,andwho,asIhavealreadyobserved,hadcertainlybeentheintendedrecipientoftheletterwrittentoPresterJohnbyPopeAlexanderIIIin1177.One of my reasons for pinpointing Harbay as the real author of the supposedly hoaxletterof1165wasterminological.Ihaddiscovered,asmyresearchhadprogressed,thatalltheZagwemonarchshadfavouredtheuseoftheEthiopictermJanintheirstringoftitles.99DerivedfromJano,a reddish-purple togawornonlybyroyalty, thewordmeant ‘King’or‘Majesty’ and might easily have been confused with ‘John’; indeed it could have beenpreciselybecauseof this(coupledwiththefact thatseveralof theZagwerulerswerealsopriests)thatthephrase‘PresterJohn’hadfirstbeencoined.ButtherewasastrongerreasontosuspectHarbay.He,afterall,hadbeenamanwithaburgeoningpoliticalproblemintheyear1165.Bythenhisdisaffectedhalf-brotherLalibela(whowaseventuallytodeposehim)hadalreadybeeninexileinJerusalemforfiveyears–long enough, I speculated, for him to have got to know the Templars and to havemadefriends amongst them. Perhaps he had even asked the knights to help him to overthrowHarbayandperhapsHarbayhadgotwindofthisplot.Suchascenario,Ithought,wasnotentirelyimplausible.TheslightlylaterrequesttothePopeforaconcessionintheChurchoftheHolySepulchre(arequestpresentedinPalestineby ‘honourablepersons’of ‘PresterJohn’s’kingdom)suggested thatHarbayregularlysentemissariestoJerusalem;suchemissaries,therefore,couldeasilyhavepickedupintelligenceofaconspiracybrewingbetweenLalibelaandtheTemplarsin1165.Ifthishadbeenwhat

hadhappenedthenitwouldundoubtedlygoalongwaytoexplainthestrangelymenacingsuggestion to the King of France that it might be a good idea if he were to have the‘treacherousTemplars’(stillmainlyFrenchmenatthattime)executedforthwith.The‘letterof Prester John’ – at least according to this hypothesis – would therefore have beenconcocted by Harbay’s agents in Jerusalem as a deliberate strategy to deter collusionbetweentheTemplarsandPrinceLalibela.Thiswasobviouslyanattractive lineof reasoning. Itwasalsodangerously speculative,however,andIwouldhavebeenreluctanttofollowitanyfurtherifIhadnotfoundcertainpassagesinParzivalwhichseemedtoconfirmthattheTemplarsmightindeedhaveenteredintopreciselythesortofalliancewithLalibelathatHarbaywouldhavefeared.

‘DeepintoAfrica…’Written some years after Lalibela had forcefully deposed Harbay from the throne ofEthiopia,ParzivalcontainedanumberofdirectreferencestotheTemplars–who,asIhavealreadynoted,weredepictedasbeingmembersof‘theGrailCompany’.100What I found intriguing was the specific suggestion, which Wolfram repeated severaltimes,thattheseTemplarswereoccasionallysentonmissionsoverseas–missionsthatwerehighlysecretiveandthatweretodowithwinningpoliticalpower.Forexample:

WritingwasseenontheGraltotheeffectthatanyTemplarwhomGodshouldbestowonadistantpeople…mustforbidthemtoaskhisnameorlineage,butmusthelpthemgaintheirrights.Whensuchaquestionisputtohimthepeopletherecannotkeephimanylonger.101

Orsimilarly:

Ifalandshouldloseitslord,anditspeopleseethehandofGodinitandaskforanewlordfromtheGralCompany,theirprayerisgranted…Godsendsthemenoutinsecret.102

This was all very interesting, but the passage that really caughtmy attention came onepagelaterinalengthymonologuebyamemberoftheGrailCompanywhospoke,amongstotherthings,ofriding‘deepintoAfrica…pasttheRohas’.103Scholars, Idiscovered,had tentatively identified ‘theRohas’with theRohitscherBerg inSaangauStyria.104But thisderivation lookedcompletely spurious tome: itwasnotatallsuggestedbyacontextthathadjustmentionedAfricaandIwasquiteunconvincedbythereasons given for it.105 I knew something, however, that the Wolfram specialists inuniversitiesinGermanyandEnglandcouldnothavebeenexpectedtoknow:RohawastheoldnameforatownintheremotesthighlandsofEthiopia–atownnowcalledLalibelainhonourofthegreatkingwhowasbornthereandwhomadeithiscapitalwhenhereturnedtoitintriumphintheyearofourLord1185.NeitherwasthereanyreasonfortheexpertsinmedievalGerman literature to have been aware that this same Lalibela had spent thepreviousquarterofacenturyinJerusalemrubbingshoulderswiththeknightsofamilitary-religious orderwhose headquarters stood on the site of theTemple of Solomon – knights

whowouldhavehadaspecial interest inanycontenderto thethroneofacountrywhichclaimed to possess the lost Ark that the Temple had originally been built to house. ThequestionthatInowneededtoaddress,therefore,wasthis:wasthereanyevidenceatalltosuggest thatLalibelamighthavebeenaccompaniedbyacontingentofTemplarswhenhereturnedtoEthiopiain1185anddeposedHarbay?Ididnotthinkthattheanswertothisquestionwouldbeeasytofind.Luckily,however,I

had been to the town of Lalibela in 1983 while working on my book for the Ethiopiangovernment,andIhadkeptfieldnotes.Ithereforestudiedthesenoteswithgreatcare.Tomysurprise,Ialmostimmediatelycameacrosssomethingofinterest.On the ceiling of the rock-hewn church of BetaMariam (yet another place ofworship

dedicatedtoSaintMarytheMotherofChrist)Ihadnoticed‘fadedred-paintedcrossesoftheCrusader type’. I had then remarked: ‘These don’t look at all like any of the normalEthiopiancrosses–checkoutoriginswhenbackinAddis.’Ihadevenmadearoughsketchof one of these ‘Crusader crosses’ (which had triangular arms widening outwards). And,although I couldnot rememberdoing so, Ihadobviously followed thematterup to someextent:beneaththesketchandinadifferentpenIhadlateraddedthetechnicaltermcroixpattée.WhatIhadnotknownin1983wasthattheTemplars’emblem–adoptedaftertheSynod

ofTroyeshadgivenofficialrecognitiontotheorderin1128–hadbeenaredcroixpattée.106I did know this in 1989, however. Moreover I also knew that the Templars had beenassociatedthroughouttheirhistorywiththeconstructionofwonderfulchurches.Almostinevitably,furtherquestionsbegantoforminmymind.Byaconsiderablemargin,

theelevenrock-hewnchurchesofLalibelawerethemostarchitecturallyadvancedbuildingsthatEthiopiahadeverknown(indeed,intheconsideredopinionofUNESCO,theydeservedto be ranked amongst the wonders of the world).107 Moreover, a certain air of mysteryclung to them: therewere other rock-hewn churches in the country, to be sure, but nonewereevenof a remotely comparable standard. Indeed, in termsofoverall conception,ofworkmanship, andof aesthetic expression, theLalibelamonolithswereunique.Noexperthadbeen able to suggest exactlyhow theyhadbeenbuilt, and therehadbeenpersistentrumoursofforeigninvolvementintheirconstruction.SeveralacademicshadspeculatedthatIndians, or Egyptian Copts, had been hired as masons by King Lalibela.108 Ethiopianlegends, by contrast, attributed the work to angels! I now had to ask myself, however,whetherthetrueartificersoftheLalibelachurchesmightnothavebeentheTemplars.Certainly,my1983fieldnotespaintedapictureofafantasticarchitecturalcomplex:

Toweringedifices[Ihadwritten],thechurchesremainplacesoflivingworshipeighthundredyearsaftertheywerebuilt.Itisimportanttostress,however,thattheywerenotbuiltatallintheconventionalsense,butinsteadwereexcavatedandhewndirectlyoutofthesolidredvolcanictuffonwhichtheystand.Inconsequence,theyseemsuperhuman–notonlyinscale,butalsoinworkmanshipandinconception.Closeexaminationisrequiredbeforethefullextentoftheachievementthat

theyrepresentcanbeappreciated.Thisisbecause,likemedievalMysteries,considerableeffortshavebeenmadetocloaktheirrealnatures:someliealmostcompletelyconcealedwithindeeptrenches,whileothershideintheopenmouths

ofhugequarriedcaves.Connectingthemallisacomplexandbewilderinglabyrinthoftunnelsandnarrowpassagewayswithoffsetcrypts,grottoesandgalleries–acool,lichen-enshrouded,subterraneanworld,shadedanddamp,silentbutforthefaintechoesofdistantfootfallsaspriestsanddeaconsgoabouttheirtimelessbusiness.Fourofthechurchesarecompletelyfree-standing,beingattachedtothe

surroundingrockonlybytheirbases.Althoughtheirindividualdimensionsandconfigurationsareverydifferent,theyalltaketheformofgreathillsofstone,preciselysculpturedtoresemblenormalbuildings.TheyarewhollyisolatedwithinthedeepcourtyardsexcavatedaroundthemandthemoststrikingofthemisBetaGiorghis(theChurchofSaintGeorge).Itrestsinmajesticisolationataconsiderabledistancefromalltheothers.Standingmorethanfortyfeethighinthecentreofadeep,almostwell-likepit,ithasbeenhewnbothexternallyandinternallytoresembleacross.Insidethereisafaultlessdomeoverthesanctuaryand,throughout,thecraftsmanshipissuperb.

Iconcludedmy1983notes–fromwhichIhavecopiedonlythebriefextractabove–withthefollowingquestion:

Settingasidetheassistancesupposedlyprovidedbyangels,howexactlywereLalibela’swonderscreated?Today,iftruthbetold,noonereallyknows:thetechniquesthatmadepossibletheexcavationandchisellingofstoneonsodramaticascale,andwithsuchperfection,havelongbeenlostinthemistsofhistory.

In the summerof1989, lookingbackatwhat I hadwritten six yearspreviously, Iwasuncomfortably aware of how little those mists had cleared – and of how much thereremainedformetofindout.IntuitivelyIhadastrongfeelingthattheTemplarscouldhavebeen involved in the creation of the Lalibela complex. The factwas, however, that therewas really nothing to support this view other than the red ‘Crusader crosses’ that I hadobservedpaintedon theceilingofSaintMary’s (oneof the four completely free-standingchurches).Nevertheless therewas a genuinemystery surrounding the origin of the churches. This

mysterywasreflectedintheinabilityofscholarstoexplainhowtheyhadbeenexcavatedorwhotheirarchitectscouldhavebeen.ItalsofoundanechointhequaintinsistenceofsomeoftheinhabitantsofLalibelathatangelshadbeeninvolvedinthework.Now,asIstudiedmy1983fieldnotesIdiscoveredthattherewereotherdimensionstotheenigma.InsideSaintMary’s,Ihadrecorded,apriesthadtakenmeclosetotheveiledentranceof

theHolyofHoliesandtherehadpointedoutatallpillar.Ihaddescribedthispillarinthefollowingterms:

Aboutasthickasagood-sizedtree-trunk,itsoarsupwardsoutoftherockflooranddisappearsintothegloomabove.Itiscompletelywrapped,spiral-fashion,

inaveryold,discolouredshroudofcloththatbearsfainttracesofwashed-outdyes.ThepriestsaysthatthepillarissacredandthatengraveduponitarecertainwritingsbyKingLalibelahimself.Apparentlythesewritingstellthesecretsofhowtherock-hewnchurchesweremade.IaskediftheclothcouldbedrawnbacksothatIcouldreadthesesecrets,butthepoorpriestwashorrified.‘Thatwouldbesacrilege,’hetoldme,‘thecoveringisneverremoved.’

Gallingly,mynoteshadnothingelsetoaddonthispoint.Ihadgoneontoscribblemylittleentry on the ‘Crusader crosses’ and then had left SaintMary’s for the next church in thecomplex.Closingthebatteredfoolscapjotterthathadtravelledeverywherewithmein1983,Ifeltwhat I can only describe as a sense of retrospective fury atmy earlier lack of curiosity.TherehadbeensomuchinLalibelathatIhadfailedtoinvestigate.TherehadbeensomanyquestionsthatIshouldhaveaskedandhadfailedtoask.GoldenopportunitieshadthrownthemselveswantonlyatmefromeverydirectionandIhadignoredthem.Rather wearily I turned my attention to the hefty stack of primary and secondaryreferencematerialsthatIhadaccumulatedonEthiopia.ThebulkofwhatIhadconsistedofphotocopiesofworthybutirrelevantacademicpapers.Therewas,however,onebookwhichlookedratherpromising.EntitledThePresterJohnoftheIndies,itwasanEnglishtranslationof the narrative of the Portuguese embassy to Ethiopia in 1520–6. Written by FatherFranciscoAlvarez,thisnarrative–runningtomorethanfivehundredpages–hadfirstbeenprintedinLisbonin1540andhadbeenrenderedintoEnglishin1881bytheninthBaronStanleyofAlderley.ItwasLordStanley’stranslationthatIhadbeforeme–inarelativelyneweditionissuedby the Hakluyt Society in 1961. The editors, Professors C. F. Beckingham and G. W. B.HuntingfordoftheUniversityofLondon,describedAlvarezas‘rarelysillyorincredible…akind, tactful, sensible man … free from the dishonesty of the traveller who tries toexaggeratehisownknowledge.’Asaresulthisbookwasuniversallyregardedbyscholarsasbeing ‘of great interest … incomparably detailed [and] a very important source forEthiopianhistory.’109WiththisglowingtestimonialfreshinmymindIturnedtopage205ofVolumeI,whereAlvarez began his account of his own visit to Lalibela. A lengthy church-by-churchdescriptionfollowedwhichIcouldonlyadmireforitsexhaustivedetailandforitsplain,no-nonsenselanguage.WhatIfoundmoststrikingofallwashowlittlethingsseemedtohavechanged in the fourandahalfcenturies thathadelapsedbetweenAlvarez’svisitandmyown. Even the covering on the pillar in Saint Mary’s had been there! After giving anaccountofotheraspectsofthatchurchthePortuguesetravellerhadadded:‘Ithadbesidesahighcolumninthecrossofthetranseptoverwhichisfixedacanopy,thetraceryofwhichlooksasifithadbeenstampedinwax.’110Referringtothefactthatallthechurcheswere‘entirelyexcavatedinthelivingrock,verywellhewn’Alvarezexclaimedatonepoint:

Iwearyofwritingmoreaboutthesebuildings,becauseitseemstomethatIshallnotbebelievedifIwritemore,andbecauseregardingwhatIhavealreadywrittentheymayblamemeforuntruth.ThereforeIswearbyGod,inwhose

powerIam,thatallIhavewrittenisthetruth,towhichnothinghasbeenadded,andthereismuchmorethanwhatIhavewritten,andIhaveleftitthattheymaynottaxmewithitsbeingfalsehood,sogreatwasmydesiretomakeknownthissplendourtotheworld.111

Likethegoodreporterheundoubtedlywas,Alvareztalkedtosomeoftheseniorpriestsattheendofhisvisit–avisit,itisworthremembering,thatwasmadeonlythreeandahalfcenturiesafterthechurcheswerebuilt.Amazedbyeverythinghehadseen,thePortuguesecleric asked his informants if they knew how long the carving and excavation of themonoliths had taken and who had carried out the work. The reply he was given,unencumberedbylatersuperstitions,causedmypulsetorace:

Theytoldmethatalltheworkonthesechurcheswasdoneintwenty-fouryears,andthatthisiswritten,andthattheyweremadebywhitemen…TheysaythatKingLalibelaorderedthistobedone.112

ComingattheendofeverythingelseIhadlearned,IfeltthatIcouldnotdisregardthispureandearlypieceoftestimony.Tobesure,thehistorybooksonmyshelvesmadenomentionofany‘whitemen’goingtoEthiopiabeforethetimeofAlvarezhimself.That,however,didnot ruleout thepossibility thatwhitemenhad gone–whitemenwhohadbelonged toamilitary-religious order that was renowned for its international outreach and for itssecretiveness; white men who, in the words of Wolfram von Eschenbach, were ‘foreveraverse to questioning’;113 white men who were sometimes sent to ‘distantpeople…to…helpthemgaintheirrights’;114whitemenwhoseheadquartersinthetwelfthcenturyhadstoodoverthefoundationsoftheTempleofSolomoninJerusalem.Thepriests’strangestatementaboutthe‘whitemen’whohadcometoLalibelathereforestruckmeasbeingamatterof theutmost importance.Aboveallelse, it strengthenedmyconvictionthatWolframhadbeenindulginginsomethingmorethanmerewhimsywhen,inParsival,hehadlinkedtheTemplarssocloselytohisGrailcryptogramandtoEthiopia.Hehadnever,anyway,beenawhimsicalwriter;onthecontraryhehadbeenpragmatic,cleverand highly focussed. I thus now felt increasingly confident thatmy suspicions about himwere justified and that he had indeed been admitted to the inner circles of a great andterriblemystery– thesecretof the last restingplaceof theArkof theCovenant.Perhapsthroughthegoodofficesofhis ‘source’, theTemplaracolyteGuyotdeProvins,orperhapsbymeansofamoredirectcontact,hehadbeencommissionedbytheordertoencryptthatsecretinacompellingstorythatwouldgoonbeingtoldandretoldforcenturies.Whyshould theTemplarshavewantedWolframtodosucha thing? Icould thinkofatleast one possible answer.Written down and placed in some form of container (a chestburied in the ground for example), the secret of theArk’swhereaboutsmight easilyhavebeen lostor forgottenwithina centuryor so, andwould then onlyhave come to light ifsomebodyphysicallydugitupagain.CleverlyencodedinapopularvehiclesuchasParzival,however (which, I discovered, hadbeen translated into almost allmodern languages andreprintedinEnglishfivetimesinthe1980sinthePenguinClassicseditionalone),thesamesecret would have stood an excellent chance of being preserved indefinitely in world

culture. In this way, through all the passing centuries, it would have continued to beavailable to thosewith the capacity to decipherWolfram’s code. Itwould, in short, havebeenhiddeninfullview,enjoyedbyallasa‘crackinggoodyarn’,butaccessibleonlytoafew–initiates,insiders,determinedseekers–asthetreasuremapthatitreallywas.

Thisphotographoftheceilingoftherock-hewnchurchofSaintMary’swasprovidedtomebymyCanadianpublisherJohnPearceinNovember1991–shortlybeforethisbookwenttopress.PearcetookitonavisitthathemadetoLalibelain1982.OnthearchcanbeseenastylisedcroixpattéecontainedwithinaStarofDavid–amostunusualsymbolinaChristianplaceofworship,butonetowhichitisknownthattheKnightsTemplarwereparticularlyattached.Behindthearchcanbeseena

sectionofthecloth-wrappedcolumnsaidbytheprieststohavebeenengravedbyKingLalibelahimselfwiththesecretsofhowtherock-hewnchurchesweremade.

16InmedievaltimestheVirginMarywasrepeatedlycomparedtoboththeArkoftheCovenantandtheHolyGrail.ThischurchsteeplereflectstheseideasbydepictingMarystandingabovetheArk.

17and18Amongstmanyothersharedcharacteristics,theHolyGrail(illustratedabove)andtheArkoftheConvenant(onthehorizonbelow)werebothsaidtohavegivenoffabrightsupernaturalradiance.

19Inthisillustrationfromarare14thcenturymanuscript,theGermanpoetWolframvonEschenbachisdepictedsecondfromtheleftamongstagroupofotherminstrels.InhisParsival,WolframdescribedtheHolyGrailnotasacuporcontainerbutasa

stone.

20SaintBernardofClairvaux,theforcebehindtheformationoftheKnightsTemplarinthetwelfthcentury,isshownhereurgingtheSecondCrusade.

21AKnightTemplarshowingthecroix-pattéethatcharacterisedtheOrder.

22ThegreatMuslimmosqueknownastheDomeoftheRockwasbuiltintheseventhcenturyADandstandsatthesiteoriginallyoccupiedbySolomon’sTempleonJerusalem’sTempleMount.

23InterioroftheDomeoftheRockshowingtheShetiyya,the‘foundationstoneoftheworld’,whichformedtheflooroftheHolyofHoliesofSolomon’sTemple.ItwasherethatSolomonplacedtheArk3,000yearsagoanditwasfromhere,atsome

unknowndate,thatthesacredrelicvanished.

24and25.Above:PorchoftheAlAqsaMosqueonJerusalem’sTempleMount100metrestothesouthoftheDomeoftheRock.Theporch,inGothicstylewiththreecentralbays,wasbuiltbytheKnightsTemplarinthetwelfthcenturywhentheyusedthe

AlAqsaMosqueastheirpalace.Below:forcomparison,theGothicnorthporchofChartresCathedral.

26InteriorofthecircularTempleChurchinLondon,witheffigiesofknightsonthefloorintheforeground.AnearlyexampleofGothicarchitecture,thechurchwasbuiltbytheTemplarsinthe12thcentury.

27FrontispieceofAlvarez’text,writteninthe1520’s,describingthefirstofficialPortuguesemissiontothecourtofPresterJohninEthiopia.

28Therock-hewnmonolithicchurchofSaintMaryintheancientEthiopiansettlementofLalibela.Datingtothelate12thcentury,thechurchwas‘builtbywhitemen’accordingtoalocaltraditionrecordedbyAlvarezonhisvisitinthe1520’s.Could

thesewhitemenhavebeenTemplars?

29Twelfthcenturyrock-hewnchurchofSaintGeorgeatLalibela.Thedouble-crossdeviceonitsroofisavariantoftheTemplarcrossandwaslateradoptedbytheirsuccessors–thePortugueseKnightsofChrist.

30GrandMasteroftheTemplarsbeingburntatthestakeintheearly14thcentury.ThesuppressionoftheTemplarsbeganin1307andwasinstigatedbyPopeClementVandKingPhilipIVofFrance.Lessthanayearearlierthefirst-everEthiopian

missiontoEuropehadheldanaudience–inFrance–withPopeClementV.

31Topleft:PopeClementV.32Topcentre:RoberttheBruce,whogavesheltertofugitiveTemplarsinScotland.33Topright:PrinceHenrytheNavigator(1394–1460),GrandMasteroftheKnightsofChrist,whoinheritedTemplartraditionsandwho

showedanexceptionalinterestinEthiopia.

34VascodaGama,amemberoftheKnightsofChrist,whosesonDonChristopherdaGamawaskilledinEthiopiain1542.

35JamesBruceofKinnaird,whoclaimedtobedescendedfromRoberttheBruceandwhoseepicjourneytoEthiopiainthelateeighteenthcenturyshowsevidenceofahiddenagendaconcerningtheArkoftheCovenant.Thoughhekeptitsecretduringhis

lifetime,BrucewasaFreemasonandaninheritorofTemplartraditionsinScotland.

Chapter6ResolvingDoubts

MyvisittoChartrescathedralandmyreadingsofWolfram’sParzivalduringthespringandsummerof1989hadopenedmyeyestomanythingsthatIhadmissedbefore–notablytothe revolutionary possibility that the Knights Templar could havemade an expedition toEthiopiainthetwelfthcenturyinsearchofthelostArk.AsexplainedinChapter5,Ididnotfinditdifficulttoseehowandwhytheymighthavebeenmotivatedtodothat.ButwhatInow needed to establish was this: other than the Templar ‘quest’ that I thought I hadidentified,wastherereallyanyconvincingevidencetosuggestthatthelastrestingplaceoftheArkoftheCovenantmightactuallybeinthesanctuarychapelatAxum?After all, there were literally hundreds of cities and churches around the world whichboasted of possessing holy relics of one kind or another – fragments of the True Cross,Christ’sshroud,thefinger-boneofSaintSebastian,thelanceofLonginus,andsoonandsoforth. In almost every casewhere aproper investigationhadbeen conducted suchboastshadturnedouttobehollow.Why,therefore,shouldAxumbeanydifferent?Thefactthatitscitizens obviously believed their own legends certainly didn’t prove anything – except,perhaps,thattheywereasusceptibleandsuperstitiouslot.And,onthe faceof things, thereseemedtobeseveralgoodreasons forconcludingthattheEthiopiansdidnotpossesstheArkoftheCovenant.

TroublewithtabotsFirstandforemost, inthemid-nineteenthcentury,a legateof theArmenianPatriarchhadvisitedAxumdeterminedtoprovethatthetraditionoftheArk’spresencethere,‘whichthewholeofAbyssiniabelieved tobe the truth’,was in fact ‘anappalling lie’.1AfterputtingsomepressureontheAxumitepriests,thelegate–whosenamewasDimotheos–hadbeenshown a slab of ‘reddish-coloured marble, twenty-four centimetres long, twenty-twocentimetreswideandonlythreecentimetres thick’2which thepriestshadsaidwasoneofthe two tablets of stone contained within the Ark. They had not shown him the objectbelievedbyEthiopianstobetheArkitselfandhadclearlyhopedthathewouldbesatisfiedwithaglimpseofthetablet–whichtheyhadreferredtoas‘theTabotofMoses’.3Dimotheos had indeed been satisfied. He reportedwith the obvious pleasure of amanwhohasjustdebunkedagreatmyth:

Thestonewasvirtuallyintact,andshowednosignofage.Atthemostitdatedfromthethirteenthorfourteenthcenturyofthepresentera…StupidpeopleliketheAbyssinianswhoblindlyacceptthisstoneastheoriginalarebaskinginauselessglorybypossessingit,[foritis]notthetrueoriginalatall.ThosethatknowtheHolyScripturesdonotrequireanyfurtherproofofthis:thefactisthatthetabletsonwhichthedivinelawswereinscribedwereplacedinsidetheArkof

theCovenantandlostforever.4

WhatwasItomakeofthis?IftheslabofstoneshowntotheArmenianlegatehadreallycome from the relic claimedby theAxumites to be theArk of theCovenant thenhewasrighttosuggestthattheywerebaskinginuselessglory,becauseitwentwithoutsayingthatsomething made in ‘the thirteenth or fourteenth century of the present era’ could notpossiblyhavebeenoneofthetwo‘tabletsofthelaw’onwhichtheTenCommandmentshadsupposedly been inscribedmore than twelve hundred years before the birth of Christ. Inotherwords, if thecontentswerebogusthenit followedthatthecontainermustbebogustoo,whichmeantthattheentireAxumitetraditionwasindeed‘anappallinglie’.Butthatwasaconclusion,Ifelt,thatitwouldbeprematuretoacceptbeforeattemptingtofindtheanswertoanimportantquestion:hadDimotheosbeenshowntheobjectbelievedtobethegenuineTabotofMoses,orhadheinfactbeenshownsomethingelse?This questionwas particularly pertinent because theArmenian legate had so obviouslybeenaffrontedandoutragedby thepossibility thatapeopleas ‘stupid’ as theEthiopiansmightpossessarelicaspreciousastheArkoftheCovenant–andhadthereforeverymuchwantedtoprovethattheydidnot.Moreover,asIreadandre-readhisaccount,itbecameapparenttomethathisdesiretovindicatehisownprejudiceshadover-riddenanyproperinvestigative spirit on his part – and that he had also absolutely failed to recognize thesubtleanddeviousnatureoftheEthiopiancharacter.WhenhehadvisitedAxuminthe1860sthespeciallydedicatedsanctuarychapelhadnotyetbeenbuilt5andtheArk–ortheobjectbelievedtobetheArk–wasstillkeptintheHolyofHolies of the church of SaintMary of Zion (where, in the seventeenth century, it hadbeen installed by Emperor Fasilidas after the reconstruction of that great edifice6).Dimotheos, however, hadnot been permitted to enter theHoly ofHolies. Instead he hadbeen taken to a ricketywooden outbuilding ‘situatedwith some other rooms outside thechurchontheleft’.7Ithadbeeninthisoutbuildingthatthe‘reddish-colouredmarblestone’hadbeenrevealedtohim.8BecauseofthisitseemedtomethattherewasaveryhighdegreeofprobabilitythattheArmenianlegatehadbeendupedbythepriests.TheArk,Iknew,wasregardedasuniquelysacredbytheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch.Itwasthereforeinconceivablethatit,oranypartofitscontents,wouldhavebeenremovedeventemporarilyfromtheHolyofHoliesofSaintMary of Zion unless there had been some extremely compelling reason. The voyeuristicwhimofavulgarforeignerwouldcertainlynothavequalifiedassuchareason.Atthesametime,however,thisforeignerhadbeenanemissaryoftheArmenianPatriarchinJerusalemand it would therefore have been thought wise to treat him with a certain amount ofrespect.Whattodo?Theanswer,Isuspected,wasthatthepriestshaddecidedtoshowhimoneofthemanytabotskeptatAxum.AndbecausehehadsoforcefullyexpressedhiswishtoseesomethingconnectedtotheArk,ifnottheArkitself,itwouldonlyhavebeenkindlyandpolitetomassagehisearswithwordsthatheobviouslyverymuchwantedtohear,namelythatwhathewasbeingshownwasthe‘originalTabotofMoses’.Needing tobe sure that Iwas right about this Imadea long-distance telephone call toAddisAbaba,whereProfessorRichardPankhurst–myco-authoronthegovernmentbookin1983–wasnowliving(hehadmovedbacktothecityin1987totakeuphisoldpostatthe

InstituteofEthiopianStudies).After tellinghima littleaboutmyre-awakened interest intheAxumitetraditionconcerningtheArkoftheCovenant,IaskedhimabouttheDimotheosincident. Did he think that the Tabot that the Armenian legate had been shown couldactuallyhavebeenoneoftheobjectsbelievedbyEthiopianstohavebeenplacedintheArkbyMoses?‘Mostunlikely,’Richardreplied.‘Theywouldn’tshowsuchasacredthingtoanyoutsider.

Besides,I’vereadDimotheos’sbookandit’sfullofmistakesandmisapprehensions.Hewasapompousman,prettyunscrupulous inhisdealingswith theEthiopianOrthodoxChurch,and not entirely honest. I imagine the Axum clergy would have seen through him veryquicklyand fobbedhimoffwith someother tabot thatwasn’t of anygreat importance tothem.’WetalkedforsometimelongerandRichardsuppliedmewiththenamesandtelephone

numbers of two Ethiopian scholars who he thought might be able to help me with myresearch–DrBelaiGedai(whohadspentseveralyearsmakinganexhaustivestudyofhiscountry’sancienthistory,drawingheavilyon rareAmharicandGe’ez documents) andDrSergewHable-SelassieoftheInstituteofEthiopianStudies,theauthorofahighlyrespectedwork entitled Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 12709 with which I was alreadyfamiliar.ThequestionofwhatDimotheoshadorhadnotseeninAxumwasstillverymuchatthe

forefront of my mind and I decided that I would put the problem to Hable-Selassie. Ithereforecalledhim,introducedmyself,andaskedforhisopiniononthematter.Helaughed:‘WellcertainlythatfellowdidnotseetheoriginalTabotofMoses.Tosatisfy

hiswish the priests showed him a substitute – not the real one…Here in Ethiopia it isnormalforeachchurchtohavemorethanonetabot.Infactsomehaveasmanyastenortwelve,whichtheyusefordifferentceremonialpurposes.Sohewouldhavebeenshownoneofthese.There’snodoubtaboutthatatall.’The confident nature of the historian’s response laid to rest any remaininguncertainty

that I may have felt about the merits of the Armenian legate’s testimony. The ‘reddish-coloured marble stone’ that he had seen had no value as evidence either for or againstEthiopia’sclaimtopossesstheArkoftheCovenant.NeverthelesshisaccountofhisvisittoAxumhadraisedanothercomplicatedreservationinmymind–areservationtodowiththewhole issue of tabots as a category of sacred objects.As far as Iwas aware these objectsweresupposedtobereplicasoftheArkoftheCovenant–which,asIknewverywell,hadbeenaboxaboutthesizeofatea-chest.YetthesmallmarbleslabthatDimotheoshadbeenshown had been called a tabot and it had been described as one of the tablets of stonecontainedinsidetheArk.Thiswas something that I reallyneeded to clarify.EveryEthiopianchurchhad itsown

tabot (and, as I now knew, they sometimes had several). But were these tabots reallysupposed to be replicas of the sacred object, thought to be theArk, thatwas kept in thesanctuarychapelinAxum?Ifthatwerethecase,andifall tabotswereflatslabs,thentheimplicationwasthatthatsacredobject,too,mustbeaflatslab–whichmeantthatitcouldnotbetheArk(althoughitmightpossiblybeoneofthetabletsofthelawonwhichtheTenCommandmentshadbeeninscribed).Certainlythe tabots that Ihad seenovermymanyyearsofacquaintancewithEthiopia

hadallbeenslabs rather thanboxes– slabs thathadbeenmadesometimesofwood,andsometimesofstone.Andcertainly,also,ithadbeenthisverycharacteristicthathadledthescholar Helen Adolf to conclude that Wolfram von Eschenbach must have had someknowledgeoftabotswhenhehaddevisedhisGrailStone.10Thatwasallverywell–iftabotsweremeanttorepresentthestonetabletsthattheArk

hadcontained.On theotherhand, if theseobjectswere thoughtof as replicasof theArkitselfthentheAxumiteclaimtothatrelicwouldbeseverelydamaged.Icouldhardlyforgetthat ithadbeenpreciselythisproblem–broughtstarklytomyattentionaftermyvisit totheBritishMuseumEthnographicStorein1983–thathadcausedmetoabandonmyinitialresearch into the great mystery that was now clamouring for my attention once again.Beforegoinganyfurther,therefore,Ifeltthatitwasimperativetoestablishonceandforallexactlywhattabotsweresupposedtobe.TothisendItelephonedDrBelaiGedai,theotherEthiopian scholar whom Richard Pankhurst had recommended to me. After introducingmyselfIgotstraighttothepoint:‘Doyoubelieve,’Iasked,‘thattheArkoftheCovenantisinEthiopia?’‘Yes,’herepliedemphatically.‘NotonlymebutallEthiopiansbelievethattheArkofthe

CovenantisinEthiopia,keptinthechurchofSaintMaryofZioninAxum.ItwasbroughthereafterthevisitofEmperorMenelikItohisfatherSolomoninJerusalem.’‘AndwhatabouttheEthiopianwordtabot?Doesthatmean“Ark”?Aretabotssupposedto

bereplicasoftheArkinAxum?’‘Inourlanguagethecorrectpluraloftabotistabotat.And,yes,theyarereplicas.Because

thereisonlyoneoriginalArkandbecausetheordinarypeopleneedsomethingtangibletowhichtheymayattachtheirfaith,alltheotherchurchesmakeuseofthesereplicas.TherearenowmorethantwentythousandchurchesandmonasteriesinEthiopiaandeveryoneofthemhasatleastonetabot.’‘That’swhatIthought.ButI’mpuzzled.’‘Why?’‘MainlybecausenoneofthetabotatI’veseenlookedanythinglikethebiblicaldescription

of theArk.Theywereall slabs, sometimesmadeofwood, sometimesmadeof stone,andnoneofthemweremuchmorethanafootlongandwideormorethantwoorthreeinchesthick.IfobjectslikethesearesupposedtobereplicasoftherelickeptinthechurchofSaintMaryofZion inAxumthen the logicaldeduction is that that reliccan’tbe theArkof theCovenantafterall…’‘Why?’‘Because of the biblical description. Exodus clearly depicts the Ark as a fair-sized

rectangularchest.Hangon,I’lllookupthedetails…’ItookdownmycopyoftheJerusalemBiblefromthebookshelfabovemydesk,turnedto

Chapter37ofExodus,foundtherelevantpassage,andreadouthowtheartificerBezaleelhadbuilttheArkaccordingtothedivineplangiventohimbyMoses:

BezaleelmadetheArkofacaciawood,twoandahalfcubitslong,oneandahalfcubitswide,oneandahalfcubitshigh.Heplatedit,insideandout,withpuregold.11

‘Howlongexactlyisacubit?’Gedaiasked.‘Approximatelythelengthofaforearmfromtheelbowtothetipofthemiddlefinger–inotherwordsabouteighteeninches.SothatmeanstheArkwouldhavebeenaboutthreefeetnineinchesinlengthandtwofeetthreeinchesinwidthanddepth.Tabotatsimplydon’tfitthosedimensions.They’remuchtoosmall.’‘Youareright,’Gedaimused.‘NeverthelesswedohavetheoriginalArkoftheCovenant.Thisiscertain.Infactthereisevenaneyewitnessdescription.’‘YoumeantheonegivenbytheArmenianlegateDimotheos?’‘No, no. Certainly not. He saw nothing. I am referring to someone who came muchearlier,ageographernamedAbuSalih–whowasalsoanArmenian,bytheway.Helivedin the very early thirteenth century and he made a survey of Christian churches andmonasteries.ThesechurchesandmonasteriesweremainlyinEgypt.Inaddition,however,hevisitedsomeneighbouringcountries,includingEthiopia,andhisbookcontainsmaterialonthesecountriesaswell.ThatiswherethedescriptionoftheArkisgiven.IfIremembercorrectlyitdoesaccordquitewellwithwhatyouhavejustreadmefromExodus.’‘ThisbookofAbuSalih’s?HasiteverbeentranslatedintoEnglish?’‘Ohyes.Averygoodtranslationwasmadeinthenineteenthcentury.Youshouldbeabletofindacopy.TheeditorwasacertainMrEvetts…’Two days later I emerged triumphantly from the stacks of the library of the School ofOrientalandAfricanStudies inLondon. InmyhandwasB.T.Evetts’s translationofAbuSalih’smonumentalChurchesandMonasteriesofEgyptandsomeNeighbouringCountries.12Onpage 284, in small print, I found the subheading ‘Abyssinia’ followed by eight pages ofobservationsandcomments.Amongstthemwasthisreference:

TheAbyssinianspossesstheArkoftheCovenant,inwhicharethetwotablesofstoneinscribedbythefingerofGodwiththecommandmentswhichheordainedfortheChildrenofIsrael.TheArkoftheCovenantisplaceduponthealtar,butisnotsowideasthealtar;itisashighasthekneeofamanandisoverlaidwithgold.13

Iborrowedarulerfromthelibrarianandmeasuredmyownlegfromthesoleofmyfoottomyknee: twenty-three inches.This, I felt,wascloseenoughtothetwenty-seveninchesgiven inExodus tobe significant–particularly if the statement ‘ashighas thekneeofaman’hadreferredtoamanwearingshoesorboots.Iknewthatsucharoughmeasurecouldneverbeconclusiveasapieceofevidence;ontheotherhanditbynomeansexcludedthepossibility that theArmeniangeographerhad seentheoriginalArkof theCovenantwhenhehadmadehisvisittoEthiopiainthethirteenthcentury.Andanyway,frommypointofview, the real importance of the account that he had given was this: it indisputablydescribedasubstantialboxorchestcoveredwithgoldratherthanaslabofwoodorstoneafewinchesthicklikethetabotatthatIhadseen–or,forthatmatter,likethetabotthathadbeenshowntoDimotheosinthenineteenthcentury.Equallysignificantly,AbuSalihhadgivensomedetailsabouthowtheobjectthathehadseenhadbeenusedbytheChristiansofAxum:

TheliturgyiscelebratedupontheArkfourtimesintheyear,withinthepalaceoftheking;andacanopyisspreadoveritwhenitistakenoutfromitsownchurchtothechurchwhichisinthepalaceoftheking:namelyonthefeastofthegreatNativity,onthefeastofthegloriousBaptism,onthefeastoftheHolyResurrection,andonthefeastoftheilluminatingcross.14

Therecould,itseemedtome,benoquestionbutthatthisearlyandquitematter-of-facteyewitnessaccountprovidedconsiderablesupportforEthiopia’sclaimtobethelastrestingplaceof the genuineArkof theCovenant.Thedimensions andappearancewere roughlyrightandevenAbuSalih’sdescriptionof theway inwhich therelic thathehadseenhadbeen covered with a ‘canopy’ when transported was in accord with the regulations laiddownintheBible:

Andwhenthecampsettethforward…theyshalltakedownthecoveringveilandcovertheArkwithit.Andtheyshall…spreadoveritacloth.15

Sofarsogood.ButthoughtheArmeniangeographerwashelpful,hestilldidnotprovidemewithanyanswertotheknottyproblemposedbytheshapeofthatcategoryofobjectsknownastabotat.NorwasthisproblemonethatIcouldaffordtoignore.IthereforedecidedtocheckouttheetymologyoftheEthiopicword.Initspureandoriginalform,Iwondered,didtabotactuallymean‘Ark’?Ordiditmean‘stonetablet’?Ordiditmeansomethingelsealtogether?My investigation into this matter took me into intellectual territory that I had neverchartedbefore(andthat Iwouldprefernever tohavetochartagain),namely linguistics.Ploughing through reams of obscure and boring documents I established that the ancientEthiopian language known as Ge’ez, together with its modern and widely spokendescendantAmharic,arebothmembersoftheSemiticfamilyoflanguages,towhichHebrewalsobelongs.16IthenlearnedthatthewordmostfrequentlyusedinbiblicalHebrewtorefertotheArkoftheCovenantwas’aron,17whichobviouslyborenosimilaritywhatsoevertotabot.TherewasanotherHebrewword,however–tebah–fromwhichscholarsagreedthattheEthiopictabothadundoubtedlybeenderived.18I next sought to confirm whether this word tebah had featured in the Hebrew OldTestament, and, after further research, I discovered that it had – though only twice.Significantly,inbothcases,ithadbeenusedtorefertoaship-likecontainer:firstthearkofNoahwhichcontainedthesurvivorsof thehumanraceafter the flood,19andsecondlythearkofbulrusheswhichcontainedtheinfantMosesafterhismotherhadsethimadriftontheNiletosavehimfromthewrathofPharaoh.20TurningtotheKebraNagast I thenfoundonepassageinwhichtheArkoftheCovenantwasspecificallydescribedas‘thebellyofaship…Twocubitsandhalfacubitshallbethelengththereof,andacubitandhalfacubitthebreadththereof,andthoushaltcoveritwithpuregold, both theoutside thereof and the inside thereof.’21Within this ‘belly of a ship’,furthermore,weretobeplaced‘theTwoTableswhichwerewrittenbythefingerofGod’.22

Suchlanguageleftnoroomfordoubt.Bothintermsofitsetymologyanditsearlyusagethe Ethiopic word tabot unambiguously connoted the biblical Ark of the Covenant in itsoriginalformasagold-coveredcontainer–aformforwhichthe‘bellyofaship’couldserveasaclevermetaphorcapablenotonlyofsummoningupanimageoftheobjectbutalsooflinkingitconceptuallytoearlier‘ships’:thearkofNoahandthearkofbulrushes,whichofcoursehadbothalsocontainedsacredandpreciousthings.By the same token,however, tabot definitely did notmean or in anyway connote flatsolid slabs of wood or stone. So there was still a genuine mystery here. That mystery,however,wasfinallyresolvedformebyProfessorEdwardUllendorff,FellowoftheBritishAcademy and the first incumbent of the Chair of Ethiopian Studies at the University ofLondon.NowretiredandlivinginOxford,thisrenownedscholarinsistedthathecouldseenodifficultyinexplaininghowslabsofwoodorstonehadcometobereferredtoas‘Arks’bytheEthiopians:

ThegenuineArkissupposedtorestatAxum;allotherchurchescanonlypossessreplicas.Inmostcasestheyarenot,however,replicasofthewholeArk,butmerelyofitssupposedcontents,i.e.thetabletsoftheLaw…Inotherwords:thedescriptionofthesestoneorwoodentabletsastabotatissimplybywayofaparsprototoreferringtothemostimportantpartoftheArk,thetablesoftheCovenant.23

FliesinamberByeliminatinganapparentcontradiction,Ullendorff’ssolutiontothe tabot problem liftedoneofthecloudsofdoubtthathoveredoverEthiopia’sclaimtopossessthelostArk.Othercloudsremained,however.Amongstthem,oneofthedarkestwasbroughttomyattentionbyUllendorffhimself. Inapaperentitled ‘TheQueenofSheba inEthiopianTradition’hehadindicatedverystronglythattheKebraNagastwasnottobetakenseriouslyasaworkofhistory;ratheritspurposehadbeentoglorifyEthiopiaanditwastothisendthattheArkhadbeenintroducedintoit.24NorwasUllendorffaloneintheviewthattheKebraNagastwaslargelyapocryphal.IntheIntroduction to his translation of that great epic, for example, Sir E. A. Wallis BudgepointedoutthatitwasmostunlikelythattheQueenofShebacouldhavebeenanEthiopianatall:‘Itisfarmoreprobable’,hewrote(rehearsinganargumentwithwhichIwasalreadysomewhatfamiliar),‘thatherhomewasSebha,orSaba,inthesouth-westofArabia.’25Several authorities made much of the fact that in Solomon’s time – a thousand yearsbeforeChrist–EthiopiahadnotpossessedanyrealcivilizationofitsownandcertainlyhadnotboastedanadvancedurbansocietycapableofproducingsoillustriousamonarchastheQueenofSheba.Indeed,theconsensuswasthatenlightenmenthadnotevenbeguntodawnintheAbyssinianhighlandsuntilaboutthesixthcenturyBCandhadnotreachedanylevelofsophisticationuntilsomefourhundredyearsafterthat.NeithercouldthisperiodofprogressberegardedasanEthiopianachievement: insteadthecatalysthadbeenaninfluxofArabtribesmenwhose ‘superior qualities’ had revolutionized the sluggish culture of the nativeinhabitants.ComingmainlyfromtheYemen,theseSemiticimmigrantshad

settledinthenorthofEthiopiaandintheprocessofassimilationwiththelocalpopulationbroughtaboutaculturaltransformation.Theybroughtwiththemgiftsbeyondprice:religion,amorehighly-developedsocialorganization,architectureandart,andasystemofwriting.26

Inshort,EthiopiancivilizationwasnotonlymuchmorerecentthantheAxumitelegendsimpliedbutalsohadbeenborrowedfromelsewhere.Intheirheartofhearts, furthermore,mostEthiopiansknewthistobetrueandfeltdeeplyinsecureabouttheirheritage.Indeedonestandardworkofhistorywentso faras tosuggest that theKebraNagastwaspopularbecause it filled adeeppsychological needon thepart of theAbyssinians ‘to prove theirancientorigins…Parvenupeoples, likeparvenu individuals, hanker after ancestors, andpeopleshaveaslittlescrupleinforgingfamilytreesashaveindividuals.’27Inmyview the importanceofall thesearguments lay less in thenotion that theKebraNagastwasmainlyaworkoffiction(sincethatdidnotprecludethepossibilitythatwhatithadtosayabouttheabductionoftheArkcouldhavebeenbasedonsomerealevent),butratherintheconsensusthatEthiopiancivilizationwasrelativelyyoungandthatithadbeenderivedfromSouthArabia.This consensus had a real bearing on my attempts to establish the legitimacy of theEthiopian claim to the Ark because it applied not only to the general civilization of thehighlandsbutalso–andquitespecifically–totheFalashas.TheKebraNagast statedquiteplainlythattheJewishfaithhadbeenintroducedintoEthiopiainthe950sBCwhenMenelikandhiscompanionshadarrivedwiththeArk(indeeditevensaidthattheQueenofShebaherselfhadbeenconvertedtoJudaism).28Onthefaceofthings,therefore,theexistenceofindigenous black Jews in Ethiopia looked like significant corroborative evidence for theArk’spresence.Oncloserexamination,however,thisturnedoutnottobethecase–oratleast not according to the scholars. As Richard Pankhurst had told me in 1983,29 theacademic establishment was overwhelmingly of the opinion that the Jewish faith wasunlikelytohavereachedEthiopiabeforethesecondcenturyAD,andthatithadbeenbroughtacross the Red Sea from the Yemen where a large Jewish community had indeed beenestablishedafterAD70byemigrantsfleeingRomanpersecutionsinPalestine.30OneofthestrongestproponentsofthisviewwasProfessorUllendorff,whopresentedalong argument on the subject in his influential Ethiopia and the Bible andwho concludedquite emphatically that the ancestors of the Falashasmust have been converted by Jewswhohad‘enteredEthiopiaviaSouthArabia’overalengthyperiodfromAD70throughuntilaboutAD550.31IdecidedthatIwouldhavetoinvestigatethisissueverythoroughly.IftheJudaismoftheFalashaswasindeedlessthantwothousandyearsold–andhadcomefromArabia–thenagreatswatheofapparentlyconvincing ‘culturalcorroboration’ fordirectcontactsbetweenEthiopiaandJerusaleminOldTestamenttimeswouldbeobliteratedatastrokeandAxum’slcandidacyasthelastrestingplaceoftheArkwouldlosemuchifnotallofitscredibility.Soonafter Ibegan thisnewphaseofmy research,however, itbecameapparent tomethat the scholarly consensus in favour of ‘the Yemeni theory’ had largely come aboutbecause therewas an absence of evidence for any alternative theory. Therewas nothing

whateverwhichprovedthattheJewishfaithcouldnothavearrivedbysomeotherroute;ontheotherhandtherewasnoproofthatithad.ThetendencythereforehadbeentofocusonSouthArabiaasthelikelysourcebecauseitwasknownthattherehadbeenothermigratorymovementsfromthatregionintoEthiopia.32Thisstruckmeasadeplorablefailureof logic inwhichabsenceofevidence,whichwasonething,wasinfactbeingtreatedasevidenceofabsence–whichwasquiteanother.Toreiterate, the problem was a lack of proof that Judaismmight have arrived in Ethiopiamuchearlierandbyadifferentroutethanthescholarsbelieved;buttherewasnoproofatallthatthiscouldnothavebeenthecase.I therefore felt that the fieldwasopenandthatwhat Ineededtodo inorder tosatisfymyself one way or the other was to study the traditions, beliefs and behaviour of theFalashas themselves and to draw my own conclusions about their origins from these. Ithought it likely, however, that their religious observances would have been adulteratedduring the twentieth century by extensive exposure to western and Israeli visitors. Itherefore turned to older accounts that depicted their way of life before it had beencontaminatedbymodernculturalchange.Ironically, several of these accounts were written by foreigners who came to Ethiopiawith the express intention of engineering cultural change, notably nineteenth-centuryChristianmissionarieswhohadheardrumoursoftheexistenceofasizeablepopulationofAbyssinianJewsandwhohadrushedtoconvertthem.OnesuchevangelistwasMartinFlad,ayoungGermanwhoarrivedinEthiopiain1855toproselytizeonbehalfoftheLondonSocietyforPromotingChristianityamongsttheJews.33His book, The Falashas of Abyssinia, was published in 1869. I found a worn and much-handledcopyofitintheBritishLibraryandsoonbecameintriguedbyseveralpassagesinwhichtheauthorinsistedthattheremusthavebeenJewsinEthiopiaatleastsincethetimeof theprophetJeremiah (around627 BC34), andpossibly since the reignof Solomon.Fladbasedthisassertioninpartonthefactthat:

TheFalashasknownothingofeithertheBabylonianortheJerusalemTalmud,whichwerecomposedduringandafterthetimeofthecaptivity.TheyalsodonotobservetheFeastsofPurimandoftheDedicationoftheTemple,which…arestillsolemnlykeptbytheJewsofourtime.35

Onfurtherinvestigation,IdiscoveredthattheFeastoftheDedicationoftheTemplewasproperlyknownasHanukkah(meaning,literally,‘Dedication’).Frommypointofviewthemost significant fact about it was that it was instituted in 164 BC36 and therefore wouldcertainlyhavebeenobservedbytheJewishcommunitythatestablisheditselfintheYemenafterAD70.TheacademicorthodoxywhichhadpreviouslypersuadedmetoseetheFalashasas thedescendantsofEthiopiansconvertedby theseYemeniJews thus suddenlybegan tolook very suspect. To put matters as plainly as possible, non-observance of Hanukkahsuggested only one rational conclusion: the Falashas must have acquired their Judaismbefore164BCandthusnotfromtheYemenbutfromsomeothersource.InextresearchedtheFeastofPurimofwhichFladhadalsofoundEthiopia’sJewstobe

ignorant.Thisfestival,too,Ilearned,hadbeenobservedsinceat leastthesecondcenturyBC. Indeed it was quite possibly of even earlier provenance than that: the events that itcommemoratedtookplaceinthemid-fifthcenturyBCandseveraloftheauthoritieswhomIconsultedsuggestedthatitsobservancehadbecomewidelypopularby425BC.37Thisraisedtheinterestingpossibility–ofwhichFladhimselfhadobviouslybeenconvinced–thattheFalashas had become isolated from the evolving body ofworld Judaismwell before thatdate,perhapsduringthesixthcenturyBC.I nowhada growing sense that thegapbetweenAbyssinian legendandhistorical factwas closing fast: fivehundredyears beforeChrist, after all,was only fourhundredyearsafterSolomon. Itwasbeginning to lookmoreandmoreprobable that theJudaismof theFalashashadarrivedinEthiopiainearlyOldTestamenttimes–justastheKebraNagastandthe Falashas themselves had always claimed. If this were so, then the implications wereclear:attheveryleastthestoryoftheabductionoftheArktoEthiopiabyMenelikdeservedtobetakenmuchmoreseriouslythantheacademicshadhithertoallowed.I found further evidence for this point of view in the account of another nineteenth-century missionary, Henry Aaron Stern, who was himself a German-Jewish convert toChristianity.HehadworkedandtravelledwithFladinEthiopiaandhadpublishedhisownWanderingsamongtheFalashasinAbyssiniain1862.As I read this300-pagevolume Idevelopedan intensedislike for itsauthor,whocameacrossasanarrogant,brutalandunscrupulousproselytizerwithnorespectwhatsoeverforthecultureortraditionsofthepeopleamongstwhomhewasworking.Ingeneral,too,IfeltthathisdescriptionsofFalashareligionand lifestylewere thinandpoorlyobserved.Asaresult,bythetimeIwashalfwaythroughthebookIhadbecomethoroughlyimpatientwithit.Then,onpage188,Icameacrosssomethinginteresting.Here,afteralengthytreatiseontheabsoluteinterdictionamongsttheFalashasof‘intermarriageswiththoseofanothertribeor creed’, Stern described the Ethiopian Jews as being faithful to the law of Moses‘which…istheformulaafterwhichtheyhavemouldedtheirworship.’Hethenadded:

ItsoundsstrangetohearincentralAfricaofaJewishaltarandatoningsacrifices…[Yet],intherearofeveryplaceofworshipisasmallenclosurewithahugestoneinthecentre;andonthiscrudealtarthevictimisslaughtered,andallothersacrificialritesperformed.38

ThoughatthisstagemygeneralknowledgeaboutJudaismwaslimitedtosaytheleast,Iwaswell aware that animal sacrificewas no longer practised anywhere in theworld bymodern Jews. I had no idea whether this ancient institution still existed amongst theFalashasinthelatetwentiethcentury;Stern’saccount,however,madeitquiteclearthatithadflourishedahundredandthirtyyearsearlier.Continuing his description of the sacrificial enclosure, the German missionary nextremarked:

Thissanctumissacredlyguardedfromunlawfulintrusion…andwoebetidethestrangerwho,ignorantofFalashacustoms,venturestooclosetotheforbidden

precincts…Iwasonedayontheveryvergeofcommittingthisunpardonableoffence.Itwasaverysultryandclosenoonwhen,afterseveralhours’fatiguingmarch,wereachedaFalashavillage.Eagertoobtainashortrest,Iwentinquestofacoolandquietshelter,whenaccidentallyIespiedinthemidstofasecludedgrassyspotasmoothblockthatlookedasifithadbeencharitablyplacedtheretoinvitethewearytosolitudeandrepose.Thethornystockadeeasilyyieldedtotheironofmylance,andIwasjustabouttoensconcemyselfbehindtheflattenedstonewhenachorusofangryvoices…remindedmeofmymistake,andurgedmetobeatahastyretreat.39

IfoundmyselfwishingthatSternhadreceivedthepunishmenthedeservedforvandalizinga holy place.40 At the same time, however, I could not help but be grateful to him fordrawingmyattentiontothepracticeofsacrificeamongsttheFalashas.ThiswasaleadwellworthfollowingupsinceitmightprovideanothercluetothedateatwhichEthiopia’sJewsbecameseparatedfromthemainbodyoftheirco-religionists.IdevotedconsiderableefforttoresearchingtheobscuresubjectofJudaicsacrificeinOldTestamenttimes.ThepicturethateventuallyemergedfromthefogofscholarlyreferenceswasofaconstantlyevolvinginstitutionthatstartedoutasasimpleofferingtoGodwhichanyone,priestorlayman,couldmakeandinvirtuallyanyplacewherealocalshrinehadbeen established. This state of relative unregulation, however, began to change after theExodusfromEgyptaround1250BC.41DuringtheHebrews’wanderingsinthewildernessofSinai the Ark of the Covenant was built and housed in a portable tent or ‘tabernacle’.Thenceforward all sacrifices were to bemade at the door of this tabernacle and anyonedisobeyingthenewlawwastobepunishedbybanishment:

WhatsoevermantherebeoftheHouseofIsrael…thatofferethaburntofferingorsacrificeandbringethitnottothedoorofthetabernacleofthecongregation,toofferituntotheLord;eventhatmanshallbecutofffromamonghispeople.42

I learned, however, that this prohibitionwas rather less absolute than it sounded. Themainpointofthecodewasnottoabolishsacrificeatlocalshrinesinallcircumstancesbutrathertoensurethatsacrificeswerecarriedoutexclusivelyatacentralizednationalplaceofworshipwhenandifsuchaplaceexisted.InthewildernessthetabernaclehousingtheArkwas such a central point. Later, from roughly 1200 to 1000 BC, a national sanctuarywasestablished in IsraelatShiloh,which thusbecamethenewsacrificialcentre.Significantly,however,therewereperiodsofpoliticalupheavalwhenShilohwasabandonedandduringtheseperiodstheHebrewswerepermittedtosacrificeonceagainatlocalshrines.43By the 950s BC Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem had superseded Shiloh as the nationalreligiouscentre.There isevidence,however, that local sacrificesdid takeplaceelsewherefrom time to time, particularly amongst those Jews living far from the capital. Indeed itwas not until the reign of King Josiah (640-609 BC) that a blanket ban on all forms ofsacrificeotherthanattheTemplebegantobestrictlyenforced.44So seriously was this prohibition taken that the Jews appear not to have attemptedsacrifice of any kind in the decades immediately following the Temple’s destruction by

Nebuchadnezzarin587BC.Theearlytraditionofrevertingtolocalshrinesintheabsenceofacentralizednationalplaceofworshipseems tohavebeen irrevocablyabandoned.Quitesimply,whiletherewasnoTempletherecouldbenosacrifice.45AfterthereturnfromtheBabylonianExile,theSecondTemplewasbuiltinJerusalemandtheinstitutionofsacrificewasre-establishedexclusivelywithinitsprecincts;meanwhiletheabsolute prohibition on local offerings was reinforced and appears to have been strictlyobeyed.Thissystemofcentralizedsacrificeremainedfirmlyinplacefrom520BC,whentheSecondTemplewasdedicated,until70ADwhen itwasrazed to thegroundby theRomanEmperorTitus.46No Third Temple had ever been contemplated, other than by millennial groups wholinked the fulfilment of that dream with the coming of the still-awaited Messiah.47 Inconsequence, since AD 70, sacrifice had everywhere been abandoned by the Jews. TheFalashaswere thesoleexception to this rule.48MoreoverStern’saccountsuggestedthat theyhadofferedsacrificesatall theirplacesofworshipwhenhehadworkedamongsttheminthe nineteenth century. With a little further research I was able to confirm that thistradition was so strong that sacrifices continued to be made by the majority of FalashacommunitiestodaydespitetheirincreasedexposuretomodernJewishpractices.49AsIconsideredthisfact,Irealizedthattheremightbeanumberofpossibleexplanationsfor it. The most obvious and attractive of these explanations, however, was also thesimplest–andthereforethemostlikelytobecorrect.Iwroteinmynotebook:

Theancestorsoftoday’sFalashasmusthavebeenconvertedtoJudaismatatimewhenitwasstillacceptableforthosefarawayfromthecentralizednationalsanctuarytopractiselocalsacrifice.ThatwouldsuggestthattheconversiontookplacebeforeKingJosiah’sban–i.e.nolaterthantheseventhcenturyBCandpossiblyevenearlierthanthat.HYPOTHESIS:AtsomestageafterthebuildingofSolomon’sTemple(mid-900s

BC)butbeforeJosiah(mid-600sBC)agroupofJewsmigratedfromIsraelandsettledinEthiopia.TheyestablishedlocalshrinesatwhichtheyconductedsacrificestotheirGodandtheybegantoconvertthenativesofthecountrytotheirfaith.Perhapstheyinitiallymaintainedcontactwiththeirhomeland.Thedistancewasgreat,however,anditisreasonabletosupposethattheywouldeventuallyhavebecamecompletelyisolated.TheywouldthushavebeenuntouchedbythegreatrevolutionsintheologicalthoughtthattookplaceintheJudaicworldinsubsequentcenturies.ThisexplainswhytheFalashasaretheonlyJewsstillpractisingsacrifice.

Frozenlikefliesinamber,trappedinatime-warp,theyarethelastsurvivingpractitionersofgenuineFirstTempleJudaism.Sofarsogood.ButQUESTION:whywouldagroupofJewshavemigrated

fromIsraeltosomewhereasfarawayasEthiopia?WearetalkingthetenthtoseventhcenturiesBChere,notexactlythejetage.Theémigrésmustthereforehavehadaverystrongmotive.Whatcouldthathavebeen?ANSWER:TheKebraNagastisinnodoubtaboutwhatthemotivewas.Itsays

thatthemigrantswerethefirst-bornsonsoftheeldersofIsrael,andthatthey

cametoEthiopiaintheentourageofMeneliktoattendtheHolyArkoftheCovenantwhichtheyhadabductedfromtheTemple.

DeclineandfallIf theKebraNagast’s account of the arrival of Judaism in Ethiopiawere true, I reasoned,then Imightexpect to findevidencesomewhere in thehistoricalannals toprove that theJewish faithhad formerlyenjoyedamuchgreaterprominence in thatcountry than itdidtoday.ThatcertainlywouldmakesenseifithadoriginallybeenassociatedwithsoexaltedafigureasMenelikI. Iremembered,moreover, thatmyoldfriendRichardPankhursthadmentionedsomethingtomethatwasrelevanttothislineofinquiry.Whenwehadworkedtogetherin1983hehadtoldmethattheFalashashadoncebeenaprosperousandpowerfulpeoplewithkingsoftheirown.I therefore placed another telephone call to Richard in Addis Ababa to see if he couldrecommendanysourcesthatmightshedlightonthedeclineandfalloftheFalashas.HedirectedmetoabookwithwhichIwasalreadyslightlyfamiliar:TravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNileintheYears1768-1773writtenbytheScottishadventurerJamesBruceofKinnaird.Pankhurstalsosuggestedthat Ishouldlookintothe ‘RoyalChronicles’compiledduringthereignsofanumberofEthiopianemperorssincemedievaltimes.These,hesaid,documentedaseriesofwarsthathadbeenfoughtbetweentheChristiansandtheJewsandcouldbeofinterest.‘Otherthanthat,’headded,‘I’mnotsurewhereyoucangetthekindofinformationyouwant.TheproblemisthatalmostnothingindepthwaseverwrittenabouttheFalashasbeforeBruce.’JamesBruceofKinnaird,asIwastodiscover,wassomethingofanenigma.HailingfromastaunchlyPresbyterianStirlingshirefamily,hehadbelongedtotheminoraristocracyandhadinheritedsufficientwealthtoindulgealifelongpassionforoverseastravel.Initiallyitseemed to me that it was only this wanderlust that had lured him into the heart of theEthiopian highlands. When I began to look at his work on the Falashas, however, itgradually dawned onme that his interest in these people had been too intense and toosustained tobeexplainedawaymerelyas thenormalcuriosityofan intelligent traveller.Overaperiodofseveralyearshehadcarriedoutmeticulousresearchintothefaith,customsand historical origins of Abyssinia’s black Jews. In the process, interviewing elders andreligious figures, he had recorded many ancient traditions that would otherwise mostcertainlyhavebeenlosttohistory.Amongst these traditions was one which stated that King Ezana of Axum had beenreadingthePsalmsofDavidwhenhewasfirstintroducedtoFrumentius,theyoungSyrianwholaterconvertedhimtoChristianity.50Bruce, furthermore,madeitquiteclearthatthemonarch’sacquaintancewiththisbookofOldTestamentverseresultedfromthewidespreadprevalenceofJudaisminEthiopiaatthattime51–i.e.theearlypartofthefourthcenturyAD.InthecontextofwhatInowknewaboutFalashacustoms,Iwashappytogivecredenceto this assertion. Indeed I took it as additional support for my own rapidly evolvinghypothesis – namely that a form of the Jewish faith incorporating archaic traditions ofbloodsacrificehadbeeninEthiopiaforatleastathousandyearsbeforeFrumentiusturneduptopreachthegospelofChrist.

IwassoontofindfurtherconfirmationofthisinanoldandrareEthiopicmanuscriptthathadoncerested intheTigrayanfortressofMagdala(stormedandlootedbyBritish forcesunder General Napier in the nineteenth century). EntitledAHistory and Genealogy of theAncientKingsitcontainedthefollowingpassage:

ChristianitywasintroducedintoAbyssinia331yearsafterthebirthofChristbyAbunaSalama,whoseformernamewasFrumentosorFrumentius.AtthattimetheEthiopiankingsreignedoverAxum.BeforetheChristianreligionwasknowninEthiopiahalftheinhabitantswereJews,whoobservedtheLaw;theotherhalfwereworshippersofSando,thedragon.52

The reference to worshippers of ‘the dragon’ – presumably a rubric for all sorts ofprimitive animistic gods – was interesting. It suggested that Judaism had at no pointbecome the exclusive state religion of Ethiopia and that, in the pre-Christian era, theFalashas – like Jews everywhere –hadaccepted the coexistenceofmanypagan creeds. Ireasoned,however, that theywouldundoubtedlyhavebeenputon theirguard,andbeentempted toabandon their traditional tolerance,by thearrivalof amilitantlyevangelisticmonotheistic sect like theChristians,whomtheywouldhavehadgood reason to seeasareal threat to their preeminence and to their beliefs. The conversion of theAxumite kingwould have looked particularly ominous in such a context and thereafter Jews andChristiansmightwellhavefoundthemselveslockedinbitterstruggle.There was considerable support for this analysis amongst the traditions recorded byBruce.TheScottishadventurerasserted,forexample,thattheFalashas

wereverypowerfulatthetimeoftheconversiontoChristianityor,astheytermit,‘theApostasy’.AtthistimetheydeclaredaprinceofthetribeofJudah,andoftheraceofSolomonandMenelik,tobetheirsovereign…Thisprince…refusedtoabandonthereligionofhisforefathers.53

Suchastateofaffairs,Bruceadded,wasboundtoleadtoconflictsincetheChristians,too,claimed to be ruled by a king descended from the line of Solomon. The conflict,when itcame,wasthusprecipitatedbyconcernsthatwereentirelysecular:

Althoughtherewasnobloodshedupondifferenceofreligion,yet,eachhavingadistinctkingwiththesamepretensions,manybattleswerefoughtfrommotivesofambitionandrivalshipofsovereignpower.54

Bruce provided no details of these ‘many battles’ and the history books, too,were silentconcerningthem–otherthannotingthatinthesixthcenturyADKaleb,aChristiankingofAxum, assembled a vast army and took it across the Red Sea to do battlewith a Jewishmonarch in the Yemen.55Was it not quite probable, I now speculated, that this Arabiancampaign had been an escalation of fighting between Jews and Christians in Ethiopiaitself?Evidence that thismight indeedhavebeen the casewas contained in theKebraNagast.TowardstheendofthegreatepicIfoundspecificmentionofKingKalebinachapterthat

seethedwithanti-Judaicsentiments:here,fornoapparentreason,theEthiopianJewsweresuddenlydescribedasthe‘enemiesofGod’;furthermore,thetextadvocatedthattheyshouldbe‘cuttopieces’andthattheirlandsshouldbelaidwaste.56All this was said in a context that ascribed two sons to Kaleb. One of these sons wasnamed‘Israel’whiletheotherwasreferredtoas‘GebraMaskal’(anEthiopictermmeaning‘Slaveof theCross’).The symbolismof a Jewish-Christian riftwashard tomiss (with theChristianfaction,ofcourse,beingrepresentedbyGebraMaskalandtheJewishfactionbyIsrael). And this analysis began to look evenmore crediblewhen I remembered that theFalashasneverreferredtothemselvesas‘Falashas’butalwaysas‘BetaIsrael’,i.e.‘HouseofIsrael’.57Thebasicmessage,therefore,seemedclearenough;nevertheless,thewholepassagewascomplicatedbydenseandobscureimagery.Severaltimes,forexample,thewords‘Chariot’and ‘Zion’croppedup. Icouldmake littleornosenseof the former. Ialreadyknewverywell,however, that the latter– ‘Zion’–wasoneofanumberofdifferentepithets for theArkoftheCovenantusedfrequentlyintheKebraNagast.58EverythingbecameclearwhenIreadthatIsraelandGebraMaskalweredestinedtofighteachother.Afterthisbattle,thetextcontinued:

GodwillsaytoGebraMaskal,‘ChoosethoubetweentheChariotandZion’,andHewillcausehimtotakeZion,andheshallreignopenlyuponthethroneofhisfather.AndGodwillmakeIsraeltochoosethechariot,andheshallreignsecretlyandheshallnotbevisible.59

Inthisfashion,theKebraNagastconcluded:

ThekingdomoftheJewsshallbemadeanendofandtheKingdomofChristshallbeconstituted…ThushathGodmadefortheKingofEthiopiamoregloryandgraceandmajestythanforalltheotherkingsoftheearthbecauseofthegreatnessofZion,theArkoftheLawofGod.60

Itseemedtomebeyondanyreasonabledoubtthatwhatwasbeingdescribedhere,albeitin arcane and symbolic language, was a conflict between the Jews and Christians ofEthiopia – a battle for supremacy in which the followers of the new religion triumphedwhilethefollowersoftheolderfaithwerevanquished,thereaftertoliveinvisiblyinsecretplaces.ItwasalsoclearthattheArkoftheCovenant–‘Zion’–hadstoodattheheartofthisstruggleforpowerandthattheChristianshadinsomewaymanagedtowrestitfromtheJewswhothenceforwardhadhadtocontentthemselveswiththe ‘Chariot’, inotherwordswithsecondbest.Asmyresearchescontinued,however,itbecameobviousthattheFalashashadnottamelyacceptedtheinvisibilityandsecond-classstatusthattheChristianshadsoughttoimposeonthem.On the contrary, I found a considerable body of evidence to suggest that theyhadfoughtback–and,furthermore,thattheyhaddonesowithgreatdeterminationandoveraratherlengthyperiod.The first tantalizing hint of sustainedwarfare betweenAbyssinia’s Jews andChristians

came in an account written by a ninth-century traveller named Eldad Hadani – betterknownasEldad‘theDanite’becauseheclaimeddescentfromthelostIsraelitribeofDan.Exactlywhohewas,orwherehecamefrom,wasbynomeansclear.Inawidelycirculatedletterwritten inAD833,however,hehadclaimed that theDanites–and threeother ‘lost’Jewishclans–livedinEthiopiawheretheywerelockedinpermanentantagonismwiththeChristianrulersofthatcountry:‘AndtheyslewthemenofEthiopiaanduntothisverydaytheyfightwiththechildrenofthekingdomsofEthiopia.’61On investigating further I discovered that several authorities regarded Eldad as acharlatanandhisletterasanimprobablepieceoffiction.Others,however,feltthatmuchofwhathesaidwasfirmlygroundedinfact.62 Ihadnohesitationinaligningmyselfwiththelattercamp–simplybecauseEldad’sreferencestotheAbyssinianJewsweretooclosetothetruthabouttheFalashastohavebeenpurefabrications.Heinsisted,forexample,thattheyhademigratedfromtheHolyLandtoEthiopiainFirstTempletimes,shortlyaftertheseparationof thekingdomsofJudahandIsrael (i.e.around931 BC63). Inconsequence,hesaid,theydidnotcelebratefestivalsinstitutedafterthatdatesuchasPurimandHanukkah.Neitherdidtheyhaverabbis ‘for thesewereof theSecondTempleandtheydidnotreachthem.’64Iwasalreadywellawareofthenon-observanceofthelaterfestivalsbytheFalashas,andof the implications of this. On checking I now discovered that they did not have rabbiseither: indeed their religiousofficialswerecalledkahen, awordderived from theHebrewkohen(morefamiliarasthecommonnameCohen)meaning‘priest’anddatingbacktotheeraoftheFirstTemple.65Allinall,therefore, itdidsoundverymuchasthoughEldadhadbeeninEthiopiaashehadclaimed,andhadgivena faithfulenoughdescriptionof thestateofJudaismthere inthemid-ninthcenturyAD.HisreportofsustainedfightingbetweentheAbyssinianJewsandtheirneighboursduringthisperiodthusalsolookedquiteplausible:

Andtheirbanneriswhiteandwrittenthereoninblackis‘HearOIsrael,theLordourGodisoneGod’…Theyarenumerousasthesandsofthesea,andhavenoemploymentbutwarand,whensoevertheyfight,theysayitisnotgoodformightymentoflee,letthemdieyoung,butletthemnotflee,letthemstrengthentheirheartuntoGod,andseveraltimestheysayandcryallofthemtogether,‘HearOIsrael,ourGodisoneGod’,andthentheyalltakeheed.66

Eldad concluded that the Jewish tribes in Ethiopia had been successful in theirwarlikeendeavoursandhad‘placedtheirhandsonthenecksoftheirenemies’.67This,itseemedtome, was nothingmore nor less than a fairly accurate description of the true balance ofpowerbetweenChristiansandJewsintheninthandearlytenthcenturiesAD.Itwas,afterall, at precisely this time that the Christian Solomonic dynasty of Axum had beenoverthrown.AndIalreadyknewfrommypreviousresearchthatthiscoupd’étathadbeentheworkofaJewishmonarch–agreatqueennamedGudit(orJudit,orpossiblyYehudit).As outlined in Chapter 5, Gudit’s brief and bloody reignwas followed, perhaps half acentury later, by the establishment of the Zagwe dynasty, to which King Lalibela had

belonged.Although theywerealmost certainlyJewsat theoutset, theZagwes themselveslater converted to Christianity and subsequently (about fifty years after Lalibela’s death)abdicatedthethroneinfavourofamonarchclaimingSolomonicdescent.Whatever else it achieved, however, it quickly became apparent tome that the Zagwe

interregnumhadnothaltedthechronicstateofconflictbetweentheAbyssinianJewsandChristians. As my researches continued I learned that Benjamin of Tudela, a widelytravelledSpanishmerchantwholivedinthetwelfthcentury,hadreportedtheexistenceofJews inEthiopiawhowere ‘notunder the yokeof theGentiles’, andwhohad ‘cities andcastles on the summits ofmountains’.He spoke ofwarswith theChristians inwhich theFalashaswerenormally successful, taking ‘spoil andbooty’ atwill becausenomancould‘prevailagainstthem’.68Then, in the fifteenthcentury, theJewishtravellerElijahofFerrararelatedthathehad

met a young Falasha in Jerusalem and was told how his co-religionists ‘preserved theirindependence in amountainous region fromwhich they launched continualwars againsttheChristianemperorsofEthiopia.’69AhundredyearslatertheJesuitBishopofOviedoassertedthattheFalashashidawayin

‘greatinaccessiblemountains;andtheyhaddispossessedtheChristiansofmanylandswhichtheyweremastersof,andthekingsofEthiopiacouldnotsubduethem,becausetheyhavebutsmallforces,anditisverydifficulttopenetrateintothefastnessesoftheirrocks.’70Thebishopwaswrong,however.His statementwasmade in1557–bywhichdate, far

from ‘dispossessing’ anyone, the Falashas were actually under sustained attack fromChristianforcesbent,apparently,ongenocide.SarsaDengel, theSolomonicemperorwhoruled from 1563 to 1594,waged a seventeen-year campaign against them – a campaigndescribed by one respected scholar as ‘a veritable crusade, inspired by religiousfanaticism.’71During the fighting, which saw brutal onslaughts against Falasha strongholds in the

SimienmountainswestandsouthoftheTakazzeriver,thedefendersacquittedthemselveswithgreatdignity.EvenSarsaDengel’s sycophanticchroniclercouldnotavoidexpressingadmiration for the courage of one groupof Jewishwomenwho, rather thanbe capturedandusedbytheemperor’smen,hurledthemselvesoffacliffwiththecry‘Adonai[God]helpme’.72LatertheFalashaking,Radai,wastakenprisoner.Offeredhis life ifonlyhewouldbeg

theVirginMaryformercy–anddeathifhewouldnot–heisreportedtohavesaid:‘Isnotthementionof thenameofMaryforbidden?Makehaste! It isbetter formethat Ishoulddepart fromaworld of lies to aworld of justice, from thedarkness to the light; killme,swiftly.’ The emperor’s general, Yonael, answered: ‘If you prefer death, die bravely andbowyourhead.’Radai thenbowedandYonael struckhimwithagreat sword: the singleblow instantly decapitated the Falasha monarch and passed through his knees also, thebladefinallyburyingitselfintheground.Thosewhowitnessedthishorriblesceneweresaidtohaveadmired‘thecourageoftheJewindeathwhodeclaredthethingsoftheeartharebadandthethingsofheavenaregood.’73TowardstheendofthesamecampaignthelasttwoFalashafortressesinthehighSimiens

were attacked and overwhelmed despite the bravery of the defenders. In both cases theleadersandtheirpickedmenchosesuicideratherthancaptivity.

This did not bring an end to the persecutions, however. On the contrary, even worseatrocities were committed after 1607 when Emperor Susneyos ascended the throne. HelaunchedapogromagainstallFalashasstill living inthevasthighlandexpansesbetweenLake Tana and the Simien mountains. During the next twenty years of ‘unwarrantablebutchery’thousandswerekilledinfiercefightingandtheirchildrenweresoldasslaves.Thefewsurvivors,accordingtothedetailedaccountgivenbytheScottishtravellerJamesBruce:

wereordereduponpainofdeathtorenouncetheirreligion,andbebaptised.Tothistheyconsented,seeingtherewasnoremedy…Manyofthemwerebaptisedaccordingly,andtheywereallorderedtoploughandharrowontheSabbathday.74

The upshot of such sustained and vindictive oppression was that it forever deprivedEthiopia’s Jewsof theautonomous statehood that theyhadobviouslyonceenjoyed–andthus hastened their slide into obscurity. Looking back through the admittedly sketchyhistoricaldocumentsatmydisposal,Ifoundthatitwasevenpossibletochartthisgradualsubmergenceanddisappearanceinnumericalterms.Intheearly1600s,forexample,theFalashasweresaidtohavenumberedsome‘100,000

effectivemen’.75 Assuming one ‘effectiveman’ per family of five, thiswould give a totalpopulationforthatperiodofaround500,000.Nearlythreehundredyearslater–inthelatenineteenthcentury–theJewishscholarJosephHalévyputtotalFalashanumbersataround150,000.76Bytheendofthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcenturythisfigurehadplummetedto just 50,000 – according to the undoubtedly well-informed estimate of another Jewishinvestigator,JacquesFaitlovich.77Sixtyyearson, in the famineyearof1984, theFalashapopulationofEthiopiawasreliablyestimatedat28,000.78My reading leftme in no doubt that the watershed had come at the beginning of the

seventeenth centurywith the Susneyos campaigns,which had clearly broken the back ofFalasharesistance.Beforethattheyhadbeenapopulousandpowerfulfolkwithkingsanda kingdom of their own; afterwards, disenfranchised and beaten, their numbersremorselesslydeclined.Thehistoricalrecord,therefore,morethanadequatelyresolvedthecontradictionthathad

beenbotheringme,namelyhowtoexplainthelatter-dayvictimizationandimpoverishmentof theFalashas if itwere true thatJudaismhadbeenbrought toEthiopiabysoexaltedafigureasMenelikI–whohadalsobroughttheHolyArkoftheCovenant,themostpreciousandprestigiousrelicoftheancientworld.Inowrealizedthattherewasnocontradictionatall. Indeed a scenario in which the Jewish religion had once enjoyed great influencesuggested the only possible motive for the merciless pogroms, killings and massenslavementsthatSusneyosandotherChristianemperorshadinflictedupontheirFalashacompatriots. Simply stated, such bizarre and apparently psychopathic behaviour made atwistedkindofsenseiftheChristianshadactivelyfearedthepossibilityofaresurgenceofJudaism–andiftheirfearhadstemmedfromthefactthatthisrivalmonotheisticfaithhadearlierrepresentedanextremelystrongandenduringthemeinEthiopianlife.

‘Consummationofheart’sdesire…’Allthis,Ireasoned,stronglysupportedtheviewthatJudaismhadarrivedinEthiopialongbefore Christianity. By the same token it also added some social corroboration to thelegendaryaccountofMenelik’sabductionoftheArk.Tosummarize,Inowknewthat:

•TheFalashas’archaictraditionsofbloodsacrifice–aswellassomeoftheirotherreligiouspractices–castgravedoubtontheacademicorthodoxywhichfavouredalate(andSouthArabian)originforEthiopianJudaism.OnthecontrarytheevidencesuggestedquitecompellinglythattheJewishfaithmusthavecometoEthiopiainFirstTempletimesandmustthenhavebeenisolatedthere.Furthermore,thebestpossibleaccountofhowandwhyJudaismhadtakenrootintheheartofAfricaatsoearlyadatewasprovidedbytheKebraNagast.SincethestoryoftheabductionoftheArkwascentraltothataccountitfollowedthatEthiopia’sclaimtopossessthesacredrelicdeservedtobetakenseriously.•TherewasclearevidencetosuggestthattheJewishfaithhadbeenanimportantforceinEthiopialongbeforethearrivalofChristianityinthefourthcenturyAD.ThisevidencealsosuggestedthatJewsandChristianshadsubsequentlyengagedinaprotractedstruggletothedeath.ThewinnersofthisstrugglehadbeentheChristians–whohad,intheprocess,capturedtheArkoftheCovenant.Thereaftertheyhadgraduallyincorporateditintotheirownnon-Jewishreligiousceremonies.Thiswastheonlysatisfactoryexplanationforwhatwasotherwiseanincomprehensibleanomaly–namelythecrucialrole,uniqueintheChristianworld,playedinallEthiopianchurchservicesbyreplicasofanOldTestamentrelic.•ThesereplicasdepictedthecontentsoftheArk–i.e.thetabletsofstone–ratherthantheArkitself.Thishadoriginallyconfusedme;Inowunderstood,however,thatitwasmerelyanexampleofaculturebeing‘economicalwithitssymbols’.IntheHolyofHoliesofeveryoneofthemorethantwentythousandOrthodoxchurchesinEthiopiawasatabot.Behindthesetabotat–anddirectlyresponsibleforthesuperstitiousdreadwhichtheyinspiredinthegeneralpopulation–layamysteriousandpuissantobject.TherenowseemedtometobeeverypossibilitythatthatobjectmightindeedbetheHolyArkoftheCovenant.

Of course therewere still several loose ends. These included the important issue of theethnicidentityoftheQueenofSheba(couldshereallyhavebeenanEthiopian?).Linkedtothis,andofatleastequalweight,wasanotherlegitimatedoubtthatthescholarshadraised:intheeraofSolomonwasitreallypossiblethatEthiopiacouldhavepossessedasufficiently‘high’ civilization to have engaged in direct cultural contact with ancient Israel? Finallytherewas theproblemofAxum– towhichRichardPankhursthaddrawnmyattention in1983.79ThesacredcityhadnotevenexistedinSolomon’stimeandthereforetheArkcouldnothavebeenbroughttoit.ThisdidnotprecludethepossibilitythattherelicmighthavebeendepositedatsomeotherplaceinEthiopiaandthenmovedtoAxumatalaterdate.Ifso,wherewasthat‘otherplace’andwhyhadIencounterednotraditionsconcerningit?

These, I realized, were questions for which I would eventually have to seek answers.Therewereothers,too.IndeeditwasperhapsintrinsictotheoccultandreconditenatureoftheArk of the Covenant that itwould always generate questions, confusions, ambiguitiesandmisgivings.Anobject so rare andprecious, imbuedwith suchpower, veneratedwithsuch fervour over somany centuries – and charged with the numinous energy of God –couldhardlybeexpectedtoyieldupitssecretseasilyortoanycasualinquirer.Ifelt,however,thattheevidenceIhadalreadyunearthedinsupportofEthiopia’sclaimtobethe lastrestingplaceof therelicwassufficientlythought-provokingtomerit furtherresearch.Moreover,whenIcombinedthisevidencewiththeresultsofthedecodingexercisethatIhadjustcarriedoutonWolfram’sParzival,Ifounditdifficulttoresisttheconclusionthattwoplustwodidindeedequalfour.In short, knowing what I knew now, it seemed to me hardly surprising that theclandestinetraditionofquest that IhadidentifiedshouldhavefocussedontheAbyssinianhighlands. After all, for a group of knights whose very identity was bound up with themysteries of Solomon’s Temple, no real historical relic other than the Ark could possiblyhaveservedasamorefittingobjectofchivalricendeavour.Bythesametoken,therewasonly one country in which such an endeavour might have been undertaken with anygenuine hope of success – a country which had a living institution of Ark-worship, aSolomonicheritage,andacredibleclaimtopossesstheArkitself.IthereforebelievedIwasrightinmyhypothesisthattheTemplarshadlaunchedaquestinEthiopiainthelatetwelfthcenturyandIbelievedthattheyhadfoundthepreciousrelicwhichWolframhaddescribedas‘theconsummationofheart’sdesire’.80AsIshallrecountinthe next chapter, however, I also believed that they had lost it again – that it had beenwrestedfromthemandthattheyhadbeenobligedtoquitEthiopiawithoutit.Why?Becauseavery few intrepidmencontinued to travel toEthiopia in searchof theArk long after the utter destruction of the Knights of the Temple of Solomon in thefourteenthcentury.Furthermore,thoughtheytravelledatdifferentperiods,andwerebornindifferentlands,alltheselateradventurersweredirectlylinkedtotheTemplarsandhadinheritedtheirtraditions.

Chapter7ASecretandNever-EndingQuest

From the first to the sixth century AD the empire centredon the city ofAxum innorthernEthiopia could rightly claim to rank amongst the most powerful and prosperous in theknownworld. Itdealtonequal termswithRomeandPersiaandsent itsnaviessailingtoports as far afield as Egypt, India, Ceylon and China. Its architectural and artisticachievementswereimpressiveanditbecamethefirstbastionofChristianityinsub-SaharanAfrica, adopting the new faith as its official religion in the early fourth century AD(coincidentally at much the same time as the miraculous conversion of Constantine theGreat).1By the seventh century, however,Axum’s light hadbegun to dim; the embassies that itsent abroadwere now few and far between and its once formidablemilitary powerwasclearlyindecline.Thismarkedchange,whicheventuallyledtototalisolation,hadmuchtodowith theadvanceof thebelligerent forcesof Islamand theencirclementofAbyssinianChristianity during and after the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (AD 570–632).‘Encompassedbytheenemiesoftheirreligion,’wroteEdwardGibboninhisDeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire,‘theEthiopianssleptfornearathousandyears,forgetfuloftheworldbywhomtheywereforgotten.’2The millennium to which the great English historian referred lasted from roughly theseventhtothesixteenthcenturies,duringwhichtimeitwouldbefairtosaythatEthiopiaallbutdisappearedfromworldconsciousness.Formerlywellknowntooutsiders,andrelativelywell travelled, this Christian country in the remote highlands of Africa was graduallytransformed into a mysterious realm of myth and magic in which dragons and othermonsters were believed to dwell – a terra incognita where no one dared (or wanted) toventure.ItwouldhavebeentemptingtoassumethattheAbyssinianshadrevertedtobarbarismorstagnated during the long, dark hole in their history. My researches had shown me,however, that theoppositewas true: as the extraordinary rock-hewnchurchesof Lalibelaproved,arichandidiosyncraticculturehadbeenpreservedthroughout.Moreover,althoughthisculturewasintrovertedandsuspiciousofthemotivesofforeignpowers,ithadstayedincontactwith theoutsideworld.PrinceLalibelahimselfhad spent twenty-fiveyears as anexileinJerusaleminthesecondhalfofthetwelfthcentury.AndithadbeenfromJerusalemthathehadreturnedtoEthiopiatoclaimhiskingdomandtobuildthemonolithicchurchesthatnowbearhisname.Asoutlined inChapter5,my findingshadconvincedmeof thepossibility thatLalibelamighthavebeenaccompaniedbyacontingentofTemplarswhenhelefttheHolyLandin1185towinbackhisthrone.Theseknights,Ibelieved,wouldhavebeenmotivatedfirstandforemostbyadesiretoseekouttheArkoftheCovenantinEthiopia.Infurtheranceofthisenditseemedlogicaltosupposethattheywouldhavebeenmorethanwillingtoassisttheprince to achieve his own political objectives – since by so doing theymight reasonably

haveexpectedtogaingreatinfluence.The reader will recall that I then learned of an Ethiopian tradition which told of theinvolvement of mysterious ‘whitemen’ in the construction of the Lalibela churches. Thistraditionwasanancientone. Indeed, ithadalreadybeenveryoldwhenithadfirstbeenrecordedintheearlysixteenthcenturybyaPortuguesevisitor,FatherFranciscoAlvarez.Iknew that the Templars had been great builders and architects,3 and it was thereforedifficulttoresisttheconclusionthattheymighthavebeenthe‘whitemen’whohadhadahand in the creation of the rock-hewn monoliths. Furthermore, since the churches weretwenty-four years in themaking, the implicationwas that the knights had – at the veryleast–hadasustainedpresenceinEthiopiaandperhapshadentertainedplansforanevenlonger-terminvolvementintheaffairsofthatcountry.The suspicion that this might indeed have been the case deepened as my researchcontinued. Inorder toexplainwhy, it is firstofallnecessary toacquaint the readerwithwhathappenedtotheTemplarsduringandimmediatelyafterthebrutalsuppressionoftheorderintheearlyfourteenthcentury.Itisalsonecessarytocross-referencethisinformationwithcertaineventsthattookplaceinEthiopiaataroundthesametime.

AperiodinvolvedindarknessFoundedintheyear1119,andgivenofficialrecognitionbythechurchin1128attheSynodofTroyes,theTemplarsquicklyrosetoapositionofgreatinternationalpower,wealthandprestige – a position from which they were nevertheless doomed to fall within twocenturies. The history of the order’s catastrophic collapse has been too frequently andthoroughlyrecountedelsewheretorequireextensiverepetitionhere.4Suffice it tosaythatquitesuddenly,onFriday13October1307,allTemplarsresidinginFrancewerearrested.Thiswasawellco-ordinatedoperationthatsawsimultaneousdawnswoopsonhundredsofTemplarpropertiesbythebailiffsandseneschalsoftheFrenchking,PhilipIV.Bynightfall15,000menwere in chains and Friday the 13thhadwon a unique place for itself in thepopularimaginationasthemostunluckyandinauspiciousdateinthecalendar.ThechargeslevelledagainsttheTemplarstojustifytheirdramaticandhumiliatingarrestswereasluridastheywereimaginative.Theywereaccused,forexample,ofdenyingChristand spitting onHis image, and of giving each other indecent kisses ‘in shame of humandignity,accordingtotheprofaneriteoftheorder’(thesekissesweresaidtobeplacedontheanus,navelandmouthofeachinitiateatthetimeofhisinduction).Itwasalsoallegedthat they engaged in a wide range of other homosexual practices (which were ‘requiredwithout the possibility of refusal’), and – last but not least – that theymade offerings toidols.5Atthistime(anduntil1377)theofficialresidenceofthePapacywasthecityofAvignoninProvence.ThereasonsfortheabandonmentoftheVaticanneednotbegoneintohere.6Obviously,however,theremovaloftheHolySeetoapointsoclosetoFrenchterritorygaveKingPhilipgreat influenceover thePope(ClementVwhohadbeencrownedatLyons inPhilip’spresencein13057).ThisinfluencewasexercisedtothedetrimentoftheTemplars,whose destruction Philip was determined to ensure not only in France but also in everyothercountryinwhichtheywereestablished.TothisendtheFrenchmonarchputpressure

onClementVwhoinduecourseissuedabull(Pastoralispraeeminentiae,dated22November1307)whichorderedthearrestoftheTemplarsthroughouttheChristianworld.8ProceedingsfollowedasfarafieldasEngland,Spain,Germany,ItalyandCyprusand,in

1312, another bull from the puppet Pope officially suppressed the order. Meanwhilethousands of Templars had been subjected to the most horrific tortures and inquisitions.Manywere subsequentlyburnedat the stake– includingGrandMasterJacquesdeMolayandthePreceptorofNormandy,GeoffroideCharnay.9Itisnotmyintentionheretogoinanydepthintothepersecution,trialanddestruction

of theTemplars. I onlybecame interested in thesematters becauseof the evidence I hadunearthed which suggested a possible Templar quest for the Ark in Ethiopia in the latetwelfth century. Having established that a group of knights could have accompaniedLalibelafromJerusalemintheyear1185Inaturallywonderedwhatmighthavehappenednext–andthiscuriosity ledmetolookforclues inthesubsequenthistoryoftheTemplarOrder.Thathistory,ofcourse,wasrathershort:lessthan130yearsafterLalibela’saccessionto

thethroneofEthiopiatheTemplarshadbeenroundedup,tortured,andburntatthestake.TheirpropertiesandmoneyhadbeensharedoutamongsttherulinghousesofEurope;theirorder had ceased to exist; and their good name had been tainted by charges of sodomy,blasphemyandidolatry.Nor, in the records of the last century of their existence, could I find a single shred of

evidencetosupporttheviewofasustainedTemplarquestinEthiopia.Aftertheearly1200sthe trail simplywent cold; from then until the arrests in 1307 the order seemed to havebeenconcernedsolelywithitscampaignsintheNearEastandwiththebuild-upofitsownconsiderablepowerandwealth.Whereelse,Iwondered,mightIfindtheinformationIwaslookingfor?Fewattemptshad

beenmade tochronicledevelopments inEthiopia in theperiod thatnowconcernedme. Iknew, however, that James Bruce had done his utmost to gather and record ancienttraditionsduringhislengthyvisitintheeighteenthcentury.IthereforeturnedtohisTravels–whichInowkeptconstantlyonmydesk.TowardstheendofVolumeI,asIhadhoped,Icameacrossseveralpagesdevotedtothe

reignofKingLalibela.UnfortunatelymuchofwhattheScottishadventurerhadwrittenwasirrelevanttomyowninvestigation.Therewas,however,oneparticulardetailthatattractedmy attention. Drawing on ‘the histories and traditions… thought themost authentic’ inEthiopia,10BrucereportedthatLalibelahadpromotedaschemetoreducethedownstreamflowofwaterintotheNileriversysteminorder‘tofamishEgypt’.11After‘anexactsurveyandcalculation’,itseemedthisillustriousmonarchoftheZagwedynastyhadascertained:

thatthereranonthesummit,orhighestpart[ofEthiopia],severalriverswhichcouldbeinterceptedbymines,andtheirstreamdirectedintothelowcountrysouthward,insteadofjoiningtheNile,augmentingitandrunningnorthward.Bythishefoundheshouldbeablesotodisappointitsincrease,thatitneverwouldrisetoaheightpropertofitEgyptforcultivation.12

Suchaproject, Icouldnothelpbut think,wouldcertainlyhavesuitedTemplarambitionswhich,bytheendofLalibela’sreign(AD1211),hadbeguntofocusontheconquestofEgypt.

SeveralextensivebattleswerefoughtatthistimeonthebanksoftheNile,andtheTemplarsspentmorethanayearbesiegingtheArabfortressatDamiettainthedelta.13Therecouldbenodoubt,therefore,thata‘famished’andweakenedEgyptwouldhavebeenverymuchtotheirliking.In the event, however, the diversion of the rivers was never completed: ‘Death, the

ordinaryenemyofallthesestupendousundertakings,interposedhereandputastoptothisenterprise of Lalibela.’14 Bruce then added a comment on the last two monarchs of theZagwedynasty:

ToLalibelasucceededImrahanaChristos,remarkablefornothingbutbeingsonofsuchafatherasLalibela,andfathertosuchasonasNaakutoLaab;bothofthemdistinguishedforworksveryextraordinary,thoughverydifferentintheirkind.Thefirst,thatisthoseofthefather,wehavealreadyhintedat,consistingingreatmechanicalundertakings.Theotherwasanoperationofthemind,ofstillmoredifficultnature,avictoryoverambition,thevoluntaryabdicationofacrown.15

Iwasalreadyfamiliarwiththehistoricaldetailsthatfollowed.In1270,NaakutoLaab–thelast of theZagwes –waspersuaded to abdicatehis throne in favourof a certainYekunoAmlak, amonarch claiming Solomonic descent. This king, as the readermay recall, hadbeen biding his time in the distant province of Shoawhere the Solomonic line had beenpreservedbythedescendantsofthesingleroyalprincewhohadescapedtheuprisingoftheJewishqueenGuditinthetenthcentury.16Brucehad littleornothing to sayaboutYekunoAmlakhimself,orabouthis immediate

successors, Yagba Zion (1285–94) and Wedem Ara’ad (who ruled until the year 1314).Indeed, it seemed that the normally fastidious researchmethods favoured by the Scottishtraveller had failed to yield any solid information at all for the century that followedLalibela’sdeathinAD1211:‘Allthisperiodisinvolvedindarkness,’Brucecomplained.‘Wemight guess, but sincewe are not able to domore, it answers no goodpurpose to do somuch.’17Similar darkness, as I already knew, also enshrouded the period before Lalibela’s

accessiontothethrone.Iwasthereforeleftwithahostofunansweredquestions.OfthesebyfarthemostimportantconcernedtheArkoftheCovenant:Ineededtoknowwhathadhappened to itduring the roughly300years (fromthe tenth to the thirteenthcentury) inwhich the rule of the Solomonic dynasty had been interrupted. And I needed to knowwhethertheTemplarsmighthavegaineddirectaccesstothesacredrelicif,asIsupposed,theyhadestablishedthemselvesinEthiopiaduringLalibela’sreign.Once again I telephoned the historian Belai Gedai in Addis Ababa to see if he could

enlightenmewithhisknowledgeoflocaltraditions.‘In the tenth century’, he toldme, ‘we Ethiopians say that the Arkwas removed from

Axum by the priests and the people in order to keep it safe from the ravages of QueenGudit,andwesaythatitwasbroughttoanislandonLakeZwai…’‘YoumeanintheRiftValley–southofAddisAbaba?’‘Yes.’‘Thatwasahellofalongwayforittobemoved.’

‘Yes, but no lesser distance would have been safe. Gudit was Jewish, you know. Shewanted to establish the Falasha religion all over the country and she wanted to destroyChristianity.ShecametoburnandrobthechurchesatAxum.SothepriestscarriedofftheArktopreventitfromfallingintoherhands,andtheybroughtitveryfar–allthewaytoZwai!–wheretheyweresurethatitwouldbeoutofherreach.’‘Doyouknowhowlongitremainedontheisland?’‘Our traditions say that itwas there for seventy years and that after that itwas takenbacktoAxum.’I thankedGedai forhishelpand rangoff.Whathehad toldme fitted–moreor less–with the picture of Ethiopian medieval history that I had thus far managed to piecetogether.IknewthatthethroneofEthiopiahadbeenheldbyGuditforsomeyearsaftershehaddeposedtheSolomonids.IalsoknewthatshehadeventuallybeensucceededbythefirstmonarchoftheZagwedynasty,himselfprobablyaJew.Later,however(andcertainlywellbeforeLalibela’stime),theZagweshadconvertedtoChristianity. It therefore seemed quite possible that they might have permitted the safereturnoftheArktoitscustomaryrestingplaceinAxum–where,presumably,itwouldstillhavebeenwhenLalibelacametopower.OfobviousrelevancetothisargumentwastheeyewitnessaccountoftheArkinEthiopiagivenby theArmeniangeographerAbuSalih inhisChurchesandMonasteries ofEgyptandsomeNeighbouringCountries.Frominternaltextualevidence(thetranslatorandeditorofthisimportantworkexplainedinhisIntroduction),itwasclearthatithadbeenwritten‘inthefirstyearsofthethirteenthcentury’18–inotherwordsduringthereignofLalibelahimself.AndalthoughAbuSalihatnopoint stated inwhichEthiopiancityhehad seen the sacredrelic,therewasnogoodreasontosupposethatthiscityhadnotbeenAxum.Moreover,asIre-read the relevant passage, Iwas struck by a fewwords that I had overlooked before.Describing the transportation of theArk on certain ceremonial occasions, the geographerhad noted that it was ‘attended and carried, by bearers who were ‘white and red incomplexion,withredhair’.19WithashockofgenuineexcitementIrealizedthatIwaslookingatasecondpieceofpureand early testimony suggesting the presence ofmysteriouswhitemen in Ethiopia at thetime of King Lalibela (particularly so since another authoritative translation of the samepassage rendered ‘red hair’ as ‘blond hair’20). Alvarez had already alertedme to the oldtradition that white men had built the wonderful rock-hewn churches – a tradition thatfitted well with what I knew about the advanced architectural skills possessed by theTemplars. Now, as though to bear out my own evolving theory, here was Abu Salihaddressingmeacrosssevencenturieswiththeelectrifyingnewsthatmenwhowerewhiteand red in complexion, men with red or even blond hair – men, in other words, whosoundedverymuchlikenorthernEuropeans–hadbeenassociatedcloselyanddirectlywiththeArkoftheCovenantitself.ThepossibilitythatthesemenmighthavebeenTemplarswasaveryseductiveone,butitstill leftmy investigation stranded in the early thirteenth century and it still left the keyquestions unanswered. If the northern Europeans seen by Abu Salih had indeed beenTemplarsthenhadtheyjustcontentedthemselveswithcarryingtherelicfromtimetotimeor had they perhaps tried to remove it from Ethiopia and take it back to Europe?Most

importantofall–iftheyhadtried,hadtheysucceeded?On all these points, I had to admit, I was effectively blocked by the absolute lack ofhistoricalinformation.ObsessivelysecretiveastheTemplarshadundoubtedlybeen,21itdidnotreallysurprisemethattheirowndocumentsandrecordsyieldedsolittle.NorwasthereanycomforttobegainedfromEthiopianannals:afterexaminingawiderangeofdifferentsources,IwasforcedtoacceptthatthecenturyafterthedeathofKingLalibelahadindeedbeenaperiod‘involvedindarkness’,justasJamesBrucehadobserved.Almostnothingwasknownaboutwhathadgoneonintheseyears.I was by now feeling extremely pessimistic about the prospects of ever breaking theresearchdeadlock.NeverthelessItelephonedRichardPankhurst inAddisAbabaandaskedhimiftherewereanyrecordswhichmightsuggestthattherehadbeencontactsofanykindbetweenEthiopiansandEuropeansduringtheperiodinquestion.‘NonethatIknowofbefore1300,’hereplied.‘Andhowaboutafter1300? I suppose the firstdocumentedEuropeancontactwaswiththePortugueseembassythatarrivedinEthiopiain1520?’‘Not quite. A small number ofmissions travelled in the other direction before that – Imean from Ethiopia to Europe. As it happens, the very first of thesewas sent within acenturyofLalibela’sdeath–sothatdoesputitintotheperiodyou’reinterestedin.’Isatforwardinmychair:‘Doyouhappentoknowtheexactdate?’‘Yes,Ido,’Richardreplied.‘Itwas1306,anditwasquitealargemission.ItwassentbytheEmperorWedemAra’adandithad,Ibelieve,aboutthirtymembers.’‘Doyourememberwhatthepurposeofthismissionwas?’‘I’mnotabsolutelycertain.Youwouldhave tocheck the source.But Idoknow that itsdestinationwasAvignoninthesouthofFrance.’

Afinalsolution?Richarddidnotrealizeit,buthehadjustdroppedasmallbombshell.AvignonhadbeentheseatofPopeClementV–whohadbeencrownedatLyonsin1305inthepresenceofKingPhilipofFrance.Moreover,as Iwasalreadywellaware, ithadbeenClementVwhohadorderedthearrestoftheTemplarsthroughoutChristendomin1307.NowIhadlearnedthatahigh-levelEthiopiandelegation(thefirstevertobesenttoEurope)hadvisitedAvignonin1306 – just a year before the arrests.Were these dates and events clustered together bycoincidence?Orwas there,perhaps, someunderlyingpatternof causeandeffect?TogetanswerstothesequestionsIwouldhavetotrytoestablishwhethertheAbyssinianenvoyshadinfactmetwiththePopeduringtheirvisitand,iftheyhad,Iwouldalsohavetotrytolearnwhathadpassedbetweenthem.Theoriginalsourceofinformationonthe1306missionhadbeenaGenoesecartographer,GiovannidaCarignano,whohadbeenactiveinmap-makingduringtheyears1291–1329.22IwasintriguedtodiscoverthatthissameCarignanohadbeenresponsibleforamajorshiftinEuropeanideasaboutEthiopia:aftercenturiesofconfusion(seediscussioninChapter4)hehadbeenthefirstauthoritytoaffirmunambiguouslythat ‘PresterJohn’ruledinAfricaratherthanin‘India’.23Carignanohadmetwith themembers of the Ethiopian embassywhen theyhadpassed

through Genoa in 1306 on their way back from Avignon to their homeland. Because ofadversewinds theyhad spent ‘manydays’ in the Italian port and there the cartographerhadquestionedthemabout‘theirrites,customsandregions’.24Regrettably, however, Carignano’s treatise containing all the information that theEthiopianshadgivenhimhadsubsequentlybeenlost.All thatremainedof it todaywasabriefabstractpreservedinaBergamesechronicleofthelatefifteenthcenturywrittenbyacertainJacopoFilippoForesti.25IfinallymanagedtogetmyhandsonanEnglishtranslationoftheabstractinquestion.Itconsisted of only a single paragraph in which Foresti praised and then summarizedCarignano’streatise:

Amongstmanythingswritteninitaboutthestateof[theEthiopians]…itissaidthattheiremperorismostChristian,towhomseventy-fourkingsandalmostinnumerableprincespayallegiance…Itisknownthatthisemperorinthe…yearofoursalvation1306sentthirtyenvoys[who]…presentedthemselvesreverentiallybeforePopeClementVatAvignon.26

Andthat–apartfromafewfrillsandthe‘PresterJohn’referencealreadymentioned–wasall thatwas known about the first-ever Ethiopianmission to Europe. Skimpy though thedatawas,however,itdidconfirmmysuspicionthattheenvoyshadmetwithPopeClementV27 – and that theyhaddone so just a year before he authorized themass arrests of theKnightsTemplar.No informationwas given concerning the substance of themeeting; norwas there theslightest hint as to why the Emperor of Ethiopia should have been so anxious to makecontactwithPopeClementVintheyear1306.Itseemedtomeimprobable,however,thatWedemAra’adwould have sent so large an embassy on such a long and unprecedentedmission if hehadnothad a very strongmotive indeed. I now felt at liberty to speculateaboutwhatthatmotivemighthavebeen.OpeningmynotebookIjotteddownthefollowingseriesofpropositions,conjecturesandhypotheses:

AssumeforthemomentthattheTemplarsdidgofromJerusalemtoEthiopiawithPrinceLalibelain1185–andthattheydidhelptoinstallhimonhisthrone.Assumethatthe‘whitemen’saidtohavebuilttheLalibelachurcheswereinfactTemplars.Assumealsothatthe‘whitemen’seenactingasbearersfortheArkoftheCovenantinEthiopiaintheearly1200swerethesesameTemplars.Theimplicationisthattheorderhadsucceededinwinningapositionofpower,trustandinfluencewithLalibela,andwiththeZagwedynastytowhichhebelonged.IfsothenitwouldbereasonabletoassumethatthelasttwoZagwemonarchs(ImrahanaChristosandNaakutoLaab)wouldalsohavehadagoodrelationshipwiththeTemplars–whomtheymighthavecontinuedtograntprivilegedaccesstotheArk.AssumethatthiswaswhathappenedandthatduringthesixdecadesafterLalibela’sdeathin1211theTemplarswereallowedtoapproachthesacredrelicbutnot,ofcourse,totakeitoutofEthiopia.Perhapstheyplannedtotakeitbut

weresimplybidingtheirtimeuntilafavourableopportunitypresenteditself.Meanwhile,astheknightswhohadoriginallycometoEthiopiagrewoldtheorderwouldhavesentoutothersfromtheHolyLandtoreplacethem.Therewouldhavebeennoparticularsenseofurgency;indeedtheymighthavebeenquitecontentfortheArktostayinEthiopia.Thisstateofaffairswouldhavechangeddramaticallyin1270,however,when

(forwhateverreasons)NaakutoLaabwaspersuadedtoabdicatehisthroneandwasreplacedbyYekunoAmlak–amonarchclaimingSolomonicdescent.UnliketheZagwes,theveryidentityoftheSolomonidswasirrevocablyboundupwiththeArkoftheCovenantandwiththenotionthatMenelikI–thefounderoftheirdynasty–hadbroughtitfromJerusalemduringthereignofKingSolomonhimself.InthiscontextitisworthrememberingthatthefirstwrittenversionoftheKebraNagastwaspreparedontheordersofYekunoAmlak.28Inotherwords,althoughthelegendwasbythenalreadyveryoldinoralform,29YekunoAmlakwanteditformalized.Why?Becauseitservedtolegitimizeandglorifyhistitletothethrone.FromthisitfollowsthatYekunoAmlakwouldhavebeenhorrifiedbythe

presenceinhiscountryofabodyofarmed,militant(andtechnologicallyadvanced)foreignersliketheTemplars:foreignerswhocouldcallonreinforcementsfromamongstthethousandsofothermembersoftheirorderintheNearEast;foreignerswhoclearlyhadaspecialinterestintheArkandwhowerepossiblyplottingtostealawaywithit.Assume,however,thatYekunoAmlak(newtothethroneandstillinsecure)

initiallytriedtoplacatethesepowerfulanddangerouswhitemen,perhapsbygivingthemthefalseimpressionthathewaswillingtoco-operatewiththeminmuchthesamewayastheZagweshaddone.Thatwouldhavebeenalogicalstrategy–particularlysinceitisknownthathisarmywasverysmall30–andwouldexplainwhynothingspectacularhappenedduringhisreign.ItwouldthereforehavebeenuptohissuccessorstoseekafinalsolutiontotheproblemofhowtogetridoftheTemplarsandretaintheArk.YekunoAmlak’sson(YagbaZion,1285–94)was,ifanything,evenweaker

thanhisfatherinmilitaryterms.YagbaZion,however,wassucceededbyamuchstrongercharacter,WedemAra’ad,whoreigneduntil1314.SignificantlyitwasWedemAra’adwhosentalargeembassytoPopeClementVatAvignonin1306.Isitnotpossiblethatthepurposeofthatembassywastostiruptroubleforthe

Templars–andperhapstogivethePopeandtheFrenchking(PhilipIV)anurgentmotivetodestroytheorder?SuchamotivecouldhavebeenprovidedbythesuggestionthattheknightswereplanningtobringtheArkoftheCovenanttoFrance.Afterall,thiswasaperiodwhendeepsuperstitionsruledthepopularimagination.WithsosacredandsopowerfularelicintheirhandstheTemplarswouldhavebeeninauniquepositiontochallengeboththesecularandreligiousauthoritiesoftheland–andthoseauthoritieswouldcertainlyhavetakenanystepstheycouldtopreventsuchaneventuality.Thistheorybeginstolookparticularlyattractivewhensetagainstthe

backdropofthearrestsoftheTemplarsinFranceandelsewhere.Allthesearreststookplacein1307–i.e.aboutayearafterthedepartureoftheEthiopianmissionfromAvignon.ThisfitsperfectlywithwhatisknownaboutthebehaviourofKingPhilipIV:thereisevidencethathebegantoplanhisoperationagainsttheTemplarsaboutayearinadvanceofitsimplementation31(i.e.in1306)andthereisalsoevidencethatonseveraloccasionsduringthatyearhediscussedhisplanswithPopeClement.32ItwouldofcoursebefollytoimaginethatthedestructionoftheTemplarswasoccasionedonlybythelobbyingoftheEthiopianenvoys.MaliceandgreedonthepartofPhilipIValsoplayedarole(theformerbecausethekinghadseveraltimesbeensnubbedbytheorder;thelatterbecauseheundoubtedlyhadhiseyesonthehugesumsofmoneyrestinginTemplartreasuriesthroughouthisrealm).Bythesametoken,however,itwouldbefollytoimaginethattheEthiopianmissiontoAvignonin1306hadnothingtodowiththeeventsof1307.Onthecontraryitismorethanprobablethattherewasalink–andthatlink,Iamconvinced,wastheArkoftheCovenant.

PortugueseandScottishconnectionsTheTemplarswerearichandpowerfulinternationalbrotherhoodofreligiouswarriors.Assuch,despitethebesteffortsofKingPhilipIVandPopeClementV,theydidnotproveeasyto destroy. The suppressionwasmost effectively and completely implemented in France;eventhere,however,somebrothersmanagedtoevadecapture33(asdidtheentireTemplarfleetwhichslippedoutoftheAtlanticportofLaRochelleonthemorningofthearrestsandwasneverseenagain34).InothercountriesthetrialsandinquisitionswerepursuedwithmuchlessvigourthaninFrance;nevertheless,tortures,imprisonments,executions,confiscationofpropertyandthefinal dissolution of the order were the end result in England (after some considerabledelay),inSpain,inItaly,inGermany,inCyprusandelsewhere.35In Portugal and Scotland, however, the Templars appear to have escaped persecutionalmostcompletely.Indeed,circumstancesweresofavourableinthesecountriesthat,underdifferentdisguises,theordermanagedtoliveoninbothofthem.At the timewhen Pope Clement V issued his bull ordering the arrests of the Templarsthroughout Christendom – November 1307 – Scotland was locked in a fierce struggle topreserveitsnationalindependenceagainstthecolonialaspirationsofEngland.Leadingthisstrugglewas themost famous of all Scotsmonarchs –KingRobert theBrucewho, at thebattleofBannockburnin1314,wastoinflictsuchacrushingdefeatupontheEnglishthathis country’s freedom was guaranteed for centuries afterwards. With all his energiesfocussed on the war, Bruce had no interest whatsoever in pursuing the papal vendettaagainsttheTemplars.Hethereforeonlywentthroughthemotionsofsuppressingthem:justtwo knights were arrested36 and the most that appears to have been required of theremainderwasthattheyshouldkeepalowprofile.There was method in the Scottish king’s behaviour: all the evidence suggests that hegranted safe haven not only to local Templars but also tomembers of the order fleeing

persecutioninotherlands.37Notnaturallyaltruistic,itseemsthatheadoptedthisgenerouspolicy inorder toencourage fugitiveknights to joinhisarmy.38 Ithas, furthermore,beencogentlyarguedthataTemplarcontingentdid fightonBruce’ssideatBannockburn39–asuggestionthatlooksworthyoffurtherresearchwhenitisrememberedthatthevictoriousScotsmarchedbehindatinyArk-shapedreliquaryatthatfamousbattle.40ThefavourthatBruceshowedtowardstheTemplarsinScotland,andthefactthatmanyknights escaped arrest in England (because of a delay in implementing the papal bullthere),madeitpossiblefortheordertogoundergroundintheBritishIsles–inotherwordstosurviveinasecretandhiddenformratherthantobecompletelydestroyed.ForhundredsofyearsithasbeenrumouredthatthissecretsurvivaltooktheformofFreemasonry41–aviewsupportedbyaspecificMasonic tradition that theoldestScottish lodge(Kilwinning)wasfoundedbyKingRoberttheBruceafterthebattleofBannockburn‘forthereceptionofthose Knights Templar who had fled from France’.42 In the eighteenth century AndrewRamsay,aprominentScotsMasonandhistorian,addedcredibilitytothis traditionwithaconsiderable body ofwork on the connections betweenFreemasonry and theTemplars.43AndataroundthesametimeBaronCarlvonHund,aleadingGermanMason,declaredthat‘Freemasonryoriginated inKnightTemplary, and that, in consequence, everyMason is aTemplar.’44Thatsuchforthrightstatementsshouldhavebeenmadeintheeighteenthcentury(ratherthan in any earlier century) is not surprising: this was the period in which Freemasonsfinally‘cameoutofthecloset’andbegantotalkaboutthemselvesandabouttheirhistory.45Subsequently, as the new spirit of openness encouraged further research, it became clearthat‘KnightTemplarism’wasandalwayshadbeenanimportantforcewithintheMasonicsystem.46 This research, togetherwithmuchothermaterial not previously uncovered, hasrecentlybeenincorporatedintoadetailedandauthoritativestudywhichitemizesthemanywaysinwhichFreemasonrywasshapedandinfluencedbyfugitiveTemplars.47It is not my intention here to participate at all in what is undoubtedly a heated,convoluted and highly specialized debate. The point I wish to make is simply that theMasonicsystemdidinheritmanyofthemostcentraltraditionsoftheOrderoftheTempleof Solomon, and that this inheritancewas first passedon in theBritish Isles in the years1307–14 by Templars who had survived papal persecution because of the speciallyfavourableconditionsthenprevailinginScotland.Nor,asIhavealreadynoted,wasScotlandtheonlycountryinwhichtheTemplarswereleftunscathed. InPortugal theywere triedbut found tobe freeofguilt, and thusneithertorturednorimprisoned.48Ofcourse,asagoodCatholic,thePortuguesemonarch(DennisI)couldnotaffordtoignorepapalinstructionscompletely:accordinglylipservicewaspaidtothese instructionsand theTemplarswereofficiallydissolved in1312. Just sixyears later,however, theywererebornunderanewname: theMilitiaofJesusChrist (alsoknownastheKnightsofChristor,moresimply,astheOrderofChrist).49ThistransformationofoneorderintoanotherenabledthePortugueseTemplarsnotonlyto survive the fires of the Inquisition during the years 1307 to 1314 but also to emergephoenix-like fromtheashes in1318–afterwhichdatetheyseemtohavecarriedonwithbusinessverymuchasusual.AllTemplarpropertiesandfundsinPortugalweretransferredintact to theOrder of Christ, aswere all personnel.50Moreover, on 14March 1319, the

newly formedentity received theapprovalandconfirmationofPopeJohnXXII (Clementmeanwhilehavingdied).51Insummary,therefore,despitetheharshnessofthesuppressioninFranceandelsewhere,thePortugueseOrderofChrist,andBritish(andespeciallyScottish)Freemasonry,werethemeans by which Templar traditions were preserved and carried forward into the distantfuture–perhapsrightuptomoderntimes.Asmy research continued Iwas to become increasingly sure that one of the traditionsthusperpetuatedwasthequestfortheArkoftheCovenant.

‘Afterbattlelikewolvesandafterslaughterlikelions…’Even ifmy theoryabout theTemplars inEthiopiawas correct, I knew that therewasnoway that I could establish what might have happened to them in that country after thepersecutionsbeganinEurope in1307.Historical records fromthereignofWedemAra’adwerevirtuallynon-existent.AftersendinghismissiontoAvignon,however,myguesswasthathewouldhave stayed in touchwithdevelopmentsandwouldhavebeen informedoftheorder’sdestruction.Secureintheknowledgethatnofurtherknightscouldnowbesenttovexhim,theEmperorwouldthenhavemovedagainstthoseTemplarswhoremainedinEthiopiaandeitherexpelledthemorwipedthemout–mostprobablythelatter.That, at any rate,wasmyworking hypothesis, and probably Iwould have thought nomore about this aspect of my investigation if I had not learnt about the ‘Portugueseconnection’ represented by the Order of Christ. You see, with just two unimportantexceptions,52 all the known early visitors to Ethiopia were Portuguese. Moreover, thisPortugueseinterestintherealmof‘PresterJohn’wasalreadypronouncedwithinacenturyofthedestructionoftheTemplarsandwas,fromthebeginning,spearheadedbymembersoftheOrderofChrist.In this endeavour, the first and most active figure on whom any solid information isavailablewasPrinceHenrytheNavigator,GrandMasteroftheOrderofChristandamandescribedbyhisbiographeraspossessing‘strengthofheartandkeennessofmindtoaveryexcellentdegree…[who]was,beyondcomparison,ambitiousofachievinggreatandloftydeeds.’53Bornin1394,andactivelyinvolvedinseafaringby1415,54Henry’sgreatestambition–ashehimselfdeclared–wasthathewould‘haveknowledgeofthelandofPresterJohn’.55Chroniclers who were his contemporaries, as well as modern historians, are in fullagreement that he devoted the greater part of his illustrious career to the pursuit ofpreciselythisgoal.56Yetanatmosphereofmysteryandintriguesurroundsallhisefforts.AsEdgarPrestage,thelateCamoensProfessorofPortugueseLanguage,LiteratureandHistoryattheUniversityofLondon,observed:

OurknowledgeoftheHenricanvoyagesisinadequate,andthisislargelyduetotheadoptionofapolicyofsecrecywhichincludedthesuppressionoffacts…historicalworks…nauticalguides,maps,instructionstonavigatorsandtheirreports.57

Indeed, so great was the commitment to secrecy in Henry’s time that the release ofinformation on the results of the various exploratory voyages thatwere undertakenwaspunishablebydeath.58Despitethis,however,itisknownthattheprincewasobsessedwiththenotionofmakingdirectcontactwithEthiopia–andthathesoughttoachievethisendby circumnavigating Africa (since the shorter route through theMediterranean and thenintotheRedSeaviaEgyptwasblockedbyhostileMuslimforces59).Moreover,evenbeforetheCapeofGoodHopewasrounded,themastersofPortuguesevesselsventuringdowntheWestAfricancoastwere instructed toenquireafter ‘PresterJohn’ to seewhether itmightnotbequickertoapproachhiskingdomoverland.60One can only speculate as to the true objective of the Portuguese prince. The commonviewisthatheintended–asa‘goodcrusader’61–toforgeananti-IslamicalliancewiththeChristianEthiopianemperor.Perhapshedid.SinceallseriousplanstowintheHolyLandfor Christendom had been abandoned more than a century before Henry was born,however,Ifounditdifficulttoresistthenotionthathemusthavehadsomeothermotive–somehiddenagenda,perhaps, thatwouldhaveaccountedboth forhissecrecyandforhisfascinationwithPresterJohn.AsIstudiedthelifeofthegreatnavigatorfurtherIbecamemoreandmorecertainthatthismotivewasrootedandgroundedinhisidentityasGrandMasteroftheOrderofChrist,inwhich capacity hewould have inherited all themystical traditions of theOrder of theTempleofSolomon.Itisnotablethatheimmersedhimselfinthestudyofmathematicsandcosmography, ‘the course of the heavens and astrology’,62 and that he was constantlysurrounded by Jewish doctors and astronomers63 –men in every way reminiscent ofWolfram’scharacterFlegetaniswho‘sawhiddensecretsintheconstellations[and]declaredtherewasathingcalledtheGralwhosenamehereadinthestarswithoutmoreado.’64Another factor which suggested to me that the Portuguese prince was profoundlyinfluencedbyTemplartraditionswashiscelibacy.TheKnightsofChristwerenotboundbysuch strict rules as their predecessors in the Order of the Temple. Nevertheless, like theTemplarGrandMastersbeforehim,Henry‘wouldnevermarry,butpreservedgreatchastity[and]remainedavirgintillhisdeath.’65Likewise, Icouldnothelpbutwonderwhetheritwasentirelyamatterofcoincidencethattheillustriousnavigatorchosetomakehislastwillandtestamenton13October146066–the153rdanniversaryofthearrestsoftheTemplarsinFrance(whichtookplaceon13October1307).Henrydiedin1460,shortlyaftermakinghiswill,anditwasnotuntiltheearlyyearsofthe twentieth century that certain secret archives pertaining to the last decade of his lifecame to light. Amongst these archives (details of which were published by Dr JaimeCortezao in 1924 in the review Lusitania67) a brief notewas found to the effect that ‘anambassador of Prester John visited Lisbon eight years before Henry’s death’.68 It is notknownwhatthepurposeofthismissionwas,orwhattheprinceandtheEthiopianenvoydiscussed.Nevertheless, two years after theirmeeting it can hardly have been accidentalthatKingAlfonsoVofPortugalgrantedspiritualjurisdictionoverEthiopiatotheOrderofChrist.69 ‘Weare’,admitsProfessorPrestage, ‘still ignorantof themotives that led to thisconcession.’70IntheyearthatHenrytheNavigatordied–1460–afittingsuccessorwasbornatSines,aseaportinthesouthofPortugal.Thatsuccessor,alsoaKnightoftheOrderofChrist,71was

VascodaGama,whowastoopenuptheCaperoutetoIndiain1497.It is notable that when he set off on this famous voyage da Gama was carrying twothings: awhite silk bannerwith the double red cross of theOrder of Christ embroideredupon it; and letters of credence for delivery to Prester John.72 Moreover, although hisultimatedestinationwasindeedIndia,thePortugueseadmiraldevotedaconsiderablepartof the expedition to African exploration and is reported to have wept for joy when, atanchoroffMozambique,hewasrightlytoldthatPresterJohnlivedintheinteriorfartothenorth.73ItwasalsoclaimedbythesameinformantsthattheEthiopianemperor‘heldmanycitiesalongthecoast’.74Thisclaimwas incorrect,butdaGama’s subsequentstop-oversatMalindi, Mombasa, Brava (where he built a lighthouse that still stands) and MogadishuwereinpartmotivatedbyhiscontinuingdesiretomakecontactwithPresterJohn.75Meanwhile, in 1487 – a decade before da Gama set off – the Order of Christ hadsponsoredadifferentinitiativealsoaimedatreachingEthiopia.InthatyearKingJohnIIofPortugal,thenGrandMasteroftheOrder,hadsenthistrustedaidePerodeCovilhanonaperilousjourneytothecourtofPresterJohnviatheMediterranean,EgyptandtheRedSea.Disguised as a merchant, Covilhan passed through Alexandria and Cairo to Suakin andthere,in1488,hetookshipinasmallArabbarquefortheYemeniportofAden.Hethenbecamecaughtupinvariousadventureswhichdelayedhimconsiderably.Asaresultitwasnotuntil1493 thathe finally succeeded inenteringAbyssinia.76Once there,however,hemadehisway immediately to the emperor’s courtwhere hewas firstwelcomedbut laterplacedundercomfortablehousearrest.Onecanonlyspeculateastowhythishappened,butsinceitisknownthatCovilhan’sgreatestskillwasasaspy(hehadpreviouslyworkedasasecretagentinSpain77)itisdifficulttoresistthenotionthattheOrderofChristmayhavecommissionedhim to gather intelligence on thewhereabouts of theArk of theCovenant.Perhapshearoused suspicionbymakingenquiriesabout the sacred relic;perhapsnot.AtanyratehewasdetainedinEthiopiafortherestofhislife.78CovilhanwasstillalivewhenthefirstofficialPortugueseembassytothecourtofPresterJohnlandedattheportofMassawain1520andmadeitswayinlandtomeetwithLebnaDengel, the Solomonic emperor who had been on the throne since 1508. One of themembersof thisembassywasFatherFranciscoAlvarez–andthereaderwill recall that itwas Alvarez who had been told by priests of the ancient tradition that the rock-hewnchurchesofLalibelahadbeen‘madebywhitemen’.79I now turned back to the English translation of the lengthy narrative thatAlvarez hadwrittenafter leavingEthiopia in1526.Re-readinghischapteronLalibela Iwasstruckbythe description he gave of the church of SaintGeorge. Carved into the roof of this greatedifice, he said,was ‘a double cross, that is, onewithin the other, like the crosses of theOrderofChrist.’80Of course, as I already knew, the Lalibela churches had been hewn in the time of theTemplars,longbeforetheOrderofChristwascreatedtofollowintheirfootsteps.Itseemedlogicaltosuppose,however,thatthecrossoftheOrderofChristwasderivedfromadesignthatwouldhavebeensignificanttotheTemplars.ItwasthereforeintriguingtolearnthatthisdesignhadbeenusedonSaintGeorge’s–undoubtedlythefinestchurchintheLalibelacomplex.Castingmymindbacktomyownvisittherein1983,Icouldnotrecallthedoublecrossmotif. I was sufficiently interested, however, to look out the photographs that had

beentakenonthattrip;theseconfirmedthatthedescriptionthatAlvarezhadgivenofSaintGeorge’swasabsolutelycorrect:thedoublecrosswasthere.Inthemid-1520s,whilethePortugueseembassywasstillatthecourtofLebnaDengel,itbecameclear thatEthiopiawouldsooncomeunderattack fromMuslim forcesmassing intheemirateofHararintheeasternpartoftheHornofAfrica.Theseforceswereledbyaredoubtable and charismaticwarlord, Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim el Ghazi,whose nicknamewas‘Gragn’(meaning‘theleft-handed’).Aftersomeyearsofcarefulpreparations,Gragneventuallydeclaredhisholywarin1528and led hordes of wild Somali troops (supported by Arab mercenaries and Turkishmatchlockmen)onarampageintotheChristianhighlands.81Thisturnedouttobenobriefcampaignbutrathercontinued,yearinyearout,withoutanyremit.Acrossthelengthandbreadth of Ethiopia towns and villages were burnt, churches were destroyed, pricelesstreasureswerelooted,andthousandsofpeoplewereputtothesword.82LebnaDengelhadbeensomewhatcooltowardsthePortuguese.Duringthesixyearsthattheir embassy had been in his country (1520–6) he had constantly stressed his own self-sufficiency,saying,inspiteoftheMuslimthreat(whichwasveryapparentby1526),thathe saw no point in hastening into an alliance with any foreign power.83 This strangelyaloofattitude,Ibelieve,couldhavebeenoccasionedbyconcernsastothetruemotivesoftheEuropeanvisitors–particularlyasregardstheArkoftheCovenant.Whatever fears the emperor may have entertained, however, it gradually becameapparenttohimthatGragnposedafargreaterthreatthanthewhitemeneverwould–andnotonlytothesacredrelicbutalsototheveryexistenceofEthiopianChristendom.In1535theMuslimsattackedAxumand razed to theground theancientandmostholychurchofSaintMaryofZion84 (fromwhich, as I shall recount later in this chapter, thepriestshadalready taken the Ark to another place for safekeeping). In 1535, too –and not bycoincidence – LebnaDengel at last overcamehis antipathy towards foreignalliances andsentanenvoytothekingofPortugalwithanurgentrequestformilitaryassistance.85Meanwhile communications between Ethiopia and Europe had become much moredifficult(becausetheTurkshadwoncontrolofmuchofthecoastoftheHornofAfricaaswellasmanyoftheRedSeaports).Ittookalongwhilefortheemperor’sSOStoreachitsdestinationand,inconsequence,itwasnotuntil1541thatacontingentof450Portuguesemusketeers landed at Massawa to lend their support to the Abyssinian army – whichappearedatthatpointtobeutterlybeatenanddemoralized(LebnaDengel,afteryearsontherun,haddiedofexhaustionandhadbeensucceededbyhissonClaudius,thenbarelyoutofhisteens).86Sincetheywerearmedwithmatchlocks,hand-guns,andseveralpiecesofheavyartillery,muchhopewaspinnedupontheinterventionofthePortuguesetroops.TheEthiopianroyalchronicle for 1541 speaks of the confident manner in which they marched up into thehighlands from the coast, praising them as ‘bold and courageousmenwho thirsted afterbattle likewolvesandafter slaughter like lions’.87Nordid thisdescriptionoverstate theirqualities: though small innumbers they foughtwith inspiring valour andwona series ofdecisive victories. The British historian Edward Gibbon was later to summarize theirachievements in just nine words: ‘Ethiopia was saved by four hundred and fiftyPortuguese.’88

Significantlyinmyopinion,thecommanderofthereliefforcewasnoneotherthanDonChristopherdaGama,sonofthefamousVascoand,likehisfather,aKnightoftheOrderofChrist.89JamesBrucewasinordinatelyinterestedinthecharacterofthisyoungadventureranddescribedhiminthefollowingterms:

Hewasbravetoafault;rashandvehement;jealousofwhathethoughtmilitaryhonour;andobstinateinhisresolutions…[However],inalongcatalogueofvirtueswhichhepossessedtoaveryeminentdegree,[he]hadnotthesmallestclaimtothatofpatience,soverynecessarytothosethatcommandarmies.90

Ibelieve that,asaKnightof theOrderofChrist,DonChristophermaywellhavehadanulteriormotive forhis operations inEthiopia: first hewoulddefeat theMuslims; later hewouldseekouttheArkoftheCovenant.Hisrashnessandlackofpatience,however,weretocosthimhislifebeforeeitherobjectivecouldbeachieved.Despite overwhelmingodds, he repeatedly engagedAhmedGragn’s forces in battle (onone occasion, deserted by the Abyssinians, the Portuguese faced 10,000 spearmen – andbeat them). Such feats of derring-do, however,were loadedwith risks and, in 1542,DonChristopherwastakenprisoner(aneyewitnessdescribedhow,shortlybeforehiscapture,he‘hadbeen shot in the rightkneeandwas fightingwithhis sword inhis lefthand, forhisrightarmhadbeenbrokenbyanothershot’91).The Portuguese commander was first horribly tortured and then, according to Bruce’saccountofhislasthours,was

broughtintothepresenceoftheMoorishgeneralGragn,wholoadedhimwithreproaches;towhichherepliedwithsuchashareofinvectivesthattheMoor,intheviolenceofhispassion,drewhisswordandcutoffhisheadwithhisownhand.92

Barelyayearlater,however,theMuslimleadertoowaskilled.InabattlefoughtontheshoresofLakeTanaon10February1543hewasshotdeadbyacertainPeterLeon,

amanoflowstature,butveryactiveandvaliant,whohadbeenvaletdechambretoDonChristopher…TheMoorisharmynosoonermissedthepresenceoftheirgeneralthan,concludingalllost,theyfellintoconfusionandwerepursuedbythePortugueseandAbyssinianswithagreatslaughtertilltheevening.93

Thus,afterfifteenyearsofunparalleleddestructionandviolence,endedtheMuslimattemptto subdue the Christian empire of Ethiopia. The costs to the Portuguese relief forcewereconsiderable: aswell as the redoubtable Don Christopher,more than half of the originalcontingentof450musketeerswerekilled in the fighting.Abyssiniancasualties,ofcourse,were far greater (running into tens of thousands) and the cultural damage – in terms ofburntmanuscripts,iconsandpaintings,razedchurchesandlootedtreasures–wastocastashadowoverthecivilizationofthehighlandsforcenturiestocome.Thegreatesttreasureofall,however,wassaved:movedoutofAxumbythepriestsonlydaysbeforethatcitywasburntin1535,theArkhadbeentakentooneofthemanyisland-

monasteriesonLakeTana.ThereitwaskeptinsafetyuntillongafterGragn’sdeath.Then,inthemid1600s,EmperorFasilidas(describedbyBruceas‘thegreatestkingthateversatupontheAbyssinianthrone’94)builtanewcathedralofSaintMaryofZionovertheguttedruinsoftheold–andthere,withdueceremony,thesacredrelicwasatlastre-installedinallitsformerglory.95Fasilidasdidoneotherthingalso.DespitethedebtofgratitudethathiscountryowedtothePortuguese (whosenumbershadbeenallowed to increase steadilyafter the successfulconclusion of the war with Gragn) hemade it his business to throw all the settlers out.Indeed,heseemedsowaryoftheirintentionsthatheenteredintoabusinessarrangementwiththeTurksatMassawa:anyPortuguesetravellersarrivingthereandseekingentryintoEthiopiaweretobeapprehendedanddecapitated–withasubstantialsumingoldpayableforeachheadthusobtained.96

ThesourceofamysteryAfterthedeathofDonChristopherdaGamatheintenseandfocussedinterestthattheOrderofChristhadshowninEthiopiaseemedtocometoanend.AndafterthereignofFasilidasthere was no longer any way in which that interest could have been pursued by anyPortuguese.However,asnotedearlier,theOrderofChristwasnottheonlyvehicleinwhichTemplartraditions were perpetuated. Scottish Freemasonry, too, inherited some portions of themysticallegacyoftheTempleofSolomon–inwhichtheArkoftheCovenantplayedsuchacentralrole.BecauseofthisScottishconnection,andbecausehehadclaimedtobeadistantdescendant of the king who had welcomed the fugitive Templars in the fourteenthcentury,97 I felt thatacloser investigationwaswarranted into theactivitiesofoneof themostaudaciousanddeterminedforeignersevertovisitEthiopia:JamesBruceofKinnaird.Standingrathermorethansixfeetfourinchestall,andwithagirthtomatch,Brucewasagiantofaman(‘thetallestmanyoueversawgratis’,asonecontemporarydescribedhim).Hewasalsowealthyandwelleducated.Born in1730 in the lowlandsofScotlandon thefamily estate at Kinnaird, hewas sent at the age of twelve toHarrow school,where hisworkintheclassicallanguageswasconsideredexcellentbyhisteachers.HelatercompletedhisstudiesatEdinburghUniversity.AperiodofillnessfollowedandwhenherecoveredhewenttoLondonintendingtotakeupa jobofferwith theEast IndiaCompany.Once there,however,he fellpassionately inlove with a beautiful woman named Adriane Allan, whom he married in 1753. Soonafterwardshejoinedhisfather-in-law’swinetradingbusinessasapartner.Tragedy followed. On a trip to France in 1754 Adriane died suddenly and, though heremarriedmuchlaterandfatheredseveralchildren,Bruceseemstohavetakenalongtimetorecoverfromthelossofhisfirstwife.Restlessanddepressed,hebegantotravelalmostcontinuously,learningnewlanguageswithgreatfacilitywhereverhewent.HisperegrinationstookhimfirsttoEurope,wherehefought a duel in Belgium, sailed down the Rhine, inspected Roman ruins in Italy, andstudiedArabicmanuscriptsinSpainandPortugal.Subsequently–afterhislinguisticabilityhad been recognized by his government – he was given a diplomatic posting as British

consul inAlgiers.Fromtherehe later travelledextensivelyalong theNorthAfricancoast,visiting the ruins of Carthage, before journeying onwards to the Holy Land where heexplored several other ancient sites. He also found the time to return occasionally toScotland toattend to the familyestatesofwhichhewasnow the laird,his fatherhavingdiedin1758.During this period the young Scotsman became something of an astronomer, acquiring

twostate-of-thearttelescopesthatsubsequentlywenteverywherewithhim.Healsopickedup surveying and navigational skills that would be invaluable to him on his travels inAbyssinia.Itisnotclearexactlywhenheconceivedofthislastadventure,butthereisevidencethat

he had been planning it for a considerablewhile (it is known, for example, that he hadbeguntolearnGe’ez,theclassicallanguageofEthiopia,asearlyas175998).Becauseofsuchpreparations,which included detailed readings of theworks of all previous travellers, hehadaccumulatedagreatdealofbackgroundknowledgeaboutthecountrybythetimethathearrivedinCairoin1768tobeginhisepicjourney.What was it that inspired Bruce to go to Ethiopia? His own account of his motives is

unambiguous: he went, he said, risking ‘numberless dangers and sufferings, the least ofwhich would have overwhelmed me but for the continual goodness and protection ofProvidence’, in order to discover the source of the Nile.99 Lest anyone should be in anydoubtthatthiswasindeedhisambitionheenshrineditconspicuouslyinthefulltitleoftheimmensebookthathelaterwrote:TravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNileintheYears1768,1769,1770,1771,1772and1773.There is amystery here, however,which has attracted the attention ofmore than one

historian (though no solution has ever been proposed to it).100 Themystery is this: longbefore he set out for Ethiopia, James Bruce knew that the BlueNile’s source had alreadybeen visited and thoroughly explored by two other Europeans: Pedro Paez and JeronimoLobo(bothofwhomwerePortuguesepriestswhohadlivedinEthiopiainthe1600sbeforetheFasilidasbanwasputintoeffect).As my research into the Ark of the Covenant progressed during 1989, the mystery of

Bruce’sobjectivescametoengagemyattentionmoreandmore.ThefiveheftyvolumesofhisTravels had become essential referenceworks forme because they provided a uniquepictureofEthiopiancultureatatimewhenthatculturewasstillnottoofarseparatedfromits own archaic origins. Moreover, I knew the Scottish adventurer to have been aconsiderable scholar, and I was impressed from the outset by the solid accuracy of hisobservationsandbythegeneralworthofhisjudgmentsandopinionsonmattersofhistory.I also regarded him as an honest man, not overly prone to hyperbole, exaggeration ormisrepresentation.Howthen,Ihadtoaskmyself–sinceitwasclearfrommanyofhisowncommentsthathehadcarefullyreadtheworksofbothPaezandLobo101–couldIaccountfor the fact thathehad failed togive themcredit for their achievements?102 Since I fullyagreed with the subsequent judgment of history (namely that ‘Bruce, far from being aromancer,wasamostreliableguide’103)Ifoundmyselfincreasinglypuzzledbyhisobviousdishonestyoverthiscruciallyimportantissue–adishonestywhichhecompoundedwiththebaldassertionthat‘noneofthePortuguese…eversaw,orindeedpretendedtohaveseen,thesourceoftheNile’.104

IwassoontodiscoverthatthiswasnottheonlymatteraboutwhichBrucehadlied.OnthesubjectoftheArkoftheCovenanthewasevenmoreevasiveanddeceitful.DescribinghisownvisittothesacredcityofAxum,hecommentedonthedestructionbyAhmedGragnofthefirstchurchofSaintMaryofZionandadded–correctly–thatanotherhadnowbeenbuiltinitsplace:

Init[is]supposedtobepreservedtheArkoftheCovenant…whichMenelik…issaid,intheirfabulouslegends,tohavestolenfromhisfatherSolomononhisreturntoEthiopia…SomeancientcopyoftheOldTestament,Idobelieve,wasdepositedhere…butwhateverthismightbe,itwasdestroyed…byGragn,thoughpretendedfalselytosubsisttherestill.ThisIhadfromtheKinghimself.105

Insummary,whatBruceappearedtobesayingwasthattheArkhadneverbeenbroughttoAxum(sincethestoryofMenelikandSolomonwasjusta‘fabulouslegend’),thatthereliconce stored in the church could therefore only have been ‘some ancient copy of the OldTestament’, and that even this relic no longer existed since it had been ‘destroyed byGragn’. These statements were then backed up with the assertion that they had beencorroboratedby‘theKinghimself’.HaditnotbeenforthatlastremarkImighthavebeencontenttobelievethatBrucehad

simplyneverlearnedofhowtheArkhadbeensavedduringthewarwiththeMuslims,andofhowithadlaterbeenreturnedtoAxumaftertherebuildingofSaintMaryofZion.Theclaimthat‘theKinghimself’hadattestedtothedestructionoftherelicwaspatentlyfalse,however: in 1690 – long after theGragn campaigns and just eighty years before Bruce’sownvisit–anEthiopianmonarchhadenteredtheHolyofHoliesofthenewSaintMary’swherehehadactuallyseentheArk(thusconfirmingitscontinuedexistence).Themonarchinquestion(IyasutheGreat)hadbeenapriestaswellasaking,andbecauseofthishehadbeenallowednotonlytoviewthesacredrelicbutalsotoopenitandgazeinsideit.106Sinceit is inconceivable that theking inBruce’sdaywouldnothaveknownof this famousandunprecedentedincident,IhadtoconcludethattheScottishtravellerwasonceagainbeing‘economicalwiththetruth’.107Myconviction that thiswas sodeepened furtherwhen I realized– contrary tohisown

statement quoted above – that Bruce had not in fact regarded the Ethiopian tradition ofMenelik,SolomonandtheQueenofShebaasa‘fabulouslegend’.Onthecontrary,hehadtreateditwiththeutmostrespect.InVolumeIofhisTravels–somethousandpagesbeforehisaccountofhisvisittoAxum–hehadwrittenatgreatlengthaboutthecloseculturalandcommercial connections between Ethiopia and the Holy Land in early Old Testamenttimes.108 Here, amongst other things, he had unequivocally stated his own view that theQueenofShebahadbeenarealhistoricalperson(ratherthanamythicalfigure),109thatshehadindeedmadehervoyagetothecourtofKingSolomoninJerusalem(‘therecanbenodoubtofthisexpedition’110)and–mostimportantofall–thatshehadcomefromEthiopiarather than from any other country: ‘[Others] have thought thisQueenwas anArab,’ heconcluded,’‘[but]manyreasons…convincemethatshewasanEthiopian.’111He next went on to describe as ‘by nomeans improbable’112 the account given in the

KebraNagastofthequeen’sloveaffairwithSolomonandthesubsequentbirthofMenelik.In

the same vein he then retold the story ofMenelik’s own visit to Jerusalem and ultimatereturntoEthiopiabringingwithhim‘acolonyofJews,amongwhomweremanydoctorsofthe law of Moses’.113 These events, Bruce concluded, had led to ‘the foundation of anEthiopianmonarchy,andthecontinuationofthesceptreinthetribeofJudahdowntothisday…firstwhenJews,then…aftertheyhadembracedChristianity.’114AllthiswasnothingmorenorlessthanastraightforwardprécisoftheKebraNagastinacontext that granted it a great deal of weight and historical authenticity. Strangely,however,whilecoveringeveryothermajordetail,Bruceat thispointmadeabsolutelynomention of the Ark of the Covenant – an omission that could only have been deliberategiventhecentralandall-pervasiveroleplayedbythesacredrelicintheEthiopiannationalepic.Onceagain,therefore,IwasforcedtoconcludethattheScottishtravellerhadknowinglymisledhisreadersabouttheArk.Butwhyshouldhehavewantedtodothat?Whatpossiblemotivecouldhehavehad?Mycuriosityaroused,Icarefullyre-readhisdescriptionofAxumandcameacrossanimportantdetailthatIhadcompletelyoverlookedbefore:hisownvisittherehadtakenplaceon18and19ofJanuary1770.115Thistiming,Isuddenlyrealized,couldhavebeennoaccident,foronpreciselythosetwodayshewouldhavewitnessedthecelebrationofTimkat,themostimportantfestivaloftheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch.Duringthisfestival,andatnoothertime–asIhadestablishedwhen I talked to theguardian-priest in1983– theArkof theCovenantwas traditionallywrappedinrichbrocades(‘toprotectthelaityfromit’116)andcarriedoutinprocession.117Bruce had therefore chosen to be inAxumon the single occasion in the yearwhen, as alayman,hemighthavehadareasonableopportunitytogetclosetothesacredrelic.Iwasbynowseriouslybeginning towonderwhether ithadnotbeen theArkallalongthat had lured the Scottish traveller to Ethiopia: his claim to have gone there to find thesourceoftheNiledidnotstanduptoclosescrutinyandboreallthehallmarksofa‘coverstory’intendedtoveiltherealobjectofhisquest.Moreoverhisevasivenessonthesubjectof the Ark itself was most peculiar and really only made sense if he had indeed had aspecialinterestinit–aninterestthathehadwantedtokeepsecret.SoonIlearnedotherthingsthatdeepenedmysuspicions.Idiscovered,forexample,thatBrucehadbeenfluentinancientHebrew,AramaicandSyriac118–deadlanguagesthathecouldhavehadnoreasontolearnunlesshehadwishedtomakeanintimatestudyofearlybiblical texts. Moreover, there could be no doubt that he had made such a study: hisknowledgeof theOldTestament,which shoneout fromnearlyeverypageof theTravels,wasdescribedbyonescripturalexpertas‘outstanding’.119NorwasthistheonlyexampleofBruce’s ‘morethancommonerudition’.120As Ialreadyknew, he had also carried out meticulous and original research into the culture andtraditions of the black Jews of Ethiopia. ‘I did not’, as he himself had put it, ‘sparemyutmostpainsininquiringintothehistoryofthiscuriouspeople,andlivedinfriendshipwithseveralesteemedthemostknowingandlearnedamongthem.’121BecauseofsucheffortshehadmanagedtomakealastingcontributiontothestudyofFalashasociety–acontributionthat, like somuchelse,didnot jibe at allwithhisprofessed enthusiasm for geographicalexplorationbutthatwasentirelyconsistentwithaquestforthelostArk.ItelephonedthehistorianBelaiGedaiinAddisAbabaandaskedhimwhetherhehadany

viewsonBruce’smotives.Hisreplyshookme:‘AsamatteroffactwhatweEthiopianssayisthatMrJamesBrucedidnotcometoourcountrytodiscoverthesourceoftheNile.Wesaythathewasjustpretendingthat.Wesaythathehadanotherreason.’‘Tellmemore,’Irequested.‘Whatdoyouthinkhisobjectivecouldhavebeenifitwasn’ttheNile?’‘Therealreasonhecamewastostealourtreasures,’Gedaisaidresentfully,‘ourculturaltreasures. He took many precious manuscripts back to Europe. The book of Enoch, forexample.AlsofromtheimperialrepositoryatGondarhecarriedoffanancientcopyoftheKebraNagast.’Thiswasnewstome–butexcitingnewsiftrue.IinvestigatedfurtherandinduecourseconfirmedthatGedaiwasabsolutelycorrect.OnleavingEthiopiaBrucehadindeedcarriedtheKebraNagastwithhim–andnotjustthesinglesplendidcopytakenfromtheimperialrepositorybutalsoacopyofthatcopythathehadmadehimself (hisknowledgeofGe’ez,theclassicalEthiopiclanguage,beingnear-perfect122).MuchlaterhegavebothmanuscriptstotheBodleianLibraryatOxford,wheretheyremaintothisday(as‘Bruce93’and‘Bruce97’).123Norwasthisall.Priortotheeighteenthcentury,scholarshadbelievedthebookofEnochtobe irretrievably lost: composed longbefore thebirthofChrist,124 and considered tobeone of themost important pieces of Jewishmystical literature, it was only known fromfragments and from references to it in other texts. James Bruce changed all this byprocuringseveralcopiesofthemissingworkduringhisstayinEthiopia.ThesewerethefirstcompleteeditionsofthebookofEnochevertobeseeninEurope.125Iwas of course interested to discover that Bruce had brought back theKebraNagast toEurope–andthathehadalsogonetothetroubleofcopyingouttheentiremassivevolumebyhand.ThismadetheomissionoftheArkoftheCovenantinhissummaryofthatworklook even more suspicious than I had originally thought. Suspicions are not certainties,however. ItwasthereforeonlywhenIgot the fullstoryof theBookofEnoch,andof theservice that the Scottish adventurer had performed for scholarship in this regard, that IfinallyfeltsurethatIwasontherighttrack.I learned that theBookofEnochhas alwaysbeenof great significance to Freemasons,and that certain rituals dating back to long before Bruce’s time identified Enoch himselfwith Thoth, the Egyptian god of wisdom.126 I then found a lengthy entry in the RoyalMasonicCyclopaediawhichrecordedotherrelevanttraditionsoftheorder–forexamplethatEnochwastheinventorofwriting,‘thathetaughtmentheartofbuilding’,andthat,beforetheflood,he‘fearedthattherealsecretswouldbelost–topreventwhichheconcealedtheGrandSecret,engravenonawhiteorientalporphyrystone,inthebowelsoftheearth.’Theentry in theCyclcopaedia concludedwith thesewords: ‘TheBook of Enochwas known toexist fromvery ancient times, and is continually alluded to by the fathers of theChurch.BrucebroughthomethreecopiesfromAbyssinia.’127ThisbriefandfamiliarmentionofBruce,coupledwiththefactthathehadgonetosuchgreatlengthstoobtainnotonebutthreecopiesoftheBookofEnoch,raisedthepossibilitythathemighthimselfhavebeenaFreemason.Ifso,thenasolutiontoallthepuzzlesabouthis evasiveness and dishonesty suggested itself. I was already convinced that he had aspecial interest in theArk of theCovenant – an interest that he had been determined to

conceal. Now I could see exactly how hemight have acquired that interest (andwhy hemighthavewantedtokeepitsecret).AsaFreemason–andaScottishFreemasontoboot–he could have been exposed to the Templar traditions concerning the Ark’s presence inEthiopia.ButwasBruceaMason?Findingtheanswer to thisquestionwasbynomeanseasy. In

the more than 3,000 pages of his Travels there was not a single clue that would haveenabled me even to arrive at an informed opinion on the matter. Nor was anyenlightenment shed by the two detailed and extensive biographies that had beenwrittenabouthim(thefirstin1836128andthesecondin1968129).ItwasnotuntilAugust1990thatIwasatlastabletotraveltoScotlandtovisitBruce’s

familyestate,whereIhopedImightbeabletoobtainsomedefinitiveinformation.IfoundKinnairdHouseontheoutskirtsoftheFalkirksuburbofLarbert.Situatedwellbackfromthemain road in extensive and secluded grounds, it was an imposing edifice of grey stone.Aftersomeunderstandablehesitation,itspresentowner–MrJohnFindlayRussell–invitedme in and showed me around. It was quite obvious from many architectural details,however,thatthebuildingdidnotdatebacktoBruce’stime.‘That’squiteright,’FindlayRussellagreed. ‘KinnairdHousepassedoutofthepossession

oftheBrucefamilyin1895andwasknockeddownbyitsnewowner,aDrRobertOrr.Hebuiltthepresentmansionin1897.’We were standing in an immense panelled hallway directly in front of a broad stone

staircase.FindlayRussellnowpointedtothesestairsandaddedproudly:‘They’rejustaboutthe only original feature to have been preserved.DrOrr left them in place and built hishousearoundthem.They’reofsomehistoricsignificanceyouknow.’‘Oh,really?Why?’‘BecauseJamesBrucediedonthem.Itwasin1794.He’dbeengivingadinnerinoneof

the upstairs rooms and he was escorting a guest down the stairs when he tripped andpitchedoveronhishead.Thatwastheendofhim.Agreattragedy.’BeforeleavingIaskedFindlayRussellifhehadanyideawhetherBrucemighthavebeen

aFreemasonornot.‘No,’hesaid.‘Noideaatall.OfcourseItakeagreatinterestinhim,butIwouldn’tclaim

tobeanexpert.’I nodded, disappointed. As I was walking out of the door, however, another question

occurredtome:‘Doyouhappentoknowwherehe’sburied?’‘LarbertOldChurch.You’llhaveajobfindingthetombthough.Thereusedtobeagreat

iron obelisk raised up over it, but that was pulled down some years ago because it wasrustingaway.Itwasconsideredadangertothepublic.’Thedrive to thechurchtookonly tenminutes.Locating the last restingplaceofoneof

Scotland’sgreatestexplorerstookmuchlonger,however.Itwasamiserable,rainyafternoonandIgrewmoreandmoredepressedasIhuntedup

anddowntherowsofgravestones.Asapersonality,therewasnodoubtthatBrucehadhadmany failings. Nevertheless, I felt strongly that this brave and enigmatic man deservedsome lasting monument: it seemed shameful that he should have been left to lie in acompletelyunmarkedpatchofground.AfterIhadthoroughlysearchedthemaincemeteryandfoundnothing,Inoticedathickly

overgrownareasurroundedbyalowstonewallsetintowhichwasasmallgate.Iopenedthisgateandthenwalkeddownaflightofthreestepswhichled…toarubbishtip.Pilesofold clothing, discarded shoes, tin cans and bits of broken furniture lay scattered aroundamidst dense patches of stinging nettles and brambles. Several massive trees lockedbranches overhead and their intertwined leaves formed a dripping green canopy thatallowedverylittlelighttopenetrate.Cursingtheswarmsofmidgesandwaspsthatroseuptogreetme,Iproceededtostamp

downasmuchofthevegetationasIcould.Ihadlookedeverywhereelse,Ireasoned,soImight aswell look here too. I had almost given up hope, however, when finally, in thecentreoftheenclosure,Istumbleduponseveralsolidstoneslabslaidflatonthegroundandcompletelycoveredwithmoss,lichenandvilenettles.Withasenseofreverence–butalsoofanger–IclearedtheslabsasbestIcouldandgazeddownatthem.TherewasnothingtosaythattheycoveredBruce’sremainsbut,somehow,Ifeltsurethattheydid.Involuntarilya lump rose in my throat. Here lay a man – a great man – who had preceded me toEthiopia. Moreover, if my guess about his Masonic connections was correct, then therecould be little doubt that he had gone to that far country in quest of the lost Ark. Now,however, itseemedthat Imightneverbeabletoprovethoseconnections.TheonlythingthatwascertainwasthatBrucewaslosthimself–lostandforgotteninthelandofhisbirth.Istayedthereforawhile,thinkingmygloomythoughts.ThenIleftthelittleenclosure,

not by the gate through which I had entered it but rather by clambering over thesurrounding wall into a courtyard beyond. There, almost immediately, I saw somethinginteresting:lyingonitssidequiteclosetowhereIstoodwasanenormousmetalobelisk.Iapproachedand found that JamesBruce’s namewas engravedupon it, togetherwith thefollowingepitaph:

Hislifewasspentperformingusefulandsplendidactions.Heexploredmanydistantregions.HediscoveredthefountainsoftheNile.Hewasanaffectionatehusband,anindulgentparent,Anardentloverofhiscountry.BytheunanimousvoiceofmankindhisnameisEnrolledwiththosewhowereconspicuousForgenius,forvalour,andforvirtue.

WhatIfoundmostexcitingofallabouttheobeliskwasthatitwasintact–notrustingandcrumbling–andthatitwascoveredwithfreshredprimerpaint.Someone,clearly,wasstilltaking an interest in the explorer – enough of an interest to have had his monumentrestored,thoughnotyetsetupoverhisgraveagain.Later that afternoon I made enquiries with the church authorities and discovered the

identityof themysteriousbenefactor. It seemedthat theobeliskhadbeentakenawayforrepairs some years previously and had only been returned to Larbert the day beforemyownarrival.TherestorationworkhadbeenorganizedandpaidforbynolesserpersonthanthetitularheadoftheBrucefamilyinScotland–theEarlofElginandKincardine,himselfaMasterMason.130ThiswasapromisingleadandIfolloweditallthewaytoBroomhall,thebeautifulestate

justnorthof theFirthofForthwhereLordElgin lived. I telephoned first– theBroomhallnumberwasnotex-directory–andmadeanappointmentforSaturdaymorning,4August.‘Ican’tgiveyoumorethanaboutfifteenminutes,’theearlwarned.‘Fifteenminuteswillbeenough,’Ireplied.Elginturnedouttobeashort,stocky,elderlymanwithapronouncedlimp(apparentlythe result of injuries receivedwhile a prisoner of the Japanese during the SecondWorldWar).WithoutmuchceremonyheusheredmeintoasplendiddrawingroomdominatedbyfamilyportraitsandsuggestedthatIgetstraighttothepoint.So far his manner had been a little abrupt. As we talked about Bruce, however, hesoftened–anditgraduallybecamecleartomefromhisdetailedandextensiveknowledgethathehadmadeaclosestudyofthelifeoftheScottishexplorer.Atonestagehetookmeinto another room and showed me several shelves filled with old and esoteric books inmanydifferentlanguages.‘ThesewerefromBruce’spersonallibrary,’heexplained.‘Hewasamanofverywideinterests…Ialsohavehistelescope,hisquadrantandhiscompass…Icanlookthemoutforyouifyoulike.’Whileallthiswasgoingon,thequarterofanhourIhadbeenpromisedhadturnedintoanhourandahalf.SpellboundbyElgin’senthusiasm,Ihadsomehowstillnotmanagedtoask him the question that had brought me here. Now, quite suddenly, he glanced at hiswatchandsaid:‘Gosh,lookatthetime.I’mafraidyou’llhavetogo.Thingstodo…I’mofftotheHighlandsthisafternoon.Perhapsyoucancomebackonsomeotheroccasion?’‘Er…yes.I’dlikethatverymuch.’At this, beaming graciously, the earl stood up. I stood too andwe shook hands. I feltdistinctlyfoolishbutIwasdeterminednottoleavewithoutsatisfyingmycuriosity.‘Ifyoudon’tmind,’Isaid,‘there’soneotherthingIparticularlywantedtoaskyou.It’stodo with a theory I’ve been developing about the motives that led Bruce to make hisexpeditiontoEthiopia.Doyouhappentoknow…er…um…Imeanisthereanychance,anypossibilityatall,thathemighthavebeenaFreemason?’Elginlookedslightlyamazed.‘Mydearboy,’hereplied.‘OfcoursehewasaMason.Itwasavery,veryimportantpartofhislife.’

PartIII:Ethiopia,1989–90

Labyrinth

Chapter8IntoEthiopia

OnmyvisittohisestateinScotland,theEarlofElginconfirmedthatmysuspicionsaboutJames Bruce were correct: the explorer had indeed been a Freemason (a member ofCanongateKilwinningLodgeNo.2inthecityofEdinburgh).Elgin also toldme that Bruce had been verymuch involved in the ‘speculative’ side ofFreemasonry – as distinct from the more pragmatic and mundane ‘craft’ Masonry. Thismeantthathewouldhavecultivatedaninterestintheesotericandocculttraditionsofthebrotherhood–traditions,including‘KnightTemplarism’,thatmostmodernMasonsneitherknewnorcaredanythingabout.Ishouldadd,atthispoint,thatIhadneverfeltthatallMasonswouldhavehadaccesstotheTemplarlegacy;onthecontrary,itwasreasonabletosupposethatsuchaccesswouldatalltimeshavebeenrestrictedtoaveryfewpeople.Bruce,however,lookedlikeanidealcandidateformembershipofthatprivilegedgroup.Withhis extensiveknowledgeof the Scriptures, his scholarly attraction tomysticalworkssuchastheBookofEnoch,andhis‘speculative’leaningswithintheMasonicsystem,hewaspreciselythekindofmanwhowouldhaveinvestigatedTemplartraditionsconcerningthelastrestingplaceoftheArkoftheCovenant.AftermymeetingwithLordElgin,therefore, I feltmoreconfidentthaneverthat ithadbeen the Ark all along, rather than the Nile, that had lured the Scottish adventurer toEthiopiain1768.Hisparadoxicaldishonestyoncertainkeyissues(paradoxicalbecausehewas normally so truthful) nowmade sense tome; his evasiveness and secrecywere nowexplained. I might never know what mysteries he had uncovered in the Abyssinianhighlandsallthosemanyyearsago;now,however,Icouldatleastbereasonablysureabouthismotives.Ithadbeeninthesummerof1989whenIhadfirstbeguntowonderwhetherBrucemighthavebeenaMason,but itwasnotuntilAugust1990 that IhadmydiscussionwithLordElgin. Meanwhile, as recounted in the last chapter, I had followed up the ‘Portugueseconnection’representedbymembersoftheOrderofChristwhohadtravelledtoEthiopiainthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies.All the evidence that I had unearthed seemed to point in the direction of a continuingquestfortheArk–acovertventurethathaddrawntravellershailingfromquitedifferenthistorical periods and from different lands towards the same lofty and enduring goal.Moreover, if this had been the case in centuries past then might it not still be the casetoday? Might not others be seeking the Ark in Ethiopia just as I was? As my researchprogressed I kept anopenmindon this questionwhile continually adding tomy filesonpeople like James Bruce and Christopher da Gama. Even without the stimulus ofcompetition,however,my findingsduring the spring and summerof1989had convincedme that itwashigh time forme to return toEthiopia toadd somedetailed fieldwork towhathadhithertobeenprimarilyanintellectualexercise.

DifficulttimesItookthisdecisionasearlyasJune1989,butseveralmonthsweretoelapsebeforeIwasfinallyabletoimplementit.Why?Becauseon19MayofthatyearaviolentcouphadbeenattemptedinAddisAbabathrowingthewholeofEthiopiaintoturmoil.The government of President Mengistu Haile-Mariam survived, but only at great cost.Afterthedusthadsettledonehundredandseventy-sixrebelliousofficerswereroundedupandarrested,includingnolessthantwenty-fourgenerals,amongstthemtheCommanderofGround Forces and the Chief of Operations. Rather than be captured and face trial, theArmedForcesChiefofStaffandtheCommanderoftheAirForcecommittedsuicide.ElevenothergeneralswerekilledinthefightingandtheMinisterofDefencewasshotdeadbythecoupplotters.The consequences of this ugly bloodbathwere to hauntMengistu and his regime for avery longwhile to come:with the officer corps effectively gutted, themilitary’s decision-making capacity was reduced virtually to zero, a state of affairs that quickly translateditselfintoreversesonthebattlefield.Indeed,inthemonthsimmediatelyfollowingthecoup,the Ethiopian army suffered a series of crushing defeats that ended in its total expulsionfromtheprovinceofTigray(whichtheTPLFdeclareda‘liberatedzone’)andfrommostofEritrea as well (where the EPLF was already laying in place the structures for anindependent state). The fighting also spread with alarming rapidity into other areas –including north-eastWollo,where the ancient city of Lalibelawas overrun in September1989,andGondar,wheretheregionalcapitalwasbesieged.The worst setback of all, at least from my own selfish perspective, was that thegovernmentwasno longer incontrolofAxum. Indeed,asnoted inChapter3, the sacredcity had been seized by theTPLF at the end of 1988, somemonths before the attemptedcoup. I had at first hoped that this would be a temporary state of affairs. As the dismalevents of the second half of 1989 began to unfold, however, I had to face up to thepossibilitythattheguerillasmightbeabletoholdontoAxumindefinitely.This,ofcourse,leftmewiththeoptionofapproachingtheTPLFinLondonandtryingtowintheirco-operationingettingintotheareasthattheynowadministered.Iwas,however,not ready topursue thisoption immediately.Myown long-standingconnectionswith theEthiopiangovernmentmeantthattheLiberationFrontwouldregardanyoverturesfrommewith intense suspicion. One possible outcome, unless I played my cards very cleverlyindeed,wasthattheywouldpoint-blankrefusemyrequesttogotoAxum.ButfranklyIwasmore concernedabout the safetyofmy skin if theydidagree to takeme in: asaknownfriendofthehatedMengisturegimewasn’tthereachance,onthelonganddangerousroadintoTigray,thatsomelocalguerillacommandermightdecideIwasaspyandhavemeshot–eveniftheLondonofficehadclearedmeforthevisit?Inthepost-coupatmospherenothingcouldbecertaininEthiopia;noplanscouldbemadewith any degree of confidence; and therewas noway of predictingwhatmight happenfrom one week to the next. Any number of dramatic developments looked theoreticallypossible–notleastthefallofMengistuandacompletevictoryforthecombinedforcesoftheEPLFandtheTPLF.Idecided,therefore,thatIwouldfocusmyeffortsonotheraspectsofmy researchuntil a clearerpicturehademerged. Itwas thusnotuntilNovember1989thatIfinallyreturnedtoEthiopia.

Asecrethidingplace?TheinformationthatprecipitedmyreturnwasprovidedtomebytheVeryReverendLiqaBerhanat SolomonGabre Selassie. I first encountered themanwho owned this extremelylong name in London on 12 June 1989, at which time I discovered that he also had anextremely long and full grey beard, nut-brown skin, twinkling eyes, splendid ceremonialrobes,and– suspendedaroundhisneck–anelaboratewoodencrucifix.Archpriestof theSaintMaryofZionEthiopianOrthodoxChurch in theUnitedKingdom,hewas, in fact,amissionary.HehadbeensenttoBritainsomeyearspreviouslybythePatriarchateinAddisAbabainordertospreadtheOrthodoxmessage.Moreoverhehadsucceededinwinninganumber of converts, mainly young Londoners of West Indian origin, some of whom hebrought with him to our meeting – which I had arranged in order to pump him forinformationabouttheArk.Archpriest Solomon was, for me, the very image of an Old Testament patriarch. The

venerablebeard,thesagaciousandyetslightlyroguishmanner,thecharismaticpersonalityleavenedwithgenuinehumility,andtheabsoluteconvictionofadeeplyheldfaithalladdedirresistiblytothisimpression.Itquicklybecamecleartomeaswetalkedthathepossessedanunshakablebeliefthatthe

sacredrelicwasindeedinEthiopia.Anintelligentandobviouslyhighlyeducatedmanwhospoutedoutbiblicalreferenceswithanassurancebornofalifetimeofstudy,heexpressedthisviewfirmlyandcalmlyandrefusedtoacceptthattherewasanypossibilityatallthathemightbemistaken.On a sheet of paper in front ofme I took careful notes as he forcefully reiterated this

point: theoriginalArkof theCovenantwhichhadbeenconstructedat the footofMountSinaitocontainthetabletsofstonebearingtheTenCommandments–thatverysamepureandauthenticobjectnowrestedinAxum.Furthermore,heinsisted,itstillhad‘itspowers,thanks to theGrace of God’ andwas, in addition, ‘protected by the entire population ofTigray’. ‘It remains today’, he concluded, ‘in the safe hands of the church and Christianpeoplewhoareconstantlyseenaroundthechurch’scompound.’Before thearchpriest left, Iwrotedowna listof fifteenquestions that Iwantedhim to

answer in detail. When his considered replies arrived at my home by post in mid-July,however,IwasfarawayinEgypt.OnmyreturnsomeweekslaterIbarelyglancedatthetenpagesofmixedhandwritingandtypescriptthathehadsentme.IndeedIwassobusyanalysing and working through the Egyptian material I had gathered that I didn’t evenbothertosendhimanoteofthanks.In an idle moment in early November I finally turned my attention to the document

whichIhadplacedinthe‘pending’trayonmydeskmorethanthreemonthspreviously.Ifound that it contained point-by-point responses to allmy fifteen questions. Some of theanswers,furthermore,werebothintriguingandprovocative.Forexample,Ihadaskedwhetherthealleged‘supernatural’powersoftheArkhadever

beenharnessedby the rulers ofEthiopia tobringvictory inwar.TheBiblemade it clearthat this had been done on several occasions in ancient Israel.1 If the Arkwas really inEthiopia, therefore, wasn’t it logical to suppose that this tradition would have beenmaintained?‘In the teaching of our Church’, Solomon had replied, ‘God is the only power in the

universe. He is the creator of all existing life, visible and invisible. He himself is theuncreated eternal light, which gives us light and power and grace. There is, however, atangibledimensioninwhichwecanunderstandtherelationbetweenGodandtheArk,forsince the Ark contains the ten sacred words of the Law, written by God, the gift of Hisholinesscannotbediminishedwithinit.Uptothisday,therefore,HisgracestillrestsupontheArk,sobythenameofGoditisholyandofgreatspiritualsignificance.’The former rulersofEthiopia, thearchpriest’sanswercontinued,hadknown this.Since

their prime function was to protect and defend the Orthodox Christian faith they had,duringthemanywarsfoughtoverthepassingcenturies,madeuseoftheArkfromtimetotime ‘as a sourceof spiritual strength against the aggressors…TheKingwould rally thepeople forbattleand thepriestswould standason thedaywhenJoshuacarried theArkaround the city of Jericho. Likewise our priests carried theArk, chanting and going intobattleinthegloryofGod.’Thisuseofthesacredrelicasawarpalladium–andasaneffectiveoneatthat–wasnot,

according to Archpriest Solomon, just something that had happened in Ethiopia’s distantpast. On the contrary: ‘As recently as 1896when the King of KingsMenelik the Secondfought against the Italian aggressors at the battle ofAdowa in Tigray region, the priestscarriedtheArkoftheCovenantintothefieldtoconfronttheinvaders.Asaresultofthis,MenelikwasveryvictoriousandreturnedtoAddisAbabaingreathonour.’Ire-readthispartofthereplywithconsiderableinterestbecauseIknewthatMenelikII

had indeed been ‘very victorious’ in 1896. In that year, under the command of GeneralBaratieri,17,700 Italian troopsequippedwithheavyartilleryand the latestweaponshadmarched up into the Abyssinian highlands from the Eritrean coastal strip intent oncolonizingthewholecountry.Menelik’sforces,thoughillpreparedandlesswellarmed,hadmet thematAdowaon themorningof1March,winning in less thansixhourswhatonehistorian had subsequently described as ‘the most notable victory of an African over aEuropeanarmysince the timeofHannibal’.2 Ina similar tone, theLondonSpectator of 7March 1896 commented: ‘The Italians have suffered a great disaster… greater than haseveroccurredtowhitemeninAfrica.’The tantalizing hint that theArk had been used atAdowa raised inmymind the half-

seriouspossibilitythatitmightstillbebeingusedtoday–perhapsbytheTPLF,whonowhadcontrolofAxumandwho,likeMenelikII,hadcertainlybeenveryvictoriousinrecentmonths.Solomon,however,didnotspeculateaboutthisinhiswrittenanswers.Instead(inhisreplytoaquestionthatIhadaskedconcerningthesecurityoftheArkinthesanctuarychapelduringthecurrentall-outwarbeingfoughtbetweengovernmentandrebelforces)hewentontosuggestacompletelydifferentscenario.WhenIhadtalkedtohiminJunehehadseemedconfidentthatthesacredrelicwasstill

in itsusualplace, ‘protectedby theentirepopulationofTigray’.Nowhedidnot seemsosure. ‘There have been very infrequent occasions’, he explained, ‘during periods of greatviolenceandtribulation,whentheguardianmonk,whowatchestheArkdayandnightuntilhedies,hasbeenobligedtocover itupandbringitoutofAxumtosafety.Weknow,forinstance, that this happened in the sixteenth century when Tigray was invaded by theMuslimarmiesofAhmedGragnandmostofAxumwasdestroyed.ThentheguardiantooktheArktothemonasteryofDagaStephanos,whichstandsonanislandinLakeTana.There

itwashiddeninasecretplace.’Itwasthearchpriest’sconclusionthatreallycausedmetositupandpayattention.UnderthepresentcircumstancesofwarandchaosinTigray,hesaid,itwasquitepossiblethattheguardiancouldhavetakentheArkoutofAxumagain.

Twolakes,twoislandsI flew back to Addis Ababa on Tuesday 14 November 1989, arriving on themorning ofWednesday 15November.Despite the continuing fighting in almost all parts of northernEthiopia, Iwasquiteclear inmyownmindabout theobjectivesof this trip. IfArchpriestSolomon’sanalysiswascorrect,Ireasoned,mightnotthesacredrelicbelievedtobetheArkof theCovenantbe restingevennowon themonastic islandofDagaStephanos– in thatsame‘secretplace’towhichithadbeentakeninthesixteenthcentury?This,furthermore,wasnottheonlylocationinwhichitmighthavebeenconcealed.IalsorememberedverywellthatDrBelaiGedaihadtoldmeinoneofourseverallong-distancetelephone conversations of another, earlier tradition concerning the saving of the ArkduringtheuprisingofQueenGuditinthetenthcentury.Atthetime,theEthiopianhistorianhadexplained,ithadbeenbroughttooneoftheislandsonLakeZwai.IhadthereforecometoEthiopiatocheckoutbothLakeTanaandLakeZwai:theformerlyinginthewar-tornnorth,thoughstillinanareacontrolledbythegovernment;thelatterinsaferterritoryabouttwohours’drivetothesouthofAddisAbaba.IfeltatremendoussenseofurgencyduringmyfirstfewdaysintheEthiopiancapital.Ihad left England less than a week after reading Archpriest Solomon’s answers to myquestions,and the reasonwhy Iwas in suchahurrywasquite simple: thoughLakeZwaiwas secure enough, for thepresent at least, therewas absolutelynoguarantee that LakeTanawasgoingtoremainingovernmenthandsforverymuchlonger.Rebelforces,Iknew,hadsurroundedthefortresscityofGondar,whichstoodsomethirtymilestothenorthofthevast lake. Meanwhile, sporadic artillery and hit-and-run attacks had also been directedagainst theportofBaharDaron the southern shore. Since theonlyway forme to reachDagaStephanoswasthroughBaharDarIfeltthatIhadnotimetolose.Therecouldbenoquestionofgoingthroughthenormalbureaucraticchannelstoarrangethe internal travel permit. Accompanied by my old friend Richard Pankhurst, who hadtaken a few days off from the Institute of Ethiopian Studies in order to help me out, Itherefore went along to a meeting with one of my highest-ranking contacts – ShimelisMazengia,Headof Ideologyanda seniormemberof the rulingPolitburoof theWorkers’PartyofEthiopia.AtallslimmaninhisfortieswhospokefluentEnglish,ShimeliswasacommittedMarxistbut also one of the most intelligent and cultured of the Politburo members. His powerwithintheregimewasconsiderableandIknewhimtohaveagenuineenthusiasmfortheancient history of his country. I therefore hoped that he might be persuaded to use hisinfluence to back the research that Iwanted to do – and in this Iwas not disappointed.AfterIhadoutlinedmyprojecttohimheagreedreadilytomyproposedfieldtripstoLakeTanaand toLakeZwai.Theonlyconditionwas thatmystay in theTanaareashouldbekeptasshortaspossible.‘Doyouhaveascheduleinmind?’heasked.

Ipulledoutmydiaryand,afteramoment’sthought,proposedMondaythe20thformydeparture toLakeTana: ‘I’ll fly toBaharDar,hirea launchfromtheMaritimeAuthority,visitDagaStephanosand thencomeback toAddison– say–Wednesday the22nd.Thatshouldgivemeenoughtime…If it’sOKwithyouI’dthenliketodrivedowntoZwaionThursdaythe23rd.’ShimelisturnedtoRichard:‘Andwillyoubegoingaswell,ProfessorPankhurst?’‘Well,ifitisacceptable…ofcourseIwouldlikeverymuchtogo.’‘Certainlyitisacceptable.’ShimelisthentelephonedtheHeadquartersoftheNationalSecurityPoliceinAddisAbabaandspokerapidlyinAmharictosomeoneinauthority.Afterhehadhunguphetoldusthatourpermitswouldbereadyforcollectionthatafternoon.‘ComebackandseemenextFriday,’hesaid, ‘afteryouhavefinishedatLakeTanaandLakeZwai.Youcanmakeanappointmentwithmysecretary.’WeleftthePartybuildinginhighspirits. ‘Ineverthoughtitwouldbesoeasy,’IsaidtoRichard.

Chapter9SacredLake

ThemorningflightfromAddisAbabatoBaharDaronthesouthernshoreofLakeTanatookaboutanhourandahalf.Despitethefightingreportedinthearea,nospecialprocedureswereobservedduringthe landing,andtheplanemadea low,slow,scenicapproachovertheBlueNileFallsbeforetouchingdownonthebumpygravelstrip.Fromthere,afterhiringa taxi, Richard Pankhurst and I motored the few remaining kilometres into town alongroadslinedwithjacarandaandflametrees.Wechecked into twoof thehundredemptyroomsat theTanaHotelonthe lake’sedgeandthendrovetotheMaritimeAuthoritypierwherethemotorlaunchthatwehopedtousewasmoored. After protracted negotiationswith the officials concerned it was eventuallyagreedthatwecouldchartertheboat–butnotuntilthenextday,Tuesday21November,andthenonlyifwewerepreparedtopaythepiraticalhireof50USdollarsanhour.SinceIhadnootherchoiceIgrudginglyacceptedthisextortionatefigureandaskedthatthevesselshouldbemadereadyfora5a.m.departure.With time to kill that afternoon we drove out of Bahar Dar to the nearby village ofTissisatandthenhikedthroughtawnycountrysideoverlaidwithapatchworkoffieldsuntilwecametoamassivestonebridgethrownacrossasteepgorge.BuiltbythePortugueseinthe early seventeenth century, this crumbling edifice looked highly dangerous; Richardassuredme,however,thatitwasstillserviceable.Wecrossedit,andclimbedahillside–atthe top of which two militiamen suddenly appeared out of a clump of shrubbery. Theysearchedus,lookedatourpassports(classically,minewasexaminedupsidedown)andthenwaveduson.Fifteen minutes later, after negotiating a narrow goat-track lined with thick tropicalshrubberyandyellowdaisies,webegantosensealow,thunderingvibrationunderfoot.Wewalkedon,awareofanincreasingdampnessintheair,andinashortwhilecaughtafirstglimpse of what we had come to see – the spectacular basalt cliff over which, withtremendouspower,theBlueNilehurlsitselfbeforeembarkingonitsepicjourneyoutoftheAbyssinianhighlands.The local name for the Blue Nile Falls, and for the village through which one mustapproach them, isTissisat,meaning ‘water that smokes’.As I stoodenraptured,gazingatthe rainbows playing amongst the fine spumes of spray thrown high into the air by theboilingcataract,Icouldwellunderstandwhy.I was also reminded – and struck by the accuracy – of the description given by theScottishexplorerJamesBruceafterhisvisitherein1770:

Theriver…fellinonesheetofwater,withoutanyinterval,abovehalfanEnglishmileinbreadth,withaforceandanoisethatwastrulyterrible,andwhichstunnedandmademe,foratime,perfectlydizzy.Athickfume,orhaze,coveredthefallallaround,andhungoverthecourseofthestreambothabove

andbelow,markingitstrack,thoughthewaterwasnotseen…Itwasamostmagnificentsight,thatages,addedtothegreatestlengthofhumanlife,wouldnotdefaceoreradicatefrommymemory;itstruckmewithakindofstupor,andatotaloblivionofwhereIwas,andofeveryothersublunaryconcern.1

Ethiopia,Ireflected,wasacountryinwhichtimereallycouldstandstill:therewasnothingatall, inthescenenowlaidoutbeforeme,whichsuggestedthatmorethantwocenturieshadelapsedsinceBrucehadbeenhere.NotforthelasttimeIfeltadeepsenseofempathywiththeScottishtravellerwhosefamilynameIhappenedbycoincidencetoshare(throughthematernal line–mygrandmotherwasbornaBruce,andBruce,too, ismyownmiddlename).Later, surrounded by crowds of local children who had materialized from nowhere inordertodemandmoney,pensandsweets,RichardandIsetoffonthewalkbacktowardsTissisat village. Thus far there had been something almost idyllically peaceful and rusticabout the afternoon; even the militiamen who had searched us earlier had done solethargicallyandwithgoodhumour.Now,however,aswere-crossedthePortuguesebridgewiththefirstchillofeveningsettingin,wewereconfrontedbyanincongruousandjarringspectacle: at least three hundred heavily armed soldiers dressed in green battle fatiguesadvancingtowardsusfromtheotherdirection.It was impossible to be sure whether wewere looking at government or rebel troops.They wore no regimental insignia, nor any other identifying paraphernalia. Neither didtheyappeartobedisciplinedorevenunderthecommandofanofficer:ratherthanbeingorganized into a discerniblemarching order they slouched oafishly alongwith angry andresentfulglares.Ialsonoticedthatanumberofthemenwerecarryingtheirweaponsverysloppily:oneusedhisrifleasawalkingstick;anotherheldanAK-47barrel-forwardsacrosshis shoulder; a third was loosely waving a loaded rocket launcher which, if firedaccidentally,couldhavedemolishedafair-sizedbuilding–or,forthatmatter,thebridgewewereallstandingon.Richard,whoseAmharic isbetter thanmine,greetedseveral individualmembersof thissurly rabble in a familiarmanner, shookhandsheartilywithperhaps adozenmore, andmadeeccentricgesturesoffriendshiptowardsmostoftherest.‘Theythinkallforeignersareslightlymad,’heexplained tome ina stagewhisper. I’m just livingup to thestereotype.Believeme,it’sthebestthingtodo.’

TheJewelofEthiopiaThenextmorningwearrivedattheMaritimeAuthoritypierat5a.m.TherewasnosignofactivityandRichard,whowaswrappedinablanketagainstthecold,mutteredsomethingaboutthe‘maambfaksyndrome’.‘What’sthat?’Iasked.‘Manyappointmentsaremadebutfewarekept,’thehistoriangrumbled.Withinhalf anhour, however, the captainof theMVDahlak had arrived. So toohad aclean-shaven young man in a well cut suit who introduced himself as Wondemu andinformed us, with great humility, that he was the Second Deputy-Assistant Regional

Administrator: ‘YesterdayafternoonmybossreceivedaphonecallfromComradeShimelisMazengiainAddistellinghimthatweshouldlookafteryou.Iimmediatelyreportedtoyourhotelbutyouwerenotpresent.ThenfromReceptionIlearnedaboutthisresearchyouareconductingtoday.So,’heconcludedwithabroadsmile,‘hereIam.’By5.45, shivering in thedawnchill,wewereon thewaterandmakinggoodheadway

towardsDagaStephanossometwentymilestothenorth.Abovethemountainsringingtheeasternshoreofthehugelakethesunwasalreadyrising.Afreshbreezecarriedthesoundsofbirdsongandofbarkingdogs.BeforetoolongRichardandWondemudisappearedintothecabintochatanddrinktea.

Entrancedbytheview,bytheinvigoratingAlpinequalityoftheair,andbytheromanceoftravel,Iremainedondeckgazingoutattheever-shiftinglacustrinepanoramaandfrettingsubliminally about exactly howmuch this little pleasure cruisewas going to costme. ToreachDaga,thecaptainhadsaid,wouldtakeabouttwoandahalfhours.Sincewewouldneedtobeontheislandforatleastthatlongandwouldthenrequireafurthertwoandahalfhourstogetback,itlookedlikeIwasgoingtoendupshellingoutalmost400dollars.I was interrupted in this slightly depressing piece ofmental arithmetic by the striking

spectacleoftwonativelongboatswithhigh,curvedprowspullingouttowardsusfromthedistantshore.SilhouettedinthepinklightoftheearlysunIcoulddiscernfiveorsixmencroucheddowninsideeachvesselwieldingpaddleswhich,inunison,theyraisedanddippedintothewater,raisedanddipped,raisedanddipped.Knownastankwas,Irememberedfrommypreviousvisitin1983thatlocalcraftsuchas

thesewereacommonsightonLakeTana.Thetwonowrunningbrieflyparalleltous,butheading in the opposite direction, were much larger than any that I had seen before.Neverthelesstheywereclearlyofthesamebasicdesign,beingmadeofbundlesofpapyrusreedsboundtogether.Havingspentaconsiderablefractionofthepreviousfewmonthsstudyingarchaeological

sites inEgyptIwasnowabletoconfirmwithmyowneyessomethingwhichIknewthatseveral historians had already observed – namely that the Ethiopian tankwas bore anuncanny resemblance to the reed boats used by the Pharaohs for transportation, huntingandfishingontheNile.2Ihadseenrepresentationsofhigh-prowedvesselsjustliketheseinfrescoesdecoratingthetombsintheValleyoftheKingsandalsoinreliefscarvedintothetemplewallsatKarnakandLuxor.NotforthefirsttimeIfoundmyselfwonderingwhethertheancientEgyptianshadever

visitedtheTanaarea.Itwasnotjustthesimilarityinboatdesign,suggestiveasitwasofastrongculturalinfluence,thatledmetothisspeculation,butalsothelake’simportanceastheprincipalreservoiroftheBlueNile.Tana isnot itselfofficially regardedas thesourceof thatgreat river, identifiedas twin

springs, in themountains to the south, thatwerevisitedbyBruceandbyother travellersbeforehim.3Atthesespringsrisesariverknownasthe‘LittleAbai’whichflowsacrossthesouthern edge of the lake (there is a discernible current) and then out again as the ‘BigAbai’,thelocalnamefortheBlueNile.To all intents and purposes, however, as geographers and engineers now accept,4 the

BlueNile’srealsource isLakeTana,which is fednotonlyby the ‘LittleAbai’butalsobymanyotherrivers,thusdrainingahugeexpanseoftheAbyssinianhighlands.Indeed,witha

surface area of 3,673 square kilometres, this vast inland sea provides an estimated six-seventhsof the totalvolumeofwater in thecombined streamsof theBlueand theWhiteNiles.5Most importantofall, it isEthiopia’s longrainyseason–whichcausesaveritableflood to raceoutofLakeTanaandalong theBlueNile – thathasbeen responsible sincetimeimmemorialfortheannualinundationthatbringssiltandfertilitytoEgypt’sDelta.Bycomparison the longer White Nile – which loses more than half of its volume in theswamplandsofsouthernSudan–contributesalmostnothing.6AsIsatwatchingthepapyrus-reedtankwas,therefore,itseemedtomeinconceivablethat

thepriestsofKarnakandLuxor–whoworshippedtheNileasalife-givingforceandalso,symbolically,asablessedgod–wouldnotat somestage in their longhistoryhavemadetheir way to Ethiopia. There were no records to prove this, just another hunch; butnevertheless, in thenuminousdawnglowof thatNovembermorning, I feltconfident thattheancientEgyptiansmustatsomepointhavevisitedTana–andveneratedit.CertainlytheGreekgeographerStrabo,wholivedaroundthetimeofChristandwhowas

deeplyversed inEgyptian learning,wasaware (as later scholarswerenot) that theBlueNileroseinagiantlakeinEthiopia,alakewhichhecalled‘Pseboe’.7InthesecondcenturyAD the Egyptian geographer Claudius Ptolemy expressed a similar opinion, although thename that he gave to Tana was ‘Coloe’.8 I also thought that the Athenian dramatistAeschylus might have been inspired by more than just poetic fancy when he wrotehauntingly in the fifthcentury BCof ‘acopper-tinted lake…that is the jewelofEthiopia,wheretheall-pervadingsunreturnsagainandagaintoplungehisimmortalform,andfindsasolaceforhiswearyroundingentleripplesthatarebutawarmcaress.’9These,Iknew,werenottheonlyreferenceslinkingthemysteriouswatersofLakeTana

totheancientculturesofGreece,EgyptandtheMiddleEast.AsIsatonthedeckoftheMVDahlakenroutetoDagaStephanosIalsorememberedthattheAbyssiniansthemselvesfirmlybelievedtheBlueNiletobenothinglessthantheGihonofGenesis2:13–‘thesecondriver’that‘compasseththewholelandofEthiopia’.This,furthermore,wasaveryoldtradition,10almost certainly pre-Christian, and thus added considerableweight to thenotion that thelake,togetherwithitsriversandislands,mightindeedhavesomegenuineconnectionwiththeArkoftheCovenant.It was therefore with a certain flush of optimism that I looked ahead, across the

interveningmiles, to thegreenslopesofDaga islandrisingabove the shiningwaters likethepeakofsomesubmergedmountain.

DagaStephanosItwasaround8.30whenwefinallymooredatDaga.Thesunwasnowhighintheskyand,despite thealtitude(Tanastandsmorethan6,000 feetabovesea level), themorningwashot,humidandbreathless.Weweremetonthewoodenjettybyadelegationofmonksdressedinastonishinglydirty

robes.Theyhadobviouslybeenmonitoringourapproachforsometimebutdidnotappeartobe in the leastbit pleased to seeus.Wondemuhadawordwith themandeventually,withobviousreluctance,theyledusthroughasmallbananaplantationandthenupasteep,windingpathtowardsthesummitoftheisland.

AswewalkedIstrippedoffthepulloverIhadbeenwearing,stretchedmyarmsandtookafewdeepbreaths.Thetrackthatwewerefollowingpassedthroughthemidstofadenseforest of tall gnarled trees, the leaves of which formed a canopy above us. The air wasladen with the loamy scent of freshly turned earth and with the fragrance of tropicalflowers.Beesandotherlargeinsectsbuzzedindustriouslyaboutand,inthedistance,Icouldhearthemonotonousringingofatraditionalstonebell.Eventually, some300 feet above the surface of the lake,webegan to comeacross lowroundbuildingswiththatchedroofs–thedwellingsofthemonks.Nextwepassedunderanarchsetintoahighstonewallandfinallyenteredagrassyclearingatthecentreofwhichstood the churchof Saint Stephanos.Thiswas a long rectangular structure, curved at theends,withacoveredwalkwayextendingallaroundit.‘Doesn’tlookallthatold,’IsaidtoRichard.‘Itisn’t,’hereplied.‘Theoriginalbuildingwasburntdowninagrassfireaboutahundredyearsago.’‘I suppose thatwould have been the one that they brought theArk to in the sixteenthcentury?’‘Yes.Infactthere’sprobablybeensomesortofchurchonthissiteforatleastathousandyears.Maybeevenforlongerthanthat.DagaisreckonedtobeoneoftheholiestplacesonLakeTana.Becauseofthatthemummifiedbodiesoffiveformeremperorsarekepthere.’Wondemu, in his self-appointed role as our guide and interlocutor, had been talkingquietlytosomeofthemonks.Nowhedetachedonememberofthegroup–whosevestmentswereslightlycleanerthanthoseofhisfellows–andledhimbythehandtowardsus.‘This,’he announced proudly, ‘is Archpriest Kifle-Mariam Mengist. He will answer all yourquestions.’Thearchpriest,however,seemedtohaveideasofhisownonthissubject.Hiswrinkled,prune-like features registered a curious mixture of hostility, resentment and greed. InsilencehesizedRichardandmeup,thenturnedtoWondemuandwhisperedsomethinginAmharic.‘All…,’sighedourguide,‘Iamafraidhewantsmoney.Itistopurchasecandles,incenseand…er…othernecessarychurchitems.’‘Howmuch?’Iasked.‘Whateveryoufeelisappropriate.’Iproposed10Ethiopianbirr–about5USdollars–butKifle-Mariamindicatedthatthissumwasnotsufficient.Indeed,hedeclared,theprofferednotewassolackinginthequalityofsufficiencythathecouldnotevenbringhimselftodetachitfrommyfingers.‘Ithinkyoushouldpaymore,’Wondemuhissedpolitelyinmyear.‘I’ll behappy todo that, of course,’ I said. ‘But I’d like toknowwhat I’ll begetting inreturn.’‘Inreturnhewilltalktoyou.Otherwisehesayshehasmuchtodo.’Wesettled,afterfurtherdebate,on30birr.Themoneywasquicklyfoldedandconjuredaway in some noisome fold or pouch in the priestly robes. Thenwe strolled over to thearcadesurroundingthechurchandsatdownintheshadebeneaththeoverhangingeavesofthe thatched roof. Several of the othermonks followed us and lurked about looking self-consciouslycontemplativeandpretendingnottolistentoourconversation.

Kifle-MariamMengist began by telling us that he had been on the island for eighteenyears and had become an expert on allmatters concerning themonastery. As though toprovethispointhe then launched intoakindofpottedhistory–whichwenton,andon,andon.‘Right,’ I interruptedafterWondemuhadgivenme thedriftof thisboring speech. ‘Idowant toget ageneralpicture.But first I’d like toask thearchpriest a specificquestion–which is this: I’ve heard it said that the Ark of the Covenant was brought here in thesixteenthcenturywhenAxumwasattackedbythearmiesofAhmedGragn.Doesheknowthisstory?Andisittrue?’Fifteenor twentyminutesof incomprehensible argument followed, at the endofwhichWondemuannouncedthatthepriestdefinitelydidnotknowthestory.Moreover,sincehedidnotknowit,hewasnotabletotelluswhetheritwastrueornot.I tried a different tack. ‘Do they have a tabot of their own? Here. Inside this church?’Through the open doorway behind us I pointed expressively towards the entrance of theHolyofHolies,whichwasjustvisibleinthegloomwithin.AfteranotherAmharicquestion-and-answersessionWondemuannounced:‘Yes.Ofcoursetheyhavetheirtabot.’‘Good.WellI’mgladwe’veestablishedthatatanyrate.Now,askhimthis:doesheacceptthattheirtabotisacopy–areplica–oftheoriginaltabotinAxum?’‘Perhaps,’cametheenigmaticreply.‘I see.OK.Well in that case I’d like you to ask himwhether he knows anything at allabouttheArkoftheCovenant.HowitcametoAxum.Whobroughtit.Thingslikethat.Gethimtotellusthestoryinhisownwords.’Animmediateandperfunctoryresponsewasgiventothisquestion.‘Hesayshedoesnotknowthestory,’Wondemutranslatedrathermournfully.‘Hesaysheisnotanauthorityonsuchmatters.’‘Isthereanyoneelsewhois?’Iaskedinexasperation‘No.Kifle-MariamMengististheseniorpriestontheisland.Ifhedoesnotknowthenitisimpossiblethatanyoneelsewillknow.’I looked at Richard: ‘What’s going on here? I’ve never, never ever, met an Ethiopianpriestwhodidn’tknowtheKebraNagaststoryabouttheArk.’Thehistorianshrugged:‘NorhaveI.It’sverypeculiar.Perhapsyoushouldofferhim…afurtherinducement.’Igroaned. Italwayscamedowntomoneyintheend,didn’t it? Ifa fewmorebirrwaswhat itwould take toget this tight-lippedoldbastard talking,however, then itwouldbebesttopayupquickly.Afterall,I’dcomeallthewayfromLondontocheckDagaStephanosout–andevennowtheMVDahlakwasmooredat the jettywith itsmeterrunningat therateofapproximatelyadollaraminute.WithgrimresignationIpassedoveranothersmallhandfulofcrumplednotes.This latestactofgenerosity,however,didmeabsolutelynogoodatall.Thepriesthadnothingfurthertosayonanysubjectofinterest.Whenthishadfinallysunkin–andittooksometime–Ileanedbackagainstoneofthepillarsthatsupportedtheroof,inspectedmyfingernails,andtriedtodecidewhattodonext.There were, I realized, two possible explanations for the apparent ignorance of Kifle-

MariamMengist.One,theleastlikely,wasthatthemanwasgenuinelystupid.Theother,moreprobablebyfar,wasthathewaslying.Butwhyshouldhelie?Well,Ireasoned,thereweretwopossibleexplanationsforthataswell.The first – and the least likely –was thathehad something important tohide.Thesecond – more probable by far – was that he wanted to extract further notes from myrapidlydiminishingwadofEthiopiancurrency.IstoodupandsaidtoWondemu:‘Askhimagain.AskhimiftheArkoftheCovenantwasbroughtherefromAxuminthesixteenthcentury…andaskhimwhetherit’sherenow.TellhimI’llmakeitworthhiswhileifhe’llshowittome.’Ourguideraisedaquizzicaleyebrow.WhatIhadjustproposedwasnotingoodtaste.‘Goon,’Iurged.‘Justaskhim.’MoreAmharic,thenthisfromWondemu:‘Hesaysthesameasbefore.Hedoesnotknowabout the Ark of the Covenant. But he also says that nothing has been brought to DagaStephanosfromoutsideforaverylongtime.’The group of monks who had been standing in a semi-circle eavesdropping on myconversationwith Kifle-MariamMengist dispersed at this point.One of them, however –barefoot,toothlessanddressedinsuchpoorragsthathewouldhavepassedforabeggaronanystreetinAddisAbaba–accompaniedusaswewalkedbackdownthesteeptracktothejetty. Before we climbed on board the launch he pulled Wondemu aside and whisperedsomethinginhisear.‘Whatwasthat?’Iaskedsharply,expectingafurtherdemandforpaymentofsomekind.Money,however, turnedoutnot tobe the issue this time.Wondemu frowned: ‘He saysthat we should go to Tana Kirkos. Apparently we will learn something about the Arkthere…somethingimportant.’‘What’sTanaKirkos?’‘Itisanotherisland…eastofhere.Quitefar.’‘Askhimtotellusmore.Whatdoeshemeanbysomethingimportant?’Wondemuputthequestionagainandtranslatedtheanswer.‘HesaysthattheArkoftheCovenantisonTanaKirkos.Thatisallheknows.’Myfirstreactiontothisastonishingpieceofnewswastorollmyeyesheavenwards,tugdistractedly at my hair, and kick the side of the launch. Meanwhile the monk, whom Iwantedmore information from, had hobbled back along the jetty and vanished into thebananagrove.I lookedatmywatch. Itwasnowalmost noon.Wehadbeenout ofBaharDar for sixhours,or300dollars.‘IsTanaKirkosonourwayback?’IaskedWondemu.‘No,’hereplied,‘Ihaveneverbeenthere.Nooneevergoesthere.ButIknowitismoreorlessdueeast.BaharDarissouth.’‘Isee.Anyideahowlongitwilltakeus?’‘No.Ishallaskthecaptain.’Wondemudidthat.Itwouldtakeusaboutanhourandahalf.‘Andafterthat,howlongbacktoBaharDar?’‘Aboutthreemorehours.’Ididsomerapidcalculationsinmyhead.SaytwohoursonTanaKirkos,plusanhourand

ahalftogetthere,plusthreehourstoBaharDar…that’ssixandahalfhours.Callitseven,plus the sixwe’ve already had. That’s, let’s see, thirteen hours.Thirteen bloody hours! Atfiftybucksanhour.Sixhundredandfiftydollarsminimum.Christ!Ifulminatedinwardlyforsometimelonger.Eventually,however–withaheartasheavyasmywalletwaslight–Imadeupmymindtogo.OfcoursetheArkwouldn’tactuallybeonTanaKirkos.Iknewthat.InfactthemostlikelyscenariowasthatIwouldbegiventherun-aroundagain,justasonDagaStephanos.Moneywould be extracted fromme in dribs and drabs until the pointwas reachedwhere Iwasobviouslynotpreparedtohandoveranymore.Thenanothertantalizinglittlehintwouldbe dropped naming yet another island – and off I would go, banknotes at the ready, toenrichyetanothercommunityofneedyanchorites.JamesBruce,Iremembered,hadbeentoTanaintheeighteenthcentury.‘Thereareforty-fiveinhabitedislandsinthelake,’hehadwritten, ‘ifyoubelievetheAbyssinians,who,ineverything,areverygreatliars…’11

TanaKirkosIwasnotinareceptiveframeofmindwhenwearrivedatTanaKirkos.Nevertheless,asIstoodinthebowsoftheMVDahlakscowlingattheislandahead,Ihadtoadmitthatitwasa beautiful and unusual place. Completely covered in dense green shrubbery, floweringtreesandtallcactusplants,itrosesteeplyfromthewatertoahighpeakonwhichIcouldjustmakeoutthethatchedroofofacirculardwelling.Hummingbirds,kingfishersandbrightblue starlings darted through the air.On the shore of a small sandybay, on amakeshiftjetty,stoodagroupofmonks.Smiling.We dropped anchor and clambered out of the boat. Wondemu did the usual round ofintroductions and explanations. Hands were shaken. Lengthy greetings were exchanged.Finallywewereledupanarrow,overgrownpathcutoutofthesideofagreycliff,throughan archway at the top – again hewn out of the bare stone – and finally into a clearingcontainingthreeorfourdilapidatedbuildingsandadozenraggedmonks.Set back behind natural rockwalls, the grassy space inwhichwe stoodwas enclosed,silentanddark.Thelightthatdidpenetrate,filteredasitwasthroughtheoverarchingtreesandbushes,seemedmutedandgreen.Againstmybetterjudgment,Ibegantosuspectthattheremightbesomethingworthseeinghereafterall.Icouldnothaveexplainedwhy,butTanaKirkosfelt‘right’inawaythatDagaStephanoshadnot.The senior priest now arrived and introduced himself, through Wondemu, as MemhirFisseha. Hewas lean and smelled of incense. He did not ask formoney, but he did askwhetherornotwehadsecurityclearance.Iwasnonplussedbysuchaquestion,comingasitdidfromatraditionalfigureinclericalrobes.‘As a matter of fact,’ I said, ‘yes we do.’ I pulled frommy pocket the permit we hadobtainedfromthesecuritypoliceinAddisandgavethistoWondemu,whointurnpasseditto Memhir Fisseha. The old man – were all priests in Ethiopia so old? – studied thedocumentwithanabstractedairandthenhandeditbacktome.Heseemedtobesatisfied.Wondemu now explained that I wanted to ask some questions about Tana Kirkos and

abouttheArkoftheCovenant.WouldthatbeOK?‘Yes,’ thepriest replied, rather sadly I thought.Hedirectedus to thedoorwayofwhat,fromtheblackenedpotsandpanslyinginside,appearedtobeakitchen.Here,onasmallstool,hesatdown,indicatingthatweshouldjoinhim.‘Doyoubelieve,’ Ibegan, ‘that theArkof theCovenantwasbroughtfromJerusalemtoEthiopiabyEmperorMenelikI?’‘Yes,’Wondemutranslated.Iheavedasighofrelief.ThiswasalreadymuchbetterthanDagaStephanos.‘I have heard a story’, I continued, ‘that the Ark is now here – on the island of TanaKirkos.Isthatstorytrue?’AnanguishedexpressioncrossedMemhirFisseha’s leatheryfaceasheanswered: ‘Itwastrue.’Wastrue?Whatonearthdidthatsignify?‘Gethimtoelaborate,’IbarkedatWondemuinsomeagitation.‘Whatdoeshemeanbywastrue?’Thepriest’sresponseexcitedanddistressedmeinroughlyequalmeasure:‘Itwastrue.ButtheArkoftheCovenantisnothereanylonger.IthasbeentakentoAxum.’‘TakenbacktoAxum!’Iexclaimed.‘When?Whendidtheytakeit?’AnintensediscussionfollowedinAmharic,withthemainpointobviouslybeingclarifiedseveral times.FinallyWondemutranslated: ‘TheArkwastakentoAxumonethousandsixhundredyearsago,inthetimeofKingEzana.Itwasnottakenback. Itwassimplytakenthere,andithasstayedthereeversince.’I felt perplexedand frustrated. ‘Letmeget this clear,’ I said after amoment’s thought.‘He’snottellingusthattheArkwashererecentlyandhasnowgonebacktoAxum,ishe?He’stellingusthatitwentthereaverylongtimeago.’‘Exactly.Onethousandsixhundredyearsago.Thatiswhathesays.’‘OK,thenaskhimthis.HowdidtheArkgethereinthefirstplace?DiditcomeherefromAxum,andthengobackthere?OrwasitherebeforeitwasevertakentoAxum?Thatseemstobewhathemeans,butIwanttobeabsolutelysure.’Slowlyandpainfullythestoryemerged.Extractingitwaslikeextractingthestumpofarottentoothfromaninflamedgum.Severaltimesconsultationwasrequiredwiththeothermonksandonceahuge,leather-boundbookwritteninancientGe’ezwasreferredtoandapassagereadout.In summary, whatMemhir Fisseha told us was that the Ark had been stolen from theTempleofSolomoninJerusalembyMenelikIandhiscompanions.TheyhadbroughtitoutofIsrael,heexplained,andintoEgypt.ThentheyhadfollowedtheNile–firsttheNileandafterwardsitstributarytheTakazze–untiltheyhadreachedEthiopia.This, of course, was the tradition of the theft of the Ark reported in theKebra Nagast.Whatcamenext,however,wascompletelynew.Lookingforsomewheresafeandappropriatewheretheymightinstallthepreciousrelic,theoldpriestcontinued,thetravellershadcometoTana.Atthattime,hesaid,theentirelakewassacred.ItwasdeartoGod.Aholyplace.SotheyhadcometoTana,toitseasternshore,andtheyhadchosenthisisland,nowcalledKirkos,astherestingplacefortheArk.‘Howlongdiditstayhere?’Iasked.‘For eight hundred years,’ came the reply. ‘It blessed us with its presence for eight

hundredyears.’‘Wasthereabuilding?Wasitputintosomesortoftemple?’‘Therewasnobuilding.TheHolyArkwasplacedinsideatent.Anditstayedwithinthattent,hereonTanaKirkos,foreighthundredyears.WewereJewsthen.Afterwards,whenwebecameChristians,KingEzanatooktheArktoAxumandplaceditinthegreatchurchinthatcity.’‘AndyousaytheArkwastakentoAxumonethousandsixhundredyearsago?’‘Yes.’‘SoifitwasonTanaKirkosforeighthundredyearsbeforethat,then–let’ssee–itmusthavearrivedheresomething like twothousand fourhundredyearsago. Is that right?AreyoutellingmeitcamehereaboutfourhundredyearsbeforethebirthofChrist?’‘Yes.’‘You do know that 400 BC was a long time after Solomon – who was supposed to beMenelik’s father?InfactSolomonwouldhavebeendeadforaboutfivecenturiesbythen.Whatdoyousaytothat?’‘Isaynothing.Ihavetoldyouourtraditionasitisrecordedinoursacredbooksandinourmemory.’Aremarkthatthepriesthadmadeafewmomentsearlierhadinterestedmeenormously,and I nowpickedhimup on this: ‘You toldme that youwere Jews then?What did thatmean?Whatkindofreligiondidyouhave?’‘Wewere Jews.Weperformed sacrifice… the sacrificial lamb.Andwe continuedwiththis practice until the Arkwas taken from us to Axum. Then Abba Salama came and hetaughtustheChristianfaith,andwebuiltachurchhere.’AbbaSalama,Iknew,wastheEthiopicnameforFrumentius,theSyrianbishopwhohadconvertedKingEzanaandtheentireAxumitekingdomtoChristianity in the330sAD.ThismeantthattheperiodsoftimethatMemhirFissehahadgivenmemadesense–oratleastwere internally consistent. The only contradictionwas the huge gap between the knowndatesforSolomon–mid900sBC–andthedatethattheArkhadsupposedlybeenbroughttoTanaKirkos(which,ifIsubtractedeighthundredyearsfrom330AD,wouldhavebeen470BC).Ipressedon: ‘BeforeAbbaSalamacameandtaughtyouChristianityyouhadnochurchhere?’‘Nochurch. I toldyou.WewereJews.Weperformedsacrifice.’Hepaused, thenadded:‘Theblood from the lambwascollected inabowl…agomer.Then itwas scatteredoversomestones,somesmallstones.Theyareherestill,uptothisday.’‘Sorry.Comeagain.Whatareheretothisday?’‘ThestonesthatweusedforsacrificewhenwewereJews.Thosestonesarehere.Ontheisland.Theyareherenow.’‘Canweseethem?’Iasked.Ifeltatinythrillofexcitement.IfwhatMemhirFissehahadjustsaidwastrue,thenhewastalkingaboutphysicalevidence–realphysicalevidencetosupportthestrangebutcuriouslyconvincingstorythathehadtold.‘Youcanseethem,’hereplied.Hegottohisfeet.‘Followme.Iwillshowyou.’

ScatteringthebloodThepriestledustoahighpointonthecliffedgenearthesummitoftheisland,overlookingLakeTana.Here,onaraisedplinthmadeofnaturalunhewnrock,heshowedusthreeshortstonepillarsgroupedcloselytogether.Thetallestofthethree–perhapsametreandahalfhigh – was square in section, with a cup-shaped declivity hollowed out in its top. Theremaining twowereeachaboutametrehigh,circular insection,andas thickasaman’sthigh. At the top they also had been hollowed out to a depth of approximately 10centimetres.ThoughcopiousquantitiesofgreenlichengrewonthemIwasabletoestablishthatthethreepillarswereallmonoliths,thattheywerefreestanding,andthattheyhadbeencarvedfromthesametypeofgreygranite.Theylookedold,andIaskedRichardforhisopiniononthis.‘Ofcourse,’hereplied,‘I’mnotanarchaeologist.ButIwouldsayfromthewaytheyarecut,thestyle–particularlythesquareone…IwouldsaytheyareatleastfromtheAxumiteperiod,ifnotearlier.’IaskedMemhirFissehawhatthecup-shapeddeclivitieswerefor.‘Tocontainblood,’washisanswer.‘Afterthesacrifice,somewasscatteredoverthestonesand some on to the tent that contained the Ark. The remainder was poured into thesehollows.’‘Canyoushowmehowitwasdone?’The old priest beckoned one of the othermonks and gave him an instruction in a lowvoice.Hestrodeoffandreturnedafewminuteslatercarryingawidebutshallowbowlsocorrodedand tarnishedwith age that I couldnot evenguess ofwhatmetal itwasmade.This,weweretold,wasthegomerinwhichthesacrificialbloodwasfirstcollected.‘Whatexactlydoesgomermean?’IaskedWondemu.Heshrugged: ‘Idon’tknow. It isnotanAmharicword,norTigrigna. Itdoesnot soundlikeitbelongstoanyEthiopianlanguage.’IlookedtoRichardforenlightenmentbutheconfessedthathewasnotfamiliarwiththewordeither.MemhirFissehasaidsimplythatitwascalledagomerandhadalwaysbeencalledagomerandthatwasallheknew.Hethenpositionedhimselfnexttothestoneswiththebowlinhislefthand,dippedintoitwithhisrightforefinger,swepthisrighthandabovethelevelofhishead and commenced an up-and-downmotion. ‘The bloodwas scattered in thisway,’ hesaid,‘overthestonesandoverthetentoftheArk.Afterwards,asItoldyou,whatwasleftwaspoured thus.’He then tipped thebowl sidewaysabove thecup-shapedhollows in thetopsofthepillars.IaskedthepriestifheknewwhereexactlyontheislandtheArkhadbeenkeptinitstent.Allhewouldsay,however,was‘nearhere…somewherenearhere’.I thensoughtclarificationofourearlierdiscussion: ‘Youtoldmethat itwastakenfromTanaKirkostoAxumonethousandsixhundredyearsago.Isthatcorrect?’Wondemutranslatedthequestion.MemhirFissehanoddedaffirmatively.‘OK,’Icontinued.‘NowwhatIwanttoknowisthis:hasiteverbeenbroughtbackhere?Atanytime,foranyreason,hastheArkevercomebacktothisisland?’‘No.ItwastakentoAxumanditstayedinAxum.’

‘Andasfarasyouareawareitisstilltheretothisday?’‘Yes.’No further information seemed likely to be forthcoming, but Iwasmore than satisfiedwith what I had got – particularly since the information given had at no point beenbartered for money. Grateful for this I handed over a 100 birr note as a voluntarycontribution to the monastery’s expenses. Then, with Memhir Fisseha’s permission, I setaboutphotographingthesacrificialpillarsfromavarietyofdifferentangles.WewerebackinBaharDarshortlybeforeeightthatevening.WehadbeenoutandaboutonLakeTanaformorethanfourteenhoursandthefinalbillforthehireoftheMVDahlakcameto750USdollars.

36TheBlueNileFallsnearLakeTana,Ethiopia.

37Papyrus-reedboatonLakeTana.

38HollowedstonesontheislandofTanaKirkos,saidtohavebeenusedtocontainbloodduringsacrificesinthepresenceoftheArkoftheCovenant.ThemonksclaimthattheArkremainedontheirislandforeighthundredyearsbeforebeingtakento

Axum.

39QemantHighPriest,centre,indarkcloak.TheQemant,apagantribewhosereligionneverthelesscontainsstrongelementsofJudaism,saythattheycametoEthiopia

‘fromthelandofCanaan.’

40FalashapriestatthevillageofAnbober,nearGondar,photographedin1990.AyearlateralmostallofEthiopia’sFalashapopulationhadbeenairliftedtoIsrael.

41FalashapriestdisplayingacopyoftheTorahwitteninGe’éz,theancientliturgicallanguageofEthiopia.TheilluminationshowstheprophetMosesholdingtheTenCommandments.

42and43ChristianpriestsatGondarcarryingTabotsontheirheadsduringtheTimkatceremony.

44ChristianpriestsperformingthedanceofDavidbeforetheArkduringtheTimkatceremonyatGondar.

45Timkatrevellerintraditionalwarrior’shead-dress.

46Ethiopianpriestswithsistra.MusicalinstrumentsexactlylikethesewereusedinreligiousceremoniesinIsraelinOld

Testamenttimes.

47ThemedievalcastleandbaptismalpoolthatprovidethefocusfortheclimaxoftheTimkatceremonyinGondar.

Ithadbeen,byanystandards,acostlyday.Inolongerbegrudgedtheexpense,however.Indeed,thedoubtsthathadbesetmesoforcefullyonDagaStephanoshadbeencompletelybanished by Tana Kirkos and I felt that I could now continue the quest with a renewedsenseofcommitmentandoptimism.ThispositivemoodreceivedafurtherboostbackinAddisAbaba.There,beforeIsetout

fortheplannedtriptoLakeZwaionThursday23November,IhadtheopportunitytovisittheUniversityLibraryandexamineanumberofreferencesconcerningtheuseofsacrificialstonesinOldTestamentJudaism.What Idiscoveredwas thatpillars similar to those that Ihad seenonTanaKirkoshad

beenassociatedwiththeveryearliestphasesofthereligion–bothinSinaiandinPalestine.Knownasmasseboth,theyweresetupasaltarsonhighplacesandwereusedforculticandsacrificialpurposes.12IthenlookedintheBibletoseeifIcouldfindanyspecificdetailsconcerningtheproper

performanceofsacrificesinOldTestamenttimes.Ididfindsuchdetailsand,asIreadandre-readtherelevantpassages,IrealizedthatwhatMemhirFissehahaddescribedtomeontheislandhadbeenanauthenticandveryancientceremony.Nodoubtmuchhadbecomemuddledandconfused in thememoriesof the tradition thathadbeenhandeddown fromgeneration togeneration.Whenhehad talkedabout the scatteringofblood,however,hehadbeenastonishinglyclosetothemark.In Chapter 4 of the book of Leviticus, for example, I came across this verse: ‘And the

priest shall dip his finger in the blood, and sprinkle of the blood seven times before theLord,beforetheveilofthesanctuary.’13LikewiseinChapter5Iread:‘Andheshallsprinkleofthebloodofthesinofferinguponthesideofthealtar;andtherestofthebloodshallbewrungoutatthebottomofthealtar.’14

Itwas not until I turned to theMishnah, however, the compilation inwritten form ofearlyoralJewish law, that I realized justhowauthenticMemhirFisseha’saccount in facthadbeen. In the tractateknownasYoma, in the seconddivisionof theMishnah, I founddetaileddescriptionsofthesacrificialritualscarriedoutbytheHighPriestwithinSolomon’sTemple in frontof thecurtainthatshieldedtheArkof theCovenant fromthegazeof thelaity.Ireadthatthebloodofthevictim–whetherlamb,goat,orbullock–wascollectedinabasin and given ‘to one that should stir it up… so that it should not congeal’. Then thepriest,havingemergedfromthesanctuary,‘tookthebloodfromhimthatwasstirringitandenteredagainintotheplacewherehehadenteredandstoodagainontheplacewhereonhehadstood,andsprinkledthebloodonceupwardsandseventimesdownwards.’15And where, exactly, did the priest sprinkle this blood? According to the Mishnah hesprinkled it ‘on the curtain outside, opposite the Ark, once upwards and seven timesdownwards,notasthoughheintendedtosprinkleupwardsordownwards,butasthoughhewerewieldingawhip…Hethensprinkledthecleansedsurfaceofthealtarseventimesandpouredouttheresidueoftheblood.’16ItseemedtomehighlyimprobablethatMemhirFissehahadeverreadtheMishnah.AsaChristianhewouldhavenoreasontodoso;norwouldhehavehadaccesstosuchabookonhisremoteisland;norcouldhehaveunderstoodanyofthelanguagesintowhichithadbeentranslated.Yethishandmovements,whenhehadshownmehowthescatteringofthebloodwas done, had been precisely those of a man wielding a whip. And he had spokenconfidentlyofthebloodbeingpourednotonlyuponthealtarstonesbutalso‘onthetentoftheArk’.ThecorrespondencesweretooclosetobeignoredandIfeltsurethatatsometimeinthedistantpastanobjectofgreatreligioussignificancehadbeenbroughtbyJewstotheislandofTanaKirkos.Despitethechronologicalinconsistencyinthesupposeddateofitsarrival,there was also every reason to suppose – as Memhir Fisseha himself had so obviouslybelieved–thatthatobjectmightindeedhavebeentheHolyArkoftheCovenant.

Chapter10GhostinaMaze

DuringthediscussionsonTanaKirkosacommentthatthepriesthadmadetomejustbeforehehadgottohismainpointhadarousedmycuriosity.Thatcomment–theimplicationsofwhichInowwantedtoinvestigatefurtherinthelibraryattheInstituteofEthiopianStudies–hadbeentodowiththeroutethattheArkhadfollowedonitsjourneytoEthiopia.AfterbeingstolenfromtheTempleofSolomoninJerusalem,thepriesthadsaid,ithadfirstbeencarriedintoEgyptandfromtherehadbeenbroughttoLakeTanabywayoftheNileandtheTakazzerivers.DespitealltheresearchthatIhaddoneduringthepreviousfewmonths,IrealizedthatIhadnevergivenseriousconsiderationtothequestionofMenelik’sitinerary.IthereforewantedtoseewhattheKebraNagasthadtosayonthematter.Ialsowantedtoknowiftherewasanythinginitthatspecificallycontradictedthepriest’sassertionthattheArkhadspenteighthundredyearsatTanaKirkosbeforebeingtakentoAxum.The only relevant information that I could find in the great epic was contained inChapter84.ThereitwasreportedthatMenelikandhistravellingcompanionshadbroughtthe sacred relic to a place called Debra Makeda after their arrival in Ethiopia.1 To mysurprise there was no mention of Axum whatsoever. ‘Debra Makeda’, wherever it mighthavebeen,wasclearlyandunambiguouslyhighlightedastheArk’sfirsthomeinEthiopia.Atastrokethiscleareduponeofthemoreseriousfactualinconsistenciesthathadbotheredme since 1983 – namely that the city of Axum had not been founded until about eighthundred years after the date of Menelik’s supposed journey.2 Several of my originalinformantshadtoldmethatAxumhadbeenthefinaldestinationofthatjourneyandthatthe Ark had been lodged there from the outset3 – which, of course, would have beenhistoricallyimpossible.Now,however,IcouldseethattheKebraNagastmadenosuchclaimand said only thatMenelik and his companions had brought the relic from Jerusalem to‘DebraMakeda’.Iknewthattheword‘debra’meant‘mountain’andthat‘Makeda’wasthenamegiveninEthiopiantraditiontotheQueenofSheba.‘DebraMakeda’thereforemeant‘MountMakeda’–theQueenofSheba’smountain.IntheKebraNagast’sbriefdescriptionIsawnothingtosuggestthatthis‘QueenofSheba’sMountain’mightactuallyhavebeenTanaKirkos.Bythesametoken,however,Icouldfindnothing that ruled that possibility out. Seeking further clues I then referred to anauthoritativegeographical surveyofLakeTanacarriedout in the1930sand learned that‘Kirkos’wasanamethathadbeengiventotheislandinrelativelyrecenttimes(inhonourofaChristiansaint). ‘BeforetheconversionofEthiopiatoChristianity,’ thesurveyadded,‘TanaKirkoswascalledDebraSehel.’4Theobviousquestionimmediatelyformeditselfinmymind:what,exactly,didSehelmean?TofindoutIconsultedseveralofthescholarswhowerethenstudyinginthelibrary.TheytoldmethatitwasaGe’ezwordrootedintheverb‘toforgive’.‘WouldIberight’,Iasked,‘inassumingthatacorrecttranslationofthefullnameDebraSehelwouldbesomethinglike“MountofForgiveness”?’

‘Yes,’theyreplied.‘Thatiscorrect.’Now thiswas interesting. InWolfram von Eschenbach’sParzival, as I remembered verywell, the location of the Grail castle – and of the Grail Temple – was given asMunsalvaesche.5 There had been some debate over the exact interpretation of this wordMunsalvaesche;more thanoneWolframexpert,however,hadsuggested thatbehind it lay‘thebiblicalMonsSalvationis,MountofSalvation’.6There could be no doubt that the notions of ‘forgiveness’ and ‘salvation’were linked –sinceinordertobe‘saved’,inthereligioussense,onemustfirstbe‘forgiven’.Moreover,asPsalm130putsit:‘Ifthou,Lord,shouldestmarkiniquities…whoshallstand?Butthereisforgivenesswith thee…Let Israelhope in theLord: forwith theLord there ismercy,andwithhimisplenteousredemption.’7‘Redemption’is,ofcourse,aclosesynonymfor‘salvation’.8Ithereforecouldnothelpbutwonder whether Wolfram’s ‘Mount of Salvation’ might not in some way have beenassociatedwithEthiopia’s‘MountofForgiveness’–nowknownasTanaKirkos.Iwasfullyawarethatspeculationofthiskindcouldonlyeverbetenuousandthatitwasa long jump indeed from Debra Sehel to Munsalvaesche. Nevertheless, after my manyreadings of Parzival, I could hardly forget that the mystical Grail Temple (‘smooth androundedasthoughfromalathe’9)hadstoodonalake–andquitepossiblyonanislandonthat lake.10 Nor did it seem entirely irrelevant that Ethiopian Orthodox churches andFalashaplacesofworshipwere traditionallycircular inshape11–aswere themajorityofTemplar churches (including several still standing to this day such as the twelfth-centuryTemple Church off London’s Fleet Street). I therefore felt that there were certaincorrespondencesinallofthiswhichitmightbeunwiseformetoignoreentirely(thoughitwouldbeequallyunwisetoreadtoomuchintothem).Meanwhile therewas another and rather less tentative link to consider – that betweenDebraSehelandDebraMakeda.As the formernameofTanaKirkosmadeclear,EthiopianislandscouldacquiretheprefixDebra(meaning‘Mount’).And,indeed–risingsteeplytoahighpeakthattoweredabovethesurfaceofthelake–TanaKirkoshadlookedtomeverymuchlikeamountainwhenIhadfirstseteyesonit.ThiscertainlydidnotprovethattheKebraNagasthadbeenreferringtoDebraSehelwhenithadspokenoftheArkbeingtakentotheQueenofSheba’smountain.Ireasoned,however,thatitdidatleastelevatetheislandtothestatusofacandidateforthatdistinction.Withthisestablished,ImovedontoconsiderthequestionoftheroutethatMenelikandhis companions had followedon their journey. Previously I had always assumed that thetravellershadgonebyship–fromSolomon’sportofEziongeber(modernElatontheGulfofAqaba),12andthencedowntheRedSeatotheEthiopiancoast.Now,asIporedoverthecopy of the Kebra Nagast provided to me by the librarian, I discovered that my earlierassumptionhadbeenquitewrong.Menelik’s long journey fromJerusalemhad involvedasubstantialcaravanandhadbeenoverlandthroughout.13Butwhatoverlandroutehadbeenfollowed?ThedescriptionofthetrekgivenintheKebraNagast had the dreamlike, miraculous and surreal quality of imaginative storytelling, inwhich recognizable place names and geographical features were not easy to find.Nevertheless thereweresomedetails thatwerebothspecificand important.After leavingJerusalemthetravellershadfirstmadetheirwaytoGaza(onIsrael’sMediterraneancoast,

where a city of that name still exists). From there, presumably following the wellestablishedtraderouteacrossthenorthernedgeoftheSinaipeninsula,14 theyhadcrossedintoEgyptwhere,not longafterwards, theyhadarrivedatagreatriver: ‘Letus letdownthewagons,’theysaidatthispoint,‘forwehavecometothewaterofEthiopia.ThisistheTakazzewhichflowethdownfromEthiopiaandwatereththevalleyofEgypt.’15ItwasclearfromthecontextthatMenelikandhiscompanionswerestill in ‘thevalleyofEgypt’whentheyutteredthesewords–andprobablynotfarsouthofthesiteofmodernCairo.TheriverbesidewhichtheyhadletdowntheirwagonscouldthereforeonlyhavebeentheNile.Whatwasstriking,however,wasthattheyhadimmediatelyidentifieditwiththeTakazze–thesamegreatEthiopiantributarythatthepriesthadmentionedtomeonTanaKirkos.FromthelibrarianIobtainedanatlasandtracedtheTakazze’scoursewithmyfingertip.

I found that it rose in Abyssinia’s central highlands not far from the ancient town ofLalibela,tookawindingpathinanorth-westerlydirectionthroughtheSimienmountains,mergedwiththeAtbaraintheSudan,andfinallyjoinedtheNilepropersomehundredsofmiles to thenorthof themoderncityofKhartoum(whichstandsat theconfluenceof theBlueandWhiteNiles).LookingatthemapIcouldimmediatelyseetwootherthings:firstthattheNile–froman

Ethiopian perspective – might easily have come to be regarded as an extension of theTakazze;16secondlythatitwouldhavebeenentirelysensibleforthecaravancarryingtheArk of the Covenant to have followed the Nile and then the Takazze in order to reachEthiopia.ThealternativewouldhavebeentoproceedmuchfurthersouthwardsthroughthehostiledesertsoftheSudanasfarastheconfluenceofthetwoNilesandthentofollowtheBlueNileintothehighlands.However–sincethelatterrivermakesawidecurvingdetourtothesouthbeforeturningnorthagaintowardsLakeTana–thiswouldhaverequiredanunnecessarily lengthy expedition; the Takazze route, by contrast, was the best part of athousandmilesshorter.Themapmadesomethingelseclearaswell:agroupoftravellersfollowingtheTakazze

to its headwaters would, near the end of their journey, have reached a point less thanseventymiles from the eastern shoreof LakeTana.AndTanaKirkos laynot far off thatsame eastern shore. There was thus no mystery surrounding the tradition that the littleisland had been the first resting place of theArk in Ethiopia: indeed, casting around forsomewhere safe and close to install the sacred relic, Menelik and his companions couldhardlyhavemadeabetterchoice.

ThreemeninaboatThe next morning when Richard Pankhurst and I travelled to Lake Zwai we wereaccompanied by an old friend of mine, Yohannes Berhanu, the General Manager of thestate-ownedNationalTourOperation.Thethreeofusmetupjustbefore6a.m.attheNTOoffices,whereYohanneshadthoughtfullyprovidedachauffeur-drivenToyotaLandcruiser.Twentyminutes later we had left the slums and skyscrapers of Addis Ababa behind andwererumblingalongthebroadhighwaythatledsouththroughthetownofDebraZeitintotheheartoftheGreatRiftValley.Discounting the Koka reservoir, which isman-made, Lake Zwai is the northernmost of

Ethiopia’sstringofRiftValleylakes.Ithasasurfaceareaofsometwohundredsquaremilesandamaximumdepthofaboutfiftyfeet.Ovalinshape,itisstuddedwithislandsandhasmarshyshoresovergrownwithreedsthatprovideanidealhabitatforstorks,pelicans,wildducks,geeseandfisheagles–aswellasforgreatnumbersofhippopotami.Ourdestination,afterthetwo-hourdrivefromAddisAbaba,wasajettyonthesouthern

sideofthelake.HerewehadbeentoldthattheMinistryofFisheriesownedandoperatedanumberofboats,oneofwhichwouldsurelybeprovidedforusatminimalcost.Predictably,however, all the larger vessels had gone fishing. Only a single small motorboat wasavailable–andtherewasnofuelforitsoutboardengine.A lengthy palaver followed with the Ministry staff who explained that the motorboat

wasn’treallybigenoughtotakeRichard,Yohannesandmeaswellasapilot.DebraZion,the island towhich Ihadbeen told that theArkhadbeenbrought for safekeeping in thetenthcentury,wasdistant:atleastathree-hourjourneyinthishumblecraft.Furthermore,with no deck to shelter under, we would be grievously afflicted by the sun. Perhaps,therefore,wewould care to come back tomorrowwhenmore suitable transport could bearranged?Yohannesvehementlydeclinedthissuggestion.ProfessorPankhurstandMrHancock,he

said, had important appointments inAddisAbaba tomorrow– appointmentswhich couldnotunderanycircumstancesbealtered.Wemust,therefore,reachDebraZiontoday.More discussions followed and eventually we trooped along the jetty and sat

experimentallyinthetinymotorboat.Arrangedarounditssideswedidmoreorlessfitintoit,althoughourcombinedweightforceditratherlowinthewater.What todo?TheFisheriesofficialsseemeddubiousbutat lastagreedto letushaveour

way.Thevesselwasours.Theywouldprovideapilot.Andtherewouldbenocharge.We,however,wouldhave toarrange for the fuelourselves.Perhapswecould sendourdriverintothenearesttownwithajerrycan?We did this. A vast and completely inexplicable delay then ensued. One hour passed.

Thenanother.GrowingimpatientIstoodattheendofthejettyandmadetheacquaintanceof several marabou storks: huge, lugubrious, long-beaked, bald-headed birds obviouslydescendedfrompterodactyls.Finallyourdriverreturnedwiththenecessaryfueland–justafter11a.m.–westarteduptheoutboardmotorandsetoff.We puttered, very slowly, through the rippling waters, passing one densely wooded

island, then another. The reed-fringed shoreline receded and thendisappearedbehindus,therewas no sign of Debra Zion, the sunwas now directly overhead, and the boat wasleakinginasmallbutnoticeableway.At this pointYohannesBerhanu rather pointedly remindedus that the lakewas full of

hippopotami(whichhedescribedas‘veryaggressiveanduntrustworthyanimals’).Hewas,Iobserved,wearingalife-jacketthathemustsomehowhaveacquiredbeforeourdeparturefrom the jetty.Meanwhile, Richard Pankhurst’s nosewas turning an interesting shade oflobsterpink.AndI…wellIwasgrittingmyteethandtryingtoignoretheimplicationsofan increasingly full bladder. Where was that bloody island? And when exactly were wegoing to get there? I looked impatiently atmywatch andwas suddenly overtaken by afaintbutdefinitesenseoftheridiculous.Imean,RaidersoftheLostArkwasonethingbutthis,tobehonest,wasmorelikeThreeMeninaBoat.

ThejourneytoDebraZiondidnottakeaslongaswehadbeentolditwould;neverthelessit took quite long enough and I was the first on to dry landwhenwe finally arrived. Idashedpast thedelegation ofmonkswaiting to greet us, disappearedbehind thenearestbushandemergedagainsomeminuteslaterfeelingverymuchbetter.When I rejoined the others, who were deep in conversation with the welcomingcommittee,Inoticedanumberofpapyrusreedboatslinedupalongtheshore.Theyseemedidentical ineveryrespect to those IhadseenonLakeTana. Iwasonthepointofaskingabout this when Yohannes interrupted my chain of thought by announcing excitedly:‘Graham.Thereissomethingstrangehere.Itseemsthatthemother-tongueofthesepeopleisTigrigna.’Thiswasstrangeindeed.WewerenowinthesouthernpartoftheprovinceofShoa,anAmharic-speakingarea.Tigrigna,ontheotherhand,wasthelanguageofthesacredcityofAxumandof theprovinceofTigray–hundredsofmiles to thenorth. Iknew fromdirectexperiencethatEthiopiawasacountryinwhichregionaldistinctions,particularlylinguisticdistinctions, had very profound implications (profound enough, anyway, to lead to civilwar).ItwasthereforemostsurprisingtofindthatAmharicwasnotthefirstlanguageofthemonksofDebraZion.Nor,asitturnedout,didthispeculiarityapplyonlytothemonks.Wequicklyestablishedthat every inhabitant of the island, including the farmers and the fishermen, routinelyconversed in a dialect of Tigrigna and only used Amharic (whichmany of them did notspeakatallwell)ontherareoccasionswhentheywerevisitedbygovernmentofficials.Aswehikedupthewindingpathtothetopof thehillwhereDebraZion’smainchurchwassitedIasked:‘HowcomeyouallspeakTigrigna?’‘Because our forefathers came from Tigray,’ themonks replied through themedium ofYohannes.‘Whendidtheycome?’‘Itwasaroundonethousandandthirtyyearsago.’Ididsomequickmentalarithmetic.Onethousandandthirtyyearsfrom1989gaveadateofAD959.Thetenthcentury,Ithought.ThecenturyinwhichQueenGudithadoverthrowntheSolomonicdynastyandinwhichtheArkoftheCovenanthadsupposedlybeentakenoutof Axum and brought to Debra Zion for safekeeping. Without really having begun tointerview anybody it was already beginning to look very much as though the traditionreportedtomebyBelaiGedaihadsomesubstancetoit.‘Whydid theycome?’ I askednext. ‘Get them to tellus the storyofhowandwhy theycamehere.’Yohannes put this to the monks and then translated their answer: ‘You see, theirforefatherscameherewiththetabot.ItwasinthetimeofGudit.SheattackedtheChristiansinTigray.Therewasmuchfighting.Theywereescapingfromher.Andtheycameherewiththetabot.’‘Whichtabot?’‘TheysayitwasthetabotfromtheChurchofSaintMaryofZioninAxum.’‘BythatdotheymeantheoriginaltabotthatwasbroughtbyMenelikfromJerusalemtoEthiopia? The Ark of the Covenant in otherwords. Or do they have some other tabot inmind?Iwanttobeabsolutelyclearonthispoint.’

Yohannes manfully plunged into this minefield of interpretation while we carried onwalking up the steep hill. Much argument and debate followed before he finallycommented: ‘I do not think they are very clear themselves. But they say that it iswritten…thatitisallwritteninabook,kepthereinthechurch,andthatweshoulddiscussthewholematterwiththeirseniorpriest.’

StolenhistoryFiveminuteslaterwearrivedatthechurchwhich,Iwasnotentirelysurprisedtodiscover,was dedicated to Saint Mary of Zion. It was a plain and unpretentious wattle-and-daubbuilding,whitewashedon theoutsideand surmountedbya simplecross.Theview that itcommandedfromitspositiononthehilltopwas,however,superb,givingussomeideaoftheextentofthislargeisland.Behindus,fromthedirectionwehadcome,thepathwoundback through fields dotted with the poor huts of peasant farmers. Ahead of us the landslopedsteeplyawaytothelake’sedgethroughaforestofacaciatreesandcactus.The senior priest, Abba Gebra Christos, now presented himself. A small wiry man,probably in his late sixties, he wore a thin grey beard and a threadbare two-piece suit,aroundtheshouldersofwhichhehaddrapeda lengthofwhitecottoncloth in traditionalhighlandfashion.Hismannerwaswelcomingandgenialenoughbuttherewasalsoafoxyandcalculatinglookabouthimthatseemedtoforebodeimminentfinancialtransactions.I nervously fingered the greasy wad of birr that I had stuffed into my pocket beforeleavingAddisandresolvedtopayonlyforhigh-qualityinformation.Then,makingaslittlesonganddanceaspossible,Iswitchedonmytape-recorderandaskedmyfirstquestion:didheknowthestoryofhowMenelikhadabductedtheArkoftheCovenantfromtheTempleofSolomoninJerusalem?Yes,Yohannestranslated,ofcoursehedid.Anddidheknowwhathadhappenednext?Menelik,thepriestreplied,hadbroughttheArktoEthiopiawhereitremainedtothisday.‘Ishe sure’, Iasked ‘that thiswas theoriginalArkof theCovenant, containing theTenCommandmentsinscribedontheTabletsofStonebythefingerofGod?’YohannesputthequestionandAbbaGebraChristosrepliedgravely:‘Yes.Iamsure.’‘OK.Good.Nowtellme…wasthissameoriginalArkeverbroughtheretoLakeZwai–toDebraZion?’‘Yes,’saidthepriest,‘atthetimeofGudittheArkwasbroughtherefromAxum.’‘Butwhywasitbroughthere?’Iasked.‘Imean,whyhere?Whysuchalongway?SurelytheremusthavebeenhundredsofsecretplaceswhereitcouldhavebeenhiddeninTigray?’‘Listen… This Gudit… shewas a devil. She burnedmany churches in Tigray. And inother regions of Ethiopia. It was a time of great fighting, great danger. Our forefatherswereverymuchafraidthatshewouldcapturetheArk.SotheybroughtitoutofAxumandtheycarriedittoZwaiwheretheyknewthatitwouldbesafe.Theytravelledonlybynight,hidingbyday in forestsand incaves.Theywereverymuchafraid, I tellyou!But in thiswaytheyevadedhersoldiersandtheybroughttheArktoZwaiandtothisisland.’‘Doyouknowhowlongitremainedhere?’With no hesitation at all Abba Gebra Christos replied: ‘After seventy-two years it was

returnedbacktoAxum.’Now, I thought,was the right time topop the sixty-four thousanddollarquestion: ‘Hastherebeenanyotheroccasion’, I asked tentatively, ‘when theArkhasbeenbroughthereagainforsafekeeping?Perhapsrecently?’Againtherewasnohesitation:‘Never.’‘SoasfarasyouknowitisstillinAxum?’‘Yes.’‘Evennow–withallthefightinggoingoninTigray?’He shrugged: ‘Ibelieve so.But that isonlymyopinion.To findout trulyyoumustaskthoseinAxum.’Anotherthoughtnowoccurredtome: ‘Whenwewerewalkinguphere,’ Isaid, ‘someofthemonkstoldusthatyouhaveanancientbookinwhichiswrittenthehistoryofhowtheArkcametoDebraZioninGudit’stime.Isthatcorrect?Doyouhavesuchabook?’AsYohannestranslatedthisquestion,thewizenedfeaturesofAbbaGebraChristosformedthemselvesintotheexpressionofonewhohasjusttastedsomethingunexpectedlysour.Herespondedreadilyenough,however:‘Yes,thereisabook.’‘Canweseeit?’Amomentaryhesitation,then:‘Yes…ButthepartconcerningtheArkisnolongerthere.’‘I’msorry.Idon’tfollow.Whatdoyoumeanexactly?’‘Abouttwentyyearsagoacertainmancameandcutsomepagesfromthebookandtookthosepagesawaywithhim.TheywerethepagesinwhichthestoryoftheArkwastold.’‘Thisman.Washeaforeigner?OrwasheanEthiopian?’‘Well, he was an Ethiopian. But since that time we have not been able to track himdown.’As I considered the implications of this last answer I could not help but reflect on thebizarreandconvolutednatureoftheenterprisethatIwasnowinvolvedin.Wasthematterof theunknownmanwhohadcutanunknownnumberofpages fromanunknownbooksomethingthatshouldconcernme?Orwasitanirrelevance?WasIpickingupthetracesofsomeone else’s quest for the Ark of the Covenant? Orwas I dealing simplywith a localmanuscripthunterwho twentyyearsagohadmadea fastbuckon theantiquitiesmarketwiththesaleofafewilluminatedfolios?IsuspectedthatImightneverknow.PursuingtheArkthroughEthiopiawasturningouttobe farmoredauntinganddifficult than Ihadever imagined. Indeed itwas somethinglikepursuingaghostthroughamaze.Avenuesthatseemedpromisingandopenfromoneperspective turned out, on closer examination, to be impassable dead ends; by contrastapparent dead ends had more than once transformed themselves into paths tounderstanding.Isighed,refocussedmymindontheimmediateissue,andtoldAbbaGebraChristosthatevenifthemostimportantpagesweremissing,Iwouldstillverymuchliketoseethebookthathehadmentioned.Perhapshewouldallowustophotographit?Thissuggestionproducedaflurryofnervousobjections.No,theoldpriestsaid,hecouldnot possibly let us do that. Photographs were out of the question unless specific writtenpermissionweregivenbythePatriarchoftheEthiopianOrthodoxChurchinAddisAbaba.Didwebyanychancehavesuchpermission?

No,wedidnot.Then, regretfully,we couldnot photograph thebook.We could, however, see it if thatwaswhatwewanted.I indicated that wewould be grateful even for that smallmercy. Abba Gebra Christosnoddedsagely,ledusinsidehischurchandwalkedovertoacupboardnearthebackofthehumblebuilding.Atremendouspantomimeensuedashesearchedinallhispocketsforthenecessarykey–which,aftersomemoments,heconfessedthathecouldnotfind.Ayoungdeaconwasthensummonedandsentoffsomewhere.Tenminuteslater,pantingandoutofbreath, theboy returnedclutchingabundleofat least twentykeys.Oneafteranothertheseweretriedinthelockandeventually–tomyconsiderablesurprise–thedoorwasopened.Thecupboard,however,wasalmostbareandtheonebookthat itcontainedproved tobe an early twentieth-centuryworkdonated to the churchbyPrincessZauditu,thedaughterofEmperorMenelikII.At this point Abba Gebra Christos suddenly remembered an important fact: themanuscriptwewantedtoseewasnot inthechurchafterall.Afewweeksagohehimselfhadtakenittotherepository,whichwasinaseparatebuildingsomedistanceaway.Ifwewouldliketoaccompanyhimhewouldshowittousthere.I looked atmywatch, decided therewas just enough time beforewe had to leave theisland,andgavemyassenttothisplan.Alengthyhikefollowedandweeventuallyarrivedataratherdecrepitstone-builttwo-storeyhouse.Thepriestusheredusgrandlyintoadankandmusty rear room,around thewallsofwhichwerearrangeddozensofwoodenchestsandgarishlypaintedtintrunks.Afteramomentofindecisionheadvancedtowardsoneofthese trunks and threw back its lid revealing a pile of books within. He lifted out thetopmostofthese–aweightytomewithpagesmadeofcuredsheepskin–andpasseditovertome.Richard Pankhurst and Yohannes crowded round as I opened the volume. TheyimmediatelyconfirmedthatitwaswritteninGe’ez.Moreoveritwasundoubtedlyveryold:‘Fromthestyleoftheilluminations,andfromthebinding,Iwouldguessthirteenthcentury,’volunteeredRichard. ‘It’scertainlynot laterthanthefourteenthcentury.There’snodoubtthatit’sanearlywork.Probablyveryvaluable.’Eagerlywebegantoturnthepages.Atnopoint,however,wasthereanyindicationthatanythinghadbeenremoved.Asfaraswecouldtellthemanuscriptwasintact.WepointedthisouttoAbbaGebraChristos,whohadbeenstandingsilentlywatchingus,andaskedhimwhetherhewasabsolutelycertainthatthiswasthebookhehadtalkedtousabout.Asitturnedout,itwasnot.Apologeticallytheoldpriestthenrummagedinanumberofotherboxesaroundtheroom,passingusaseriesofancientmanuscripts.‘It’squiteamazing,’Richardcommentedatonepoint.‘Somanyoldbooks.Arealtreasuretrove.Andthey’rejustlyinghereincompletedisarray.Theycouldgetdamp.Theycouldgetstolen.Anythingcouldhappentothem.IwishwecouldmovethewholelotofthemtotheInstitute.’Thelastvolumewelookedatwasawood-boundandbeautifullyilluminatedcopyoftheEthiopianBookofSaints.Ittoowasintact.WhenwehadfinishedgoingthroughitRichardnudgedmeintheribs:‘Ithink,’hesaid,‘thatwe’renotgettinganywherehere.’Inodded:‘Ithinkyou’reright.Andit’sreallylate.We’dbettergoorwe’llenduphaving

tocrossthewholelakeinthedark.’Beforeleaving,however,IaskedYohannestomakeafinalattempttogetsomesenseoutofthepriest.WasthebookthattoldthestoryoftheArkreallyhereornot?Certainly it was here, Abba Gebra Christos insisted. Of course it was here. The onlyproblemwasthathewasnolongercertaininwhichboxhehadplacedit.Ifwewouldcaretowait–justalittlelonger–hewassurethathecouldlocateit…ThiswasanofferthatIfeltsafeindeclining.Itseemedtomethattheoldmanwasbeingdeliberately evasive – and if that were the case then presumably it meant that he washidingsomething.Butwhat?Not,Ithought,theArkitself.Perhapsnoteventhenotoriousbook.Butsomething,definitely.Puzzledanda littlepiquedI led thewaybackto themotorboat.Wesaidour farewells.Then,with at least an hour of sunlight still left in the sky,we headed out onto the stillwatersofLakeZwai.Iwroteinmynotebook:

Idon’tbelievethereisanypurposeinspendingfurthertimeinvestigatingDebraZion.AfterinterviewingthemonksandtheseniorpriestIfeelquitecertainthattheimportanceoftheislandliessolelyinthestrengthofitsancienttraditionsconcerningtheArkoftheCovenant.BroadlyspeakingthesetraditionsseemtoconfirmwhatBelaiGedaitoldmeinoneofourtelephoneconversations–namelythattheArkwasbroughttoDebraZioninthetenthcenturytokeepitsafefromGudit,thatitstayedhereforaboutseventyyears,andthatitwasthenreturnedtoAxum.Thefactthatthemother-tongueofalltheislandersisTigrignaratherthanAmharicisstrong‘social’evidenceinsupportoftheoralhistoryIwasgiven–becausetheonlylogicalexplanationforsuchanethnographicpeculiarityisthattherewasindeedamovementofpopulationfromtheAxumareatoDebraZioninthedistantpast.SomethingasmomentousastheneedtobringtheArktosafetycouldcertainlyaccountforamigrationofthissort.Moreover,iftherelicdidstayhereforaslongaperiodasseventyyearsbeforebeingtakenbacktoAxum,thenit’squiteeasytoseewhysomeofthedescendantsoftheoriginalmigrantswouldhavewantedtostayontheisland,whichwouldhavebeentheonlyhometheyknew.It’salsotobeexpectedthattheywouldhavemaintainedafolkmemoryofthegloriouseventsinwhichtheirforefatherswereinvolved.ThatfolkmemoryiswhatI’vespentmostoftheafternoonlisteningto.Intheprocesssomeintriguinglocalmysteriessurfaced.Atnopoint,however,didIgetanysenseatallthattheArkmightactuallybeherenow.Onthecontrary,Ifeelconfidentinsayingthatitisn’there–and,furthermore,thatithasn’tbeenhereforthebestpartofathousandyears.SincethesamegoesfortheislandsofLakeTanaaswellit’sbecomingtransparentlyobviousthatAxumisstillthemostprobableplacefortherelictobe.Inotherwords,likeitornot,I’mgoingtohavetogotoAxum.ThebesttimetodothatwouldbeinJanuaryduringTimkat,whichistheoneoccasionwhenImightbeabletogetclosetotheArkwithouthavingtogainaccesstothesanctuarychapel.AndTimkat1770waswhenBrucewasthere–presumablyfor

thesamereason.

I closedmynotebookand lookedupatRichardandYohannes. ‘Doyou think there’s anypossibility,’ Iasked, ‘thatthegovernmentwillhavecapturedAxumbyJanuary?I’dreallyliketogetthereintimetoattendthenextTimkat.’Yohannessaidnothing.Richardmadeaface:‘Aniceidea.Butyoumightaswellplantoflytothemoon.’‘Well,’Isaid,‘itwasjustathought.’ItwasafterdarkwhenwefinallymooredthemotorboatattheMinistryofFisheriesjetty,and almost 10 p.m. by the timewe reached the sprawling outskirts of Addis Ababa.Weinstructed our driver to head for Yohannes’s office in the centre of town where we hadparkedour cars thatmorning (therewere still twohours leftbefore curfewandourplanwas to grab a quick dinner at a nearby restaurant). As we climbed down out of theLandcruiser,however,weheardaprolongedburstofautomaticrifle firewhichseemedtocome from an apartment block just across the road. Seconds later there were two shortansweringburstsfromadifferentweapon.Thenaprofoundsilencefell.‘Whatonearthwasthatallabout?’Iasked.‘Probably nothing serious,’ Richard offered. ‘There have been a few isolated incidentssincetheattemptedcoup…shootingshereandthere.Butnothingmajor.’‘Nevertheless,’ saidYohannes gravely, ‘I think that itwould bewise for us to abandondinner.Letusallgotoourhomes.’

AnethnographicfingerprintBackat theHilton I slept soundlyandawokebefore seven thenextmorning–Friday24November. I then took a turn in the pool, had breakfast and telephoned the office ofShimelisMazengia.ThePolitburomemberhadaskedRichardandmetoreportbacktohimaftercompletingourtripstoLakeTanaandLakeZwai.Hissecretarynowtoldmethatshehad been expecting my call and gave us an appointment for three o’clock that sameafternoon.Satisfiedwiththisarrangement,anddeterminedtobringupthequestionofTimkat andAxum despite Richard’s pessimism, I left the hotel and drove round to the Institute ofEthiopianStudies.MyresearchonWednesdaythe22ndhadestablishedtheplausibilityoftheNile/TakazzeroutementionedintheKebraNagastandalsobythepriestonTanaKirkos.17WhatIwantedto do nowwas to test out a hypothesis that had subsequently taken rough shape in mymind. It seemed tome that ifMenelik and the first-born sons of the elders of Israel hadindeedbroughttheArktoTanaKirkosbyfollowingtheTakazzeriver,thenthiswouldhavehadimplicationsforthedistributionoftheJewishfaithinEthiopia.Iftherewassometruthtothelegend,Ireasoned,thenthetraditionalepicentreoftheFalashapopulationshouldliebetweentheTakazzeandLakeTana–sinceitwouldhavebeeninpreciselythisareathatMenelikwouldfirsthavebeguntoconvertthelocalpopulationtoJudaism.If thelegendswere false, however, then I might expect to find that the bulk of the Falashas livedelsewhere – most likely much further north and close to the Red Sea (since academic

orthodoxyhaditthattheirforefathershadbeenconvertedbyJewishimmigrantsfromtheYemen).IturnedfirsttoJamesBruce,whoseearlyworkontheFalashashadalreadyimpressedmesomuch.InVolumeIIIofhisTravelsIknewthattheScottishauthorhaddevotedachapterto what might loosely be termed the ‘social geography’ of eighteenth-century Ethiopia.ThoughIdidnotrememberthecontentsofthischapterveryclearlyIhopedthatitwouldhavesomethingtosayaboutthelocationoftheprincipalFalashasettlementsatthattime.Iwasnotdisappointed.Bruce’s surveybegan in thenorthofEthiopia–at theRedSeaportofMassawa–andworkedinlandfromthere.Severalethnicgroupswerecoveredbutno mention was made of the Falashas in either Eritrea or Tigray. ‘After passing theTakazze’,however, thecountry stretching to the southandwestas farasLakeTanawasdescribedasbeing:

ingreatpartpossessedbyJews,andthere[the]kingandqueenofthatnationand,astheysay,ofthehouseofJudah,maintainstilltheirancientsovereigntyandreligionfromveryearlytimes.18

Writinginthenineteenthcentury(abouteightyyearsafterBruce)theGermanmissionaryMartinFladhadrecordedasimilardistributionofpopulation,notingthattheFalashaslivedinatotaloffourteenprovinces–allofwhichlay‘westoftheTakazze’.19ThemodernsourcesthatInextreviewedpaintedthesamepicture.ThevastmajorityofEthiopia’sJewsinhabitedtheterritorytothewestandsouthoftheTakazzeriver:thiswastheir traditionalhomelandand theiroccupationof itwasancientbeyondmemory.20 Oneparticularly detailed and authoritative study included amap in which the entire area ofFalasha settlementwas shaded – a long but relatively narrow strip extending south-westfromtheTakazzethroughtheSimienmountainsandthecityofGondarandthengoingon,withoutanyinterruption,toencompassthewholeofLakeTana.21Itwouldhavebeendifficulttofindmoretellingsupportformyhypothesisthatthis–withtheuniqueimpetusprovidedbythepresenceoftheArkonTanaKirkos–hadbeenpreciselytheareainwhichtheconversionofnativeAbyssinianstoOldTestamentJudaismhadbeenconcentrated. On the basis of my own research (see Chapter 6) I had anyway begun todoubt themerits of the academic theory which held that the Jewish faith had first beenimportedintothefarnorthofEthiopiafromtheYemenatsomepointafterAD70.Hithertomydissatisfactionwithsuchnotionshadstemmedmainlyfromtheirfailuretoexplaintheextremely archaic nature of Falasha beliefs and rituals (again, see Chapter 6). Now theethnographicevidencemadethecaseagainst the ‘Yemeniconnection’ lookevenstronger:on the map, the area in which the Falashas lived stood out like a tell-tale fingerprintconfirmingthatthereligionofSolomoncouldonlyhaveenteredEthiopiafromthewest–throughEgyptandtheSudanalongtheancientandwell-travelledtraderoutesprovidedbytheNileandTakazzerivers.22

ThevirtueofpatienceAtthreesharp,RichardandIkeptourappointmentwithShimelisMazengia.ThePolitburo

memberfirstofallwantedtohearhowourtripstoLakeTanaandtoLakeZwaihadgone.Hadwebeensuccessful?Hadwefoundanythingout?IrepliedthatourdiscoveriesonTanaKirkosisland–andthestrange,archaictraditionsthathadbeenreportedtousthere–hadhadaprofoundeffectonmythinking.Iwasnowalmost certain that this was the region towhich the Ark of the Covenant had first beenbroughtbeforebeingtakentoAxum.‘SoyoureallybelievethatwehavetheArk?’Shimelisaskedwithasmile.‘I’mincreasinglyconfidentofthat.Theevidenceisbuildingup…’Ihesitated,thenturnedhisquestionbackonhim:‘Whatdoyouthink?’‘IthinkthereissomethingveryspecialinthesanctuaryatAxum.NotnecessarilytheArk,mind you, but something very special. It is an ancient tradition. It cannot completely beignored.’Iaskedwhetherhisgovernmenthadevermadeadeterminedeffort tofindoutwhetherthesacred–andimmenselyvaluable–relicwasreallythereornot.TheWorkers’PartyofEthiopia wereMarxists, after all, and so presumably were not hampered by reactionarysuperstitions. Itwas only quite recently that they’d lostAxum to theTPLF. Prior to that,hadn’ttheyeverthoughtoftakingalook?‘Weneverforamomentconsideredit,’Shimelisreplied.‘Neverforasinglemoment…IfwehadtriedtodosomethinglikethatIthinkwewouldhavehad’–hesmiledironically–‘arevolution on our hands.Our people are very traditional, as you know, and therewouldhave been an explosion if any government official had ever involved himself in such amatter.’‘DoyouthinktheTPLFhavethesameattitude?’Iasked.‘NowthattheycontrolAxum,Imean.’ThePolitburomembershrugged:‘Thatisnotformetosay.Buttheyarenotrenownedfortheirreligioussensitivities…’Iwasalittlehesitantaboutputtingmynextquestion,butdidsoanyway:‘I’msorryifthissoundsimpertinent,’Isaid,‘butI’vegottoask.Isthereanychanceatallthatyoursideisgoingtowinthecitybackintheimmediatefuture?’‘Whydoyouask?’‘BecauseI’vecometotheconclusionthatI’mgoingtohavetogotheremyself.InfactI’dliketogetthereforthenextTimkatcelebrations.’‘YoumeanthiscomingJanuary?’Inoddedmyhead.‘Impossible,’saidShimelisflatly.‘Besides,whybeinsuchahurry?Ifyouareright,thentheArkhas alreadybeen in our country for threemillennia. In another year, two at themost,wewillrecaptureAxumandwhenwedoI thinkIcanpromisethatyouwillbethefirstforeignerintothecity.Sobepatient.Youwillgetyourchance.’Ihadtoadmitthatthiswassoundadvice.InacountrylikeEthiopiapatiencewasalmostalwaysavirtue.Iwasnotpreparedtowaittwoyears,however.Ithereforesilentlyresolvedtoaim forAxumnot inJanuary1990,but inJanuary1991.Theconfidence thatShimelishadshownhadimpressedmeandIhopedverymuchthatthesacredcitywouldbebackingovernmenthandsby then.Meanwhile,however– justasaprecaution– I thought that Imightalso try toopenupsomedialoguewith theTPLF. Ihadhithertoavoided therebels

but it now seemed to me that it might be in my interests to make some preliminaryoverturesintheirdirection.IlookedacrossthetableatShimelis.‘You’rerightofcourse,’Isaid.‘ButwouldyoumindifIaskedyouanotherfavour?’Withaneloquenthandgesture,thePolitburomemberindicatedthatIshouldgoahead.‘I’dstillliketoattendaTimkatceremony,’Icontinued,‘andsinceAxumisobviouslyoutof the question I was wondering whether I might be able to go to Gondar this Januaryinstead.’Beside me Richard coughed politely. The city that I had just named was reportedlybesiegedbyrebelforcesandtherehadbeenrumoursthatitmightfallanyday.‘WhyGondar?’Shimelisasked.‘Because it’s in the Lake Tana area – which, as I said, I’ve identified as being closelyassociatedwiththeearlyhistoryoftheArkinthiscountry.AndbecauseIunderstandthatmanyFalashasstillliveinandaroundGondar.IrememberpassingthroughJewishvillagesjustnorthofthecitywaybackin1983,butIdidn’thaveachancetocarryoutanyproperinterviewsatthattime.SowhatI’dliketodo,ifit’sOKwithyou,iskilltwobirdswithonestone. I’d like toattendTimkat inGondar.Andwhile I’m there I’d like to carryout someresearchamongsttheFalashas.’‘Itmaybepossible,’repliedShimelis.‘Itdependsonthemilitarysituation,butitmaybepossible.Ishalllookintoitandletyouknow.’

Chapter11AndDaviddancedbeforetheArk…

On18and19January1770theScottishadventurerJamesBrucehadquietlyattendedtheTimkatceremonialsinAxumand,asoutlinedinChapter7,IbelievedthathehaddonesoinordertogetascloseaspossibletotheArkoftheCovenant.Exactly twohundredandtwentyyears later–on18and19January1990– IattendedTimkatinthecityofGondartothenorthofLakeTana.Moreover,althoughIhadnotsharedmytruefeelingswitheitherRichardPankhurstorwithShimelisMazengia,Isawthistripasbeingofpivotalsignificancetomyquest.Immersedas Iwas inthegreathistoricalmysterythatconnectedtheArktoEthiopia, ithadbecomecleartomethatsoonerorlater,somehoworother,IwasgoingtohavetogobacktoAxum.IhadresolvedtotrytomakethathazardousvisitinJanuary1991–andtomake itunder theauspicesof the rebels ifnecessary. I therefore sawGondarasacrucial‘dry run’: the closest point to Axum still in government hands, itwas also, like Axum, aformercapitalofEthiopia,animportanthistoricsiteandacentreofreligiouslearning.Insucha setting, I reasoned, Imighthope topreparemyself spirituallyandpsychologicallyfor the real ordeal that lay ahead, to familiarizemyselfwith aspects of the same arcaneritualsthatBrucemusthavewitnessedin1770,togathersuchintelligenceasIcould,andtoquickenmycommitmenttothequest.This, however, was not the only voice within me. Other, less steadfast thoughts alsopassed through my mind and I could see the possibility of a different outcome. If, forexample,IweretodiscoveranythingatGondarwhichcastseriousdoubtonthelegitimacyofEthiopia’sclaimtobethelastrestingplaceoftheArkthenmightInot–withhonour–abandonmyplantogotoAxumin1991?This was a disturbing but oddly seductive notion to which I foundmyself increasinglyattractedasthedateoftheGondartripapproached.Thattripitselfwasforawhileindoubt– indeed it was not until 8 January 1990 that I finally received a telex from Shimelisconfirmingthatthenecessarypermissionhadbeenobtainedfromthemilitaryauthorities.

RiddlestosolveIknewthatIcouldexpectacentralfeatureoftheTimkatceremoniestobethecarryinginprocessionofthetabotat–thesymbolsorreplicasoftheArkoftheCovenantnormallykeptin theHolyofHoliesofeveryEthiopianchurch.Ofcourse inGondar Iwouldnot see theobjectwhichtheEthiopiansclaimedtobetheArkitself(sincetherewasnosuggestionthatit had ever been lodged there). What I would see, however, was an event otherwiseidenticalincharacterthatwasregardedasthesupremefestivaloftheEthiopianOrthodoxcalendar.IhadbeenawareforsometimethatTimkatmeant‘Epiphany’–aholydayassociatedbythewestern churchwith themanifestationofChrist to theGentiles.1 Epiphany, however,

had an entirely different significance amongst eastern Christians, for whom itcommemorated the Baptism of Christ.2 I had established that the Ethiopians were incompleteagreementwith the restof theeasternchurchon this latterpoint,but that theydiverged radically from the norm when it came to the specific rituals employed.3 Inparticular,theiruseofthetabotwasuniquetothem,unparalleledinanyothercultureandunrecognizedevenbytheCopticPatriarchateinAlexandria4(whichhadsuppliedEthiopiawithall itsarchbishopsfromthedateoftheconversionoftheAxumitekingdominAD331untilautocephalywasachievedin19595).AgainstthisbackgroundIfeltthatcloseobservationoftheTimkatritualsandoftheroleofthetabotatwithinthemmighthelpmetofathomwhatIhadlongsincecometoregardasthecentralparadoxofEthiopianChristianity–namelyits infiltration, indeeddomination,byapre-Christianrelic:theArkoftheCovenant.This,however,wasnotmysolepurposeinmakingthetriptoGondar.WhilethereIalsointendedtotalktoFalashaslivingintheenvironsofthecity.IhadalreadymentionedthistoShimelisandhehadnotobjected–forthesimplereasonthatmuch had changed sincemy previous visit to the area in 1983. Then, driving northfromGondarintotheSimienmountains,officialpolicyhadmadeitalmostimpossibletodoanyseriousworkamongsttheblackJews:theirvillageshadbeeneffectivelyoutofboundsand there had been no opportunity to observe their customs or to carry out properinterviews.This repressive state of affairs had been swept away inNovember 1989when, after asixteen-year break, Addis Ababa and Jerusalem had restored diplomatic relations. At theheartofthisagreementwasacommitmentonEthiopia’sparttoallowtheFalashas–alltheFalashas–toemigratetoIsrael.Bythen,anyway,therewerefewenoughleft–probablynomore than 15,000.6 All the others had died during the famines of the mid-1980s or hadalready fled clandestinely to Israel via refugee camps in the Sudan (fromwhich, during1984/5 alone, the airlift known as ‘Operation Moses’ had taken more than 12,000 tosafety7).Theneteffectofall this,byJanuary1990,wasthatthenumberofEthiopianJewswasdwindlingfast.Inthethreemonthssincetherestorationofdiplomaticrelationssome3,000of themhad left thecountry.Manymorehaddeserted theirvillagesand flocked toAddisAbabahopingforanearlyplaceontheplanesout.Inexorableandunstoppable,thislatter-dayExoduswasgatheringpace,andIcouldseethatverysoonnotasingleFalashawouldbe left inEthiopia.Thereafter, of course, itwould still bepossible to interview themandresearch their folklore and traditions in the Promised Land. This, however,would almostcertainlybethelastyearinwhichitwouldbepossibletogetanyimpressionatalloftheirtraditionallifeinitstraditionalsurroundings.Iwasdeterminednot tomiss this chance: the riddleofhow therehadever come tobeJews– indigenous,blackJews– in theheartofEthiopiawas intimatelyconnected to theenigmaoftheHolyArk;solveone,Ifelt,andIwouldsolvetheother.NeitherweretheFalashastheonlyethnicgroupofinteresttomeintheGondararea.IntheweekofresearchthatIhaddonejustpriortomydeparturefromEnglandIhadturnedupan intriguingreference toanotherpeople–apeopleknownas theQemantwhoweredescribed as ‘Hebraeo-Pagans’ in the single anthropological paper written about them.8

Publishedin1969byanAmericanscholarnamedFrederickGamst,thisobscuremonographobservedthat:

TheHebraismfoundamongtheQemantisanancientformunaffectedbyHebraicreligiouschangeofthepasttwomillennia.ThisHebraismisdominantinthereligionoftheFalasha,neighboursoftheQemant…sometimescalled‘theblackJewsofEthiopia’.9

I had hitherto been completely unaware of the Qemant and was therefore intrigued byGamst’ssuggestionthattheirreligioncontainedancient‘Hebraic’elements.This,Ifelt,wasamatterthatobviouslymeritedfurtherinvestigationsinceitmighthelptoshedlightontheantiquityofJudaicinfluenceinEthiopia–andalsoonthepervasivenessofthatinfluence.

TheOneGodandthefetishtreeInhisstudyoftheQemantGamsthadmentionedthathehadbeenbefriendedbyareligiousleaderwhohadhelpedhimenormouslywithhisfieldworkinthe1960s.Thenameofthisdignitary, I knew,wasMulunaMarshaandhis titlewasWambar (awordmeaning ‘HighPriest’intheQemantlanguage).Intheshorttimeavailable,itseemedtomethatmybeststrategy would be to try to locate this man (whom Gamst had described as a mine ofinformation)andtointerviewhimaboutthereligiousbeliefsofhispeople. Icouldnotbesure, however, whether he would still be alive after somany years – or evenwhether Iwould be able to find any Qemant still adhering to the traditional Hebraeo-Pagan faith(sincetherehadbeenlessthanfivehundredoftheminGamst’stime10).Aftermy arrival in Gondar onWednesday 17 January I discussed this worry with the

officials who came to meet me at the airport and was told that there were a very fewQemant–nowmostlyelderly–whocontinuedtoadhereto theoldreligion.Feelerswerethenputout,radiomessagesweresenttoPartycadresinremoteareas,and,onThursdaythe18th,IgotthegoodnewsthattheWambarwasstillalive.Hishomevillage,apparently,wasinaccessiblebyroadbutitwasthoughtpossiblethathemightbepersuadedtocometoan intermediate point – Aykel, about two hours’ drive duewest of Gondar. The journey,furthermore,wouldalmostcertainlybesafe:inrecentfightingtherebelshadbeenpushedback and thewestern region intowhichwewould be goingwas considered to be secureduringdaylighthours.Timkat,whichIshalldescribelaterinthischapter,tookupallofmyattentionfortherest

ofThursdayandallofFriday.Early in theafternoonofSaturday20January,however, IwasfinallyabletosetoffforAykelintheToyotaLandcruiserthatthePartyhadputatmydisposal. In addition to thedriver, Iwas accompaniedbyLegesseDesta – theyoungandenthusiastic officialwhowas acting asmy interpreter – and by two dour soldiers armedwithKalashnikovassaultrifles.Aswebumpedalong the rough, graded track throughglowing fields andgolden-brown

hillsIstudiedtheMichelinmapoftheHornofAfricathatInowtookeverywherewithme.Iwas interested tonote thatourdestination laynot far fromtheheadwatersof theAtbarariverwhichroseaboutfiftymilestothenorth-westofLakeTanaandflowedfromthereinto

theSudan,whereitwaseventuallyjoinedbytheTakazzebeforemergingwiththeNilejustabovetheFifthCataract.Because itpassedsoclose toTanaKirkos,andbecause itwas specificallymentioned in

theKebraNagast, theTakazze itself still looked tome like the strongest contender for therouteoftheArk.NeverthelessitwasclearfromthemapthattravellersfollowingtheAtbarawouldalsohavearrivedinthissamegeneralarea.Iconsideredtheimplicationsofthisandthenremarkedinmyjournal:

Theriversareroadsthroughthedesert.InthecaseofEthiopiaallthese‘roads’–whethertheTakazze,theAtbara,ortheBlueNile–seemtoleadtoLakeTana.TheFalashas(andtheirrelativesthe‘Hebraeo-Pagan’Qemant)havealwayslivedinpreciselythisareaandareindigenousEthiopians–nativesofthiscountry.SincetheirJudaism(or‘Hebraism’asGamstpreferstocallit)isaforeignelementintheirculture,itislogicaltodeducethatitmusthavebeenimportedalongtherivers.

AswedroveintoAykelweweremetbyagroupoflocalPartyofficialswhotoldusthatWambarMulunaMarshahadarrivedsometimeagoandwaswaitingforus.Wewerethentaken to a large, circular hutwith a high beehive-shaped roof and ushered into the coolsemi-darkness within. Thin shafts of sunlight fell through gaps in the wattle-and-daub,highlightingmotes of dust that hung suspended in the air. From thenewlybrushed earthfloortherearosealoamyfragrancecomplicatedbyafaintnoteofsandalwood.TheWambar,asIhadexpected,wasanelderlyman.Hehadevidentlydressedupforthis

occasion since hewas wearing a white turban, white ceremonial robes and a fine blackcape.Seatedononeof theseveralchairs thathadbeenarranged inside thehut,hestoodgraciouslyaswecameinand,afterthenecessaryintroductionshadbeenmade,shookmyhandwarmly.Speakingthroughtheinterpreterheimmediatelyasked:‘DoyouworkwithMrGamst?’IhadtoadmitthatIdidnot.‘But,’Iadded,‘I’vereadthebookthathewroteaboutyour

people.That’swhyI’mhere.I’mveryinterestedinlearningaboutyourreligion.’The Wambar smiled rather mournfully. As he did so I noticed that one tooth,

disconcertinglylong,grewdownfromtheleftsideofhisupperjawandprotrudedtusk-likeoverhis lower lip. ‘Ourreligion’,hesaid, ‘hasbecomeathingof thepast.Almostnobodypractisesittoday.TheQemantarenowChristians.’‘ButyouyourselfarenotaChristian…?’‘No.IamtheWambar.Istillfollowtheoldways.’‘Andarethereotherslikeyou?’‘A few remain.’That smileagain.Then, slylyand somewhatparadoxically: ‘Even those

who say theyareChristianshavenot entirely abandoned their formerbeliefs.The sacredgrovesarestilltended…Thesacrificesarestillmade.’Apauseforthought,ashakeoftheold,grizzledhead,asigh:‘Butthingsarechanging…Alwaysthereischange…’‘Yousaid“sacredgroves”.Whatdidyoumeanbythat?’‘Ourworship,ifitisconductedasitshouldbe,takesplaceintheopenair.Andweprefer

tomake our devotions amongst trees. For this purposewe have set aside special groves

calleddegegna.’Iput severalmorequestionson this subjectandestablished that therewere in fact twokindsofgroves.Some– thedegegna themselves–wereused forannual ceremonies.Theyhad first been planted in the distant past when the founder of the Qemant religionwasshownthecorrectlocationsinhisdreams.Inadditiontherewereothermuchsmallersacredsites–calledqole–whichoftenconsistedofonlyasingletreewhereaparticularlypowerfulspirit was believed to reside. These qole were normally situated in high places. As ithappenedtherewasoneontheoutskirtsofAykelwhichIcouldseeifIliked.IthenaskedtheWambarifheknewwhethertheFalashasalsoveneratedsacredgroves.‘No,’hereplied,‘theydonot.’‘Wouldyousaythattheirreligionisinanywaysimilartoyours?’Asagenod:‘Yes.Inmanyways.Wehavemuchincommon.’Unpromptedhethenadded:‘ThefounderoftheQemantreligionwascalledAnayer.HecameheretoEthiopiasolongago.Hecame,aftersevenyearsoffamine,fromhisowncountry,whichwasfaraway.Ashe travelledon the journeywithhiswife and childrenhemet the founderof theFalashareligion,alsotravellingonthesamejourneywithhiswifeandchildren.Amarriagealliancewasdiscussedbetweenthetwogroups,butitdidnotsucceed.’‘Did Anayer and the founder of the Falasha religion come originally from the samecountry?’‘Yes.Buttheywereseparate.Theymadenomarriagealliance.’‘Nevertheless,thecountryoftheirbirthwasthesame?’‘Yes.’‘Doyouknowwhereitwas?’‘Itwasfar…ItwasintheMiddleEast.’‘Doyouknowthenameofthiscountry?’‘It was the land of Canaan. Anayer was the grandson of Canaanwhowas the son ofHam,whowasthesonofNoah.’Iwas intrigued by this genealogy and by the fadedmemory of an ancestralmigrationfromtheMiddleEast–amemorythatalsosuggestedacommonlocusfortheoriginoftheFalasha and the Qemant religions. I could not get the Wambar to confirm whether the‘Canaan’ that he had referred towas the Promised Land of theBible. Indeed, despite hisfamiliarity with names like Ham and Noah, he claimed never to have read the Bible. Ibelievedhimonthispointbut,atthesametime,wasinnodoubtthattherewasascripturalbackgroundtowhathehadjusttoldme.Containedinhisaccount,forexample,wereechoesofthegreattrekmadebythepatriarchAbrahamandhiswifeSarahwhohadfledCanaanand‘journeyed,goingonstilltowardthesouth’because‘therewasfamineintheland’.11Atthesametime, likeEgypt inthebookofGenesis, thecountrythatAnayerhadcomefromhadbeenafflictedbysevenyearsoffamine.12‘Tell me more about your religion,’ I now asked the Wambar. ‘You mentioned spiritsearlier–spirits living in trees.ButwhataboutGod?Doyoubelieve inoneGod,ormanygods?’‘WebelieveinoneGod.OnlyoneGod.Butheissupportedbyangels.’TheWambar thenwent on to list these angels: Jakaranti, Kiberwa, Aderaiki, Kiddisti,Mezgani, Shemani, Anzatatera. Each, apparently, had his own distinctive place in the

countryside. ‘Whenour religionwas strong, all theQement used to go to these places topraytotheangelstomediatewithGodontheirbehalf.Jakarantiwasthemostrespected,thenMezganiandAnzatatera.’‘AndGod?’Iasked.‘TheGodoftheQemant.Doeshehaveaname?’‘Ofcourse.HisnameisYeadara.’‘Wheredoeshereside?’‘Heiseverywhere.’AsingleGodthen,andanomnipresentone.Iwasbeginning,already,toseewhyGamsthad characterized these people as Hebraeo-Pagans. This impression, furthermore, wasstrengthenedbyalmosteverythingelsethattheWambartoldmeduringourlongdiscussioninthevillageofAykel.Ikeptdetailednotesofthatdiscussionand,aftermyreturntoAddisAbaba, made a careful study of his answers – comparing them point by point with theScriptures.OnlywhenIhadcompletedthisexercisewasIabletoappreciatejusthowstrongandhowoldtheJudaicdimensionofQemantreligionreallywas.The Wambar had told me, for example, that the Qemant were forbidden to eat anyanimalthatwasnotcloven-hoofedandthatdidnotchewthecud.Inaddition,hehadsaid,camels and pigswere regarded as unclean andwere strictly forbidden. These restrictionsaccorded perfectly with those placed upon the Jews in the eleventh chapter of the OldTestamentbookofLeviticus.13TheWambarhadalso said thatamongst theQemanteven ‘clean’animals couldnotbeeaten if they had not been slaughtered properly. ‘Their throatsmust be cut until all thebloodisgone,’hehadexplained–addingthat,forthesamereason,itwasforbiddentoeatanyanimalthathaddiedofnaturalcauses.Bothproscriptions,Idiscovered,wereperfectlyinlinewithJudaiclaw.14Stillonthesubjectof food, theWambarhadtoldmethattheconsumptionofmeatanddairy products at the same table was permitted by Qemant religion. He had added,however, that itwas regarded as an abomination to eat the flesh of an animal that hadbeen cooked inmilk. I knew that orthodox Jews were forbidden tomixmeat and dairyfoods in the same meal. When I researched the background to this particular Kosherrestriction, however, I learnt that it derived its authority from the books of Exodus andDeuteronomy, both of which stated: ‘Thou shalt not seethe a kid in hismother’s milk.’15This,moreorlessexactly,wastheruleobeyedbytheQemant.AnotherareaofconvergenceconcernedtheSabbath–which,liketheJews,theQemantobservedonSaturday.‘Itisforbiddentoworkonthatday,’theWambarhadtoldme.‘Itisforbidden to light fires on Saturday. And if a field should catch fire accidentally on theSabbaththenthatisafieldthatwemustnolongeruse.’16Theserestrictionsandotherslikethem–allverymuchinaccordwithbiblicallaw–madememoreandmore confident that adeepand trulyancient Judaic substratumdid indeedunderliethereligionoftheQemant.Whatfinallyconvincedmethatthiswasso,however,wastheonepracticethattheWambarhaddescribedtomewhichhadnotsoundedJudaicatall–namelythevenerationof‘sacredgroves’.HehadtoldmeduringourinterviewthattherewasaqolesiteontheoutskirtsofAykelwhereImightseeatreebelievedtobetheresidenceofapowerfulspirit.Ididgotolookatthistree,whichturnedouttobeahuge,spreadingacacia.Itstoodtothewestofthevillage

onaspurofhighground,beyondwhich,acrossahundreddescendingmiles,thelandslopedsteeply away towards the Sudanese border. A soft afternoon breeze, laden with thefragrance of distant deserts, blew through the tawny canyons beneath me, circulatedamongsttheravinesandfoothills,andsoaredoneagles’wingsacrossthefirstbattlementsoftheescarpment.Gnarledandmassive,theacaciawassoancientthatitwouldhavebeeneasytobelievethat it had stood here for hundreds and perhaps even for thousands of years. Inside thewalledenclosurethatsurroundedit,laidoutupontheground,werevariousofferings–ajarofoil,aheapofmillet,smallpilesofroastedcoffeebeans,andatrussedchickenawaitingsacrifice. In theirownwayall theseoblationscontributed to thepeculiarcharacterof theplace:numinousandeerie,bynomeansmenacingbutnonethelessdistinctlystrange.Whatmultipliedthisother-worldlyeffect,however–andwhatmadethisQemantqolesitesodifferentfromanyotherplaceofworshipIhadevercomeacrossinmytravels–wasthefact that every branch of the tree to a height of about six feet off the ground had beenfestooned with woven strips of vari-coloured cloth. Rustling in the wind, these wavingpennantsandribbonsseemedtowhisperandmurmur–almostasthoughtheywereseekingtoimpartamessage.AndIrememberthinkingthatifIcouldonlyunderstandthatmessagethen many hidden things might be revealed. Superstitiously I touched the living wood,senseditsage,andreturnedtomycompanionswhowereawaitingmeatthebottomofthehill.Later, back in Addis – after I had looked into the other comparisons between QemantreligionandOldTestamentJudaism–IranaroutinecheckintheScripturesandinworksofbiblicalarchaeologytoseeifIcouldfindanyreferencestosacredtrees.Ididnotexpectthat I would. Much to my surprise, however, I discovered that certain specially plantedforest groves had been accorded a sacred character in the very earliest phases of theevolutionoftheJewishfaith.Iwasalsoabletoconfirmthatthesegroveshadbeenusedasplacesofactiveworship.Inthetwenty-firstchapterofthebookofGenesis,forexample,itwasstatedthat: ‘Abrahamplantedagrove inBeersheba,andcalledthereonthenameoftheLord,theeverlastingGod.’17ReadingmorewidelyaroundthesubjectIestablishedthefollowingpointswithcertainty:first, that theHebrewshad ‘borrowed’ theuseof sacredgroves fromtheCanaanites (whowere the indigenous inhabitants of the Promised Land); second, that the groves werenormally situated inhighplaces (knownasbamoth); and third, that theyoften containedsacrificialstonepillarsofthekindthatIhadseenonTanaKirkosandthat–asIalreadyknew–werecalledmasseboth.18Very littlewas understood about how the groves hadbeenused,what theyhad lookedlike,whatsortofceremonieshadgoneonwithinthem,orwhatkindofofferingshadbeenmadethere.Thereasonforthisignorancewasthatthepriestlyeliteoflaterbiblicaltimeshadturnedsavagelyagainstall suchpractices,cuttingdownandburningthesacredtreesandoverthrowingthemasseboth.19Since itwas these samepriestswhohad also been responsible for the compilation andeditingoftheScriptures,itwashardlysurprisingthattheyhadleftuswithnoclearpictureofthefunctionandappearanceofthegroves.Moreoverthesinglereferencethatdidevokesomekindof imagewasregardedasamysterybybiblical scholars.Thisreference, in the

secondbookofKings,spokeofaplace‘wherethewomenwovehangingsforthegrove.’20AsIreadthesewords,thememorywasstillfreshinmymindofthestripsofwovencloththathungfromeverybranchofthefetishtreeontheoutskirtsofthevillageofAykel.Anditseemedtomethen(asitseemstomenow)thattherewasnomysteryatallaboutthewordsinthebookofKings–butmuchthatstillcriedoutforexplanationabouttheQemantwho,intheheartofAfrica,hadmanagedtoacquireaJudaeo-Canaanitetraditionashoarywithageasthisone.The whole issue, I felt sure, was intimately connected to the larger problem of theFalashas,theQemant’sbetter-knownneighbours.

AswanandMeroeDespitethestrongJudaicflavouroftheirreligion,noonehaseverclaimedthattheQemantareinfactJews:thereistoomuchthatispaganandanimistaboutthemtohaveallowedthattohappen.Theposition,however, isquitedifferentfortheFalashas.Theyhavebeenwidely regarded as true Jews since the early nineteenth century – though theywere notformallyrecognizedassuchbytheSephardiChiefRabbiofJerusalemuntil1973.Twoyearslater theAshkenaziChiefRabbi followedsuit,opening theway for the IsraeliMinistryofthe Interior to declare that the Falashas were entitled to automatic citizenship of IsraelunderthetermsoftheLawofReturn.21Ironically the main reason that rabbinical recognition was so long delayed was thepronouncedly Old Testament character of Falasha religion which did not in any wayincorporate or refer to the Talmud (the authoritative body of Jewish law and loreaccumulatedbetween200BCandAD50022).ThismadetheFalashasseemquitealientomanyIsraeliandotherJews;itwaslateraccepted,however,thatignoranceofTalmudicpreceptswassimplyafunctionofthefactthattheEthiopianarmofthefaithmusthavebeencutofffromtheevolvingbodyofworldJudaismatsomeextremelyearlydate.ThissameisolationalsoexplainedtheFalashas’continuingadherencetopracticesthathadlongbeenforbiddenbytherabbis,notablyanimalsacrifice(seeChapter6).The important point – which weighed heavily when official recognition was finallygranted in the 1970s – was that the social and religious behaviour of the Falashas didclearly and unambiguously conform to the teachings of the Torah (Old Testament).Moreover, within the Torah, as one would expect of pre-Talmudic Jews whose religiousbeliefsweregenuinelyancient,theyshowedthegreatestrespectforthePentateuch(i.e.thefivebooksbelievedbytheorthodoxtohavebeenwrittenbyMoseshimself,namelyGenesis,Exodus,Leviticus,NumbersandDeuteronomy).23This ‘fundamentalism’withinFalasha religionwas typifiedby their strictobservanceofthe food restrictions enumerated in thebooksof Leviticus andDeuteronomyandby theirrefusaltoeatanyanimal–‘clean’ornot–thathadbeenslaughteredbyaGentile.Itwasalso recognized that theypaidmeticulousattention to theMosaic lawsof cleanlinessandpurity. Special huts, for example, were set aside for those members of the communityconsidered to be temporarily in states of ritual impurity – such asmenstruatingwomen,whoweresegregatedforsevendaysinlinewithaLeviticaledict.24Falasha circumcision ceremonies (gezrat) were equally traditional, taking place on the

eighthdayafterthebirthofamalechild,exactlyasstipulatedinthePentateuch.25LikewisetheirSabbathprocedureswererigorouslyorthodoxwithall firesbeingextinguishedbeforesunsetonFriday,andontheSabbathitselfnoworkofanykindbeingdone,nowaterbeingdrawn,nofirebeinglit,nocoffeebeingboiled,andonlytheconsumptionofcoldfoodanddrinkbeingpermissible.Iwasawareofallthiswhen,duringmystayinGondarinJanuary1990,IvisitedseveralFalasha settlements.Myobjectivewas tomake contactwith religious leaders, towhom Iwantedtoputcertainspecificquestions.BecauseofthemassmigrationofEthiopia’sJewsto Israel this was no easy task: many homesteads were completely deserted, stripped oftheirgoodsandchattels,theirdoorsleftunbarred,andtheirinhabitantsgone.Nevertheless,inthecountrysidesometwentymilesfromGondarIdidfindonevillagethatstillseemedtobe functioning. Called Anbober, it straggled across a steep slope in rolling mountainousterrain and was populated almost entirely by women and children, the majority of themenfolkhavingalreadyleftforIsrael.Falashashaveneither synagoguesnor rabbis; instead theirplacesofworshipare calledmesgid and their religious officials kahenat (singular kahen, meaning ‘priest’). With myinterpreter Legesse Desta, I now walked up through the village followed by a rapidlygrowingcrowdofmischievouschildren.Weweremakingforthemesgid–identifiablebytheStarofDavidonitsroof–whereIhopedverymuchthatImightfindthekaheninresidence.OnthisoccasionIwasnotdisappointed: insidethehumblebuilding,ataroughlymadewoodentable,alean,elderlymansatstudyingacopyoftheTorah(whichwasbeautifullywritteninGe’ezoncuredsheepskinleaves).Legessebeganbyexplainingwhywehadcomeand then asked the priest if he wouldmind answering some questions fromme. After alengthydebatehegavehisassenttothisandintroducedhimselfasSolomonAlemu.Hewas,hesaid,seventy-eightyearsold.HehadbeenthekahenofAnboberforalmostthirtyyears.WespentthenextcoupleofhoursgoingthroughnumerousaspectsofFalashabeliefandritual. All Solomon’s answers confirmed the pureOldTestament character of the religionand were very much in line with what I had already learned frommy research. In thiscontext I pressedhimparticularly hard on the issue of blood sacrifice, trying to establishwhyhispeoplecontinuedwiththispracticewhenJewseverywhereelsehadabandonedittwothousandyearspreviously.‘Webelieve’,herepliedwithgreatconviction,‘thatGodinhisthroneobservestheseceremoniesandispleased.’Perhaps Solomon knew, perhaps he did not, how close this simple statementwas to averse in thebookofLeviticuswhichdescribedofferingsmadeby fireasbeing ‘ofasweetsavour to the Lord’.26 Certainly, he seemed a wise and well read man. When Icomplimented him on his scholarship, however, his response – with no trace of falsemodesty – was to insist that he understood far less about the Judaic traditions of theFalashasthanhisfatherhaddone.Andheaddedthathisfather,inhisturn,hadunderstoodlessthanhisgrandfather–whohadalsobeenkahenofAnbober.‘Weareforgettingourownpast,’hesaidsadly.‘Daybydayweforgetourhistory.’TakingmycuefromthisIaskedSolomonifheknewforhowmanycenturiestherehadbeenJewishpeopleinEthiopia.‘We camehere’, he replied, ‘long ago… long before theChristians. TheChristians arerecentcomparedwithus.’

HethenproceededtotellmethefamiliarstoryoftheQueenofSheba,MenelikandthebringingoftheArk.Inthisway,hesaid,theJewishfaithhadarrivedinEthiopia.I asked casually: ‘Do you have any ideawhat routeMenelik and his companions usedwhentheymadetheirjourney?’ThoughitmighthavesurprisedmeonceInowacceptedhisanswertothis lastquestionwith perfect complacency: ‘According to our traditions they travelled from JerusalemthroughEgyptandSudan.’Almostbored,Iprompted:‘PresumablytheywouldhavefollowedtheriverNileformuchofthejourney?’Thekahennodded:‘Yes.Thatiswhatourtraditionssay.’Hethenaddedtwodetailsthatwerecompletelynewtome:‘Ontheway,’hesaid,‘theyrestedatAswanandMeroe.’Aswan,Iknew,wasinUpperEgypt(nearthesiteofthemodernhighdamofthesamename),and inPharaonic timeshadbeen importantasasourceof thegraniteused in theconstructionof thePyramids.Meroe, theancientcapitalofNubia,hadbeenlocatedmuchfurthertothesouth,inwhatisnowtheRepublicoftheSudan.Intrigued, IpushedSolomon formoredetailsof theFalasha traditionsconcerning theseplaces. He insisted, however, that the little that he had already said was the sum of hisknowledge about them. ‘I heard their names’, he sighed, ‘in stories told to me by mygrandfather.Hewasawiseman…butheisgone…Soonwewillallbegone.’

CeremonyoftheArkEverythingthatIlearnedduringmystayinGondarreinforcedmyviewthatithadbeentoprecisely this regionofEthiopia that theJewish faithhad firstbeenbrought inantiquity.The Falashaswere Jewish through and through, and thiswas their homeland. Their nearneighbours theQemant also showed convincing signsof an archaic anddeeply ingrainedJudaicinfluence.Nor was this influence limited to the Falashas and the Qemant. On the contrary, inGondarandthroughoutEthiopia,supposedly‘Orthodox’Christiansdisplayedmanycustomsand beliefs thatwere unmistakably Jewish in origin. Just like the Falashas, as I alreadyknew,theycircumcisedtheirsonsontheeighthdayafterbirth,adatecommandedbythebookof Leviticus – adate that, amongst all thepeoples of theworld,wasnowobservedonlybyJewsandbyEthiopians.27Likewise(inaremarkableinstanceofthephenomenonknownasreligioussyncretism)theJewishSabbathwasstillbeingrespectedinthetwentiethcenturybymillionsofAbyssinianChristians–notinsteadoftheSundaySabbathadheredtobytheirco-religionistselsewherebutinadditiontoit.28There were other holidays which, although superficially Christian, were also clearlyJudaicinorigin.Ihadlearned,forexample,thattheEthiopianNewYearfeast(Enkutatsh)corresponded closely to the Jewish New Year (Rosh Ha-shanah). Both were held inSeptemberandbothwerefollowedafewweekslaterbyasecondfestival(knownasMaskalinEthiopiaandYomKippurinIsrael).Inbothcultures,furthermore,thissecondfestivalwasconnectedtotheNewYearbyaperiodofexpiationandatonement.29Ethiopian Christians also strictly obeyedmany of the Pentateuchal laws of cleanlinessandpurity.Noman,forexample,wouldconsidergoingtochurchafterhavinghadsexual

intercoursewithhiswife,norwouldhehaveintercoursepriortohavingcontactwithanyconsecratedthing,norwouldhehaveintercourseduringdaysoffasting,norwouldhehaveintercoursewithanymenstruatingwoman.30Noneof theserestrictionswerecalled forbyChristian lore; all of them, however, were demanded in the Pentateuch (notably in thebooksofExodusandLeviticus31).In a similar fashion Ethiopian Christians also observed the Old Testament food laws,scrupulously avoiding the flesh of ‘unclean’ birds andmammals (pork being particularlyabhorred)andevenattendingtotheminutiaesuchasthe‘sinewwhichshrank’referredtoin Chapter 32 of the book of Genesis.32 This same sinew, I was able to establish, wasshunnedbyallAbyssinianChristiansandwasknowninGe’ezas‘theforbiddenmuscle’.33Another intriguing link that I had turned up while researching this subject was thatEthiopianclericalvestmentsseemedtobemodelleduponthespecialgarmentswornbythepriestsofancientIsrael34–thek’enat(belt)correspondingtotheHighPriest’sgirdle;35 thek’oba (skull-cap) corresponding to themitre;36 and theaskema (scapular),with its twelvecrossesinfourrowsofthree,correspondingtothepriestlybreast-plate(which,asChapter28 of the book of Exodus makes clear, was adorned with twelve precious stones alsoarrangedinfourrowsofthree.37Allinall,therefore,IfounditdifficulttodisagreewithArchbishopDavidMatthewwho,in 1947, had described ‘thewhole cast of religious expression in Ethiopia as antique andceremonial and imbued with an undercurrent of Judaic practice.’38 It was not until IparticipatedintheChristianTimkatcelebrationson18and19January1990,however,thattherealpervasivenessandpowerofthisundercurrentwasfinallybroughthometome.Thepreparations forTimkatwerealreadywelladvancedwhen, in themid-afternoonofThursday18January,Islippedthroughawildlyexcitedcrowd,upaflightofstepsandonto theexteriorwalkwayof thechurchofMedhaneAlem(literally ‘Saviourof theWorld’).Situated in the oldest part of Gondar, this was a large, circular building laid out in thetraditionalfashion–somewhatlikeanarcherytargetifviewedfromabove–withaseriesofconcentricambulatoriessurroundingtheHolyofHolies(mak’das).This distinctively Ethiopian pattern, as I already knew, was repeated in a slightlydifferentmannerinrectangularandoctagonalaswellasinroundchurches,andhadbeenrecognizedbyscholarsasbeingbased ‘on the threefolddivisionof theHebrewTemple’.39AccordingtoEdwardUllendorff,thefirstProfessorofEthiopianStudiesattheUniversityofLondon:

TheoutsideambulatoryofthethreeconcentricpartsoftheAbyssinianchurchiscalledk’enemahlet,i.e.theplacewherehymnsaresung,[and]correspondstotheulamofSolomon’sTemple.Thenextchamberisthek’eddest,wherecommunionisadministeredtothepeople;andtheinnermostpartisthemak’daswherethetabotrestsandtowhichonlypriestshaveaccess…ThisdivisionintothreechambersappliestoallAbyssinianchurches,eventothesmallestofthem.ItisthusclearthattheformoftheHebrewsanctuarywaspreferredbyAbyssinianstothebasilicatypewhichwasacceptedbyearlyChristianselsewhere.40

ProfessorUllendorffdeclinedtospeculateastopreciselywhytheAbyssiniansshouldhave

favoured a pre-Christian model for their Christian churches. As I stepped into the firstambulatoryofMedhaneAlem,however,itseemedtomethattheanswerwasobvious:theSyrian evangelist Frumentius, who was responsible for the conversion of the AxumitekingdomandwhowasappointedasEthiopia’s firstarchbishopby theCopticPatriarchofAlexandriainAD331,mustdeliberatelyhaveadaptedtheinstitutionsofthenewfaithtothepre-existingJudaictraditionsofthecountry.41Furthermore,asUllendorffdidadmit:

Itisclearthattheseandothertraditions,inparticularthatoftheArkoftheCovenantatAxum,musthavebeenanintegralpartoftheAbyssiniannationalheritagelongbeforetheintroductionofChristianityinthefourthcentury;foritwouldbeinconceivablethatapeoplerecentlyconvertedfrompaganismtoChristianity(notbyaChristianJewbutbytheSyrianmissionaryFrumentius)shouldthereafterhavebeguntoboastofJewishdescentandtoinsistonIsraeliteconnections,customsandinstitutions.42

Walking in stockinged feet – since it is considered sacrilege to wear shoes inside anyEthiopianchurch–Imadeacircuitofthek’enemahletstudyingthefadedpaintingsofsaintsandholymenthatadorneditswalls:herewasSaintGeorge,mountedonhiswhitecharger,slayingthedragon;therewasGodAlmighty,‘theAncientofDays’,surroundedbythe‘livingcreatures’describedbytheProphetEzekiel;herewasJohnbaptizingChrist intheJordan;theretheKingsandShepherdsattheManger;andoverthereMosesreceivingtheTablesoftheLawfromthehandofGodonMountSinai.Standing lost in contemplation before a portrayal of the Queen of Sheba’s journey toJerusalem,Ibecameawareoftheslow,deepthrobofakebero–thelargeovaldrum,madeof cowskin stretched over awooden frame, that features in somuch of themusic of theEthiopian Orthodox Church. To this barbaric sound was now added a chorus of voiceschantingaGe’ezhymn,andthenthemysticjingleofsistra.Mycuriosityaroused, Iproceededroundtheambulatoryand,at last,near thedoorwaythat led inwards to the k’eddest, I came across a group of priests and deacons gatheredaboutthedrummer,whowasseatedcross-leggedonthefloorhunchedoverhiskebero.Thiswas a strange and archaic scene: nothing about it belonged to themodernworldand, as I watched, I felt myself transported backwards through time, riding the eeriewaveformsofthemusic–whichseemedtometobelongneithertoAfricanortoChristianitybuttosomeotherplaceandtosomeinfinitelyolderfaith.Dressedintheirtraditionalwhiterobes and black shoulder-capes, leaning on tall prayer sticks, the deacons swayed andchanted,swayedandchanted,absorbedintheprimalcadenceofthedance.Eachheldinhishandasilversistrumwhich,inthesilentintersticesbetweenthedrum-beats,heraisedandthenletfall,producingaclearandmelodioustintinnabulation.Thechantingwasantiphonalinform,withphrasesutteredbyonegroupofsingersbeinggiventheirresponsebyothers,adialogue inwhichversesandchoruseswerepassedbackandforthamongsttheparticipantsallowingthehymntobuildtoitsponderouscrescendo.This same system, I knew, had been an established part of the Jewish liturgy in OldTestamenttimes.43AsIwasreflectingonthiscoincidenceafragrantcloudofincensebillowedfromtheopen

doorofthek’eddest.EdgingforwardIlookedinsideandsawaswirlingfigurewrappedinrobesofgreenembroideredwithgoldenthreads,afigureoutofadream,halfsorcerer,halfpriest,whowhirledandturnedwithdroopingeyes.Gathered round himwere othermen, similarly attired, each holding a smoking censersuspended in a fine net of silver chain. I strainedmy eyes to look beyond these figuresthroughthefumesanddarknessandcouldjustmakeout,attheverycentreofthek’eddest,thecurtainedentrancetotheHolyofHolies.Iknewthatbeyondthatheavyveil,veneratedandmysterious,guardedbysuperstition,concealedandsecretwithinitssanctuary,laythetabot–thesymboloftheArkoftheCovenant.AndIwasremindedthatinancientIsraeltheHigh Priest could not approach the Ark unless he had first burnt sufficient quantities ofincense to cover it completely with smoke.44 The thick fumes were thought necessary toprotecthislife–necessarytoensure,asthebookofLeviticusratherchillinglyputit, ‘thathedienot.’45Isteppedacrossthethresholdintothek’eddesttogetacloserlookatwhatwasgoingontherebutwasalmostimmediatelywavedbackintotheouterambulatory.Atthesametimethesongofthedeaconsceased,thedrum-beatsstilledand,foramoment,absolutesilencefell.I could sense an intangible atmosphere of imminence, as though a huge charge oflightningwerebuildingupwithin a thundercloud.A general stirring andmovement thenensued,withpeoplescurryinginalldirections.Atthesametimeasmilingpriesttookmyarmlightlybutfirmly,andguidedmeoutofthek’eddest, throughthek’enemahlet, to themaindoorofthechurchwhereIstoodblinkinginthebrilliantafternoonsunlight,amazedattherapidchangeofmoodthatseemedtohaveovertakentheproceedings.Thecrowd,bigenoughwhenIhadarrived,hadnowswelledintoahugemultitudethatcompletely filled the extensive compound inwhichMedhaneAlemwas situated and thatalso spilledouton to the roadas faras I couldsee.Menandwomen, smallchildren, thevery elderly, lame people, obviously sick and dying people, laughing, happy, healthypeople–halfofEthiopiaseemedtobehere.Manyclutchedmusicalinstrumentsofonekindoranother:cymbalsandtrumpets,flutesandfiddles,lyresandbiblicalharps.Moments aftermyownexit from the church, a groupof richly robedpriests appeared.ThesewerethesamemenwhomIhadlastseenamidsttheincensecloudbeforethedrawnveilof theHolyofHolies,butnowoneof them–slenderandbeardedwith fine,delicatefeaturesandsmoulderingeyes–boreonhisheadthe tabotwrapped incostlybrocadesofredandgold.At once the crowd erupted into a frenzy of shouts and stamping feet and, from thewomen,shrillululations–arousing,tremulousvibrationthat,Iknew,hadbeenconnectedbymorethanonescholarto‘certainmusicalutterancesinancientHebrewworship(Hebrewhallel, Ethiopic ellel) … the mode of exultation is to repeat the sound ellel many times,saying ellellellellellell, etc.… The proper meaning of “Halleluyah” will probably be “singhallelorelleluntoJehovah.”’46Afterstandingatthedoorwayofthechurchforsomeminuteswhiletheagitationofthecrowdgrew,thepriestsnowwheeledandturned,makingacompletecircuitoftheexteriorwalkwaybeforedescending the flightof steps toground level.The instant that their feettouched the earth, themultitudepartedbefore them– creating a pathway throughwhich

theymight pass – and the shouts and ululations, the blowing of trumpets, thewhistle offlutes, the strumming of lyres, and the jingle of the tambourines built up to a pitch thatdeafenedtheearandfilledthemindwithwonder.IfollowedascloselyasIdaredbehindthegroupofpriests,drawnalongintheirturbulentwake.Andthoughthepeopleweregatheredintheirhundredsoneithersideofme,thoughmany were intoxicated either by millet beer or by the tumult, though I was repeatedlyjostled,andthoughmorethanonceIwasalmostknockedoffmyfeet,Ididnotforasecondfeelthreatenedoralarmed.Sometimesfunnelledthroughnarrowalleyways,sometimesspreadingoutacrosspatchesof open land, sometimes stopping inexplicably, sometimes fast, sometimes slow, alwaysburstingwithmusic and song,weprogressed through theancient city.Andall the time Istruggledtokeepmyeyesfixedontheredandgoldwrappingsofthetabot,whichwasnowfar ahead ofme. For awhile, as a newhorde of revellers joined us from a side street, Icompletelylostsightofthesacredobject.Thenstandingontiptoe,craningmyneck,Ifoundit and hurried forward. Determined not to be separated from it again I scrambled up agrassy bank, put on a burst of speed, overtook amassed block of two or three hundredpeople, skiddedpast thepriests,and lumberedbackdownon to the roadperhaps twentyyardsinfrontofthem.Here I found the reason for the curious stop-start, halting, lurching motion of themultitude.Inthespaceaheadofthetabotseveralimpromptutroupesofdancershadformedthemselves–someofmixedsex,someallmale,someallfemale,somedressedineverydayworking clothes, some in church vestments. At the centre of each of these groupswas adrummer, his kebero slung around his neck, beating out an ancient and savage rhythm,whirling, jumping, turning and shouting while those around him exploded with energy,leapingandgyrating,clappingtheirhands,beatingtambourinesandcymbals,pouringwithsweatastheycaperedandreeled.Now,urgedonbytrumpetblastsandbyshouts,bythethrumofaten-stringedbegegna47andthehaunting tonesofa shepherd’s flute,ayoungmandressed in traditional robesofwhitecottonperformedawildsolodancewhilethepriestsstoodintheirplacestoppingtheeager crowdbehind themandbearing the sacred tabot aloft.Beautiful inhis lithevigour,splendid inhis ferocious energy, the youth seemed entranced.With all eyesuponhimhecircledthepulsingkebero,pirouettingandswaying,shouldersjerking,headbobbing,lostinhisowninnerrhythms,praisingGodwitheverylimb,witheveryounceofhisstrength,witheveryparticle of his being.And I thought… thiswaswhat itmusthavebeen like, threethousandyearsagoatthegatesofJerusalemwhen

DavidandallthehouseofIsraelbroughtuptheArkoftheLordwithshouting,andwiththesoundofthetrumpet[and]playedbeforetheLordonallmannerofinstrumentsmadeoffirwood,evenonharps,andonpsalteries,andontimbrels,andoncornets,andoncymbals…andDaviddancedbeforetheLordwithallhismight…leapinganddancingbeforetheLord.48

Inmid-stride,withoutanywarning,theyouthcollapsedandsanktothegroundinadeadfaint. He was picked up by several of the spectators, carried to the roadside and madecomfortable. Then the crowd surged forward again much as before, with new dancers

constantlytakingtheplaceofthosewhowereexhausted.Soonafterwardsatransitionoccurred.Aftertumblingandchargingdowna lastnarrowstreetthecrowddebouchedintoahugeopensquare.Andintothissamesquare,fromthreeotherdirections,Icouldseethreeotherprocessionsalsoapproaching–eachofwhichwassimilarinsizetoourown,eachofwhichwascentreduponatabotborneupbyagroupofpriests,andeachofwhichseemedinspiredbythesametranscendentspirit.Likefourriversmeeting,theseparateprocessionsnowconvergedandmixed.ThepriestcarryingthetabotfromthechurchofMedhaneAlem–whomIhadfollowedfaithfullythusfar–stoodin linewithotherpriestscarryingthe tabotat fromthreeof theotherprincipalchurches of Gondar. Behind this first sacred rank were more priests and deacons. Andbehindthemagainweretheassembledcongregations,forminganarmythatcouldnothavebeenlessthantenthousandstrong.Almostassoonastheprocessionshadjoinedwewereonthemoveagain,wellingforthoutofthesquareanddownasteep,broadhighwaywiththetabotataheadofus.Nowandthenchildrenwouldbepushedclosetomeandwouldshylytakemyhands,walkwithmeforawhileandthenreleaseme…Anoldwomanapproachedandaddressedmeatlengthin Amharic, smiling toothlessly… Two teenage girls, giggling and nervous, touched myblond hair with fascinated curiosity and then rushed off… And in this fashion, entirelycaught up in the gaiety and power of the occasion, I allowedmyself to be swept along,oblivioustothepassinghoursoftheafternoon.Then,quite suddenly,an imposingwalledcompoundsetamidstgrassywoodsappearedaround a bend in the track like an image out of a legend. At some distance behind thesurrounding ramparts, I thought that I could justmakeout the turrets of a great castle –turretshighand‘marvellouslyembattled’.NotforthefirsttimeinmytravelsinEthiopiaIwas hauntingly reminded of the wondrous Grail sanctuary described by Wolfram vonEschenbach – of the ‘impregnable stronghold’ with its ‘clusters of towers and numerouspalaces’thathadstoodattheedgeofamysteriouslakeintherealmofMunsalvaesche.49At the centre of the enclosurewallwas a narrow arched gateway throughwhich thoseahead of me in the procession now began to stream – and towards which I felt myselfirresistiblydrawn.Indeedtherewasatremendousforceandcompulsioninthishumanflow,asthoughwewerebeingsuckedhelter-skelterintoavortex.As Iwas impelledbeneaththearch, jostledandcrushedbythescrumofeagerbodies, Iwasshovedmomentarilyagainstroughstoneandmywristwatchwasknockedoff;almostimmediately,however, someunknownpersonbehindmemanaged to retrieve it from theground and pressed it back into my hand. Before I could thank or even identify mybenefactorIburstthroughthebottleneckandarrived,slightlydazed,onthewideandopenlawnswithinthecompound.InthesamesecondtheenormousconstrictionandcompressionwasrelievedandIexperiencedadelicioussenseoffreedom…Thecompoundwasrectangularinshapeandcoveredanareaaslargeasfourcityblocks.Setinthemidstofthisgreatgrassyspacewasasecondwalledenclosureaboutone-thirdofthe sizeof the first–which in turncontained the tall, turretedcastle that Ihadglimpsedearlierand,totherearandsidesofthisstructure,aman-madelakehalffilledwithwater.The castle itself had been built by Emperor Fasilidas in the seventeenth century andappeared tobeaccessibleonlybywayofanarrowstonebridge thatpassedoveradeep

moatandthatleddirectlytoamassivewoodendoorwaysetintothefrontofthebuilding.Thecrowd,Inoticed,wasstillpouringthroughthenarrowarchwaythatIhadnegotiatedafewmomentsbefore,andpeoplemilledaboutapparentlyaimlessly,greetingoneanotherwithboisterousandhigh-spiritedbonhomie.Offtomyright,directlyinfrontofthecastle,alargegroupofpriests anddeaconshadgatheredand I could see that theynowcarriedatotal of seven tabotat. I therefore surmised that processions from three other Gondarenechurchesmustatsomepointenroutehavejoinedwiththeoriginalfourthathadconvergedinthecity’smainsquareearlierintheafternoon.Thepriestsbearingthewrappedtabotatontheirheadsstoodinline,shoulder-to-shoulder.Directly behind themweremanymore priests who held up brightly coloured ceremonialumbrellas thatwere fringedat the edges anddecoratedwith crosses, stars, suns, crescentmoonsandothercuriousdevices.Fivemetres to the leftwere twofurtherrowsofpriests,facing each other, carrying long prayer sticks and silver sistra. And between these lattertworowssatadrummerhunchedoverhiskebero.As Iedgedcloser togetabetterview, the facingrowsofpriestsbeganaslowswayingdancebefore the tabotat – a dance actedout to the samemesmerizing rhythmand to thesameantiphonalchanting that Ihadheardearlier in thechurchofMedhaneAlem.A fewmomentslaterthedancebrokeupassuddenlyasithadbegun,thedancersdispersedandthepriestsbearingtheseventabotatproceededmajesticallyontothestonebridgethatledoverthemoatandintothecastle.Theypausedthereforamoment,caughtinawarmrayoflight from the descending sun, and the women in the crowd gave vent to more wildululations. Then, on oiled hinges, the heavy wooden door of the fortress swung silentlyopen – affordingme a transient glimpse of the shadowy interior – and the tabotat werecarriedinside.Gradually, almost gently, the assembled thousands began to settle down around thegardens.Somehadbroughtblankets,otherscotton shemmas (shawls) and thickerwoollengebbis (cloaks). All, however, had the look of peoplewhowere going to be here for thedurationoftheTimkatholiday,andallseemedatpeacewiththemselves–calmnowaftertheeffortandexultationoftheprocessionsandpreparedforthevigilahead.

By9p.m.numerouscampfireshadbeenlit.Aroundtheflickeringflamespeoplewrappedinshemmasandblanketshuddledandmurmuredsecretively–theirwords,intheoldSemiticlanguageofEthiopia,turningtochillmistastheyspoke.Braced and exhilarated by the cold Afro-Alpine air, I sat down on the grass, reclined,pillowedmyheadonmyhandsandgazedupwards,delighting in thecloudsof stars thathadascendedthesky.Mythoughtsdriftedforawhile,thenfocussedonthesoundofwatergushing steadily into the lake somewhere quite close towhere I sat. At almost the samemoment,fromwithintheoldcastle,asoftcadencedchantinganddrummingroseup–aneldritch,heart-stoppingresonancethatwasatfirstsofaintandsomutedthatIcouldbarelymakeitout.Istoodandmovedclosertothebridgeoverthemoat.Itwasnotmyintentiontocrossit(IdidnotthinkthatIwouldbepermittedtodoso);ratherIhopedmerelytofindavantagepointfromwhichImighthearthearchaicmusicmoreclearly.Inexplicably,however,Ifeltmanyhandspushingmeforward–pushingmefirmlybutgently–andsoonIfoundmyself

on thebridge.Thereachild ledme to the toweringdoor,opened it and indicatedwithasmilethatIshouldproceedwithin.Rather timidly I crossed the threshold into a large, square, high-ceilinged, incense-

fragrantroomilluminatedbydozensofcandlesmountedinnichesintheroughstonewalls.AwintrycurrentinsinuateditselfunderthedoorthatIhadnowclosedbehindmeandonall sides colddraughts pushed through chinks andgaps in themasonry, causing the littleflamestogutteranddim.Inthisghostlyhalf-lightIcouldmakeouttherobedandhoodedfiguresofperhapsfifty

peoplestandinginrankstwo-deepandforminganalmostcompletecirclethatwasbrokenonlybythedoorwayinwhichIstood.Thoughitwasdifficulttobecertainitseemedtomethatallthesefolkweremenandthatmostofthemwereeitherpriestsordeacons,fortheyheldprayersticksandsistraandwerechantingaGe’ezpsalmsopoignantandsoevocativethatitcausedthehairsatthenapeofmynecktoprickleandstanderect.Directlyinfrontof me, on flagstones strewn with freshly cut grass, sat a drummer wrapped in a whiteshemma,strikingthestretchedskinofakeberowithaquietbutinsistentbeat.Now,withoutanybreakintempo,severalmembersofthechoirbeckonedtomeandIfelt

myselfpulledintotheircircle,warmedin,madeapartofitall.Asistrumwaspushedintomy right hand, a prayer stick into my left and the chant continued, with the singersswayingverygentlyandveryslowlyfromsidetoside.InvoluntarilyIfeltmyownbodybeginningtoacquaintitselfwiththerhythm.Watching

theothers,sheddingallself-consciousness,Iraisedandletfallmysistrumbetweenthedrumbeats,andas Ididsothe littlemetaldisks in theancient instrumentproducedatuneless,rattling jingle.Thisoddlycompellingsound, Iknew,wasolderbyfar thantheTempleofSolomon,wasoldereventhanthePyramids–forsistrajustlikethesehadfirstbeenusedinpre-dynasticEgypt50andhadpassedfromthere,bywayofthepriestlyguildsofPharaonictimes,intotheliturgyofIsrael.How strange this solemn ceremony was, and stranger still that I should have been

allowed toparticipate in it,here in theheartof theEthiopianhighlandsat theedgeofasacred lake. With a shiver of excitement I realized that there was nothing in the sceneunfoldingaroundme–absolutelynothingatall–thatbelongedtothetwentiethcenturyAD.ImightjustaseasilyhavebeenawitnesstothearcaneritualsofthetenthcenturyBCwhentheArkof Godwas placed by Solomon in the ‘thick darkness’ of theHoly ofHolies andwhenthepriests,

Beingarrayedinwhitelinen,havingcymbalsandpsalteriesandharps,stoodattheeastendofthealtar[making]onesoundtobeheardinpraisingandthankingtheLord;andwhentheylifteduptheirvoicewiththetrumpetsandcymbalsandinstrumentsofmusick,andpraisedtheLord,saying,Forheisgood;forhismercyendurethforever.51

Wasitnot in just this fashionthat thepriestsofEthiopia– inwhosemidst I stood–nowalso praised the Lord? And was it not with just such fervour and conviction that theythankedHimforHismercyandblessedHisineffablename,singing:

RiseYahwehGod,cometoyourrestingplace,

YouandtheArkofyourpower.Yourpriests,YahwehGod,arevestedinsalvation,Yourfaithfulrejoiceinprosperity.52

Thenightpassedwithadreamlikesenseofrealandimpossiblethingsrandomlymixeduptogether. There were moments when I hallucinated that the Ark itself was concealedsomewherewithintheoldcastle.Inmyheart,however,IalsoknewthatIhadnotyetcometotheendofmyjourney,thattheArkwasnothereinGondar,andthatIstillhadmilesandmonths to go before I could even hope to approach it. For the present I would have tocontentmyselfwiththe tabotat thatreposedsomewherewithinthecastle–withthesevencloth-wrappedbundles that the alchemyof blind faithhad effortlessly transformed in thepasttwenty-fourhoursintoobjectsofimmensesymbolicweight.Beforedawnthepriestsusheredmeoutofthecastleandbackoverthenarrowbridge.As

light gradually began to infuse the sky I then spent an hour or so exploring the greatcompound. If there had been ten thousand people there the evening before there werehardlyfewernow.Somewalkedandtalkedintwosandthrees,othersstoodaroundinlargehuddledgroups,othersstillwarmedthemselvesbythepaleflamesofthefadingfires.AndIthoughtthatIcoulddetectagainthesamemoodofexpectancy,thesamesenseofeagerandrestless anticipation, that had preceded the bringing out of the tabot at the church ofMedhaneAlemthepreviousafternoon.Imadeacompletecircuitoftheinnercompoundthatsurroundedthecastleandthelake.

ReachingthefarsideofthecomplexIthenclimbedtheenclosurewallandlookeddownata scene both beautiful and bizarre. Belowme an earthen embankment perhaps five feetwide ran all theway around the still and shiningwaters, and on this embankment – onevery square inchof it–people stoodwatchfully,waiting for something tohappen, theirshimmeringreflectionspickedoutbytherisensun.Abalconyprojectedattherearofthecastleandnow,ontothisbalcony,outofacloudof

incense, stepped a group of priests dressed in splendid robes of green and red. Loudululationsarosefromthecrowdandashortceremonyensuedwhich(Ilearnedlater)servedto bless and consecrate the waters. Then, with amazing suddenness – and apparentlyoblivioustothemorningchill–peoplebegantohurlthemselvesintothelake.Someleaptinfullyclothed,somecompletelyundressed.Hereayoungwomanwithripebreaststhrusthernakedbabybeneaththesurfaceandbroughthimupagain,coughingandspluttering,inashowerofdroplets.There,withmovementsthatwerebrittleandprecise,anoldman,leanandwizened,crookedandinfirm,wadedinuptohischest.Hereagroupofteenageboysswamandsported.Thereamiddle-agedmatron,strippedtothewaist,lashedherbackandshoulderswithadampenedbranch…Meanwhile,fromthemaincompoundinfrontofthecastle, a roar of excitement could be heard as others in their thousands came to join thethrong,tosplashanddive,toplungeandfrolic.Iclimbeddownfrommyvantagepointonthewallandrushedroundtothefrontofthe

compound.AmidstallthisdistractionwhatIwantedtodowastogetbackinsidethecastle.The tabotat had not been in the place where I had spent most of the night singing andchanting,dancingandswaying–sowherewerethey?Andwhatwouldhappennext?Unnoticedbythenear-hystericalcrowd,Icrossedthebridgeoverthemoat,pushedopen

thedoorandsteppedinside;asIdidsoIobservedthatthefloorofthegreatroomwasstillstrewnwithgrassandthatitswallswereblackenedwithcandlesmoke.Itwasnowperhaps7 a.m. and bright sunlight streamed in, startling a group of deacons who had gatheredthere.OppositemetherewasacurtaindrawnacrossanarchwhichIhadnotseenduringthenight,andnowthroughthiscurtainapriestappeared.Heregardedmequizzically,thensmiledandseemedtoofferawelcome.Iwalkedup tohimand signalled that Iwould like topass throughbeyond theveil.Atthis,however,heshookhisheadvehemently.‘No,’hewhisperedinEnglish.‘No.Impossible.Tabot inside.’ Then hewithdrew again behind the curtain, beyondwhich I thought that Icouldjustmakeoutfaintstirringsandfootfalls.Icalledout,hopingtoattracttheattentionofsomeoneinauthority,butgotnoresponse.Then – crassly – I putmyhand on the curtain andmade to open it. At this three of thedeaconsstandingintheroombehindmeleaptonme,grabbedmebythearmsandwrestledmetothefloorwhereIreceivedseveralseverebruises.I cursedand struggled,not thinking clearly, awareonly that Iwasdazedand shocked:justa fewhoursearlier Ihadbeenmade to feel somuchathomehere;now Iwasbeingbeatenup.WithsomedifficultyIshookmyassailantsoffandpulledmyselftomyfeet.Thisaction,however,wasmisinterpretedasthepreludetoanotherattemptonthecurtainandIwaspummelledandbuffetedwhile severalmoredeaconsblockedmyway. ‘Cannotgo inthere,’oneofthemwarned,indicatingtheroombeyondtheveil.‘Onlyprieststogoinside.’Hewaggedhisfingeratmeandadded:‘Youareverybadman.’Iwasthenunceremoniouslybundledoutofthecastledooranddepositedroughlyonthenarrowbridge in frontof several thousand frowningpeople–and I thought: if Iget intothismuchtroublejustfortryingtoenteraroomwheresometabotatarekept,thenwhatonearthisgoingtohappentomeinAxumwhenItrytoseetheArkitself?I crossed the bridge, pickedmyway through the crowd and stood on a patch of clearground, shaking slightly because of the adrenalin that was pumping through mybloodstream.TakingstockIcouldseethatmanypeoplewerestill inthelake,andIcouldhearsplashesandshouts.Themajority,however,werenowoutofthewaterandassembledon the broad lawns in front of the castle, leaning forward avidly, craning their necks,excitedandyetoddlysilent.Thensevenfullyrobedpriestsappearedatthecastledoorwithwrappedtabotatbalancedon theirheads.Slowlyanddeliberately they steppedouton to thebridgeandmade theirway across, followed by yet more priests holding up ceremonial umbrellas. At the samemomentthecrowdgaveventtoahugecollectivesigh,anardentgaspofaweanddevotionthatwas soon enhanced by the familiar high-pitched ululations of thewomen and by anurgent,distractedjostlingaspeoplescrambledbackwardsandsidewaystoclearapathfortheadvancingtabotat.AsthemorningworeonandasthesunrosetowardsitszenithIfollowedtheprocessionbackthroughthestreetsofGondarasfarasthemainsquareoftheoldcity.TherethedanceofDavidbeforetheArkwasagainenactedamidstshoutingandthesoundsoftambourinesand cymbals, amidst the blowing of trumpets and the music of sistra and stringedinstruments.Thenfinallythepriestscarryingtheseventabotatwheeledandseparated.Astheydidso

themultitudetoodivideditselfintosevendifferentparts–sevendifferentprocessionsthatnowstreamedoutofthesquareinsevendifferentdirections.Runningtokeepup,pantingandsweating,IfollowedclosebehindthetabotofMedhaneAlem, followed it all thewayback to theold round churchand there, amidst a thousandexuberant songs anddances,watched as the priestwhobore it circled the building once,circled it twice, and then at last, to a tremendous roar of joy and approbation, vanishedfrom my sight into the darkness within – into the Holy of Holies, into the mystery ofmysteries.

Ayear’sreprieve…I leftGondar in January1990,quite certain that Iwas right to seek theArk inEthiopia.Despite a thin and superficial Christian veneer, the central role of the tabotat in theceremoniesthatIhadwitnessed,thestrangedancesofthepriests,thefrenziedadulationofthelaity,thearchaicmusicofsistraandoftambourines,oftrumpets,drumsandcymbals,wereallphenomenaliftedstraightoutofthemostdistantandreconditepast.Anditseemedtomethen,asitseemstomenow,thattheseintricaterituals,thesecomplexinstitutions–allof themfocussedupontheOldTestamentworshipof theArkof theCovenant–wouldnothavebeenadheredtowithsuchfervourandfidelityoversomanywearycenturiesifallthatlaybehindthemweremerereplicas.No.TheEthiopianshadtheArkitself.PerhapsinthewaydescribedintheKebraNagast,orperhapsbysomeothermorehistoricallyprobablemeans that Imight induecoursebeable to identify, ithadcome into theirpossession in the firstmillennium BC.Andnow, sonear the endof the secondmillennium AD, theyhad it still, hidden away, concealed frompryingeyes.Butwhere?’InansweringthislastquestionIfeltthatIcouldnotignoretheimplicationsofmyownresearch:thesacredrelicwasnotonanislandinLakeZwai;itwasnotonanislandinLakeTana;insteadalltheevidencesuggestedthatitlaystillinitstraditionalrestingplace–safeintheHolyofHoliesofthesanctuarychapelatAxum.Therecouldbenoabsolutecertainty,ofcourse,butIfeltsureinmyownmindthatIwasright.Andtwelvemonthshence,whenTimkatcamearoundagaininJanuary1991,IwouldhavetogotoAxumtoseekit–andtoseeitifIcould.Ifeltasenseofinevitabilityaboutthis,asthoughachallengehadbeenlaiddown–laiddownasclearlyandascompellinglyastheGreenKnight’staunttoSirGawain:

Iamknowntomany,soiftofindmethouendeavour,thou’ltfailnottodoso.Thereforecome!Ortobecalledacraventhoudeservest.…YetarespiteI’llallow,tillayearandadaygoby.53

And what would I do in my period of reprieve, in my year of grace? I would, Idetermined,learneverythingIcouldaboutthebalefulobjectthatbeckonedtome–aboutits origins, and about its powers. I would study the Ark of God and I would attempt to

discoverwhethertheremightnotbearationalexplanationfortheterrorsandthemiraclesthatitwasbelievedtohaveworkedinOldTestamenttimes.

PartIV:Egypt,1989–90

AMonstrousInstrument

Chapter12Magic…orMethod?

During1989and1990,asIimmersedmyselfevermoredeeplyinthemysteriesofthelostArkoftheCovenant,Ibecameinterestednotonlyinwhereitwasbutalsoinwhat itwas.NaturallyIturnedfirsttotheBible,wheretheearliestmentionoftheArkoccursduringtheperiod of the ‘wilderness wanderings’ immediately after the prophet Moses had led thechildren of Israel out of their captivity in Egypt (around 1250 BC1). In Chapter 25 of thebookofExoduswereadthattheprecisedimensionsofthesacredrelicandthematerialstobeusedinitsconstructionwererevealedtoMosesonMountSinaibyGodHimself:

YouaretomakemeanArkofacaciawoodtwoandahalfcubitslong,oneandahalfcubitswide,andoneandahalfcubitshigh[i.e.arectangularchestmeasuringthreefeetnineinchesbytwofeetthreeinchesbytwofeetthreeinches2].Youaretoplateit,insideandout,withpuregold,anddecorateitallaroundwithagoldmoulding.YouwillcastfourgoldringsfortheArkandfixthemtoitsfoursupports[orcorners3]:tworingsononesideandtworingsontheother.YouwillalsomakeshaftsofacaciawoodplatedwithgoldandpasstheshaftsthroughtheringsonthesidesoftheArk,tocarrytheArkbythese.TheshaftsmustremainintheringsoftheArkandnotbewithdrawn…Furtheryouaretomakeathroneofmercy,ofpuregold,twoandahalfcubitslong,andoneandahalfcubitswide.Forthetwoendsofthisthroneofmercyyouaretomaketwogoldencherubim;youaretomakethemofbeatengold.Makethefirstcherubforoneendandthesecondfortheother,andfastenthemtothetwoendsofthethroneofmercysothattheymaymakeonepiecewithit.Thecherubimaretohavetheirwingsspreadupwardssothattheyovershadowthethroneofmercy.Theymustfaceoneanother,theirfacestowardsthethroneofmercy.YoumustplacethethroneofmercyontopoftheArk…ThereIshallcometomeetyou:therefromabovethethroneofmercy,frombetweenthetwocherubimthatareontheArk.4

This ‘divine blueprint’ is, surely, one of the very strangest passages in the Bible. Afterreceivingit,MosespasseditonverbatimtoanartificernamedBezaleel,aman‘filledwiththespiritofGod,inwisdom,andinunderstanding,andinknowledge,andinallmannerofworkmanship,todevisecunningworks.’5BezaleelmadetheArkexactlyasspecified.6Then,when itwas ready,Moses placed inside it the two tablets of stone, also given tohimonMountSinai,onwhichGodhadinscribedtheTenCommandments.7Thesacredobject,nowpregnantwithitspreciouscontents,wastheninstalledbehinda‘veil’intheHolyofHoliesoftheTabernacle8–theportabletent-likestructurethattheIsraelitesusedastheirplaceofworshipduringtheirwanderingsinthewilderness.

TheterrorsandthemiraclesSoonterriblethingsbegantohappen.ThefirstconcernedNadabandAbihu,twoofthefoursonsofAaron theHighPriest,whowasMoses’s ownbrother.Asmembersof thepriestlyfamily they enjoyed access to the Holy of Holies, into which they one day advancedcarryingmetal incense burners in their hands.9 There, according to the book of Leviticusthey ‘offered strange fire before the Lord, which He commanded them not’.10 ThedevastatingconsequencewasthataflameleaptoutfromtheArk‘anddevouredthemandtheydied.’11

AndtheLordspakeuntoMosesafterthedeathofthetwosonsofAaron,whentheyofferedbeforetheLordanddied;AndtheLordsaiduntoMoses,SpeakuntoAaronthybrother,thathecomenotatalltimesintotheholyplacewithintheveilbeforethethroneofmercy,whichisupontheArk;thathedienot:forIwillappearintheclouduponthethroneofmercy.12

Thethroneofmercy–‘mercyseat’insometranslations–wastheslabofpuregoldthatserved as the Ark’s cover. The readerwill recall thatmounted on either end of it – andfacing each other –were two golden figures of cherubim. ‘The cloud upon the throne ofmercy’ which threatened death to Aaron must therefore have been visible between thecherubim. It was not always present, but on those occasionswhen it didmaterialize theIsraelitesbelieved‘thatthedemonsheldsway’13–andthenevenMoseswouldnotdaretoapproach.14Other supposedly supernatural phenomena also manifested themselves ‘between thecherubim’thatfacedeachotheracrosstheArk’sgoldenlid.Forexample,justafewdays15aftertheunfortunatedemiseofAaron’stwosons,MoseswentintotheHolyofHoliesoftheTabernacle, which was then still pitched in the shadow of Mount Sinai. After he hadentered,theprophet‘heardthevoiceofonespeakinguntohimfromoffthemercyseatthatwas upon the Ark … from between the two cherubim.’16 Certain very ancient Jewishlegendsstatethatthisvoicecamefromheaven‘intheformofatubeoffire’.17Andfire–inone guise or another, with and without the deadly cloud – seems often to have beenassociated with the cherubim. According to an enduring folkmemory, for example, ‘twosparks[elsewheredescribedas“fieryjets”]issuedfromthecherubimwhichshadedtheArk’–sparkswhichoccasionallyburnedanddestroyednearbyobjects.18Eventually the timecamefor the Israelites toabandontheircampat the footofMountSinai–alsocalledthe‘MountainofYahweh’(afterthenameofGod):

TheysetoutfromthemountainofYahwehandjourneyedforthreedays.TheArkoftheCovenantofYahwehwentattheirheadforthisjourneyofthreedays,searchingoutacampingplaceforthem…AndastheArksetout,Moseswouldsay,‘AriseYahweh,mayyourenemiesbescatteredandthosewhohateyourunfortheirlivesbeforeyou!’Andasitcametorest,hewouldsay,‘Comeback,Yahweh,tothethronginghostsofIsrael.’19

TravellingattheheadoftheIsraelitecolumn,thesacredrelicwasborneontheshouldersof

‘theKohathites’(or‘sonsofKohath’),asub-clanofthetribeofLevitowhichbothMosesandAaronalsobelonged.Accordingtoseverallegends,andtorabbinicalcommentariesontheOld Testament, these bearers were occasionally killed by the ‘sparks’ which the Arkemitted20and,inaddition,wereliftedbodilyoffthegroundfromtimetotimebecause‘theArk[was]abletocarryitscarriersaswellasitself.’21NoristhistheonlyJewishtraditiontosuggestthattheArkmighthavebeenabletoexertamysteriousforcethatinsomewaywasable to counteract gravity. Several other pieces of learnedMidrashic exegesis also testifythatitsometimeslifteditsbearersofftheground(thustemporarilyrelievingthemofwhatwould otherwise have been a considerable burden).22 In a similar vein a particularlystrikingJewishlegendreportsanincidentduringwhichthepriestsattemptingtocarrytheArkwere ‘tossed by an invisible agency into the air and flung to the ground again andagain.’23 Another tradition describes an occasion when ‘the Ark leaped of itself into theair’.24Imbued as it was with such strange energies it is little wonder, throughout their

wanderingsinthewilderness,thattheIsraeliteswereabletousetheArkasaweapon–aweapon with powers so terrible that it could bring victory even when the odds seemedoverwhelming.25AnaccountofonesuchbattledescribestheArkasfirstuttering‘amoaningsound’, then rising up off the ground and rushing towards the enemy26 – who notsurprisinglywereplungedintodisarrayandslaughteredonthespot.Onanotheroccasion,however–andas thoughtoprovetherule– theIsraeliteswerethemselvesdefeated.Thishappened,accordingtotheBible,becausetheydidnothavetheArkwiththematthetime–Moseshadwithheld it fromthemafteradvising themagainstmountinganassault in thatparticulararea:

Theysetoutpresumptuouslytowardstheheightsofthehighlands.NeithertheArkoftheCovenantofYahwehnorMosesleftthecamp.ThentheAmalekitescamedown…whichdweltinthathillcountry,andsmotethemanddiscomfitedthem.27

AccordingtotheBible,fortyyearswerespentinthewilderness,28yearsduringwhichtheIsraeliteslearnedthatitwasintheirintereststofollowMoses’sadvicetotheletter.There-after,underhisleadershipandwiththehelpoftheArk,theysuccessfullysubduedthefiercetribes of the Sinai peninsula, conquered Transjordania, spoiled the Midianites,29 andgenerallylaidwastetoallthosewhoopposedthem.Finally,towardstheendoftheirfourdecadesofwandering,they‘pitchedtheircampintheplainsofMoab…oppositeJericho.’30Justacross theJordan river, thePromisedLandwasnow in sight.By this timeMoses’s

brother Aaron had already died31 and had been replaced in the office of High Priest byEleazar.32MeanwhileMoses himself had been forewarnedbyYahweh that itwas not hisdestiny to enter Canaan and, accordingly, had invested ‘Joshua, the son of Nun’ as hissuccessor.33SoonafterwardsMosesdied,34butnotbeforehehadinitiatedJoshuaintothemysteriesof

the Ark of the Covenant.35 The new leader therefore had a formidable weapon at hisdisposal to deploy against the fierce resistance that he was about to encounter in theheavilyfortifiedcityofJericho.

Joshua seemed to know that the Ark was a two-edged sword – that, if not properlyhandled,itcouldharmtheIsraelitesaswellastheirenemies.Earlyinthecampaign,whilehewasplanning theadvanceacross theJordanriver towardsJericho,hesenthisofficersthroughoutthecamptotellthepeoplethis:

WhenyeseetheArkoftheCovenantoftheLordyourGod,andtheprieststheLevitesbearingit,thenyeshallremovefromyourplaceandgoafterit.Yetthereshallbeaspacebetweenyouandit,abouttwothousandcubitsbymeasure:comenotnearuntoit…36

Then,whenallwasprepared:

Joshuaspakeuntothepriests,saying,TakeuptheArkoftheCovenant,andpassoverbeforethepeople…Anditcametopass…astheythatbaretheArkwerecomeuntoJordan…[that]thewaterswhichcamefromabovestoodandroseupuponanheap…andthosethatcamedownwerecutoff…andtheprieststhatbaretheArkoftheCovenantoftheLordstoodfirmondrygroundinthemidstofJordan…And…whenthepriests…werecomeupoutofthemidstofJordanandthesolesofthepriests’feetwereliftedupontothedryland…thewatersofJordanreturneduntotheirplace…And[Joshua]spake…saying…theLordyourGoddriedupthewatersofJordanfrombeforeyou,untilyewerepassedover.37

Anyone reared in the Judaeo-Christian traditionwill be familiarwith thedetails of theassaultonJerichothatfollowedthetriumphalcrossingoftheJordan.Whilethemainmassofthepeoplestoodbackattheobligatorydistanceoftwothousandcubits(morethanhalfamile),ahand-pickedgroupofpriestsblowingtrumpetsmarchedaroundthewallsofthecitybearingtheArk.Thisprocedurewasrepeatedeverydayforsixdays.Then:

Ontheseventhday…theyroseearlyaboutthedawningoftheday,andcompassedthecityafterthesamemanner…onlyonthatdaytheycompassedthecityseventimes.And…attheseventhtime,whenthepriestsblewwiththetrumpets,Joshuasaiduntothepeople,Shout;fortheLordhathgivenyouthecity…Sothepeopleshoutedwhenthepriestsblewwiththetrumpets:anditcametopass,whenthepeopleheardthesoundofthetrumpet,andthepeopleshoutedwithagreatshout,thatthewallfelldownflat,sothatthepeoplewentupintothecity…andtheytookthecity…andtheyutterlydestroyedallthatwasinthecity.38

Inthewilderness,whenitwasnew,theArkwasnigh-oninvincible,andduringJoshua’scampaignsinthePromisedLandthebiblicaltestimonysuggeststhatitcontinuedtoplayasignificantmilitary role longafter the fall of Jericho.39Withinabout ahundredand fiftyyearsofJoshua’sdeath,however,achangetookplace:acloseexaminationoftherelevantbooksoftheOldTestamentshowsthat,bythistime,therelicwasnolongerroutinelybeing

carriedintobattle;insteadithadbeeninstalled(initsTabernacle)atanimportantshrine-sanctuaryknownasShiloh,whereitrestedpermanently.40The reason for this change was the increasing power and confidence of the Israelitesthemselves who, by the eleventh century BC, hadmanaged to capture, settle and controlmostofthePromisedLandandwhoevidentlyfeltthatitwasnolongernecessaryinsuchcircumstancesforthemtobringouttheirsecretweapon.41Thisself-assurance,however,provedmisplacedononesignificantoccasion–thebattleofEbenezer,atwhichtheIsraelitesweredefeatedbythePhilistinesandfourthousandoftheirmenwerekilled.42Afterthisdébâcle:

ThetroopsreturnedtothecampandtheeldersofIsraelsaid…‘LetusfetchtheArkofourGodfromShilohsothatitmaycomeamongusandrescueusfromthepowerofourenemies.’43

Thissuggestionwasimmediatelyaccepted:

SothepeoplesenttoShiloh,thattheymightbringfromthencetheArkoftheCovenantoftheLordofHosts,whichdwellethbetweenthecherubim…andwhentheArkoftheCovenantoftheLordcameintothecamp,allIsraelshoutedwithagreatshoutsothattheearthrang.44

Hearingthisnoise,thePhilistinesexclaimed:

‘WhatcanthisgreatshoutingintheHebrewcampmean?’AndtheyrealizedthattheArkofYahwehhadcomeintothecamp.AtthisthePhilistineswereafraid;andtheysaid,‘Godhascometothecamp’.‘Alas!’theycried.‘Thishasneverhappenedbefore.Alas!WhowillsaveusfromthepowerofthismightyGod?…Buttakecourageandbemen,Philistines,oryouwillbecomeslavestotheHebrews…Bemenandfight.’45

Battlewasjoinedagainand,totheutterastonishmentofallconcerned:

Israelwassmitten,andtheyfledeverymanintohistent:andtherewasaverygreatslaughter;fortherefellofIsraelthirtythousandfootmen.AndtheArkofGodwastaken.46

Thiswastrulyacatastrophe.NeverbeforehadtheIsraelitessuffereddefeatwhentheyhadcarried the Ark into battle and never before had the Ark itself been captured. Such aneventualityhadbeenunthinkable,unimaginable–andyetithadhappened.As thePhilistinesbore the relic triumphantlyaway,a runnerwas sent tocarry thebadnewstoEli,theHighPriest,whohadremainedbehindatShiloh:

And…lo,Elisatuponaseatbythewaysidewatching…NowEliwasninetyandeightyearsoldandhiseyesweredimthathecouldnotsee.AndthemansaiduntoEli,Iamhethatcameoutofthearmy,andIfledtodayoutofthearmy.Andhesaid,Whatistheredone,myson?Andthemessengeranswered

andsaid,IsraelisfledbeforethePhilistines,andtherehathbeenalsoagreatslaughteramongthepeople…andtheArkofGodistaken.WhenhementionedtheArkofGod,Elifellbackwardoffhisseat…Hisneckwasbrokenandhedied,forhewasoldandheavy.[And]hisdaughter-in-law…waswithchildandnearhertime.WhensheheardthenewsthattheArkofGodhadbeencaptured…shecroucheddownandgavebirth,forherlabourpainscameon.47

ThechildthusbornwascalledIchabodmeaning ‘where is theglory?’48Thiscuriousnamewaschosen,theBibleexplained,becausethemotherhadgivenventtoagreatcryofgriefwhenshehadreceivedtheinformationaboutthelossoftheArk:‘Andshesaid,ThegloryisdepartedfromIsrael:fortheArkofGodistaken.’49Evenstrangerandmorealarmingeventsweretofollow:

WhenthePhilistineshadcapturedtheArkofGodtheybroughtitfromEbenezertoAshdod.TakingtheArkofGod,thePhilistinesputitinthetempleof[theirdeity]Dagon,settingitdownbeside[thestatueof]Dagon.NextmorningthepeopleofAshdodwenttothetempleofDagonandtherelayDagonfacedownonthegroundbeforetheArkofYahweh.TheypickedDagonupandputhimbackinhisplace.ButearlynextmorningtherelayDagonfacedownagainuponthegroundbeforetheArkofYahweh,andDagon’sheadandtwohandswerelyingseveredonthethreshold;onlythetrunkofDagonwasleftinitsplace.ThisiswhythepriestsofDagonandindeedallwhoenterDagon’stempledonotsteponthethresholdofDagoninAshdodtothepresentday.ThehandofYahwehweighedheavilyonthepeopleofAshdodandstruckterrorintothem,afflictingthemwithtumours,inAshdodanditsterritory.WhenthemenofAshdodsawwhatwashappeningtheysaid,‘TheArkoftheGodofIsraelmustnotstayherewithus,forhishandliesheavyonusandonDagonourgod.’SotheysummonedallthePhilistinechiefstothem,andsaid,‘WhatshallwedowiththeArkoftheGodofIsrael?’Theydecided,‘TheArkoftheGodofIsraelmustgotoGath.’SotheytooktheArkoftheGodofIsraeltoGath.Butaftertheyhadtakenitthere,thehandofYahwehlayheavyonthattownandagreatpanicbrokeout;thepeopleofthetown,fromyoungesttooldest,werestruckwithtumoursthathebroughtoutonthem.TheythensenttheArkofGodtoEkron,butwhenitcametoEkrontheEkronitesshouted,‘TheyhavebroughtustheArkoftheGodofIsraeltobringdeathtousandourpeople.’TheysummonedallthePhilistinechiefsandsaid,‘SendtheArkoftheGodofIsraelaway;letitnotbringdeathtousandourpeople’–fortherewasmortalpanicthroughoutthetown;thehandofGodwasveryheavythere.Thepeoplewhodidnotdiewerestruckwithtumoursandthewailingfromthetownwentuptoheaven.50

Shattered by the horrible afflictions that they had suffered because of the relic, thePhilistines eventually decided – after seven months51 – to ‘send it back to where itbelongs’.52Tothisendtheyloadeditontoa‘newcart’hauledby‘twomilchkine’53andset

itrumblingonitswaytowardsBethshemesh,thenearestpointinsideIsraeliteterritory.54Anotherdisastersoonfollowed,andthistimethePhilistineswerenotthevictims:

TheyofBethshemeshwerereapingtheirwheatharvestinthevalley:andtheylifteduptheireyes,andsawtheArk,andrejoicedtoseeit.AndthecartcameuntothefieldofJoshua,aBethshemite,andstoodthere,wheretherewasagreatstone:andthemenofBethshemeshofferedburntofferingsandsacrificedsacrificesthesamedayuntotheLord…[But]hesmotethemenofBethshemeshbecausetheyhadlookedintotheArkoftheLord,evenhesmoteofthepeoplefiftythousandandthreescoreandtenmen;andthepeoplelamentedbecausetheLordhadsmittenmanyofthepeoplewithgreatslaughter.55

ThetextquotedaboveisfromtheKingJamesAuthorizedVersionoftheBible,producedinthe early seventeenth century. Othermore recent translations agree that certainmen ofBethshemeshweresmittenor‘struckdown’bytheArkbutputthenumberslainatseventyratherthanfiftythousandandseventy–anditistheconsensusofmodernscholarshipthatthisfigureisthecorrectone.56Seventymen,therefore,lookedintotheArkoftheCovenantafteritarrivedinthefieldofJoshua the Bethshemite, and these seventy men died as a result.57 Nowhere is it statedexactlyhowtheydied;buttherecanbenodoubtthattheywerekilledbytheArk–andinamannersufficientlydramaticandhorribletoleadthesurvivorstoconclude:‘NooneissafeinthepresenceoftheLord,thisholyGod.Towhomcanwesendittoberidofhim?’58Atthis point, suddenly and rathermysteriously, a group of Levitical priests appeared, ‘tookdowntheArkoftheLord,’59andcarrieditoff–nottoitsformerhomeatShilohbutinsteadto a place called ‘Kiriath-Jearim’where it was installed in ‘the house of Abinadabon thehill’.60Andon that hill it remained, isolated and guarded,61 for the next half century or so.62IndeeditwasnotbroughtdownagainuntilDavidhadbecomeKingof Israel.Apowerfuland headstrong man, he had recently captured the city of Jerusalem. Now it was hisintentiontoconsolidatehisauthoritybybringinguptohisnewcapitalthemostsacredrelicofhispeople.Thedatewouldhavebeensomewherebetween1000and990BC.63Thisiswhathappened:

TheyplacedtheArkofGodonanewcartandbroughtitfromAbinadab’shousewhichisonthehill.UzzahandAhio…wereleadingthecart.UzzahwalkedalongsidetheArkofGodandAhiowentinfront…WhentheycametothethreshingfloorofNacon,UzzahstretchedhishandouttotheArkofGodandsteadiedit,astheoxenweremakingittilt.ThentheangerofYahwehblazedoutagainstUzzah,andforthiscrimeGodstruckhimdownonthespot,andhediedtherebesidetheArkofGod.64

Quitenaturally:

DavidwasafraidoftheLordthatdayandsaid,‘HowcanIharbourtheArkoftheLordafterthis?’HefelthecouldnottaketheArkoftheLordwithhimtothe

CityofDavid.65

Instead he ‘turned aside and carried it to the house of Obed-edom the Gittite.’66 At thathouse,whiletheJewishmonarchwaitedtoseeif itwouldkillanyoneelse,theArkoftheCovenant remained for three months. No further disasters occurred, however. On thecontrary: ‘Yahweh blessed Obed-edom and his whole family.’67 The Scriptures are notexplicitaboutthenatureofthisbenediction.Accordingtoancientfolktraditions,however,‘it consisted inObed-edombeing blessedwithmany children…Thewomen in his housegavebirthafterapregnancyoftwomonthsonlyandboresixchildrenatonetime.’68TheBibletakesupthestoryagainasfollows:

ItwastoldKingDavid,saying,theLordhathblessedthehouseofObed-edomandallthatpertainethuntohim,becauseoftheArkofGod.SoDavidwentandbroughttheArkofGodfromthehouseofObed-edomintotheCityofDavidwithgladness.69

Onthisjourney:

thechildrenoftheLevitesbaretheArkofGodupontheirshoulderswiththestavesthereon,asMoseshadcommandedaccordingtothewordofGod.70

Then, finally,David led the joyousprocession intoJerusalem ‘with shoutingandwith thesoundofthetrumpet’,71andwithmusicplayed ‘onallmannerof instrumentsmadeof firwood, even on harps, and on psalteries, and on timbrels, and on coronets, and oncymbals.’72IthadbeenDavid’shopethathewouldbeabletobuildatempleinJerusaleminwhichthe Ark could be housed. In the event, however, he was not to fulfil this ambition andinsteadhadtocontenthimselfwithplacingtherelic inasimpletentofthetypethathadbeenusedduringthedesertwanderings.73Thehonour(ortheconceit?)oferectingtheTemplewasthereforelefttoanotherman.AsDavidhimselfputitbeforehedied:

Asforme,IhaditinminehearttobuildanhouseofrestfortheArkoftheCovenantoftheLord…andhadmadereadyforthebuilding…ButGodsaiduntome,Thoushaltnotbuildanhouseformyname…Solomonthyson,heshallbuildmyhouse.74

Thisprophecywasdulyfulfilled.AtSolomon’scommand,workwasstartedontheTemplearoundtheyear966BC75andwascompletedrathermorethanadecadelater,probablyin955BC.76Then,whenallwasdone,theHolyofHolies–aplacewhichtheLordhadorderedshouldbeutterlydark–wasmadereadytoreceivethepreciousobjectthatithadbeenbuilttocontain:

SolomonassembledtheeldersofIsrael,andalltheheadsofthetribes…thattheymightbringuptheArkoftheCovenantoftheLord…AndalltheeldersofIsraelcame,andtheprieststookuptheArk.AndtheybroughtuptheArkofthe

Lord…AndKingSolomon,andallthecongregationofIsraelthatwereassembleduntohim,werewithhimbeforetheArk,sacrificingsheepandoxenthatcouldnotbetoldnornumberedformultitude.AndthepriestsbroughtintheArkoftheCovenantoftheLordtoitsplaceintheTemple…intheHolyofHolies.77

And there the sacred relic remained,enveloped in ‘thickdarkness’,until itmysteriouslyvanished at some unknown date between the tenth and sixth centuries BC.78 As I havealready indicated in Chapter 1, absolutely no explanation exists for its disappearance,which scholars regard as one of the great unsolved riddles of the Bible.79 Almost equallypuzzling,however,aretheawesomepowersthatitseemstohavepossessedinitsheyday–powersportrayedintheOldTestamentasstemmingdirectlyfromGod.

DeusexmachinaIntryingtounderstandtheArk,Ifoundmyselfreturningagainandagaintotheperplexingissueofthesepowers.Whatcouldhaveaccountedforthem?Itseemedtomethattherewerethreepossibleanswers:

1TheOldTestamentwasright.TheArkwasindeedarepositoryofdivineenergiesandtheseenergieswerethesourceofallthe‘miracles’thatitperformed.

2TheOldTestamentwaswrong.TheArkwasjustanornatecasketandthechildrenofIsraelwerethevictimsofacollectivemasshallucinationthatlastedforseveralhundredyears.3TheOldTestamentwasbothrightandwrongatthesametime.TheArkpossessedgenuinepowers,butthosepowerswereneither‘supernatural’nordivine.Onthecontrary,theywereman-made.

I looked into all three options and concluded that I certainly could not accept the firstunless I was also prepared to accept that Yahweh, the God of the Israelites, was apsychopathickiller–orakindofmaligngeniewholivedinabox.NorcouldIacceptthesecond–primarilybecausetheOldTestament,whichisacompilationofbookscodifiedinwidely different periods, was remarkably consistent where the Ark was concerned.Throughout theScriptures itwas theonlyartefactexplicitlyandunambiguouslyportrayedasbeingimbuedwithsupernaturalenergies.Allotherman-madeobjectsweretreatedquitematter-of-factly. Indeed even exceptionally holy items such as the seven-branched goldencandlestickknownasthemenorah,theso-called‘tableoftheshowbread’,andthealtaruponwhich sacrifices were performed, were clearly understood to be nothing more thanimportantpiecesofritualfurniture.TheArkwasthereforequiteunique,unrivalledinthespecialreverenceaccordedtoitbythe scribes, and matchless in the awesome deeds attributed to it throughout the lengthyperiod in which it completely dominated the biblical story. Moreover its alleged powers

showed few signs of having fallen victim to imaginative literary embellishment. On thecontrary, fromthetimeof itsconstructionat the footofMountSinaiuntil itssuddenandunexplained disappearance hundreds of years later, it continued to exhibit the samespectacular but limited repertoire. Thus it continued to lift itself, its bearers, and otherobjects around it off the ground; it continued to emit light; it continued to be associatedwith a strange ‘cloud’ that materialized ‘between the cherubim’; it continued to afflictpeople with ailments like ‘leprosy’80 and ‘tumours’; and it continued to kill those whoaccidentally touched or opened it. Significantly, however, it exhibited none of the othermarvellous characteristics that onemighthave expected if amasshallucinationhadbeeninvolvedorifagreatdealoffictionhadbeenallowedtoadulteratetherecord:forexample,itdidnotmakerain;itdidnotturnwaterintowine;itdidnotresurrectthedead;itdidnotdriveoutdevils;anditdidnotalwayswinthebattlesintowhichitwastaken(althoughitusuallydid).In otherwords, throughout its history, it consistently behaved like a powerfulmachinethat had been designed to carry out certain very specific tasks and that only performedeffectively within its design parameters – although even then, like all machines, it wasfalliblebecauseofdefectsinitsconstructionandbecauseitwassubjectbothtohumanerrorandtowearandtear.Ithereforeformulatedthefollowinghypothesis,inlinewiththethirdalternativesetoutabove:theOldTestamenthadindeedbeenbothrightandwrongatthesametime.TheArkhadpossessedgenuinepowers,butthosepowershadbeenneithersupernaturalnordivine;onthecontrary,theymusthavebeentheproductsofhumanskillandingenuity.This,ofcourse,wasonlyatheory–aspeculationintendedtoguidemyfurtherresearch–anditwasconfrontedbyagreatmanylegitimatedoubts.Mostimportantofall,howcouldmenpossiblyhavemanufactured sopotentadevicemore than three thousandyearsago,whentechnologyandcivilizationhadsupposedlybeenataveryrudimentarystage?Thisquestion,Ifelt,layattheheartofthemystery.InseekingtoansweritIfoundthatIhad toconsider firstand foremost thecultural contextof the sacred relic–acontext thatwasalmostentirelyEgyptian.Afterall,theArkwasbuiltinthewildernessofSinaiwithinaveryfewmonthsafterMoseshadledhispeopleoutoftheircaptivityinEgypt–acaptivitythathadlastedformorethanfourhundredyears.81ItthereforefollowedthatEgyptwasthemostlikelyplaceinwhichtofindcluestotheArk’struenature.

Tutankhamen’slegacyIbecameconvincedthatIwasrightaboutthisafterIhadpaidavisittotheCairoMuseum.LocatedintheheartofEgypt’scapitalcity,closetotheeastbankoftheNile,thisimposingbuildingisanunequalledrepositoryofPharaonicartefactsdatingbackasfarasthefourthmillenniumBC.Oneof theupper floors isgivenover toapermanentexhibitionofobjectsrecovered from the tomb of Tutankhamen, the youthful monarch who ruled Egypt from1352to1343BC–i.e.aboutacenturybeforethetimeofMoses.82 Iwasentrancedbythisexhibition and spent several hours wandering amongst the display cases amazed at thebeauty,varietyandsheerquantityoftherelicsonview.Itdidnotsurprisemetolearnthatthe renowned British archaeologist Howard Carter had taken six full years to empty the

great sepulchre that he had found in the Valley of the Kings in 1922.83 However, whatinterestedmemostofallaboutthetreasuresthathehadunearthedwasthattheyincludeddozensofArk-likechestsorboxes,somewithcarryingpoles,somewithout,butallofthemconceptuallysimilartotheArkoftheCovenant.By far the most striking of these objects were the four shrines that had been built tocontain the sarcophagusofTutankhamen.These shrines,which I studiedclosely, took theformof largerectangularcaskets thathadoriginallybeenpositionedone inside theotherbutthatwerenowinstalledinseparatedisplaycases.Sinceeachcasketwasmadeofwood,andsinceeach,moreover,wasplated ‘insideandoutwithpuregold’,84 itwasdifficult toresist theconclusionthatthemindthathadconceivedtheArkof theCovenantmusthavebeenfamiliarwithobjectslikethese.Further support for this inferencewas provided by the presence on the doors and rearwallsofeachoftheshrinesoftwomythicalfigures:tallandterriblewingedwomen,fierceandimperiousinstatureandvisage– likesternangelsofvengeance.Thesepowerfulandcommandingcreatures,placedsoastoprovideritualprotectionforthepreciouscontentsofthe tomb,were thought tobe representationsof thegoddesses IsisandNephthys.85Whilethatidentificationinitselfheldnospecialsignificanceforme,Icouldnothelpbutnotethatthedeitieshadtheir‘wingsspreadupwards’justlikethecherubimreferredtointhebiblicaldescriptionof theArk.Theyalso facedeachother justas thebiblical cherubimhaddone.Andalthough theywereshaped inhighreliefon the flatplanesof thedoors (rather thanbeingdistinctpiecesofstatuary)theywereneverthelessfashioned‘ofbeatengold’–againverymuchlikethecherubimdescribedintheBible.86No scholar, I knew, had ever been able to establish exactly what those cherubim hadlookedlike.Therewasonlyconsensusthattheycouldinnowayhaveresembledthechubbyangelic‘cherubs’ofmuchlaterwesternart,whichwere,atbest,sanitizedandChristianizedinterpretations of a truly ancient and pagan concept.87 Lost in thought in the CairoMuseum,however,itseemedtomethattheformidablewingedguardiansofTutankhamen’sinter-nested shrines were the closest models that I was ever likely to find for the twocherubim of the Ark, which indeed had been conceived as standing sentinel over it andwhichhadalsofrequentlyservedaschannelsforitsimmenseanddeadlypower.

ThetabotatofApetIwas subsequently todiscover that theArk’sEgyptianbackgroundwaswideranddeepereventhanthis.Tutankhamenhadalso leftanother legacywhichhelpedmetounderstandthe full significance of that background. During a visit to the great temple at Luxor inUpper Egypt in April 1990, while passing through the elegant colonnade that extendseastwardsfromthecourtofRamesesII,Icameacrossastorycarvedinstone–apermanentandrichly illustratedaccountof the important ‘FestivalofApet’whichhadbeeninscribedhereinthefourteenthcenturyBConTutankhamen’sdirectorders.88Althoughnowbadlyerodedbythepassageofthemillennia,thefadedreliefsonthewestandeastwallsofthecolonnadewerestillsufficientlyvisibleformetograsptherudimentsofthefestival,whichinTutankhamen’stimehadmarkedthepeakoftheannualNileflooduponwhichalmostallofEgypt’sagriculturedepended.89Ialreadyknewthatthisperennial

inundation (today held back by the Aswan High Dam with profoundly unfortunateecologicalconsequences)hadbeenalmostexclusivelytheproductofthelongrainyseasonin theEthiopianhighlands–adeluge thateveryyearroareddownoutofLakeTanaandalongtheBlueNilebestowinghundredsofthousandsoftonsofrichsiltonthefarmlandsoftheDeltaandcontributinganestimatedsix-seventhsofthetotalvolumeofwaterintheNileriversystem.90ThisopenedupthepossibilitythattheApetceremonialsmightinsomewayprove relevant tomyquest:afterall, theyhadcelebratedaclear linkbetween the lifeofancient Egypt and events in far-off Ethiopia.Most probably this link had been nomorethan a coincidental one to dowith climate and geography; nevertheless I regarded it asbeingofatleastprimafacieinterest.Itturnedouttobefarmorethanthat.StudyingfirstthewesternwallofthecolonnadeonwhichtheTutankhamenreliefsweredisplayed,myeyewascaughtbywhatappeared tobeanArk, lifted shoulderhighon itscarrying poles by a group of priests. Stepping closer I quickly confirmed that this wasindeedthecase:withthesoleprovisothattheobjectbeingtransportedtooktheformofaminiature boat rather than a casket, the scene before me looked like quite a faithfulillustration of the passage in the first book of Chronicles which states that the LeviticalpriestsofancientIsrael‘carriedtheArkofGodwiththeshaftsontheirshouldersasMoseshadordered’.91Standing back to get perspective I established that the entire western wall of thecolonnadewascoveredwithimagesverysimilartotheonethathadinitiallyattractedmyattention.InwhatseemedtobeamassiveandjoyousprocessionIwasabletomakeouttheshapesofseveraldifferentArk-likeboatsbeingcarriedontheshouldersofseveraldifferentgroups of priests, before whom musicians played on sistra and a variety of otherinstruments, acrobats performed, and people danced and sang, clapping their hands inexcitement.Withmypulsequickening I satdown inapatchof shadearound thebrokenbaseof acolumn and reflected on the implications of the huge sense of déjà vu that had justovertakenme.ItwasbarelythreemonthssinceIhadattendedTimkatintheEthiopiancityofGondaron18and19January1990.ThedetailsoftheceremonialsthatIhadwitnessedduringthosetwodaysofreligiousfrenzywerethereforestillfreshinmymind–sofreshinfactthatIcouldhardlyfailtonotethesimilaritiesbetweenthemandtheecstaticprocessionportrayedonthetime-wornstonesofthisEgyptiantemple.Bothevents,Irealized,focussedaroundakindof ‘Arkworship’,with theArksbeingborne aloft bygroupsof priests andadored by hysterical crowds. Nor was this all: Timkat had been characterized by theperformanceofwilddances and theplayingofmusical instruments before theArks.Thissort of behaviour, itwas now clear, had also been an intrinsic part of theApet festival,rightdowntothetypesofmusicalinstrumentsused,whichinmanycaseswereidenticaltothosethatIhadseeninGondar.OfcoursetheflatslabsofthetabotatcarriedontheheadsoftheEthiopianpriestswereratherdifferentinappearancefromtheArk-likeboatscarriedon the shoulders of their long-dead Egyptian counterparts. From my earlier research,however (detailed at some length in Chapter 6), I could hardly forget that according toestablishedetymologiestheoriginalmeaningoftabothadbeen‘ship-likecontainer’.Indeed,asIknewverywell,thearchaicHebrewwordtebah(fromwhichtheEthiopictermhadbeen

derived92)hadbeenusedintheBibletoreferspecificallytoship-likearks,namelythearkofNoahandthearkofbulrushesinwhichtheinfantMoseshadbeencastadriftontheNile.Nor, Inowrealized,coulditpossiblybeirrelevantthattheKebraNagasthadatonepointdescribedtheArkoftheCovenantas‘thebellyofaship’93containing‘theTwoTableswhichwerewrittenbythefingerofGod.’94After catchingmybreath, I stoodup and steppedout frommypatchof shade into thefiercemid-daysunlight thatbathedthewholeof thecolonnadearea. I thencontinuedmyexaminationofthefadedreliefsoftheApetfestivalwhich,onthewesternwall,concernedthe bringing of the arks from Karnak to the Temple at Luxor (a distance of about threemiles)and,on theeasternwall, showedtheprocession’seventual return fromLuxorbackalong the Nile to Karnak again where, with all due ceremony, the sacred vessels werereinstalled in their original resting places. Every detail of these complex and beautifullycarved scenes remindedme irresistiblyofTimkat inGondar–whichhadalso involvedanoutgoingprocession (bringing the tabotat from the churches to the ‘baptismal’ lakebesidetheoldcastle)andareturningprocession(bringingthetabotatbacktotheirhomechurchesagain).Moreover,IcouldnowseeclearlythatthebizarreceremoniesIhadwitnessedintheearlymorningof19JanuaryatthelakeitselfhadalsobeenprefiguredintheApetfestivalwhich,ateverystage,appearedtohaveinvolvedaspecialreverenceforwater(indeed,thereliefs of the early part of the procession showed that the arks had been carried directlyfromthetempletothebanksoftheNile,whereanumberofelaborateritualshadthenbeenperformed).

ScholarlycorroborationAftercompletingmytrip toEgypt inApril1990I tooktheopportunity tocarryoutsomefurther research into the evidence that I had stumbled upon there. I discovered that theexpertshadnoquarrelwithmyvariousconjectures.Atonemeeting,forexample,KennethKitchen,ProfessorofEgyptologyatLiverpoolUniversity, confirmed that thecaskets fromTutankhamen’s tomb that I had seen in the Cairo Museum could indeed have beenprototypesfortheArkoftheCovenant:‘Attheveryleast,’hesaidinhisbroadandratheremphaticYorkshire accent, ‘theyprove thatwoodenboxes linedwithgoldwere standardartefactsof thereligious furnitureof theperiodandthatMoseswouldthereforehavehadthe technology and skills at his disposal to manufacture the Ark. The methods ofconstructionthathewouldhaveemployed,andtheuseofsuchprefabricatedstructuresforreligiouspurposes,areabundantlyattestedbyactual remains,picturesandtexts inEgyptoveralongperiodoftime.’95IalsofoundscholarlycorroborationforthelinkthatIbelievedhadexistedbetweenthefestival of Apet and the early Judaic ceremonies surrounding the Ark of the Covenant.Working through piles of referencematerials in the British Library I came across a bookpublishedinLondonin1884bytheReligiousTractSocietyandentitledFreshLightfromtheAncientMonuments.ImighthaveignoredthisslimandunprepossessingvolumeentirelyhadInotnoticedthat itsauthorwasacertainA.H.Sayce(whoat thetimehadbeenDeputyProfessorofPhilologyatOxfordUniversity).RememberingthatE.A.WallisBudge,oneofthegreatauthoritiesonEgyptianreligion,hadheldSayceinthehighestregard(describing

himasa‘distinguishedscholar’96)Iopenedthebookatachapterentitled‘TheExodusoutofEgypt’ and read that, in Sayce’s opinion, ‘the law and ritual of the Israelites’ had beenderivedfrommanysources.AmongstthesewereVariousfestivalsandfasts’inwhich

Thegodswerecarriedinprocessionin‘ships’,which,aswelearnfromthesculptures,resembledinformtheHebrewArk,andwereborneonmen’sshouldersbymeansofstaves.97

Encouragedbythesupportformyspeculationsthatthedistinguishednineteenth-centuryprofessorhadgivenme, I looked further through the referenceworksatmydisposal andwasabletoconfirmthattheship-likearkscarriedduringtheApetceremonialshadindeedcontainedgods,orrathersmallstatuesofvariousdeitiesintheEgyptianpantheon.98Thesestatueshadbeenmadeofstoneandthus,itseemedtome,werenotfarremovedinconceptfromthestone‘TabletsoftheTestimony’thathadsupposedlybeenlodgedinsidetheArkoftheCovenantandthattheIsraeliteshadregardedasembodyingtheirGod.AsoneHebrewscholarhadputitinaseminalpaperpublishedinthe1920s:

ThetraditionofthetwosacredstonetabletswithintheArkwouldpointstronglytotheconclusionthattheoriginalcontentsoftheArkmusthavebeenasacredstone…[which]waseitherconceivedofasthedeityhimself,orastheobjectinwhichthedeitywasthoughttoresidepermanently.99

Nor was this the only connection that I was able to establish between the Ark of theCovenant and the ship-like arks that had been carried in the Apet ceremonies. Thoseceremonies, it will be remembered, had taken place in the Upper Egyptian town nowknownas‘Luxor’,arelativelyrecentnamederivedfromtheArabicL’ouqsor (meaning ‘thepalaces’).Muchearlier,duringtheperiodofGreekinfluenceinEgypt(fromaboutthefifthcentury BC) the whole area including the nearby temple at Karnak had been known asThebai. Modern Europeans had subsequently corrupted this name to the more familiar‘Thebes’.100Intheprocess,however,theyhadobscuredanintriguingetymology: thewordThebaihadinfactbeenderivedfromTapet,thenamebywhichtheLuxor/Karnakreligiouscomplexhadbeenknown in theeraofTutankhamenandMoses.101AndTapet in its turnwasmerely the feminine formofApet – inotherwords,LuxorandKarnakhadoriginallybeennamedafterthegreatfestivalforwhichtheyhadbeenfamous,102afestivalthathadcentreduponaprocessioninwhicharkshadbeencarriedbetweenthetwotemples.Whatintriguedmeaboutthis,ofcourse,wasthephoneticsimilarityofthewordsTapetandTabot,a similarity that looked all the less coincidental after I had discovered from one learnedsource that the shapeof theTapet arkshadevolvedover thepassing centuries, graduallyceasingtoresembleshipssocloselyandbecominginstead‘moreandmorelikeachest’.103As noted above, I had long since established that the Ethiopic term Tabot had beenderived from the Hebrew tebah, meaning ‘ship-like container’. Now I began to wonderwhether itwasnotentirelypossible that theword tebahhad itselforiginallybeenderivedfromtheancientEgyptianTapet–andwhetherthisderivationmightnothavecomeaboutbecausetheceremoniesdevisedfortheArkoftheCovenanthadbeenmodelleduponthose

oftheApetfestival.104Suchlinksandcoincidences,thoughbynomeansattainingthestatureofhardevidence,diddeepenmyconvictionthattheArkoftheCovenantcouldonlyproperlybeunderstoodinthecontextofitsEgyptianbackground.Amongstotherthings,asProfessorKitchenhadpointedout,thatbackgrounddemonstratedthatMoseswouldhavehadthetechnologyandskillsathisdisposaltofulfilGod’scommandtobuildan‘Arkofacaciawood’and‘toplateitinsideandoutwithpuregold’.Atthesametime,however,thesacredrelichadbeenmuchmorethanjustawoodenboxlinedwithgold.IthereforewonderedwhetheranexplanationofitsbalefulanddestructivepowersmightalsobefoundinEgypt.Seeking such an explanation I travelled to that country several times and talked totheologians,biblicalscholarsandarchaeologists.Ialsosurroundedmyselfwithrarebooks,religious texts, folklore, myths and legends and tried to discern whether threads of factmightnotlieentangledamongstthewilderfancies.Asmyresearchprogressed Ibecame increasingly intriguedby thepersonalityofMoses,theHebrewprophetandlaw-giverwhochallengedPharaoh,wholedthechildrenofIsraelto thePromisedLand, andwhoalsoordered the constructionof theArkof theCovenantafterhehadsupposedlyreceivedthe‘blueprint’foritsdesignfromGodHimself.Themoreclosely I looked at this towering, heroic figure, the more convinced I became thatinformation of fundamental importance tomy understanding of the Arkwould be foundwithintherecordsofhislife.

‘Amagicianofthehighestorder…’ItisprobablythecasethateveryChristian,MuslimandJewaliveintheworldtodayhasashadowy image of the prophet Moses tucked away in some corner of his or her mind.Certainly Iwas no exception to this rulewhen I began to think seriously about him andabouthisroleinthemysteryoftheArk.Myproblem,however,wasthatIneededtofleshout thecaricature that Ihadacquired inSunday schooland, in theprocess, togain somerealinsightintothemanwhoscholarsagreewas‘theoutstandingfigureintheemergenceandformulationoftheJewishreligion’.105Of considerable help to me in completing this task were the extensive and highlyregardedhistoricalwritingsof Flavius Josephus, aPhariseewho lived inRoman-occupiedJerusaleminthefirstcenturyAD.InhisAntiquitiesoftheJews,compiledfromtraditionsandreference materials unavailable today, this diligent scholar chronicled the four hundredyearsofHebrewenslavement inEgypt,which lastedroughly from1650until1250BC, theprobable date of theExodus.106 The birth ofMoseswas the key event of this period andwas,Josephussaid,thesubjectofaprophecybyanEgyptian‘sacredscribe’,aperson‘withconsiderable skill of accurately predicting the future’, who informed Pharaoh that therewouldariseamongsttheIsraelites

onewhowouldabasethesovereigntyoftheEgyptianswereherearedtomanhood,andwouldsurpassallmeninvirtueandwineverlastingrenown.Alarmedthereat,theking,onthesage’sadvice,orderedthateverymalechild

borntotheIsraelitesshouldbedestroyedbybeingcastintotheriver.107

On hearing this edict a certain Amram (Moses’s father-to-be)was plunged into ‘grievousperplexity’ because ‘his wife was then with child’. God, however, appeared to him in adreamandcomfortedhimwiththenewsthat:

Thischild,whosebirthhasfilledtheEgyptianswithsuchdreadthattheyhavecondemnedtodestructionalltheoffspringoftheIsraelites,shallescapethosewhoarewatchingtodestroyhim,and,rearedinmarvellouswise,heshalldelivertheHebrewracefromtheirbondageinEgypt,andberememberedsolongastheuniverseshallendure,notbyHebrewsalonebutevenbyaliennations.108

Thesetwopassageswerehelpful tomebecausetheyconsiderablyexpandedthebiblicalnarrativeonthebirthofMosesgivenintheopeningchaptersofthebookofExodus.Inotedwith interest that the great legislator of the Jews had indeed been remembered ‘even byalien nations’. More intriguing by far, however, was the special emphasis put on theprophecyofthe ‘sacredscribe’who,withhisabilitytoforetell thefuture,couldonlyhavebeenanastrologeratthecourtofthePharaoh.Inmakingthispoint,Josephusseemedtobehintingthat–fromtheoutset–therehadbeensomethingalmostmagicalaboutMoses.Inthe time-honoured tradition of setting a thief to catch a thief, what we had here was amagicianpredictingthecomingofamagician.Thebarebonesof theevents thatoccurredafter the childwasbornare too familiar torequire lengthy repetition: aged only three months he was placed by his parents in apapyrus basket coated with bitumen and pitch and cast adrift on the Nile; downriverPharaoh’s daughter was bathing; she saw the floating crib, heard cries, and sent herhandmaidentorescuethemewlinginfant.SubsequentlyMoseswasbroughtupintheroyalhouseholdwhere,accordingtotheBible,hewasinstructed‘inallthewisdomoftheEgyptians’.109Josephushadlittletoaddatthispoint, but another classical authority –Philo, the respectedJewishphilosopherwho livedaroundthetimeofChrist–gaveafairlydetailedaccountofexactlywhatMoseswastaught:‘Arithmetic, geometry, the lore ofmetre, rhythm and harmonywere imparted to him bylearnedEgyptians.These further instructedhimin thephilosophyconveyed insymbolsasdisplayed in the so-called holy inscriptions.’ Meanwhile ‘inhabitants of neighbouringcountries’ were assigned to teach him ‘Assyrian letters and the Chaldean science of theheavenlybodies.Thishealsoacquired from theEgyptians,whogave special attention toastrology.’110Rearedasanadoptedsonoftheroyalfamily,Moseswasseenforaconsiderableperiodasasuccessortothethrone.111Theimplicationofthisspecialstatus,Ilearned,wasthatinhisyouthhewouldhavebeengivenathoroughinitiationintoallthemostarcanepriestlysecrets and into themysteries of Egyptianmagic112 – a course of study thatwould haveincludednotonlystar-knowledge,asindicatedbyPhilo,butalsonecromancy,diviningandotheraspectsofoccultlore.113A clue that this may indeed have been so was given in the Bible, where Moses was

describedasbeing‘mightyinwordsanddeeds’.114InthecogentanddependablejudgmentofthatgreatscholarandlinguistSirE.A.WallisBudge,thisphrase–alsoandperhapsnotcoincidentallyappliedtoJesusChrist115–containedthecodedsuggestionthattheHebrewprophet was ‘strong of tongue’, like the Egyptian goddess Isis.What this meant, thoughMoseswasself-confessedlylackinginoratoricaleloquence,116wasthathemusthavebeencapableofutteringwordsofpower‘whichheknewwithcorrectpronunciation,andhaltednotinhisspeech,andwasperfectbothingivingthecommandandinsayingtheword.’117Assuch,againlikeIsis–whowasfamousforherproficiencyinallkindsofwitchcraft–hewould have been equipped to cast the most potent spells. Others around him wouldthereforehavetreatedhimwithahighdegreeofrespectsincetheywouldunquestioninglyhavebelievedhimcapableofbendingrealityandoverridingthelawsofphysicsbyalteringthenormalorderofthings.IwasabletoturnupaconsiderablebodyofevidencefromtheOldTestamenttosupport

thecontentionthatMoseshadbeenseeninexactlythisway.Therewas,nevertheless,oneimportant proviso: his magic was depicted throughout as being wrought solely at thecommandofYahweh,theGodoftheHebrews.According to the book of Exodus,Moses’s first encounterwith Yahweh took place in a

wilderness near the land ofMidian (towhich he had fled to escape retribution after hisanger at the persecution ofHebrew labourers had led him to kill an Egyptian overseer).From the geographical clues thatwere given, itwas clear that thiswildernessmust havebeenlocatedinthesouthernpartoftheSinaipeninsula,mostprobablywithinsightofthepeak ofMount Sinai itself118 (whereMoseswas later to receive the Ten Commandmentsandthe‘blueprint’fortheArk).TheBible,atanyrate,spokeof‘themountainofGod’andplacedMosesatitsfootwhentheLordappearedtohim‘inaflameoffireoutofthemidstof a bush: and he looked, and, behold, the bush burnedwith fire, and the bushwas notconsumed.’119 God instructed Moses that he should return to Egypt in order to lead hispeopleoutoftheirbondagethere.120Beforeagreeing,however,theprophetaskedthenameofthestrangeandpowerfulbeingwhohadaddressedhim.121ThisdaringquestioninitselfcontainedevidenceofMoses’sidentityasasorcererfor,as

thegreatanthropologistSirJamesFrazerobservedinhisseminalworkTheGoldenBough:

EveryEgyptianmagician…believedthathewhopossessedthetruenamepossessedtheverybeingofgodorman,andcouldforceevenadeitytoobeyhimasaslaveobeyshismaster.Thustheartofthemagicianconsistedinobtainingfromthegodsarevelationoftheirsacrednames,andheleftnostoneunturnedtoaccomplishhisend.122

TheLord, however, didnot responddirectly to theprophet’s question. Insteadhe repliedbriefly and enigmatically with these words: ‘I AM WHO I AM.’ By way of furtherclarificationhe thenadded: ‘I am theGodof thy father, theGodofAbraham, theGodofIsaacandtheGodofJacob.’123The phrase ‘I amwho I am’ (or ‘I amwhat I am’, ‘I am that I am’, depending on the

translation) was, I discovered, the root meaning of the name Yahweh used in the OldTestament–andsubsequentlybastardizedintheAuthorizedKingJamesVersionoftheBibleas ‘Jehovah’. This name,however,wasnoname; rather itwas an evasive formulabased

looselyontheHebrewverb‘tobe’andwrittenasfourconsonantswhichtransliteratedintotheLatinalphabetas ‘YHWH’.Knowntotheologiansas thetetragrammaton, these lettersrevealed nothing beyond the active existence of God and thus continued to conceal thedivineidentityfrommodernresearcherseverybitaseffectivelyastheyhadoncedonefromMoses. Indeed so potentwas theirmystery that no one today could even claim to knowexactlyhowtheyshouldbepronounced;renderingthetetragrammatonas‘Yahweh’bytheinsertionofthevowels‘a’and‘e’was,however,theacceptedconvention.124The importance of all this from the biblical perspective was that the deity knew, and

pronounced,thenameofMoses;Moses,bycontrast,onlymanagedtoobtainfromHimtheritual incantation ‘I am who I am’. Henceforward, therefore, the prophet was bound toanswertoGodandtodohisbidding;likewiseallhissorceryinthefuturewouldderivefromthepowerofGod,andfromthepowerofGodalone.Itwas understandable that the later redactors of the Scriptures should havewanted to

present the relationship between omnipotentGod and fallibleman in precisely thisway.Whattheycouldnotdo,however,waserasetheevidencethatthatmanhadindeedbeenasorcerer;neithercould theycoverup themostconvincingdemonstrationsofhis sorcery–theplaguesandpestilencesthathewassoontoinflictupontheEgyptiansinordertoforcePharaohtoreleasethechildrenofIsraelfromcaptivity.In working these terrible miracles Moses was assisted by his older half-brother Aaron,

who frequently served as his agent and spokesman. Both Moses and Aaron were alsoequippedwithrods–effectivelymagicians’wands–whichtheyusedtoworktheirspells.ThatofMoseswassometimesreferredtoas‘therodofGod’125andfirstappearedwhentheprophet complained to Yahweh that neither Pharaoh, nor the children of Israel, wouldbelievethathehadbeendivinelycommissioned,unlesshewasabletoprovidesomekindofproof.‘Whatisthatinthinehand?’Godasked.‘Arod,’Mosesreplied.126Godthentoldhimto throw it on the ground ‘that theymay believe that the Lord God hath appeared untothee’:

Andhecastitonthegroundanditbecameaserpent;andMosesfledfrombeforeit.AndtheLordsaiduntoMoses,Putforththinehandandtakeitbythetail.Andheputforthhishandandcaughtit,anditbecamearodinhishand.127

OnceagaintheemphasisputbythescripturaltextontheprimacyofGod’sroleinallofthiswasunderstandable.Onceagainalso,however, theconnectionswithEgyptianoccultpracticewerequiteunmissable.The turningofan inanimate stick intoa snake,and thenbackagainintoastick,wasafeatfrequentlycarriedoutbythemagiciansofthatcountry;likewisethepowertocontrolthemovementsofvenomousreptileswasclaimedbyEgyptianpriests from the very earliest times; last but not least, all Egyptianmagicians – amongstthemthesageAbaanerandthesorceror-kingNectanebus–possessedmarvellousrodsmadeofebony.128Lookedat in this light, Ididnot find it surprising that the firstcontestsbetweenMoses

andAaronononeside,andthepriestsatPharaoh’scourtontheother,werefairlyevenlydrawn. To impress the Egyptian tyrant, Aaron threw down his rod – which, of course,becameaserpentassoonasithittheground.UndauntedPharaohcalledforhisownsages

andsorcerers, ‘andwiththeirwitchcraft themagiciansofEgyptdidthesame.Eachthrewhisstaffdownandtheseturnedintoserpents.’Then,however,Aaron’srod– imbuedwiththesuperiorpowerofYahweh–swalloweduptherodsofthemagicians.129In the next encounter Moses and Aaron turned the waters of the Nile to blood.Remarkablethoughthistrickwas,Pharaohremainedunimpressedbecause‘themagiciansofEgyptusedtheirwitchcrafttodothesame.’130Theplagueoffrogs,whichfollowed,waslikewisematchedbyPharaoh’ssorcerers.131Buttheplagueofmosquitoes(gnatsinsometranslations,liceinothers)wastoomuchforthem:‘Themagicianswiththeirwitchcrafttriedtoproducemosquitoesandfailed.Themosquitoesattackedmenandbeasts.SothemagicianssaidtoPharaoh,“ThisisthefingerofGod.”’132Stillthehard-heartedkingrefusedtolettheHebrewsgo.Hewaspunishedforthiswithaplagueofflies133andsoonafterwardswithapestilencethatkilledlivestock.134Mosesnextcausedaplagueofboils tobreakout (hedid this by throwingahandful of soot into theair135) and then, byusinghis rod, heprocured thunder andhail, a plagueof locusts andthreedaysof‘thickdarkness’.136Finally,theHebrewprophetarrangedforthedeathof‘allthefirst-bornofthelandofEgypt:thefirst-bornofPharaoh,thefirst-bornoftheprisonerinhis dungeon, and the first-born of all the cattle.’137 After this: ‘The Egyptians urged thepeople to hurry up and leave the land because, they said, “Otherwise we shall all bedead”.’138SotheExodusbegan,andwithitaprolongedperiodofdangerandenchantmentduringwhich,atthefootofMountSinai,theArkoftheCovenantwasbuilt.BeforereachingSinai,however,theRedSeahadtobecrossed.HereMosesgaveanotherdramaticdemonstrationofhisprowessintheoccultarts:

AndMosesstretchedouthishandoverthesea;andtheLordcausedtheseatogobackbyastrongeastwindallthatnight,andmadetheseadryland,andthewatersweredivided.AndthechildrenofIsraelwentintothemidstoftheseauponthedryground:andthewaterswereawalluntothemontheirrighthandandontheirleft.139

As everyonewhohas ever attended Sunday schoolwill remember, thepursuingEgyptianforces followed the Israelites into ‘the midst of the sea, even all Pharaoh’s horses, hischariotsandhishorsemen.’140Then:

Mosesstretchedforthhishandoverthesea–andthewatersreturned,andcoveredthechariots,andthehorsemen,andallthehostofPharaohthatcameintotheseaafterthem;thereremainednotsomuchasoneofthem.ButthechildrenofIsraelwalkedupondrylandinthemidstofthesea;andthewaterswereawalluntothemontheirrighthand,andontheirleft.141

Again, and predictably, the Bible put emphasis on the power ofGod:Mosesmay havestretchedouthishandacoupleof timesbut itwastheLordwho ‘causedthewaterstogoback’–andto‘return’.Ifounditslightlyhardertoacceptthescripturalparty-lineonthis,however,afterIhadlearnedthattheabilitytocommandthewatersofseasandlakeshad

also frequentlybeenclaimedbyEgyptianpriestsandmagicians.Forexample,oneof theancient documents that I studied (the Westcar Papyrus) related a story from the earlyFourthDynasty–some1,500yearsbeforethetimeofMoses–whichfocussedonthedoingsofacertainTchatcha-em-ankh,aKherHeborHighPriestattachedtothecourtofPharaohSeneferu. Apparently the Pharaoh was out boating one day in the pleasant company of‘twentyyoungvirginshavingbeautifulheadsofhairandlovelyformsandshapelylimbs.’One of these ladies dropped a much- favoured ornament of hers into the lake and wasbroken-heartedtohavelostit.ThePharaoh,however,summonedTchatcha-em-ankhwho

spakecertainwordsofpower(hekau)andhavingthuscausedonesectionofthewaterofthelaketogoupontheother,hefoundtheornamentlyinguponapot-sherd,andhetookitandgaveittothemaiden.Nowthewaterwastwelvecubitsdeep,butwhenTchatcha-em-ankhhadlifteduponesectionofthewaterontotheother,thatportionbecamefourandtwentycubitsdeep.Themagicianagainutteredcertainwordsofpower,andthewaterofthelakebecameasithadbeenbeforehehadcausedoneportionofittogoupontotheother.142

Whileofcoursetodowithamuchmoretrivialincident,thestoryintheWestcarPapyrusnevertheless containedmany points that I could only regard as startlingly similar to thepartingofthewatersoftheRedSea.This,inmyview,leftnoroomfordoubtthatMoses’svirtuoso performance in bringing about the great miracle established him firmly in anancient, and very Egyptian, occult tradition. Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, who I had firstencounteredthroughhis translationof theKebraNagast,butwhohadalsobeenkeeperofEgyptianandAssyrianAntiquitiesattheBritishMuseum,hadthistosayonthesubject:

Moseswasaskilledperformerofmagicalritualsandwasdeeplylearnedintheknowledgeoftheaccompanyingspells,incantations,andmagicalformulasofeverydescription…[Moreover]themiracleswhichhewrought…suggestthathewasnotonlyapriest,butamagicianofthehighestorderandperhapsevenaKherHeb.143

Secretscience?As aKherHeb (High Priest) of the Egyptian templeMoses would undoubtedly have hadaccesstoasubstantialcorpusofesotericwisdomandofmagico-religious ‘science’thatthepriestlyguildskept secret from the laity. Iknew thatmodernEgyptologistsaccepted thatsuchabodyofknowledgehadexisted.144 I alsoknew that theyhadvery little ideaas towhatitmightactuallyhaveconsistedof:obscurereferencestoitappearedininscriptionsinthe tombs of senior temple officials but almost nothing of any substance had survived inwrittenform.Agreatdealwasprobablypassedoninanexclusivelyoraltraditionconfinedtoinitiates.145Scholarlyopinionhadit,however,thatmostoftheresthadbeendestroyed,either deliberately or accidentally. Who could possibly guess what treasures of learningwerelostwhenfireravagedthegreatlibraryatAlexandria–alibrarythatwasreputed,bythesecondcenturyBC,tohavecontainedmorethan200,000scrolls?146

Therewas,however,onematteronwhichtherewasnoneedtospeculate:asHerodotusputitinthefifthcenturyBC, ‘Egypthasmorewondersinitthananycountryintheworldand more works that are beyond description than anywhere else.’ Amongst otherachievements,thiswidelytravelledGreekhistorian–whosebooksarestillinprint–rightlycredited the Egyptians with being ‘the first of mankind to invent the year and to maketwelvedivisionsof theseasons for it’.HerodotusalsoclaimedtohavepenetratedsomeofthemysteriesoftheEgyptianpriesthood,butthen,rathertantalizingly,addedthathecouldnot–orwouldnot–revealwhathehadlearned.147Herodotuswas not the first or the last visitor to Egypt to come awaywith the distinct

impression that therewere hidden secrets there – and that theremight bemore to thesesecrets than mere religious mumbo-jumbo. Indeed the notion that this ancient cultureoriginallypromoted itself togreatness through theapplicationof somekindofadvanced,butnowlost,scientificknowledgewas,Idiscovered,oneofthemostdurableandpervasiveinhumanhistory:ithadprovedequallyattractivetofuriouscranksandsoberscholarsandhadbeen thesubjectof immenseamountsofcontroversy,acrimony,wildspeculationandseriousresearch.Itwasanotion,furthermore,thatimpingeddirectlyuponmyquestbecauseitraisedan

intriguingpossibility: as amagician skilled inEgyptian ‘sacred science’,mightnotMoseshave had at his disposal far more in the way of knowledge and technology than hadhitherto been recognized by the archaeologists? And might he not have applied thisknowledgeandtechnologytotheconstructionoftheArkoftheCovenant?Suchahypothesisseemedworthyoffurtherinvestigation.Iquicklydiscovered,however,

thatwhatwasknownaboutthetechnologicalachievementsoftheancientEgyptiansraisedatleastasmanyquestionsasitanswered.It was clear, for example, that these people were clever metalworkers: their gold

jewellery, in particular, was quite exquisite, showing a degree of craftsmanship rarelyequalled since. It was also notable, from the very earliest times, that the edges of theircoppertoolswerebroughttoaremarkabledegreeofhardness–sohard,infact,thattheycouldcutthroughschistandthetoughestlimestone.Nomodernblacksmith,Ilearned,wouldhavebeenabletoachievesuchresultswithcopper;itwasthoughtlikely,however,thatany‘lost art’ lay less in themanufacture of the tools than in themanner inwhich theyweremanipulatedonsitebythestonemasons.148Astudyofmanysurvivinghieroglyphsandpapyri leftme innodoubt that theancient

Egyptianswere–at thevery least–moderatemathematicians in themodernsense.Theyemployed unit fractions and appeared to have developed a special form of infinitesimalcalculuswhichenabled themtocompute thevolumeofcomplexobjects.149 It also seemedhighlyprobable,morethan2,000yearsbeforetheGreeks,thattheyhadunderstoodhowtouse the transcendental number pi to derive the circumference of any circle from itsdiameter.150Egyptianobservationalastronomywasanotherareainwhichgreatprogressappearedto

havebeenmadeataveryearlydate.AccordingtoLivioStecchini,anAmericanprofessorofthehistoryof science andan expert onancientmeasurement, astronomical techniques inuseasearlyas2200BChadenabledEgyptianprieststocalculatethelengthofadegreeoflatitudeand longitude towithina fewhundred feet–anachievement thatwasnot tobe

equalledbyothercivilizationsforalmost4,000years.151The Egyptians also excelled in medicine: their surgeons were skilled in a variety of

difficultprocedures,152 theirunderstandingof thehumannervoussystemwasrefined,andtheir pharmacopoeia included several well known drugs in their first-recordedapplications.153Icameacrossmany furtherpiecesofevidencewhich illustrated therelativelyadvanced

state of Egyptian knowledge at a timewhen the European peopleswere still plunged inbarbarism. Inmyview,however,noneof thedata suggested theexistenceofany sciencethat we would regard as truly breathtaking today, nor of any branch of technicalachievementsufficientlysophisticatedtoaccountforthepotentenergiesthattheArkoftheCovenanthadbeenable tounleash.Nevertheless,as Ihavealreadynoted, thebelief thattheEgyptianswere theguardiansof some ‘greatand secretwisdom’waswidespreadandalmostimmunetocounter-argument.I knewverywell that such ardent convictionoften stemmedmore froma subconscious

desire to glorify the past of the human species than from any rational weighing up ofempiricalfacts.This,certainly,wasthedominantopinionofmembersofthearchaeologicalestablishment,mostofwhomregardedthe ‘greatandsecretwisdom’theoryasbalderdashand claimed to have found nothing extraordinary in Egypt in more than a century ofpainstaking digging and sifting. I myself am sceptical and pragmatic by nature.NeverthelessImustconfessthatthephysicalevidencewhichIsaweverywherearoundmeduring the series of research trips that I made to this beautiful and time-worn landconvincedme that theacademicsdidnothaveall theanswers, thatmuchremained tobeexplained,andthattherewereanumberofaspectsoftheEgyptianexperiencewhichhadbeen lamentably under-researched simply because they were beyond the scope ofconventional archaeology – and probably of all other accepted forms of scholarlyinvestigationaswell.Threesiteshadaparticularlyprofoundimpactonme:thetemplecomplexatKarnak;the

Zoser‘step’pyramidatSaqqara;andtheGreatPyramidatGizaontheoutskirtsofCairo.Itseemed tome that the special composite quality of raw power, delicate grace, imposinggrandeur,mysteryandimmortalitythattheseedificespossessedstemmedfromtheworkingout within them of a refined and highly developed understanding of harmony andproportion–anunderstandingthatcouldreasonablybesaidtohaveamountedtoascience.Combiningengineering,architectureanddesign,thatsciencehadbeenremarkablebyanystandards.Ithadneversincebeensurpassedinitsabilitytostimulatereligiousawe,andithadbeenequalledinEuropeonlyinthegreatGothiccathedralsoftheMiddleAgessuchasChartres.Was this an accident?Was the essentially similar effect on the senses of the Egyptian

monuments and theGothic cathedrals amatter of pure chance – orwas there perhaps aconnection?I had long suspected that there had indeed been a connection and that the Knights

Templar,throughtheirdiscoveriesduringtheCrusades,mighthaveformedthemissinglinkin the chain of transmission of secret architectural knowledge.154 AtKarnak, as Iwalkedslowly past the looming pylons, into the Great Court, and through the forest of giantcolumns of the Hypostyle Hall, I could not help but remember that Saint Bernard of

Clairvaux, the Templars’ patron, had defined God – astonishingly for a Christian – as‘length,width, height anddepth’.155Nor could I forget that theTemplars themselves hadbeen great builders and great architects, or that the Cistercian monastic order to whichSaintBernardhadbelongedhadalsoexcelledinthisparticularfieldofhumanendeavour.156Centuriesandcivilizationsbeforethem,however,ithadbeentheancientEgyptianswhohad been the first masters of the science of building – the first and still the greatestarchitectmasons that theworldhad ever known.Moreover, themonuments that they leftbehindbeggareddescriptionandchallengedtimeitself.TypicalinthisrespectweretwotallobelisksthatdominatedtheKarnakcomplexandthatIfoundmyselfparticularlydrawntoonmyownvisitsthere.One,Idiscovered,hadbeenerectedbyPharaohTuthmosisI(1504–1492 BC) and the other by Queen Hatshepsut (1473–1458 BC).157 Both were perfectmonoliths, hewn from single slabs of solid pink granite, the former standing 70 feet inheight and weighing an estimated 143 tons, the latter standing 97 feet in height andweighinganestimated320tons.158Afewminutes’walktothesouth,overlookingasacredlake thatwas usedby the temple priests for elaborate purification ceremonies, I found athird,buttumbledandbroken,obelisk, thetop30feetofwhich–surmountedbyafinelypointedpyramidion–wereneverthelessquiteundamaged.Ononeoccasion,followingtheadviceofaguidebookIhadwithme,159Isteppedovertheropeperimetersurroundingthisfallen giant andplacedmy ear to the angle of the pyramidion. I then struck the granitefirmly with the palm of my hand and listened, entranced, as the entire monolithreverberated with a deep, low-pitched tone like some strange and prodigious musicalinstrument.It seemed tome that thisphenomenoncouldnotpossiblyhavebeenaccidental.On thecontrary,theenormouscareandskillrequiredtoproducesuchamonolith(whenthesamesplendidvisualeffectmighthavebeenachievedsimplybycementingblockonblock)onlyreally made sense if the ancient Egyptians had wanted to realize some special propertyinherentinasinglepieceofstone.Something,atanyrate,other thanmereaestheticconsiderationsmusthave lainbehindthe erection of these elegant and flawless stelae. I learned that they had not been hewnlocally but rather had been transported by river from granite quarries more than 200kilometrestothesouth.TheNilewasahighwaybroadanddeep.Itwasthereforereasonabletosuppose,oncetheobeliskshadbeenloadeduponbarges,thatitwouldnothavebeensodifficultamattertofloatthemdownstream.WhatIfoundmuchhardertounderstand,however,wasthemethodthat the ancientEgyptianshad employed to get thesemassiveneedles of stoneon to thebarges in the first place – and then off them again once they had arrived at theirdestination.Onemonolithhadbeenleftinsituatthequarries,onlypartiallyseparatedfromthebedrock,because itcrackedbefore itwascompletelyexcavated.Hadthisaccidentnotbefallenit,however,itwouldhavemadeanobelisk137feethighandalmost14feetthickatitsbase.Obviously,whentheworkwasstarted,ithadbeenconfidentlyintendedthatthismonstrous object – weighing a staggering 1,168 tons160 – would be moved and erectedsomewhere.Yetitwasextremelydifficulttoexplainexactlyhowthatwouldhavebeendonebyapeoplewho(accordingtothearchaeologists) lackedevensimplewinchesandpulleysystems.161 Indeed I knew that the task ofmoving so large a piece of solid stone over a

distance of several hundred feet – nevermind several hundred kilometres! –would havetaxed to the limit the ingenuityofamodern teamofconstructionengineers supportedbythemostsophisticatedandpowerfulmachinery.Equallypuzzling,oncethemonolithsreachedKarnak,wasthemannerinwhichtheyhadbeen set upright on their pedestalswith such faultless accuracy. In one of the temples areliefdepictedPharaohraisinganobeliskwithnoassistanceofanykindandmakinguseofjust a singlepieceof rope.162 Itwas quite normal for the ruler to beportrayed inheroicposes and perhaps all that was intended here was a symbolic representation of a realprocess in which hundreds of labourers were trained to pull together onmultiple ropes.However,Icouldnotridmyselfofthesuspicionthattheremusthavebeenmoretoitthanthis. According to John Anthony West, an experienced Egyptologist, the Pharaohs andpriestswerepreoccupiedwithaprincipleknownasMa’at–oftentranslatedas‘equilibrium’or‘balance’.Itwaspossible,hesuggested,thatthisprinciplemighthavebeencarriedoverintopracticalspheresand‘thattheEgyptiansunderstoodandusedtechniquesofmechanicalbalance unknown to us’. Such techniqueswould have enabled them to ‘manipulate theseimmense stones with ease and finesse … What would be magic to us was method tothem.’163If the obelisks, at times, seemed like the products of almost superhuman skill, I had toadmit that the Pyramids in all ways surpassed them. As Jean Franqois Champollion, thefounder ofmodern Egyptology, once remarked, ‘the Egyptians of old thought likemen ahundredfeettall.WeinEuropearebutLilliputians.’164Certainly, when I first entered the Great Pyramid at Giza, I felt like a Lilliputian –dwarfedandslightly intimidated,notonlybythesheermassandsizeof thismountainofstonebutalsobyanalmosttangiblesenseoftheaccumulatedweightoftheages.OnpreviousvisitsIhadonlyseentheexteriorofthepyramid,sinceIhadfeltnodesiretojointheswarmsoftouristspouringinside.Earlyinthemorningof27April1990,however,Imanagedbymeansofasmallbribetogetintothegreatstructurecompletelyonmyown.Inthedimlightprovidedbyaseriesoflow-wattagebulbs,andbentoveralmostdoubletoavoid hitting my head on the rock face above, I climbed the 129 feet of the ascendingpassage,andthenthe157feetofthemorespaciousGrandGallery,untilIreachedtheso-called‘King’sChamber’–a2:1rectangle,thefloorofwhichmeasured34feet4inchesby17feet2inches.Justover19feethigh,theceilingofthisroom–whichoccupiedtheveryheart of the pyramid – consisted of nine monolithic blocks of granite each weighingapproximately50tons.165IdonotrememberhowlongIremainedinthechamber.Theatmospherewasmusty,andthe air warm – like the exhalation of some giant beast. The silence that surroundedmeseemed absolute, all-enveloping, and dense. At some point, for a reason that I cannotexplain,Imovedtothemiddleofthefloorandgavevoicetoasustainedlow-pitchedtonelikethesongofthefallenobeliskatKarnak.Thewallsandtheceilingseemedtocollectthissound,togatherandamplifyit–andthentoprojectitbackatmesothatIcouldsensethereturning vibrations throughmy feet and scalp and skin. I felt electrified and energized,excitedandatthesametimecalm,asthoughIstoodonthebrinkofsometremendousandabsolutelyinevitablerevelation.AftermyApril1990visit Iwas so impressedby theGreatPyramid that I spent several

weeksresearchingitshistory.Idiscoveredthatithadbeenbuiltaround2550BCforKufu(orCheops),thesecondPharaohoftheFourthDynasty,andthatitwasalsothesinglelargestedificeeverconstructedbyman.166Theconventionalbeliefamongstarchaeologistswasthatithadbeendesignedpurelyandsimplyasatomb.Thisconjecture,however,struckmeasbeingutterlyincomprehensible:nomummyofanyPharaohhadeverbeenfoundthere,onlyapoorandundecoratedsarcophagusintheso-calledKing’sChamber(asarcophagus,bytheway,thatwaslidlessandcompletelyemptywhenitwasfirstbroughttolightbyCaliphAl-Mamun,anArabrulerofEgyptwhobrokeinwithapartyofdiggersintheninthcenturyAD.167)AsIresearchedthesubjectfurtheritbecamecleartomethattherealpurposeoftheGreat

Pyramidwas,infact,amatterofconsiderabledebate.Ononesidestoodthemostorthodoxandprosaicscholarsinsistingthatitwasnothingmorethanamausoleum.Ontheothersidestood the pyramidologists – an apocalyptic tribe who pretended to find all manner ofpropheciesandsignsinvirtuallyeverydimensionoftheimmensestructure.The lunacies of this latter group were perhaps best summarized by one US critic who

pointedoutthat it ispossibletomarshalnumberstoprovealmostanything: ‘Ifasuitableunitofmeasurementisused,anexactequivalenttothedistancetoTimbuktuiscertaintobefoundinthenumberofstreet lamps inBondStreet,or thespecificgravityofmud,or themeanweightofadultgoldfish.’168This,ofcourse,wasquitetrue.Nevertheless,Icouldseethattherewerecertainsurprising

features towhich thepyramidologistspersistentlydrewattentionwhichdidseemunlikelyto be accidental. For example, it was a fact that the latitude and longitude lines thatintersectedattheGreatPyramid(30degreesnorthand31degreeseast)crossedmoredryland than any others. This put the edifice at the very centre of the habitable world.169Likewise, it was a fact that when a north-facing quadrant (a cake-slice-shaped quartercircle) was drawn on a map with its axis at the pyramid then this quadrant exactlyencapsulated the entireNileDelta.170 Finally, itwas a fact that all the pyramids atGizawere precisely aligned to the cardinal points – north, south, east and west.171 It was, Ithought,extremelydifficulttoexplainhowthisparticularfeatofsurveyingcouldhavebeenachievedsolongbeforethesupposeddateoftheinventionofthecompass.What intriguedmemostof all about theGreatPyramid,however,was simply its sheer

sizeandscope.Occupyingagroundareaof13.1acres,Iascertainedthatthecoremasonryofthestructurewascomposedofnolessthan2.3millionblocksoflimestoneeachweighingapproximately2.5tonnes.172Herodotus,whoseinformantwasanEgyptianpriest,claimedthatgangsof100,000labourersbuilttheedificein20years(workingonlyduringthethree-month agricultural lay-off season), and that the construction technique involved ‘leversmadeofshorttimbers’whichwereusedtoliftthemassiveblocksfromgroundlevel.173Noresearcher subsequently had been able to guess at exactlywhat these ‘levers’might havebeenorhowtheycouldhavebeenused.However,aftertakingaccountofthetimerequiredfor all the site-clearing, quarrying, levelling and otherworks thatwould have had to bedone, civil engineer P. Garde-Hanson of the Danish Engineering Institute calculated that4,000blockswouldhavehadtobeinstalledeachday,attherateof6.67blocksperminute,if the jobwere indeed to have been completedwithin 20 years. ‘Generally speaking,’ heconcluded, ‘I believe itwould demand the combined genius of aCyrus, anAlexander the

Great,andaJuliusCaesar,withaNapoleonandWellingtonthrowninforgoodmeasure,toorganizethearmiesrequiredforcarryingouttheworkasassumed.’174IthenlearnedthatateamofJapaneseengineershadrecentlytriedtobuilda35-feet-high

replicaoftheGreatPyramid(rathersmallerthantheoriginal,whichwas481feet5inchesin height). The team started off by limiting itself strictly to techniques proved byarchaeologytohavebeen inuseduring theFourthDynasty.However,constructionof thereplica under these limitations turned out to be impossible and, in due course, modernearth-moving,quarryingandliftingmachineswerebroughttothesite.Stillnoworthwhileprogress was made. Ultimately, with some embarrassment, the project had to beabandoned.175Allinall,therefore,theGreatPyramid–withitsmanyriddlesandmysteries–suggested

tomethattheancientEgyptiansmusthavebeenmuchmorethan‘technicallyaccomplishedprimitives’ (as theyhadoftenbeendescribed), and that theremusthave existed amongstthem a special kind of scientific knowledge. If so then it was entirely possible that thebalefulpowersoftheArkoftheCovenantcouldhavebeentheproductsofthatscience–inwhichMoseswouldmostcertainlyhavebeenaleadingpractitioner.

48TheconstructionoftheArkoftheCovenantatthefootofMountSinai.

49GlowingwithfireandlighttheArkistransportedthroughthewildernesswrappedinthickclothstoprotectitsbearersfromitsunearthlypowers.

50TheArkatthedestructionofJericho.

51KingUzziahsmittenwithleprosyafterapproachingtheArk(seeChapterFifteen,‘HiddenHistory’,thispage).

52NadabandAbihu,twoofthesonsofAaron,arestruckdeadastheyapproachtheArk.

53Afterreceivingthetabletsofstone,whichhelaterplacedinsidetheArk,Moses’facewasburntandshonesoterriblythateverafterwardshehadtowearaveil.

54TheTemplecomplexatKarnak,Egypt.

55ArchaeologistsatworkonthesiteoftheJewishTempleontheislandofElphantine,upperEgypt.

56and57.Above:thisArk-likechest,transportedontwocarryingpoles,wasrecoveredfromthetombofTutankhamen.Below:theauthorexaminingamysteriousengravingonafallensteleinAxum.TheengravingbearsanextraordinaryresemblancetotheArkfromTutankhamen’stombandmaybetheearliestAxumiterepresentationoftheArkoftheCovenant.TutankhamenreignedinEgyptapproximately100yearsbeforeMosesledtheExodus.ItisthereforeprobablethattheHebrewprophet

devisedtheArkaccordingtoanEgyptianprototypeofpreciselythekindfoundinTutankhamen’stomb.

58Priestsanddeaconsatprayer,Timkat,Axum.

59Timkatprocession,Axum.

60ThesanctuaryoftheArkoftheCovenantatAxum.

61GebraMikail,theGuardianoftheArk.

Chapter13TreasuresofDarkness

My research had convinced me of the possibility that the ancient Egyptians might havepossessedsomeadvancedbutsecretscientificknowledgewhichMosescouldhaveappliedtothedesignoftheArkoftheCovenant.Butwherecouldsuchabodyofknowledgehavecomefrom?AncientEgyptitself,asIwasverywellaware,providedasimple–thoughsupernatural–answertothisquestion.EveryrelevantsurvivingrecordthatIhadstudiedclaimedunambiguouslythatithadbeengiventomankindbythemoon-godThoth,thelordandmultiplieroftime,thecelestialscribeandinvigilatorofindividualdestinies,theinventorofwritingandofallwisdom,andthepatronofmagic.1Frequentlyrepresentedon templeand tombwallsasan ibis,orasan ibis-headedman,andmorerarelyasababoon,ThothwasveneratedthroughoutEgyptasatruelunardeitywho in some manifestations was identical with the moon itself and in others was theguardianofthemoon,chargedwithensuringthatitkepttoitscourseacrossthenightskies,waxingandwaning,vanishingandreappearing,preciselyasandwhenitshould.Itwasinthiscapacity–as thedivineregulative forceresponsible forallheavenlycalculationsandannotations– thatThothmeasured time,dividing it intomonths (to the firstofwhichhegavehisownname).2Hispowers,however,werebelievedtohaveextendedfarbeyondthemerecalibrationofthe seasons. According to the pervasive and influential teachings of the priestly guildestablished at the sacred city of Hermopolis in Upper Egypt, Thoth was the universaldemiurgewhocreatedtheworldthroughthesoundofhisvoicealone,bringingitintobeingwiththeutteranceofasinglewordofpower.3RegardedbytheEgyptiansasadeitywhounderstoodthemysteriesof‘allthatishiddenunder the heavenly vault’, Thoth was also believed to have had the ability to bestowwisdom on certain specially selected individuals. It was said that he had inscribed therudimentsofhissecretknowledgeon36,535scrollsandthenhiddenthesescrollsabouttheearthintendingthattheyshouldbesoughtforbyfuturegenerationsbutfound‘onlybytheworthy’–whoweretousetheirdiscoveriesforthebenefitofmankind.4LateridentifiedbytheGreekswiththeirowngodHermes,ThothinfactstoodattheverycentreofanenormousbodyofEgyptiantraditionsstretchingbackintothemostdistantandimpenetrablepast.Noscholar, I learned,couldhonestlysayhowoldthismoon-godreallywas,orevenmakeaguessatwhereandwhenhiscultbegan.AtthedawnofcivilizationinEgypt, Thoth was there. Furthermore, throughout the entire 3,000 or more years of thedynasticperiod,hewascontinuouslyreveredforcertainveryspecificqualitiesthathewassaidtopossessandforhissupposedcontributionstohumanwelfare.Hewas,forexample,creditedwithbeingtheinventorofdrawing,ofhieroglyphicwritingandofallthesciences– specifically architecture, arithmetic, surveying, geometry, astronomy, medicine andsurgery. Hewas also seen as themost powerful of sorcerers, endowedwith nothing less

than complete knowledge and wisdom. He was exalted as the author of the great andterriblebookofmagicthatwasregardedbythepriestsatHermopolisasthesourceoftheirunderstandingoftheoccult.MoreoverwholechaptersofthefamousBookoftheDeadwereattributed tohim,aswellasalmost theentirecorpusofcloselyguardedsacred literature.He was believed, in short, to possess a virtual monopoly on esoteric learning and wasthereforecalled‘themysterious’and‘theunknown’.5The ancient Egyptians were quite convinced that their first rulers were gods. Notsurprisingly, Thoth was one of these divine kings: his reign on earth – during which hepassedontomankindhisgreatestandmostbeneficialinventions–wassaidtohavelasted3,226years.6BeforehimtheEgyptiansbelievedthattheyhadbeenruledbyanotherdeity–Osiris, who was also closely associated with the moon (and with the numbers seven,fourteenandtwenty-eightwhichrelatetophysicallunarcycles7).AlthoughOsirisandThothlooked quite different from one another in some of their manifestations, I was able toestablish that they were similar or related in others (in certain archaic texts they weredescribed as brothers8). A number of papyri and inscriptions went even further andportrayed them as being effectively the same entity, or at least as performing the samefunctions.Theyweremostcommonlyassociated in thecelestial JudgmentHallwhere the soulsofthedeadcametobeweighedintheGreatScales.HereOsiris–asjudgeandfinalarbiter–often seemed to be the superior of the two gods, while Thoth was a mere scribe whorecordedtheverdict.ManyofthetableauxfromtheBookoftheDead,however,reversedthisrelationship, as did a large vignette of the Judgment Scene found amongst the Thebanfunerary papyri of the New Kingdom. This latter document portrayed Osiris sittingpassively to one side while Thoth determined the verdict, and then recorded andpronouncedit.9Inotherwords,notonlywereThothandOsirisbothgodsofthemoon,godsofthedead(andperhapsbrothers);bothwerealsojudgesandlaw-makers.AsmyresearchcontinuedInotedsuchsimilaritieswithinterest,butfailed,atfirst,toseetheirrelevancetomyownquest fortheArkoftheCovenant.ThenitoccurredtomethattherewasoneinvariablelinkbetweenthetwodeitieswhichalsotiedthemconceptuallytoMosesandtoallhisworks:likehimtheywereaboveallelsecivilizingheroeswhobestowedthebenefitsofreligion,law,socialorderandprosperityupontheirfollowers.Thoth,itwillberemembered,inventedwritingandscienceandbroughttheseandmanyotherwondersofenlightenmentintotheworldinordertoimprovethelotoftheEgyptianpeople. Likewise, Osiris was universally believed to have played a crucial role in theevolutionanddevelopmentofEgyptiansociety.Whenhebeganhisruleonearthasdivinemonarchthecountrywasbarbaric,rudeandunculturedandtheEgyptiansthemselveswerecannibals. When he ascended to Heaven, however, he left behind an advanced andsophisticatednation.Hismanycontributions included teachinghispeople to cultivate thesoil, toplantgrainandbarley, togrowvines, toworship thegods,and toabandon theirpreviouslysavagecustoms.Healsoprovidedthemwithacodeoflaws.10Such stories, of course, could have been fabrications. In a speculative frame of mind,however,Ifoundmyselfwonderingwhethertheremightnotafterallhavebeensomethingmore thanpure fancy and legendbehind the tradition that Egypt became a great nationbecauseofthegiftsofThothandOsiris.Wasitnotjustpossible,Iconjectured,thattheall-

wise,all-knowingmoon-godcouldhavebeenamythicalversionofthetruth–ametaphorfor some real individual or group of individuals who, in remotest antiquity, brought thebenefitsofcivilizationandsciencetoaprimitiveland?

ThecivilizersImighthavedismissedthisnotionoutofhandhadInotlearnedshortlyafterwardsoftheexistence of a great mystery – a mystery to which no definitive solution had ever beenproposed. Rather than developing slowly and painfully, asmight have been expected, itseemedthatthecivilizationofEgypthademergedallatonceandfullyformed.Indeed,byallaccounts,theperiodoftransitionfromprimitivetoadvancedsocietyhadbeensoshortthat itreallymadenokindofhistoricalsense.Technologicalskills thatshouldhavetakenhundredsoreventhousandsofyearstoevolvehadappearedalmostliterallyovernight,andapparentlywithnoantecedentswhatsoever.For example, remains from thepre-dynasticperioddated toaround3600 BC showed no

trace ofwriting. Then, quite suddenly and inexplicably, the hieroglyphs familiar from somany of the ruins of ancient Egypt began to appear and to do so, furthermore, in acompleteandperfectstate.Farfrombeingmerepicturesofobjectsoractions,thiswrittenlanguagewascomplexandstructured,withsignsthatrepresentedsoundsonlyandwithadetailed system of numerical symbols. Even the very earliest hieroglyphs were alreadystylizedandconventionalized; itwasalsoclear thatanadvancedcursive scripthadcomeintocommonusagebythedawnoftheFirstDynasty.11Whatstruckmeasremarkableaboutallthiswasthattherewereabsolutelynotracesof

evolution from simple to more sophisticated styles. The same was true of mathematics,medicine,astronomyandarchitecture,andalsoofEgypt’samazingly richandconvolutedreligio-mythologicalsystem(evensuchrefinedworksastheBookoftheDeadexistedrightatthestartofthedynasticperiod.12)Unfortunately,thereisnotspaceheretopresentallorevenatinypartofthedatawhich

confirms the sheer suddenness with which Egyptian civilization emerged. By way ofsummary,however, Iwillquote theauthoritativeopinionofProfessorWalterEmery, lateEdwardsProfessorofEgyptologyattheUniversityofLondon:

Ataperiodapproximately3,400yearsbeforeChrist,agreatchangetookplaceinEgypt,andthecountrypassedrapidlyfromastateofneolithicculturewithacomplextribalcharacterto[oneof]well-organizedmonarchy…Atthesametimetheartofwritingappears,monumentalarchitectureandthe

artsandcraftsdeveloptoanastonishingdegree,andalltheevidencepointstotheexistenceofaluxuriouscivilization.Allthiswasachievedwithinacomparativelyshortperiodoftime,forthereappearstobelittleornobackgroundtothesefundamentaldevelopmentsinwritingandarchitecture.13

Oneexplanation, I realized,couldsimplyhavebeen thatEgypthadreceived its suddenand tremendousculturalboost fromsomeotherknowncivilizationof theancientworld–

Sumer, on the Lower Euphrates in Mesopotamia, being the most likely contender.Moreover,despitemanybasicdifferences, Iwasable toestablish thatavarietyof sharedbuildingandarchitecturalstyles14didsuggestalinkbetweenthetworegions.Noneofthesesimilarities,however,turnedoutbestrongenoughtoallowmetoinferthattheconnectionhad been in any way causal, with one society directly influencing the other. On thecontrary,asProfessorEmeryputit:

Theimpressionwegetisofanindirectconnection,andperhapstheexistenceofathirdparty,whoseinfluencespreadtoboththeEuphratesandtheNile…Modernscholarshavetendedtoignorethepossibilityofimmigrationtobothregionsfromsomehypotheticalandasyetundiscoveredarea.[However],athirdpartywhoseculturalachievementswerepassedonindependentlytoEgyptandMesopotamiawouldbestexplainthecommonfeaturesandfundamentaldifferencesbetweenthetwocivilizations.15

This theory, I felt, shed revealing light on the otherwise mysterious fact that theEgyptians and the Sumerian people ofMesopotamiaworshipped virtually identical lunardeities who were amongst the very oldest in their respective pantheons.16 Exactly likeThoth,theSumerianmoon-godSinwaschargedwithmeasuringthepassageoftime(‘Atthemonth’sbeginningtoshineonearth, thoushalt showtwohorns tomarksixdays.Ontheseventh day divide the crown in two. On the fourteenth day, turn thy full face.’17) LikeThoth,too,Sinwasregardedasbeingall-knowingandall-wise.Attheendofeverymonththeother godsof the Sumerianpantheon came to consult himandhemadedecisions forthem.18Neitherwas Ialone inmyintuitionthatsomethingmorethanmerechancemighthave underpinned these links between Sin and Thoth. According to the eminentEgyptologistSirE.A.WallisBudge:

Thesimilaritybetweenthetwo…godsistooclosetobeaccidental…ItwouldbewrongtosaythattheEgyptiansborrowedfromtheSumeriansortheSumeriansfromtheEgyptians,butitmaybesubmittedthattheliteratiofbothpeoplesborrowedtheirtheologicalsystemsfromsomecommonbutexceedinglyancientsource.19

Thequestion,therefore,wasthis:whatwasthat‘commonbutexceedinglyancientsource’,that‘hypotheticalandasyetundiscoveredarea’,thatadvanced‘thirdparty’towhichbothBudge and Emery referred? Having stuck their necks out a long way already, I wasfrustrated to find that neither authority was prepared to speculatemuch further. Emery,however,didhintatwherehethoughtthecradleofEgyptiancivilizationmighthavebeenlocated:‘VasttractsoftheMiddleEastandtheRedSeaandEastAfricancoasts’,herathercoylyobservedinthiscontext,‘remainunexploredbythearchaeologist.’20I was sure that if Egypt had indeed received the gifts of civilization and science from

elsewherethensomerecordofthismomentoustransactionwouldhavebeenpreserved.Thedeification of two great civilizers –Thoth and Osiris – was evidence of a kind: although

presented as theology, the legends of these gods sounded tomy earsmuchmore like theechoes of long-forgotten events which had actually taken place.21 But I felt I neededsomething more substantial – something which clearly and indisputably attested tobeneficial contacts with an advanced donor society and which also explained how thatsocietyhadmanagedtodisappearwithoutatrace.Ididfindsuchanaccount.ItwasthefamiliarstoryofthelostcontinentofAtlantis–astorythat,inrecentyears,hadbeensothoroughlydegradedbyoutlandishspeculationsthatit had become a form of professional suicide for any scholar even to appear to take itseriously(letalonetoresearchitproperly).AfterpeelingawayalltheNewAgenonsense,however, Iwas struckbya single significant fact: theearliest-surviving reportofAtlantishad come from the Greek philosopher Plato – one of the founders of rational westernthought–whohad insisted thatwhathehad saidon thematterwas ‘not fictionbut truehistory’.22 Furthermore,writing around the beginning of the fourth century BC, Plato hadaddedthattheoriginalsourceofhisstoryhadbeenanEgyptianpriest–apriestwhohadspoken of the recurrent destruction of civilizations by floods and who had said of theGreeks:

Youareallyounginmind…youhavenoknowledgehoarywithage.[But]ourtraditionsherearetheoldest…Inourtempleswehavepreservedfromearliesttimesawrittenrecordofanygreatorsplendidachievementornotableeventwhichhascometoourearswhetheritoccurredinyourpartoftheworld,orhere,oranywhereelse;whereaswithyou,andothers,writingandtheothernecessitiesofcivilizationhaveonlyjustbeendevelopedwhentheperiodicscourgeofthedelugedescends,andsparesnonebuttheunletteredanduncultured,sothatyouhavetobeginagainlikechildren,incompleteignoranceofwhathashappenedinourpartoftheworldorinyoursinearlytimes.

Thousandsofyearsbefore,thepriestcontinued,

TherewasanislandoppositethestraitwhichyoucallthePillarsofHercules,anislandlargerthanLibyaandAsiacombined;fromittravellerscouldinthosedaysreachtheotherislands,andfromthemthewholeoppositecontinentwhichsurroundswhatcantrulybecalledtheocean.OnthisislandofAtlantishadarisenapowerfulandremarkabledynastyofkings…Theirwealthwasgreaterthanthatpossessedbyanypreviousdynasty,orlikelytobeaccumulatedbyanylater,andtheywereprovidedwitheverythingtheycouldrequire.Becauseoftheextentoftheirpowertheyreceivedmanyimports,butformostoftheirneedstheislanditselfprovided.Ithadmineralresourcesfromwhichwereminedbothsolidmaterialsandmetals,includingonemetalwhichsurvivestodayonlyinname,butwasthenminedinquantitiesinanumberoflocalitiesintheisland,orichalc,inthosedaysthemostvaluablemetalexceptgold.Therewasaplentifulsupplyoftimberforstructuralpurposesandeverykindofanimaldomesticatedandwild,amongthemnumerouselephants.Fortherewasplentyofgrazingforthislargestandmostvoraciousofbeasts,aswellasforallcreatureswhosehabitatismarsh,swampandriver,mountainorplain.Besidesallthis,theearthbore

freelyofallthearomaticsubstancesitbearstoday…Therewerecultivatedcrops…Therewerethefruitsoftrees…Allthesewereproducedbythatsacredisland,thenstillbeneaththesun,inwonderfulqualityandprofusion.23

Thisparadisewasnottoremain‘beneaththesun’formuchlonger,however,becausesoon–to punish its inhabitants for wrongdoing and an overabundance of materialistic pride –therecame‘earthquakesandfloodsofextraordinaryviolence,andinasingledreadfuldayandnighttheislandofAtlantiswasswallowedupbytheseaandvanished.’24Myinterest in this storydidnot stem fromwhat ithad to sayaboutAtlantis itself,norwas I convinced by the suggestion as to the island’s location ‘opposite the pillars ofHercules’.Myownview–wellsupportedbygeophysicalevidence25–wasthattherecouldnever have been such a landmass in the Atlantic Ocean and that thosewho persisted inlookingforittherewerefishingforthereddestofredherrings.Itdidseemtome,however–andtheauthoritiesreluctantlyconcurredonthispoint26–that Plato’s account must have had some basis in fact. No doubt he introduced manydistortionsandexaggerationsofhisownbuthewas,nevertheless,recordingsomethingthathadactuallyhappened,somewhereintheworld,andaverylongtimeago.Furthermore–andofthegreatestsignificancetome–hemadeitabsolutelyclearthatamemoryofthiseventhadbeenretainedbyEgyptianpriestsandsetdowninthe‘priestlywritings’.27IreasonedthatifasimilarmemoryhadbeenpreservedinMesopotamiathenthechanceofthisbeingpurecoincidencewasslight.Afarmorelikelyexplanationwouldbethatthesame cataclysm – wherever it took place – had inspired the traditions of both regions.Accordingly I took a second look at the legends inwhich I had first noted the similaritybetweenThothand theSumerianmoon-godSin.What I learneddidnot surpriseme: liketheirEgyptiancontemporaries,theSumerianshadnotonlyworshippedawiselunardeitybut had also preserved a record of a flood in ancient times that had destroyed a great,prosperousandpowerfulsociety.28As my research progressed, therefore, ‘Atlantis’ did come to symbolize for me that‘hypothetical and as yet undiscovered area’ from whence the wonderful civilizations ofEgyptandofSumerbothcame.Asalreadynoted,Ididnotbelievethattheareainquestioncould possibly have been in or even near the Atlantic. Instead, I found myselfwholeheartedlyagreeingwithProfessorEmery that itwas likely tohave stoodatapointroughlyequidistant fromboth theNileDeltaand theLowerEuphrates–perhaps in somevanished archipelago similar to the modern Maldives (which scientists believe will becompletely inundated within fifty years as a result of rising sea levels linked to globalwarming29),oralongthevastunexcavatedcoastsoftheHornofAfrica,orinaflood-proneregionof the Indian subcontinent likemodernBangladesh. Such tropical zones lookedallthemorecrediblewhenIrememberedthatPlatohadmentionedtheexistenceofelephantsin his ‘Atlantis’ – creatures that, formany thousands of years, have lived only inAfrica,IndiaandSouth-EastAsia.30The more thought I gave to notions like these the more it seemed to me that theypossessed genuine merit and were worthy of further investigation. In order to orientatemyselfinthistaskIthereforewrotedownthefollowingconjecturesandhypothesesinmynotebook:

SupposethatsomewherearoundthebasinoftheIndianOcean,intheearlyormiddlepartofthefourthmillenniumBC,atechnologicallyadvancedsocietywasdestroyedbyflood.Supposeitwasamaritimesociety.Supposethatthereweresurvivors.AndsupposethatsomeofthemsailedintheirshipstoEgyptandMesopotamia,madelandfallthereandsetaboutthetaskofcivilizingtheprimitiveinhabitantstheyencountered.Mostimportantofall,supposethatinEgyptthepriestlytraditionsofsacredscience–towhichMoseswasexposedfromhischildhood–werethemeansbywhichtheskillsandknow-howofthesettlersweredeliberatelypreservedsothattheycouldbepasseddowntosubsequentgenerations.InEgyptthesetraditionswereassociatedfromtheoutsetwiththeworshipofthemoon-godThoth(and,inMesopotamia,withtheworshipofSin).Perhapsthiswasbecausethesettlersthemselvesreveredthemoon–orperhapstheywittinglyandrathercold-bloodedlyencouragedthedeificationofaprominentandfamiliarbutyetfrighteningandghostlysiderealobject.Theiraim,afterall,wouldhavebeentoshapeanddirectthesimpleandsavagemindsofthepeoplestheyhadfoundthemselvesamongstandtocreateadurablecult–capableofsurvivingformillennia–asavehicleforalltheirotherwisefragileandeasilyforgottenknowledge.Insuchcircumstances,itisreallynotdifficulttoseewhytheymighthavechosentofocusonaglowinganduncannylunargodratherthanonsomemoreabstract,moresophisticatedbutlessvisibleandlesscorporealdivinity.Atanyrate,oncethecultofThothhadbeenestablishedinearlyEgypt,andonceitspriestshadlearnedandinstitutionalizedthescientificandtechnological‘tricksofthetrade’broughtbythesettlers,thenitislogicaltosupposethataself-perpetuatingprocesswouldhavebegun:thenew-foundandvaluableknowledgewouldhavebeenfencedaboutwithmysteries,protectedfromoutsidersbyallkindsofritualsanctionsandthenpassedfrominitiatetoinitiate,fromgenerationtogeneration,inanexclusiveandsecrettradition.Thisknowledge,ofcourse,wouldhavegivenitspossessorsunprecedentedmasteryoverthephysicalworld–atleastbytherudimentarystandardsofthenativecultureprevailinginEgyptbeforethecomingofthesettlers–andwouldhavebeenexpressedinwaysthatwouldhaveseemedastoundingtolaymen(notleastintheerectionofstupendousandawe-inspiringbuildings).Itisthereforeeasytounderstandhowthebeliefthatthemoon-godhad‘invented’bothscienceandmagicmighthavetakenholdinthepopulationatlarge,andwhyitwasthatthepriestsofthisgodwereregardedasmastersofsorcery.

SavedfromwaterAsmyresearchprogressedIturnedupseveralpiecesofevidencewhichseemedtoprovidestrong support for the central hypotheses listed above, namely that a secret tradition ofknowledgeandenlightenmenthadbeen‘carried’andpreservedwithinthecultofThoth–atradition that had been started in themost distant past by sophisticated immigrantswhohadsurvivedaflood.Highlysignificant,inthisrespect,wasaverystrongtheme–tracesof

whichIfoundrunningthroughalmostallthesacredliterature–whichrepeatedlyassociatedwisdom, and other qualities of the civilizing hero, with individuals who had been ‘savedfromwater’.Thefirst thingIdiscoveredwasthatThoth,whohadbeenseenbytheEgyptiansas thesourceofalltheirknowledgeandscience,hadbeencreditedwithhavingcausedafloodtopunishhumankindforwickedness.31Inthisepisode,relatedinChapterCLXXVoftheBookoftheDead,hehadactedjointlywithhiscounterpartOsiris.32Bothdeitieshadsubsequentlyruledonearthafter thehumanracehadbegun to flourishagain. Iwas thereforeexcited,when I lookedmore closely at the story ofOsiris, to learn that he had been ‘saved fromwater’.The fullest account of theoriginal Egyptian legendwas givenbyPlutarch33 and statedthat,afterimprovingtheconditionofhisownsubjects,teachingthemallmannerofusefulskillsandproviding themwith their first legalcode,Osiris leftEgyptand travelledabouttheworld inorder tobring thebenefits of civilization toothernationsaswell.Heneverforced thebarbariansheencountered toaccepthis laws,preferring instead toarguewiththemandtoappealtotheirreason.Itwasalsorecordedthathepassedonhisteachingtothembymeansofhymnsandsongsaccompaniedbymusicalinstruments.While he was away, however, he was plotted against by seventy-two members of hiscourtledbyhisbrother-in-lawSet.Onhisreturntheconspiratorsinvitedhimtoabanquetwhereasplendidcofferofwoodandgoldwasofferedasaprizetoanyguestwhocouldfitintoitexactly.WhatOsirisdidnotknowwasthatthecofferhadbeenconstructedpreciselytohisownbodymeasurements.Asaresult,whentheassembledgueststriedonebyonetoget into it they failed.Thegod-king then tookhis turnand laydowncomfortably inside.Beforehehadtimetogetouttheconspiratorsrushedforward,nailedthelidtightlyclosedandsealedeventhecrackswithmoltenleadsothattherewouldbenoairtobreathe.ThecofferwasthencastadriftontheNilewhereitfloatedforsometime,eventuallycomingtorestinthepapyrusswampsoftheeasternDelta.34AtthispointIsis,thewifeofOsiris,intervened.Usingallhergreatmagic–andassistedby themoon-godThoth – shewent to look for the coffer, found it, and concealed it in asecret place. Her evil brother Set, however, out hunting in the marshes, discovered thelocationofthecoffer,openedit,andinamadfurycuttheroyalcorpseintofourteenpieceswhichhethenscatteredthroughouttheland.Oncemore Isis set off to ‘save’ her husband. Shemade a small boat of papyrus reeds,coatedwithbitumenandpitch,andembarkedontheNileinsearchoftheremains.Whenshehad found themshecalledagainon theaidofThothwhohelpedher toworkcertainpowerfulspellswhichreunitedthedismemberedpartsofthebodysothatitresumeditsoldform. Thereafter, in an intact and perfect state, Osiris went through a process ofresurrectiontobecomegodofthedeadandkingoftheunderworld–fromwhichplace,thelegendhadit,heoccasionallyreturnedtoearthintheguiseofamortalman.35TherewerethreedetailsofthisstorythatIregardedasbeingofthegreatestinterest:firstthefactthat,duringhisruleonearth,Osiriswasacivilizerandalegislator;secondlythathewasplaced inawoodencofferand thrown into theNile;and thirdly that Isiscame torescuehisbodyinapapyrusboatcoatedwithbitumenandpitch.TheparallelswiththelifeofMosescouldnothavebeenmoreobvious–he,too,becameagreatcivilizerandlawgiver,

he toowas cast adrift upon thewaters of theNile, he too floated in a vessel of papyruscoatedwithbitumenandpitch,andhetoowassavedbyanEgyptianprincess.Indeed,asthehistorianJosephusrecorded,theveryname‘Moses’meant ‘savedfromwater’: ‘fortheEgyptianscallwatermou and thosewhoare saved eses; so they conferreduponhim thisnamecompoundedofbothwords.’36Philo,theothergreatclassicalcommentator,concurredwiththisetymology:‘Sincehehadbeentakenupfromwater,theprincessgavehimanamederivedfromthis,andcalledhimMoses,forMouistheEgyptianwordforwater.’37Iaskedmyselfwhethertheremightnothavebeenotherinstances–inEgyptandperhapsinMesopotamiaaswell–ofcivilizingheroeswhohadbeensavedfromwater.Asearchinancientannalsandlegendsrevealedthattherehadbeenmany.ForexampleHorus,thesonof IsisandOsiris,wasmurderedbyTitansand thrown into theNile. Isis rescuedhimandrevivedhimwithhersorcery.Hethen learned fromher ‘theartsofphysicanddivinationandusedthemforthebenefitofmankind’.38Likewise,inMesopotamia,SargontheGreat–whose rulebroughtunrivalledwealth, splendourand stability toSumerandneighbouringterritoriesat theendof the thirdmillennium BC39 –hadclaimedquite specifically tohavebeensavedfromwater:

Mymotherwasapriestess.Ididnotknowmyfather.Thepriestess,mymother,conceivedmeandgavebirthtomeinhiding.Sheplacedmeinabasketmadeofreedsandclosedthelidwithpitch.Sheputthebasketintheriverwhichwasnothigh.TherivercarriedmeawayandbroughtmetoAkkiwhowasamanresponsibleforlibations.Akkilookeduponmewithkindnessanddrewmefromtheriver.40

Ifoundthatthethemeofsalvationfromwateralsoranverystronglythroughthepagesof theOldTestament.TheprophetJonah, for instance,was thrown into theseaduringaragingtempest,swallowedalivebyagiantfishandthreedayslater‘vomitedoutupondryland’ so thathecouldpreach thewordofGod to thecitizensofNinevehanddivert themfromtheirevilways.41EvenmorefamiliarwasthemuchmoreancientstoryofNoah,who–togetherwithallhisfamily andwith ‘twoof every sort of living thing’42 – rode out the primeval deluge in aremarkable survival shipwhichweknowas theark (‘make itwith reedsand line itwithpitchinsideandout’43).Afterthefloodwatershadreceded,Noah’sthreesons,Shem,HamandJapheth,heardGod’scommandto‘befruitfulandmultiply’andwentouttorepopulatetheworld.44Byfarthemostfamousandinfluentialbiblicalfiguretobe‘savedfromwater’,however,was Jesus Christ himself – the only individual, other thanMoses, to be described in theScriptures as ‘mighty in deed and word’45 (a phrase which, as I already knew, impliedproficiency in the utterance of magical words of power). Rather than being an actualrescue, the incident inquestionwaswholly symbolicand took the formof themysteriousrite of baptism in the waters of the river Jordan. This, Jesus explained, was absolutelynecessaryforsalvation:‘Exceptamanbebornofwater…hecannotenterintothekingdomofGod.’46

Anditcametopassinthosedays,thatJesuscamefromNazarethofGalilee,andwasbaptizedofJohninJordan.Andstraightwaycomingupoutofthewater,hesawtheheavensopened,andtheSpiritlikeadovedescendinguponhim.Andtherecameavoicefromheavensaying,ThouartmybelovedSon,inwhomIamwellpleased.47

Though I knew that the vastmajority of practisingChristians took this passage from theGospelofSaintMarkentirelyatfacevalueIcouldnothelpbutwonderwhetheradeeperlayer of meaning might not have been encoded in the stirring and beautiful words. ItseemedtomeatleastpossiblethatwhatwasreallybeingdescribedherewastheinitiationofJesusintotheenlightenedknowledgeofasecretcultwhosefounderswereliterally‘savedfromwater’thousandsofyearsearlier.Furthermore,Ithoughtitnotaccidentalthatitwasonlyafter this initiationthatChristbegantoworkhismiracles–mostofwhich(includinghealing the sick, restoring thedead to life,multiplying loaves and fishes, and controllingtheelements)wouldhavebeen instantlyrecognizable to theHighPriestsandsorcerersofancientEgyptas‘magictricks’ofthetypethatthey,too,hadbeentrainedtoperform.48After considering all the data that I had compiled I made the following entry in mynotebook:

Thethemeofthecivilizer,orfoundingfather,orgreatprophet,orlegislator,orMessiahwhohasinonewayoranotherbeen‘savedfromwater’occursintheScriptures,andinEgyptianandMiddleEasternmythology,sofrequentlyandwithsuchconsistencythatitcannotbeamatterofpurechance.Iamnotproposingthatalltheindividualsconcernedwereactualsurvivorsofthat‘hypotheticalandasyetundiscoveredarea’,thatsupposedtechnologicallyadvancedsocietywhichmayhavebeenthecradleforthecivilizationsofbothMesopotamiaandEgypt.ThefactisthatonlyNoah,Osiris–andperhapsHorus–belongtoaperiodofpre-historysufficientlyremotetoqualifythemforthatdistinction.Sargon,Moses,Jonah,andJesus,however(togetherwithmanyotherimportantfiguresindifferentplacesandatdifferentperiods),wereallalsosavedfromwater–eitherliterallyorsymbolically.Itthereforeseemstomethatwhatisreallyimpliedbythisrecurrentimageisinitiationoftheindividualsconcernedintoatraditionofsecretwisdomstartedaverylongtimeagobythesurvivorsofafloodinanefforttopreservevitalknowledgeandskillsthatmightotherwisehavequicklybeenforgotten.

Goingbeyondwhatcouldbededucedfrommythsandlegends,IalsofoundsomerathermoretangibleevidenceinEgypttosupportthe‘savedfromwatertheory’.Iknewthatthisevidence – the concealment of complete ocean-going boats beside almost all the mostimportant tombsofpharaohsandnotables,andalsonearall thepyramids–had thus farbeen treated by archaeologists according to the hoary old dictum that ‘if you can’tunderstandaparticularcustomthenthesafestthingtodoistoputitdowntoreligion’.Itgraduallydawnedonme,however, that thepractice of boat burial couldwell havebeenmotivated by something other than a simple desire to install near the grave a ‘physical

representationofthesymboliccraftthatwouldtakethesoulorspiritofthedeadkingtoitsultimatedestinationinthesky.’49Aprimecaseinpointwasthecedarwoodshipdiscoveredburiedanddismantledinapitbeside the southern edgeof theGreatPyramidatGizaandnow reassembled in a specialmuseumon site. Still inperfect condition4,500yearsafter itwasbuilt, I learnt that thisgiant vesselwasmore than142 feet long andhadadisplacement of around40 tons. Itsdesign was particularly interesting, incorporating (in the informed opinion of ThorHeyerdahl) ‘all the sea-going ship’s characteristicproperties,withprowand stern soaringupward,higherthaninaVikingship,torideoutthebreakersandhighseas,nottocontendwith the little ripples of the Nile.’50 Another expert felt that the careful and cleverconstructionofthisstrangepyramidboatwouldhavemadeit ‘afarmoreseaworthycraftthananythingavailabletoColumbus’; indeed,itwouldprobablyhavehadnodifficultyinsailingroundtheworld!51Since the ancient Egyptians were highly skilled at making scale models andrepresentationsofallmannerofthingsforsymbolicpurposes52itseemedtomeimplausiblethat they would have gone to such trouble to manufacture and then bury a boat assophisticatedasthisoneiftheironlypurposehadbeentobetokenthespiritualvesselthatwould carry off the soul of the king to heaven. That could have been achieved just aseffectively with a much smaller craft. Besides, I learnt that recent research at Giza hadrevealed the existence of another huge boat, also on the south side of the pyramid, stillsealedinitspit–andtherewerealsoknowntobethree(nowempty)rock-hewnpitsontheeasternside.AsoneotherwiseorthodoxEgyptologistratherdaringlyadmitted,‘itisdifficulttoseewhysomanyboatpitsshouldhavebeenthoughtnecessary.’Predictablyhethenfellback on the great standby of all puzzled scholars and declared: ‘it is clear that theirpresencewasrequiredforsomereligiouspurposerelatingtotheafterlifeoftheking.’53Itwaspreciselythispoint,however,whichwasnotcleartomeatall–particularlysince,asnotedinthepreviouschapter,therewasabsolutelynoindicationthatanypharaohwasever interred within the Great Pyramid. Furthermore, the earliest funerary boats to bediscovered inEgyptdatedback to thatmysteriousperiod, justbefore the inceptionof theFirstDynasty,whencivilizationandtechnologyintheNileValleyunderwentasuddenandinexplicabletransformation.54 I thereforefounditdifficulttoresisttheconclusionthatthecuriouspracticeofboatburialwasmorelikelytobelinkedtothewellestablishedtraditionof ‘salvation from water’ than to any purely religious symbolism. Sturdy ocean-goingvessels,Ireasoned,wouldhavebeenofimmenseimportancetoagroupofforeignerswhohadsurvivedafloodandwhohadsettledinEgyptaftersailingawayfromthesiteof thecataclysm.Perhapsthey,orthosewhocameafterthem,hadbelievedthattheburiedboatsmightonedaybeneeded–not toenable reincarnated souls tonavigate theheavens likecelestial pleasure trippers but, instead, to allow living individuals to escape once againfromthescourgeofsometerribledeluge.

HiddenrichesofsecretplacesThe really great achievements of ancient Egypt all took place early. The peak periodspanned the Third to the Fifth Dynasties – roughly from 2900 BC to 2300 BC. Thereafter,

albeit gradually and with some notable resurgences, the general trend was steadilydownhill.55Thisscenario–acceptedbyallscholars–was,Ifelt,completelyconsistentwiththetheorythatcivilizationwasbroughtintotheNileValleyduringthefourthmillenniumBCfromsometechnologicallyadvancedbutasyetunidentifiedarea.Afterall,onewouldnothaveexpectedanimportedculturetoproduceitsmostperfectformsofexpressionfromthevery moment that the settlers arrived; there would undoubtedly have been a great leapforward at that time but the full potentialwould not have been realized until the nativeinhabitantshadpickedupandlearnedthenewtechniques.And this was precisely what seemed to have happened in Egypt. Just before thebeginning of the First Dynasty (say around 3400 BC), writing, arithmetic, medicine,astronomyandacomplexreligionallappearedverysuddenly–without,asalreadynoted,any local evidence of prior evolution in any of these spheres. At the same time highlysophisticated monuments and tombs were being built that incorporated advancedarchitectural concepts–againwithno traceof evolution.TheFirstandSecondDynasties(sayfrom3300BConwards)sawtheconstructionofevermoreelaboratemonumentswhichembodiedwith increasingconfidenceandvigour thenew-foundskillsandknowledge thathadarrived inEgypt.56And this trend towardsgreaterandgreaterbeautyandexcellencereceivedwhatmanymodernscholarsregardedasitsultimateexpressionintheremarkablestoneedificesofthefunerarycomplexofKingZoser,thefirstPharaohoftheThirdDynasty.Thecomplex,whichIvisitedseveraltimesin1989and1990,isdominatedbyatoweringsix-tieredpyramid197feethighandislocatedtothesouthofthecityofCairoatSaqqara.Thecompletesitetakestheformofarectanglenearly2,000feetlongand1,000feetwideandwasoriginallyenclosedbyasinglemassivestonewall,largesectionsofwhicharestillstanding.Otherfeaturesincludeanextensivecolonnadewithfortytallcolumns,anelegantcourtyard,andnumerousshrines,templesandoutbuildings–allonacolossalscalebutwithcleananddelicatelines.IwasabletoestablishthatinEgyptiantraditiontheconceptionanddesignoftheentireZoser complex had been regarded as thework of a single creative genius – Imhotep theBuilder, whose other titles were Sage, Sorcerer, Architect, High Priest, Astronomer andDoctor.57Ibecameinterestedinthislegendaryfigurebecauseofthegreatemphasisputbysubsequent generations on his scientific and magical abilities; indeed, like Osiris, hisachievements in these fieldsweresohighlyregarded thathewaseventuallydeified.Withuniquely impressive engineering feats such as the Zoser pyramid to his credit, ImhoteplookedtomelikeanobviouscandidateformembershipofthecultofThoth:themonumentsat Saqqara seemedeloquently to confirm thathehadassimilatedand thenputbrilliantlyintopracticethetechnologicaldexteritypeculiartothatcult.IwasthereforeexcitedtodiscoverthatImhotepwasoftencharacterizedininscriptionsas‘theimageandlikenessofThoth’58–andalsoasthe‘successortoThoth’afterthedeityhadascended to heaven.59 I then learnt something of even greater significance: in antiquity,Moses toowas frequently compared to Thoth (indeed, in the second century BC an entireworkwas filledwith such comparisons by the Judaeo-Greek philosopher Artapanus,whocreditedtheprophetwitharangeofremarkableandclearly‘scientific’inventions60).ThefactthatindividualsasfarapartinhistoryasMosesandImhotepshouldhavebeenexplicitly linked through the cult of the moon-god struck me as strong circumstantial

evidencenotonlyfortheexistenceofasecretwisdomtraditionbutalsoforthedurabilityofthattradition.AccordinglyIbegantowonderwhethertherehadbeenothermagiciansandsageslikeImhoteptowhomthedesignofparticularlysophisticatedandadvancedbuildingshadbeenattributed.Unfortunately,norecordsurvivedof thearchitectwhobuilt theGreatPyramidatGiza.This remarkable edifice was certainly the crowning achievement of the splendid FourthDynasty–duringwhichEgyptiancivilizationreacheditszenith.Asoneauthorityputit:

ThePharaohswouldneveragainbuildtosuchscaleandperfection.Andthislevelofexpertisecarriedoverintoalmosteveryotherformofartorcraft.UndertheFourthDynastythefurniturewasthemostelegant,thelinenthefinest,thestatuaryatoncethemostpowerfulandthemostperfect…Certainskills,suchasthemakingofinlaideyes,reachedlevelsthatborderonthesupernatural.Laterdynastiescouldproducebutmediocreversionsandultimatelytheknowledgedisappearedentirely.61

Icouldonlyagreewithmostoftheaboveremarks.Itseemedtome,however,thattheveryspecial technological skills required for theerectionof splendidand imposingmonumentshad been preserved for a considerable period before ‘disappearing entirely’. Though notgiven any practical expression, for example, there was no doubt that these skills hadsomehow survived themany centuries of cultural stagnation that set in after the FourthDynasty and had then reasserted themselves in the remarkable resurgence that occurredduringtheEighteenthandNineteenthDynasties(1580–1200BC).Thecrowningachievementof this latterera,which filledmewithaweevery time I seteyesonit,wasthebeautifulobeliskofQueenHatshepsutatKarnak.Nearby,onthewesternsideoftheNile,thesamemonarchhadalsocommissionedamassivemortuarytemplethathadlatercometoberegardedasoneofthegreatarchitecturalmasterpiecesoftheworld.62Ilearntthatthenameofthelong-deadarchitectresponsibleforbothofthesemonumentshad been Senmut. Intriguingly, an inscription that he himself had composed – and thatcouldstillbereadonhistombwall–leftlittledoubtthathisspecialknowledgeandabilitieshad been acquired after he had been admitted to themysteries of an ancient and secretwisdomtradition.‘HavingpenetratedallthewritingsoftheDivineProphets,’heboasted,‘Iwasignorantofnothingthathashappenedsincethebeginningoftime.’63

Suppose[Iwroteinmynotebook]thatMoses(wholivedbarely200yearsafterSenmut)wasalsoaninitiateinthissamesecrettradition–atraditionthatstretchedbackbeyondthehorizonofhistorythroughImhoteptothegod-kingsThothandOsiris,andthatextendedforwardaswelltoincludeothergreatscientistsandcivilizerslikeJesusChrist.Ifthereisanythingatalltothishypothesisthenisitnotpossiblethatsomeofthetrulyextraordinarythinkersofmorerecentyearsmayalsohavebeenheirstothe‘occult’knowledgethatinspiredthebuildersofthepyramidsandobelisks,andthatmadeitpossibleforMosestoperformhismiracles?

In seeking toanswer thisquestion, Iwasdrawnback first and foremost to theKnightsTemplar–whohadoccupiedtheoriginalsiteoftheTempleofSolomoninJerusaleminAD1119andwho, I believed, had learned something in theHolyCity thathad subsequentlycaused them to seek the Ark of the Covenant in Ethiopia. As reported in Chapter 5, theresearch that I had carried out into the beliefs and behaviour of this strange group ofwarrior monks had convinced me that they had tapped into some exceedingly ancientwisdomtradition–andthattheknowledgetheyhadthusacquiredhadbeenputtouseinthe construction of churches and castles thatwere architecturally far in advance of otherbuildingsofthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies.Was it not possible, I now asked myself, that the wisdom tradition into which theTemplarshadbeen initiatedhadbeen theveryone towhichMoses,Senmutand Imhotephadbelonged?Andifsothenwasitnotalsopossiblethattheknights’questfortheArkhadbeen connected to this tradition? I knew that it would probably prove impossible tosubstantiate such esoteric guesswork.Nevertheless, Iwas excited to discover a number ofancient Jewish traditions which asserted that the Ark had contained ‘the root of allknowledge’.64 In addition, as the readerwill recall, the golden lidof the sacred relichadbeensurmountedbytwofiguresofcherubim.Coulditthereforehavebeenpurecoincidencethat,inJudaiclore,‘thedistinctivegiftofthecherubimwasknowledge’?65ThesewerebynomeanstheonlytantalizinghintswhichsuggestedtomethatthequestfortheArkmightalsohavebeenaquestforwisdom.Equallysignificantwasthefactthatwhen the Templars were persecuted, tortured and put on trial in the early fourteenthcenturymanyof themconfessed toworshipping amysteriousbeardedhead, thenameofwhichwasgivenasBaphomet.66Severalauthorities,pointingtothecloseconnectionsthattheknightshadcultivatedwithIslamicmystics,hadidentifiedBaphometwithMuhammad67–thusblithelyignoringthefactthatIslamcouldhardlyhaveinspiredsuchbehaviour(sinceMuslims,asIwasverywellaware,regardedtheirprophetashumannotdivineandhadanabsolute abhorrence of any kind of idol worship). A far more convincing explanation,however, was given by Dr Hugh Schonfield, an expert on early Christianity, who haddecipheredasecretcodeusedinanumberofthefamous‘DeadSeaScrolls’–acodethattheTemplars might easily have learned during their long residence in the Holy Land. DrSchonfield showed that if the name Baphomet were written in this code and thentransliteratedtheresultwouldbetheGreekwordSophia.68AndtheGreekwordSophia,initsturn,meantnothingmorenorlessthan‘Wisdom’.69By this analysis, therefore, when the Templars worshipped Baphomet what they werereally doingwas worshipping the principle ofWisdom. And that, of course, was exactlywhat the ancient Egyptians had done when they had worshipped Thoth as ‘thepersonification of the mind of God’,70 as ‘the author of every work on every branch ofknowledge,bothhumananddivine’,71andas‘theinventorofastronomyandastrology,thescience of numbers and mathematics, geometry and land surveying, medicine andbotany’.72Iwasencouragedtolookfurther.OnefactwhichquitequicklycametolightwasthattheFreemasonshadalsoheldThothin special regard. Indeed,according toaveryoldMasonic tradition,Thoth ‘hadplayedamajorpartinpreservingknowledgeofthemasoncraftandtransmittingittomankindafterthe flood’.73 And the author of a well researched academic study on the origins of

Freemasonrywentsofarastosaythat,intheirearlydays,theMasonshadregardedThothastheirpatron.74Iwasalreadyaware(seeChapter7)thatcloselinkshadexistedbetweentheTemplarsandtheFreemasons,withthelatteralmostcertainlybeingdescendedfromtheformer.NowIcould see thatwhat Iwascoming to thinkofas the ‘Thothconnection’ setthose links in the ancient and enduring context of awisdom tradition stretching back toPharaonictimes.Ithereforeaskedmyselfthis:inadditiontotheTemplarsandtheMasonshad there been any other groups or individuals whose works and ideas had appearedunusually advanced – and who might possibly have been initiates in the same wisdomtradition?Ifoundthattherehadbeenmany.Forexample,Copernicus,theRenaissanceastronomerwhose theory of a heliocentric universe had overturned the earth-centred complacency oftheMiddleAges,hadsaidquiteopenlythathehadarrivedathisrevolutionaryinsightsbystudyingthesecretwritingsoftheancientEgyptians,includingthehiddenworksofThothhimself.75 Likewise the seventeenth-century mathematician Kepler (who, amongst otherthings,compiledanimaginaryaccountofatriptothemoon)admittedthatinformulatinghis laws of the planetary orbits he was merely ‘stealing the golden vessels of theEgyptians’.76In a similar vein, Sir Isaac Newton had stated his view that ‘the Egyptians concealedmysteriesthatwereabovethecapacityofthecommonherdundertheveilofreligiousritesandhieroglyphicsymbols.’77Amongstthesemysteries,hebelieved,wastheknowledgethatthe earth orbited the sun and not vice-versa: ‘It was the most ancient opinion that theplanetsrevolvedaboutthesun, thattheearth,asoneof theplanets,describedanannualcourse about the sun, while by a diurnal motion it turned on its axis, and that the sunremainedatrest.’78Newton’s profound intellect and scholarship had enabledhim to lay the foundations ofphysics as a modern discipline. His specific achievements had included epoch-makingdiscoveriesinmechanics,optics,astronomyandmathematics(thebinomialtheoremandthedifferentialandintegralcalculus),hugestepsforwardintheunderstandingofthenatureoflight,and–aboveallelse–theformulationoftheuniversallawofgravitationwhichhadalteredforevermankind’svisionofthecosmos.WhatwasmuchlesswellknownaboutthegreatEnglishscientist,however,wasthefactthat he had spent a significant part of his adult life deeply immersed in hermetic andalchemical literature (more than a tenth of his personal library had been taken upwithalchemical treatises79). Furthermore he had been obsessed – literally obsessed – with thenotionthatasecretwisdomlayconcealedwithinthepagesoftheScriptures:DanieloftheOldTestamentandJohnoftheNewparticularlyattractedhimbecause‘thelanguageoftheprophetic writings was symbolic and hieroglyphical and their comprehension required aradicallydifferentmethodofinterpretation.’80It seemed to me, as I researched Newton further, that pursuit of this method perhapsexplained why he had involved himself in an exacting study of some twenty differentversionsofthebookofRevelation.HehadlearnedHebrewinordertodothejobproperly81andhadthencarriedoutasimilarlymeticulousexerciseonthebookofEzekiel.82Iwasalsoable to establish that he had drawn on the information contained in this latter work toproduce a painstaking reconstruction of the floorplan of the Temple of Solomon. Why?

BecausehehadbeenconvincedthatthegreatedificebuilttohousetheArkoftheCovenanthadbeenakindofcryptogramoftheuniverse;ifhecoulddecipherthiscryptogram,hehadbelieved,thenhewouldknowthemindofGod.83Newton’s Temple floorplan had been preserved in the Babson College Library.84Meanwhile the seventeenth-century scientist had expressedhis other ‘theological’ findingsandobservations inprivatewritings thathad totalledwelloveramillionwords.85 In themid-twentiethcenturytheserathersurprisingmanuscriptscametolightandwerepurchasedat auctionbyJohnMaynardKeynes. ‘Newtonwasnot the first of the ageof reason,’ theobviouslyshakeneconomistlatertoldtheRoyalSociety,‘hewasthelastofthemagicians,the last of the Babylonians and Sumerians, the last greatmindwhich looked out on theworldwith the same eyes as thosewhobegan tobuild our intellectual inheritance ratherless than ten thousand years ago.’ Keynes made an extremely careful study of themanuscriptsandconcluded–significantlyinmyview–thatNewtonsaw

thewholeuniverseandallthatisinitasariddle,asasecretwhichcouldbereadbyapplyingpurethoughttocertainevidence,certainmysticclueswhichGodhadhidabouttheworldtoallowasortofphilosopher’streasurehunttotheesotericbrotherhood.Hebelievedthatthesecluesweretobefoundpartlyintheevidenceoftheheavensandintheconstitutionofelements,butalsopartlyincertainpapersandtraditionshandeddownbythebrethreninanunbrokenchainbacktotheoriginalcrypticrevelation.86

Indeedso!AndalthoughIknewthatImightneverbeabletoprovethatthe ‘brethren’ inquestionhadbeendirectly linked to theoccult traditionsof themoon-godThoth–and tothose scientists and civilizerswho had been ‘saved fromwater’ – I felt that therewas atleastsufficientevidencetoconfirmoneintriguingfact.Inmakinghisgreatestdiscoveries,Newtonhad indicatedseveral times thathehaddrawnnotonlyuponhisowngeniusbutalso upon some very old and secret repository of wisdom. He had once stated quiteexplicitly,forinstance,thatthelawofgravitationexpoundedinhisPrincipiawasnotnewbutratherhadbeenknownandfullyunderstoodinancient times;hehadarrivedat itbydecodingthesacredliteratureofpastages.87OnanotheroccasionhehaddescribedThothasabelieverintheCopernicansystem.88BeforethathehadalignedhimselfwiththeGermanphysician and alchemist Michael Maier (1568–1622) who had argued that, throughouthistory,allthetrueadeptsofsciencehadderivedtheirknowledgefromtheEgyptianmoon-god.89Amongstmanyothercuriosities,IdiscoveredthatNewtonhadbeenstruckbythefactthat‘there was a general tradition of deluge amongst ancient peoples’90 and had shownconsiderable interest in the biblical view that Noah was the common ancestor of allhumanity.91Moreover, despite his own devoutly held religious convictions, he seemed attimes to have seen Christ as an especially gifted man and as an interpreter of God’smasterplan,ratherthanastheSonofGod.92WhatIfoundmostfascinatingofall,however,was that the really pivotal figure in Newton’s theology, and in his conception of earlyscience,hadbeennoneotherthantheprophetMoses,whomhehadregardedasanadeptinthemysteriesoftheuniverse,amasterofalchemy,andawitnesstothedoublerevelationofGod(asexpressedinHiswordandinHisworks).93

Longcenturiesbeforeourownenlightenedera,Newtonhadbelieved,Mosesunderstoodthat matter consisted of atoms, and that these atoms were hard, solid and immutable:‘gravityaccruedtobothatomsandtothebodiestheycomposed;gravitywasproportionalto the quantity of matter in every body.’94 Newton had also regarded the account ofcreationpresentedinGenesis–andattributedtoMoses–asanallegoricaldescriptionofanalchemicalprocess:

Moses,thatancientTheologue,describingandexpressingyemostwonderfulArchitectureofthisgreatworld,tellsusthatyespiritofGodmoveduponyewaterswhichwasanindigestedchaos,ormasscreatedbeforebyGod.

Later,referringtotheeffortsofthealchemists,thegreatEnglishscientisthadadded:

Justastheworldwascreatedfromdarkchaosthroughthebringingforthofthelightandthroughtheseparationoftheaeryfirmamentandofthewatersfromtheearth,soourworkbringsforththebeginningoutofblackchaosanditsfirstmatterthroughtheseparationoftheelementsandtheilluminationofmatter.95

Last but not least, I thought it was not accidental that Newton’s favourite biblicalpassage96hadbeenonethathadhintedattheexistenceofsomeformofcovertknowledgeavailableonlytoinitiates:

AndIwillgivetheethetreasuresofdarkness,andhiddenrichesofsecretplaces,thatthoumayestknowthatI,theLord,whichcalltheebythyname,amtheGodofIsrael.97

IreasonedthatifNewtonhadindeedhadaccesstothesame‘treasuresofdarkness’andtothesame‘hiddenriches’asMoses,thenthiswouldimply–attheveryleast–thecontinuousexistenceoveraperiodofmillenniaofaclandestinesectorcult structured topassonanexclusiveandprivilegedwisdom.This sounded far-fetched; itwas,however,bynomeansimpossible. On the contrary, knowledge and skills had frequently and successfully beentransferreddownthegenerations–andfromoneregionoftheworldtoanother–withoutany concrete evidencebeingavailable todocument theprocess. For example,Rhabdas, amathematicianwhohad lived in thecityofConstantinople in the twelfthcenturyAD,wasknown to have used amethod for deriving square roots that had existed only in ancientEgypt more than two thousand years previously and that had not, otherwise, beenemployedelsewhere.98How,andfromwhere,hehadacquiredthistechniquewasnoteasytoexplain.Similarly,Iwasverymuchawarethatthetransmissionofesotericinformation,coupledwith the teachingandsharingofarcane ritualsandceremonies,hadoccurred forcenturieswithinthevariousMasonicorderswithoutanypublicrecordeverbeingavailable.Chartingthecontoursofagenuinelyreticentsectwas,therefore,adauntingundertaking.

But what I foundmore daunting by far was the task of guessing the real nature of thescienceandtechnologythatsuchalong-livedandsecretiveinstitutionasthecultofThothmight have protected and preserved – particularly if, as I suspected, that science andtechnologyhadoriginatedinahistoricallyremoteandnowutterlyobliteratedculture.AsI

wroteinmynotebook:

Itwouldbeamistaketoassumethatourowntwentieth-centurymachineryandinventionsareanyguideline;onthecontrary,ifanadvancedsocietydidexistatsomearchaicperiod,thenitswisdomislikelytohavebeenquitedifferentfromanythingwithwhichwearefamiliar,anditsmachinescouldreasonablybeexpectedtohaveoperatedaccordingtoprinciplesunknowntous.

AmonstrousinstrumentIt was with such thoughts, as my research moved on, that I found myself drawn to thestrangepassagesintheOldTestamentbooksofExodusandDeuteronomywhichdescribedtheencountersbetweenGodandMosesonMountSinai.Amidstthunderandfire,electricalstormsandcloudsof smoke,Yahweh supposedlydisclosed theblueprintof theArkof theCovenant to the Hebrew magus and presented him with the stone Tablets of the Lawinscribed with the Ten Commandments. Then the Ark itself was built by the artificerBezaleelwho slavishly followed the ‘divine’ plan, almost as though he knew that hewasforgingsomemonstrousinstrument.And this, I suspect, is what the Ark really was: a monstrous instrument capable of

releasingfearfulenergiesinanuncontrolledandcatastrophicmannerifitwasmishandledormisusedinanyway–aninstrumentthatwasnotconceivedinthemindofGod,astheBibleteaches,butratherinthemindofMoses.Amaster sorcerer in an erawhen sorcery and sciencewere indistinguishable fromone

another,itisafterallpossible(andperhapsmorethanpossible)thatMosescouldhavehadthetechnicalknowledge–andthereforetheability–todesignadeviceofthissort.Thereisabsolutelynoproofofthis,ofcourse.NeverthelessIthinkthatonlythosewithapedanticand cavilling attitude to historywould insist that the ancientwisdom traditions of EgyptcouldhavecontainednospecialskillsorideasofatechnicalnatureonwhichtheprophetmighthavedrawninordertoimbuetheArkwiththeawesomepowersattributedtoitintheOldTestament.Speculationonsuchmattersissurelyhealthyand–forthosereaderswhoareinterested

in penetrating more deeply into the mystery – I offer the following hypotheses andconjecturesasfoodforthought.

MotiveandopportunityAssume for a moment that Moses did indeed have the technical knowledge to create ‘amonstrousinstrument’capableofdestroyingcitywalls(asinthecaseofJericho99),strikingpeopledead(asinthecaseofUzzahandthe‘menofBethshemesh’100),inflictingcanceroustumours on those who approached it without proper protection (as in the case of thePhilistinesafterthebattleofEbenezer101),andcounteractinggravity(asinthecaseofthebearerswhom,ononeoccasion, it ‘tossed into theairand flung to thegroundagainandagain’102).IfMosescouldhavemadesuchamachinethenitonlyremainstoaskwhetherhehada

motivetodoso,andwhetherhehadtheopportunity.Iwouldliketosuggestthathehadamplemotive.Oneinalonglineofcivilizingheroeswhohadbeen ‘saved fromwater’, there isevidence to suggest thathisprimeobjective inlifemightnothavebeen toestablish theJewish faith (althoughhecertainlydid that)butrathertocivilizetheIsraelites–who,priortotheExodus,werelittlemorethanananarchictribeofmigrantlabourersmaroonedinEgypt.Supposethattheprophetdecidedtoinspire(andthusmobilize)thisprimitiveandalmostungovernablegroupofnomadsbyconvincingthemthathewasgoingtoleadthemtothe‘Promised Land’ – Canaan – which he had enticingly depicted as ‘a good land and alarge…alandflowingwithmilkandhoney’.103Ifsothenhewasfartoowilyaleader,andfar tooastutea judgeofhuman frailty, to takewhatwasbasicallyadisorganized rabblestraightthere.Heknewthattheywouldfaceformidablefoeswhentheyeventuallyarrived;if they were to overcome these foes, therefore, he would first need to mould and shapethem,bendthemtohiswill,andimposesomedisciplineuponthem.This reasoning appeals to me because it seems to offer a logical explanation forsomething that otherwise makes very little sense – namely the fact that the Israelitessupposedly spent forty years wandering in the inhospitable wildernesses of the Sinaipeninsula.104Therewere,atthetime,atleasttwowellknownandmuch-frequentedtraderouteswhichnormallyenabledtravellerstocrossthedesertsbetweenEgyptandCanaaninjustafewdays.105Itseemstome,therefore,thatMoses’sdecisionnottousethesehighways(andinsteadtoinflictalengthyperiodofhardshiponhispeople)couldonlyhavebeenadeliberate and calculated strategy: he must have seen this as the best way to get theIsraelitesintoshapefortheconquestofthePromisedLand.106Sucha strategy,however,wouldalsohavehad itsdrawbacks–notably theproblemofpersuading the tribesmen to stick together in the desert and to put up with all thedifficultiesandausteritiesofnomadiclife.Thisproblemwastrulyaknottyone:thebiblicalaccountofthewanderingsinthewildernessmakesitpainfullyclearthatMoseshadahardtimetryingtokeephispeople’sconfidenceandtoforcethemtoobeyhim.Itwastruethatthey fell briefly into linewheneverheworked somenewmiracle (andhewas obliged toworkmany);onotheroccasions,however–andparticularlywhen they facedadversity–theyseethedwithdiscontent,criticizedhimbitterlyandsometimesrebelledopenlyagainsthim.107Insuchcircumstances, is itnotreasonabletosupposethat theprophetmighthaveseenthe need to equip himself with some sort of portable ‘miracle machine’ to enthral andimpresstheIsraeliteswheneverandwhereverabitof‘magic’wasrequired?Andwasn’tthatexactlywhattheArkwas–aportablemiraclemachinewhichMosesusedtoensurethatthepeoplewouldobeyhimnomatterhowdifficultthecircumstances?ExamplesofthesacredobjectbeingusedinpreciselythismannerarenothardtofindintheBible.IndeedadramaticchangeappearstohavetakenplaceinMoses’sbehaviourafterthe building of the Ark. Previously he had responded to the incessant demands andcomplaintsof the Israeliteswithrelativelyminoractsofwizardry–strikingadesert rockwithhiswandinordertomakefreshwatergushforthfromit,108extractingpotablewaterfromastagnantpool,109deliveringfoodintheformofmannaandquails,110andsoonandsoforth.Later,however,theprophetdidnotbotherwithconjuringtrickslikethese.Instead,

wheneverthepeoplegrumbled,rebelledagainsthim,ordaredtodisputehisleadershipinanywayhesimplyturnedtheArkonthem–withpredictablydreadfulresults.OnonefairlytypicaloccasionheusedittoinflictadisfiguringskinconditiononhissisterMiriam because she had questioned his authority.111 The Bible calls this skin condition‘leprosy’.112WhenMiriamhadbeensuitablychastened,however,hersoresvanished.Sincethey had appeared in the first place immediately after she had been exposed to themysteriouscloudthatsometimes issued forth frombetweenthe twocherubimmountedontheArk’slid,itismostunlikelythattheywereactuallycausedbyleprosy.113Mighttheynotrather have been induced by some chemical or other contaminant released from the Arkitself?MiriamwasnottheonlypersontohavebeenaffectedinthiswayafterincurringMoses’swrath.Moreover other dissidents not lucky enough to bemembers of the priestly familytendedtobepunishedwithevengreaterseverity.AparticularlyinterestingseriesofeventsoccurredinresponsetoamutinyinwhichtheascendancyofMosesandAaronwasopenlyquestioned:

TwohundredandfiftyofthesonsofIsraeljoinedforcesagainstMosesandAaronsaying,Youtaketoomuchonyourselves!Thewholecommunityandallitsmembersareconsecrated,andYahwehlivesamongthem,WhysetyourselveshigherthanthecommunityofYahweh?114

Moses was at first so shocked by this insubordination that he ‘fell upon his face’.115 Hequicklyrecovered,however,andproposedthefollowing‘test’:tofindoutwhetherthetwohundredandfiftyrebelswerereallyas‘holy’ashewas,hesuggestedthattheyshouldeachfillabronzecenserwithincenseandthattheyshouldthencomeinbeforetheArktoburnthisincense.116Ifthiswasdone,heargued,itwouldallowYahwehto‘choosetheonewhoistheconsecratedman’.117Thechallengewasaccepted: ‘Andtheytookeverymanhiscenser,andputfireinthem,and laid incense thereon, and stood at the door of the Tabernacle … with Moses andAaron.’118Nosoonerhadthisgatheringtakenplacethan‘thegloryofYahwehappeared’.119Then the deity supposedly gave his ‘favourites’ a three-second warning of what he wasabouttodo:‘YahwehspoketoMosesandAaron.Hesaid,“Standapartfromthisassembly,Iamgoingtodestroythemhereandnow.”’120Atthis,theprophetandtheHighPriest‘threwthemselvesfacedownwardontheground…Andtherecameoutafire[fromtheArk]andconsumedthetwohundredandfiftymenthatofferedincense.’121Afterwards,

thechildrenofIsraelspakeuntoMoses,saying,Behold,wedie,weperish,weallperish…WhosoevercomethanythingnearuntothetabernacleoftheLordshalldie:shallwebeconsumedwithdying?122

They had, it seemed, learned a salutary lesson. Subdued by the powers of the Ark, theymountednofurtherrebellionsofanysignificance.Onthecontrary,apartfromafewlow-keygripesandmurmurs,theyfellverymuchintolinebehindMosesanddidexactlywhathetoldthemtododuringtheremainderoftheirsojourninthewilderness.

Somuch, then, formotive.Mosesclearlyhadgreatneedofaportablemiraclemachineexactly like the Ark. Moreover, once he had equipped himself with that machine – ifmachineitindeedwas–heshowednohesitationinusingit.Motiveandabilityalone,however,donotadduptoacoherentcase.Thenextquestion,

therefore,isthis:didhehavetheopportunitytoprepareaproperblueprintfortheArkandtofabricatesomesortof‘power-pack’forit–somesortofenergysourcebymeansofwhichitmightbeactivated?Theanswerisyes–ampleopportunity.Tounderstandwhyitisworthrecallingthemain

eventsofMoses’slife,intheorderthattheyoccurred:

1HewasborninEgypt.2HewascastadriftontheNileinabasketmadeofpapyrusreedscoatedwithbitumenandpitch.3Hewas‘savedfromwater’bythedaughterofPharaoh.4Hewasrearedintheroyalhouseholdwherehelearned‘allthewisdomoftheEgyptians’–andbecameanadeptinsorcery,andalmostcertainlyaHighPriest.123

5Attheageofforty,124accordingtotheBible,heheardthathisownnativepeople–theIsraelites–werebeingoppressedbytheEgyptians.Accordinglyheleftthecourtandwenttofindoutwhatwashappeningtothem.Hediscoveredthattheywerelivingalifeofbondage,forcedtodohardlabourdayandnight.Incensedatthiscrueltreatment,andatthearroganceoftheEgyptians,helosthistemper,killedanoverseerandthenfledintoexile.125

6Attheageofeighty126–i.e.fortyyearslater–hereturnedfromexiletoleadtheIsraelitesoutoftheircaptivity.

What happened during the missing forty years? The Bible is singularly unhelpful inanswering this question, devoting just eleven verses to direct discussion of the entireperiod.127 Itdoes,however,makeonethingabundantlyclear: inall thisgreatexpanseoftimethekeyeventwasMoses’sencounterwithYahwehattheburningbush–anencounterthattookplaceatthefootofMountSinaiwhere,sometimelater,theArkoftheCovenantwastobebuilt.Long beforeMoses persuaded the Israelites to follow him across the Red Sea, is it not

therefore probable that he had thoroughly familiarized himself with the fearsomewildernesses of the Sinai peninsula? The location of the burning bush incident leaves noroom for doubt that he spent at least part of his forty-year exile in these remote andmountainous deserts. Indeed, it is even possible that he passedmost or all of this periodthere–aviewforwhich there isadegreeofacademicsupport.According toone learnedEgyptologist,MosescouldhavespentaslongasaquarterofacenturyinSinai,livinginasettlementonamountainknownasSerabit-el-KhadembarelyfiftymilesfromMountSinaiitself.128In June 1989 I visited and climbed Serabit-el-Khadem,which stands in the austere and

barren highlands of southern-central Sinai. On the flat top of the mountain, completelyinnocentof tourists,weretheruinsof thesettlement inwhichMoseswasthoughttohave

lived–ruinsdominatedbytheobelisks,altarsandgracefulcolumnsofwhatmustoncehavebeen an extensive Egyptian temple. As a High Priest of the ancient Egyptian religion, Ireasoned,Moseswouldhavefeltcomfortablehere–andifhehadindeedfledthewrathofPharaohafterkillinganoverseerastheBibleclaimed,thenhewouldhavebeenrelativelysafeinthisremoteandobscurespot.IdecidedtofindoutmoreaboutSerabit-el-Khademandresearcheditinsomedepthafter

myinitialvisit.Inthecourseofthiswork,twosignificantfactscametolight.First,IlearnedthatthetemplesitewhichIhadseenhadbeenthoroughlyinvestigatedin

1904–5 by the great British archaeologist Sir William Flinders Petrie – and that he hadunearthed fragments of several stone tablets there.129 These tablets were inscribed withwritinginastrangepictographicalphabetthat,muchlater,wasprovedtohavebelongedtoaSemitic-CanaanitelanguagerelatedtoancientHebrew.130Second, I discovered that the settlement at Serabit-el-Khadem had been an important

centre for theminingandmanufacture of copper and turquoise from roughly1990 BC until1190BC.131ThesedatesmeantthattherewasnoanachronismintheassumptionthatMosesmight have sojourned here in the thirteenth century BC, just prior to the Exodus. And theevidencethatanalphabetrelatedtoHebrewhadbeeninuseonthesiteataboutthesametimelookedlikefurthercorroborationofthisview.Whatreallyinterestedme,however,wasthepointemphasizedabove,namelythatSerabithadfunctionedasasortofindustrialandmetallurgicalcomplexandthatthewholeareahadbeenextensivelymined.ItseemedtomethatifMoseshadindeedlivedhereforalengthyperiodthenhecouldhardlyhavefailedtoacquireknowledgeofthemineralsandmetaloresofsouthernSinai.Aftermy visit to Serabit-el-Khadem in June1989 I drovemyhired Jeep the fiftymiles

acrossthedeserttoMountSinai.Inasensetheword‘desert’isamisnomerforthisregion,for although there are sandy expanses, the bulk of the countryside consists of steep andwithered mountain ranges, red in colour, upon which almost nothing grows. The onlypatchesofgreeneryarecreatedbyoccasionaloasesinthevalleys,andonesuchoasis,richin date palms, stands at the foot ofMount Sinai.Here, in the fourth century AD, a smallChristian chapel was erected on the supposed site of the burning bush. That chapel wasgreatly extended in subsequent years. By the fifth century it had become a substantialmonasteryunderthepatronageoftheCopticChurchofAlexandria.InthesixthcenturytheRomanEmperorJustinianmassively fortified themonastery’swalls so that itcouldbetterwithstand the attacks of marauding bedouin tribes. Finally, in the eleventh century, thewhole complex was dedicated to Saint Catherine.132 It continues to be known as ‘SaintCatherine’s’ today, and many of the structures built in the fifth and sixth centuries stillstand.Beforeembarkingonthearduous7,450-footclimbtothetopofMountSinaiIspentsome

time inside the ancientmonastery. Themain church contained several remarkable icons,mosaicsandpaintings,someofthemalmost1,500yearsold.Inthegardenswasawalledenclosure built around a large raspberry bush thatwas believed by themonks to be theoriginalburningbush.133Thisitcertainlywasnot–and,indeed,IwaswellawarethatevenMountSinai’sclaimtobethe ‘MountSinai’referredtointheBiblehadbynomeansbeenconclusivelyproved.Thefactwas,however,thatmonastictraditionsdatingbackatleasttothe fourthcentury AD had associated this particular peakwith the ‘mountainofGod,’ and

had almost certainly done so on the basis of reliable sources of information now lost.134MoreoverIknewthat local tribal traditionsconcurred: thebedouinnameforMountSinaiwassimplyJebelMusa– ‘themountainofMoses’.135ScholarlyopinionalsoassociatedthebiblicalMountSinaiwiththepeakbearingthatnametoday–andthefewdissentingvoicesdid not favour a different region but rather other nearby peaks in the same range (forexampleJebelSerbal).136Imustconfess thatafterclimbingMountSinai inJune19891was left innodoubt thatthishad indeedbeenthemountain towhichMoseshadbrought the Israelites ‘in the thirdmonth’ after leaving Egypt. Pausing at the summit, I stood on a ledgewhich overlookedtumbledmiles ofworn and jagged uplands descending to sere plains in the far distance.Therewasahazeandapowder-bluestillnessintheair–notsilence,exactly,butstillness.Thenasuddenwindwhippedup,coolanddryatthataltitude,andIwatchedaneaglesoarheavenwardsonathermal,glidingbrieflylevelwithmebeforeitdisappearedfromsight.Iremained there alone for a while, in that pitiless and uncompromising place, and Iremember thinking that Moses could hardly have chosen a more dramatic or a moreappropriatelocationinwhichtoreceivetheTenCommandmentsfromthehandofGod.ButisthatreallywhattheHebrewmaguscametoMountSinaitodo?Itseemstomethatthereisanalternativescenario.Coulditnotbethathistruepurposeallalonghadbeentobuild the Ark of the Covenant and to place inside it some great energy source, the rawsubstanceofwhichhehadknownthathewouldbeabletofindonthisparticularmountaintop?Thisisahighlyspeculativethesis–butitisspeculationthatweareindulginginhereandthereisroomforalittleimaginativelicence.IfMoseshadknownoftheexistenceofsomepotentsubstanceonthepeakofMountSinai,thenwhatmightthatsubstancehavebeen?Onesuggestion–putforwardinadifferentcontextinChapter3– is that thetabletsofstoneonwhichGodsupposedlywrotetheTenCommandmentswereinfacttwopiecesofameteorite. Resonant with echoes of Wolfram’s Grail Stone (described as having beenbrought down from heaven by a troop of angels137), this intriguing possibility is takenseriously by several top-flight biblical scholars, who point to the worship of meteoricfragmentsinanumberofancientSemiticcultures138andaddthat:

concealingtablesoflawwithinaclosedcontainer[seems]somewhatodd…Wordsoflawengraveduponstoneweresurelymeanttobepubliclydisplayed…[itmaythereforebe]supposedthattheArkheldnottwotablesofthelawbutafetishstone,ameteoritefromMountSinai.139

If this conjecture is correct then the field lies open to guess what element exactly the‘meteorite from Mount Sinai’ might have consisted of. It is at any rate not beyond thebounds of reason to suppose that it might have been radioactive, or that it might havepossessed some chemical characteristic that would have made it useful to Moses if hispurpose had really been to manufacture a potent and durable source of energy forinstallationintheArk.ThenotionthathemighthavebeenmanufacturingsomethingonMountSinaiiscertainlynotruledoutbytheScriptures.Onthecontrary,manypassagesintherelevantchaptersofthe book of Exodus are sufficiently peculiar and puzzling to allow just such an

interpretationtobeputonthem.The so-called ‘theophany’ – the manifestation of a deity to a mortal man – beganimmediatelyaftertheIsraeliteshad‘campedbeforethemount’.Then‘MoseswentupuntoGod,andtheLordcalleduntohimoutofthemountain.’140AtthisearlystagetheBiblemakesnomentionofsmokeorfireoranyoftheotherspecialeffects that were soon to be brought into play. Instead the prophet simply climbed themountain and held a private conversation with Yahweh, a conversation that was notwitnessed by anyone else. Significantly, one of the first instructions that he supposedlyreceivedfromthedeitywasthis:

Thoushaltsetboundsuntothepeopleroundabout,saying,Takeheedtoyourselvesthatyegonotupintothemount,ortouchtheborderofit:Whoevertouchesthemountainwillbeputtodeath…Hemustbestonedorshotdownbyarrow…hemustnotremainalive.141

It goes almostwithout saying thatMoseswouldhavehad a strong reason to impose justsucha rigorous and ‘divinelyordained’ exclusion zone if hehad indeedbeenplanning tomanufacture or process some substance onMount Sinai: the prospect of being stoned orshotwouldcertainlyhavedeterredthecuriousfromventuringuptoseewhathewasreallydoingthereandthuswouldhaveenabledhimtopreservetheillusionthathewasmeetingwithGod.Atanyrate, itwasonlyafterhehadspent threedayson themountain that thedramareallybegan.Then:

Inthemorning…therewerethundersandlightnings,andathickclouduponthemount,andthevoiceofthetrumpetexceedingloud;sothatallthepeoplethatwasinthecamptrembled…AndmountSinaiwasaltogetheronasmoke,becauseYahwehhaddescendedonitintheformoffire.Likesmokefromafurnacethesmokewentup.142

Initially itseemsthatMosesspentonlypartofhis timeisolatedonthepeak,andthathewasfrequentlyinthecamp.Soon,however,Godtoldhimthis:

ComeuptomeonthemountainandstaytherewhileIgiveyouthestonetablets–thelawandthecommandments–whichIhavewritten.143

This,then,wasthepreludetowhatwastobethekeyeventonSinai–Moses’sacquisitionof the two tabletsof stone thathewould laterplace inside theArkof theCovenant.Theprophet’sascentwasaccompaniedbyfurtherspecialeffects:

Moseswentupintothemount,andacloudcoveredthemount.AndthegloryofYahwehsettleduponmountSinai;forsixdaysthecloudcoveredit,andontheseventhdayYahwehcalledtoMosesfrominsidethecloud.TotheeyesofthesonsofIsraelthegloryofYahwehseemedlikeadevouringfireonthemountaintop.Moseswentrightintothecloud.Hewentupthemountainandstayedthereforfortydaysandfortynights.144

WouldanomnipotentGodhaverequiredfortydaysandfortynightstodelivertwostonetablets toHisprophet?Sucha lengthyperiod seemshardlynecessary. If,however,Moseshad not been receiving ‘the tablets of the Testimony’ at all, but instead had beenmanufacturingor refining somecompact stone-likeenergysource toplace inside theArk,thenhecouldwellhaveneededthatmuchtimetofinishthework.From this perspective, the ‘devouring fire’ on themountain top that the Israelites had

interpretedas‘thegloryofYahweh’wouldreallyhavebeentheinfernalglowgivenoffbywhateverdevicesorchemicalprocessestheprophetwasusingtoachievehisobjective.Andalthough this hypothesis sounds far-fetched, it is surely not more so than the strangeinformationconcerningthetabletsofstonethat iscontainedintheOldTestament, intheMishnah,intheMidrash,intheTalmud,andinthemostarchaicJewishlegends.

Tabletsofstone?The clearest descriptions of the tablets are contained in the Talmudic-Midrashic sourceswhich yield the following information: (1) theywere ‘made of a sapphire-like stone’; (2)theywere‘notmorethansixhandsinlengthandasmuchinwidth’butwereneverthelessenormouslyheavy;(3)thoughhardtheywerealsoflexible;(4)theyweretransparent.145ItwasuponthesepeculiarobjectsthattheTenCommandmentsweresupposedlywritten

–bynolesserfigurethanYahwehHimself,astheBibleisatpainstopointout:

WhenHehadfinishedspeakingwithMosesonthemountainofSinai,HegavehimthetwotabletsoftheTestimony,tabletsofstone,inscribedbythefingerofGod…AndMosesturnedandwentdownfromthemountwiththetwotabletsoftheTestimonyinhishands,tabletsinscribedonbothsides,inscribedonthefrontandontheback.ThesetabletsweretheworkofGod,andthewritingonthemwasGod’swriting.146

Theologically, therefore, there can be no doubting the sanctity or the significance of theprophet’s burden: written upon by the very finger of God, the two tablets were quiteliterally fragments of the divine. From the biblical viewpoint nothingmore precious hadeverbeenentrustedtomortalman.OnewouldhavethoughtthatMoseswouldhavelookedafterthem.Hedidnotdoso,however.Instead, inafitofpique,hebrokethesepureandperfectgifts.Whydidhedothisincomprehensiblething?AccordingtotheexplanationgiveninExodus

itwas because the perfidious Israelites had lost hope that hewould ever return after hisfortydaysonthemountainandhadfashionedagoldencalf,whichtheywereworshipping.Arriving in the camp Moses then caught them in flagrante delicto offering sacrifices anddancingandprostratingthemselvesbeforetheidol.Atthesightofthisgrotesqueapostasythe prophet’s ‘anger waxed hot and he threw down the tablets that he was holding andbrokethematthefootofthemountain.’147Hethendisposedofthegoldencalf,hadaboutthreethousandoftheworstidolatorsexecuted,andrestoredorder.148Somuch,then,fortheofficialaccountofhowandwhytheoriginaltabletsofstonecame

to be broken. These items, however, were clearly of vital importance and had to be

replaced.AccordinglyGod instructedMoses to return to themountain top to receive twonew tablets. The prophet complied and ‘stayed there with Yahweh forty days and fortynights … and he inscribed on the tablets the words of the Covenant, the TenCommandments.’149 Moses then climbed down the mountain again bearing the tablets,exactlyashehaddonebefore.Aclosestudyoftherelevantbiblicalpassages,however,doesreveal a single substantive and significant difference between his two descents: on thesecondoccasion‘theskinofhisfaceshone’;150onthefirsttherehadbeennomentionofthisoddphenomenon.What could have caused the prophet’s face to shine? The biblical scribes naturally

assumed that it had been his proximity toGod, and explained: ‘the skin on his facewasradiantafterspeakingwithYahweh.’151Yetonseveralpreviousoccasions,datingbackasfaras theburningbush,Moseshad stoodclose toYahwehandhadnot sufferedany suchconsequences. Indeed,atypicalexamplehadoccurredjustbeforehehadembarkedonhissecondforty-dayexpeditiontoSinai.WhilestillintheIsraelitecamphehadparticipatedina lengthy and intimate encounter with the deity, an encounter that had been held in aspecially sanctified structure called the ‘Tent of Meeting’.152 There ‘the Lord spake untoMoses face to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend,’153 but there was no hint orsuggestionthattheprophet’sskinhadglowedasaresult.Sowhatcouldhaveproducedthiseffect?Isitnotreasonabletosuggestthatitmighthave

been the tablets of stone themselves? Oblique corroboration for precisely this suggestionexistsintheTalmudicandMidrashicsourceswhichinsistthatthetabletshadbeeninfusedwith‘Divineradiance’.WhenGodhandedthemtoMoses:‘Heseizedthembythetopthird,whereasMoses tookholdof thebottomthird,butonethirdremainedopen,anditwas inthiswaythattheDivineradiancewassheduponMoses’face.’154Sincethisdidnothappenwiththefirstsetoftablets–theonesthatMosesbroke–itis

legitimate toaskaquestion:whywere things sodifferent thesecond timearound?Couldthe answer possibly be that Moses had discovered that the first set of tablets weretechnicallyimperfectasanenergysourcepreciselybecausetheydidn’tburnhis face?Thiswould explain why he broke them. He did, however, sustain burns from the second set.Perhaps this proved to him thatwhatever process he had used tomanufacture them hadworked – and made him confident that they would function properly when they wereplacedinsidetheArk.TheideathatthegloworshineonMoses’sskinmightinfacthavebeencausedbysome

sort of burn is of course purely speculative. There is no support for it in the Bible.Nevertheless,itseemstometobeaperfectlyreasonablededuction–asreasonableasanyother – from the small amount of evidence that is available there. Thedescriptionof theprophet’sdescentfromthemountainwiththesecondsetoftablets is limitedtojustsevenversesinChapter34ofExodus.155Theseverses,however,makeitabsolutelyclearthathisappearance was so gruesome when he arrived in the camp that all the Israelites were‘afraid tocomenighhim’.156To spare their feelings ‘heputaveil overhis face’157 – andeverafterwards,exceptwhenhewasaloneinhistent,heworethisveil.158Doesthisnotsoundmuchlesslikethebehaviourofamanwhohadbeentouchedbythe

radianceofGodthanofamanburned–andburnedbadly–bysomepotentenergysource?

AtestamenttolosttruthsIt would be possible to speculate endlessly about the true character of the Ark of theCovenant–andof itscontents. IhavegoneasfarasIwishtodownthisparticularroad.Readerswhowouldliketogofurther,however,mightfinditinterestingtoconsiderfirstthematerialsfromwhichtheArkwasmade.Hugequantitiesofgoldseemtohavebeenused–and gold, as well as being beautiful and noble, is also chemically non-reactive andexceptionallydense. Inparticular the ‘mercy seat’ –which servedas the lidof the relic –wasbelievedbyonelearnedrabbi(wholivedinthetwelfthcenturyAD)tohavebeenafullhand-breadththick.159Sinceahand-breadthwastraditionallymeasuredfromthetipofthethumb to the extended tip of the little finger, thismeans that theArkwas closedwith ahulkingslabofsolidgoldnineinchesdeep.160Whywas itnecessarytousesomuchof theprecious metal? And was it an accident that Rabbi Shelomo Yitshaki who procured thisinformation–aswellasagreatdealofotherintelligenceconcerningthesacredrelic–wasbornand spentmost ofhis life in the city ofTroyes in theheart of France’sChampagneregion?161 That same city was the home of Chrétien de Troyes whosework on the HolyGrail, written seventy-five years after the rabbi’s death, established the genre in whichWolframvonEschenbachwassoontofollow.AnditwasinTroyesaswellthattheruleoftheKnightsTemplarwasdrawnupbySaintBernardofClairvaux.Inthiswaythemysteriesandtheconnectionsmultiply.ThosewhoarecuriousmightalsowishtogivesomethoughttothepeculiargarmentsthattheHighPriests of ancient Israelworewhen they approached theArk.162 If they did notwearthesegarmentstheirliveswerebelievedtobeatrisk.163Wasthispurelyamatterofsuperstitionandritual?OrwasprotectiveclothingnecessaryforsomereasonthatperhapshadtodowiththenatureoftheArkitself?Relatedtothispointisanother–thecuriouscoverings,consistingoftwolayersofclothand one of leather, that the Ark had to bewrapped in before it could be transported164(apparently in order to prevent anyone from being killed as a result of accidentallytouching it whilst it was on the move165). Even when these precautions had been fullycompliedwith,however, thesacredrelicstillsometimescausedthedeathof itsbearers. Itdidsowith‘sparks’.166Butwhatwerethesesparks?Andwerethewrappings–whichwereallmadeofnon-conductivematerials167–perhapsintendedtoserveasinsulation?168Alsoof somepotential interest is the storyofNadabandAbihu, the two sonsofAaronwho were struck down by the Ark soon after its installation in the Tabernacle (I havedescribedthisincidentbrieflyinChapter12;accordingtotheScripturesaflameleaptoutatthem ‘and devoured them and they died’169). Surprisingly, Moses completely ignored thenormally lengthy Hebrew funeral procedures and instead ordered that the bodies shouldimmediatelybetaken‘faraway’outofthecamp.170Whyshouldhehavedonesuchathing?Whatwasitexactlythathefeared?Movingforwardintime,IsuggestthatthosewhowishtolearnmorecoulddoworsethanexaminethepassagesintheBiblewhichrecountthedreadfulafflictionsthattheArkworkedamongstthePhilistinesduringthesevenmonthsthatitspentintheirhandsaftertheyhadcaptureditatthebattleofEbenezer.171Again,IhavedescribedtheseeventsinChapter12,butIhavealsoleftmuchunsaidthatcouldbesaid.Manyriddles,too,mightbesolvedbyaclosestudyofwhathappenedintheyearsafter

theArkwas returned to the Israelites by the Philistines and before King Solomon finallyinstalleditintheHolyofHoliesofhisTempleinJerusalem.Ibelievethatanexplanationexists for the miracles and the terrors that it worked during this period172 – a rationalexplanation connected to its character as a man-made device and not to any divine orunearthlyinfluences.Indeed,myown investigationshave ledme to conclude that itmayonly be possible tounderstand the sacred relic properlywhen it is seen in this light –not as a repositoryofsupernaturalpowersbutasanartefactandasaninstrument.Nodoubtthisinstrumentwasverydifferentfromanyknowntoustoday,butitwasnonethelesstheproductofhumaningenuity,devisedbyhumanhandstofulfilveryhumanobjectives.Assuchitsmagicanditsmysteryarenotdiminishedforme.Thegiftofanancientandsecretscience,Ithinkofitasakeytothesealedandunrememberedhistoryofourspecies,asignofourforgottenglory,andatestamenttolosttruthsaboutourselves.Andwhatelse is thequest for theArkor theGrail if it isnotaquest forknowledge,aquestforwisdomandaquestforenlightenment?

PartV:IsraelandEgypt,1990

WhereistheGlory?

Chapter14TheGloryisdepartedfromIsrael

Inthemid-afternoonofThursday4October19901enteredtheoldwalledcityofJerusalemthrough the JaffaGate.After passingOmar Ibn el-Khatab Square,with its pleasant cafésand hawkers’ stands, a bewildering maze of narrow streets paved with ancient cobblestoneslayaheadofme.A few years earlier this whole area would have been seething with shoppers andsightseers; now, however, it was almost deserted. The Palestinian intifada, and recentthreats by Iraq to ‘burn’ Israelwith Scudmissiles, had been enough to drive virtually allforeignersaway.To my right, as I walked, was the Armenian Quarter and, to my left, the ChristianQuarterdominatedbytheChurchof theHolySepulchre.Within thisgreatedificewas theChapelof theInventionof theCrosswhichthevictoriousMuslimgeneralSaladin–at therequestofKingLalibela–hadgrantedtotheEthiopiancommunityofJerusalemafter theCrusadershadbeenexpelledfromthecityinAD1187.1InlateryearstheEthiopianshadlosttheir privileges in the chapel. I knew, however, that they still occupied an extensivemonasteryonitsroof.Icontinuedinaneasterlydirectionthroughthesilentanddesertedalleys,manyofwhichwere coveredwith canvas awnings that cut out the glare and heat of the afternoon sun,creatingacool,almostsubterraneanatmosphere.Afewforlornshopkeeperssittingintheirdoorwaysmadehalf-heartedattemptstosellmesouvenirsthatIdidnotwantandbagsofripeorangesthatIhadnodesiretocarry.Tomyrightnow,as IproceededalongtheStreetof theChain,was theJewishQuarterwhere gangs of Hasidic youths dressed in dark suits and incongruous fur hats roamedpugnaciouslyabout,declaringbytheirbodylanguagethattheywerethemastersofalltheysurveyed.Tomyleft, filledtothebrimwithunhappiness, frustrationandrestlessdespair,wastheMuslimQuarter.Andstraightahead,risingupabovetheclutteroftheoldcitylikeagoldensymbolofhope,wastheDomeoftheRock–thebeautifulmosqueerectedbytheCaliphOmar andhis successors in the seventh century AD and regarded as the thirdmostsacredplaceintheIslamicworld.2It was the Dome of the Rock that I had come to see, although not because of itssignificancetoMuslimsbutbecauseithadbeenbuiltontheoriginalsiteoftheTempleofSolomon.InsideIknewthatIwouldfindagreatstone,believedbyorthodoxJewstobetheShetiyyah – the foundation-stoneof theworld.Andon that stone, in the tenth century BC,amidstthe‘thickdarkness’oftheHolyofHolies,theArkoftheCovenanthadbeenplacedbySolomonhimself.3 Like amanwho seeks to conjureupan imageofhis long-departedlover by caressing some item of her clothing, I therefore hoped that by touching theShetiyyahImightgainadeeperandmoreabidingsenseofthelostrelicthatIsought.This, however, was not my only purpose on that afternoon in October. Just a fewhundredmetres to thesouthof theDomeof theRockIknewthat Iwouldalsobeable to

visitanotherbuildingofcentral importance tomyquest– theAl-AqsaMosque,which theKnightsTemplarhadusedastheirheadquartersinthetwelfthcenturyAD.Fromthisbase,Isuspected, they had sallied forth to conduct investigations of their own in the cavernsbeneath theShetiyyah –where certain legends suggested that theArkhadbeen concealedshortlybeforethedestructionofSolomon’sTemple.4ItwastotheAl-AqsaMosquethatIwentfirst,slippingoffmyshoesandenteringthecoolandroomyrectangularhallbelievedbyMuslimstobethe‘furthermostsanctuary’,towhichMuhammadwassupposedlytransportedbyangelsonhisfamousNightJourney.Whateverplace of prayer existed in the Prophet’s lifetime (AD 570–632) had long since vanished,however,andIwasconfrontedbyamedleyofdifferentbuildingstyles,theoldestofwhichdatedbacktoaroundAD1035andthemostrecenttotheperiod1938–42,whentheItaliandictatorMussolinihaddonatedtheforestofmarblecolumnsthatlayaheadofmeandwhenKingFaroukofEgypthadfinancedtherestorationandrepaintingoftheceiling.5TheTemplars,too,hadlefttheirmarkonthegreatmosque.Takingupresidenceherein

AD1119andnotleavinguntil1187whentheyweredrivenoutofJerusalembySaladin,theyhadbeen responsible, amongstother things, for the threemagnificent centralbaysof theporch.Much of the other architecture that the knights had added had subsequently beendestroyed. Their refectory, however, had survived (being incorporated into the nearbyWomen’sMosque),andthevastundergroundareawhichtheyhaddevelopedasstablesfortheirhorses(theso-called‘StablesofSolomon’)werealsoinagoodstateofrepair.6AsIcarefullypickedmywayinstockingedfeetamongsttheMuslimswhowerealreadyassembling forafternoonprayer I felt strangely light-headedbutat the same timealert–keyed-up. The jumble of different eras and influences, the old mixed in with the new,Mussolini’smarblecolumns,andtheeleventh-centuryIslamicmosaics,hadallconspiredtoconfuse my perceptions. Currents of incense-laden air wafted through the spacious andlight-filledinterior,summoningupvisionsoftheEuropeanknightswhohadlivedanddiedheresolongagoandwhohadnamedtheirstrangeandsecretiveorderaftertheTempleofSolomon–thesiteofwhich,nowoccupiedbytheDomeoftheRock,wasonlytwominutes’walkaway.The raison d’être of the Temple had been extremely simple. It had been conceived anddesigned as nothing more, and nothing less, than ‘an house of rest for the Ark of theCovenantof theLord’.7But theArk,of course,had long sincevanished, and theTemple,too,wasgone.UtterlyandcompletelydestroyedbytheBabyloniansin587BC,thestructureerectedbySolomonhadbeenreplacedhalfacenturylaterbytheSecondTemple–which,initsturn,hadbeenrazedbytheRomansinAD70.Thesitehadthenlapsedintodisuseuntilthe arrival of theMuslim armies in AD 638when the Dome of the Rock had been built.8Throughout all these changes the Shetiyyah had remained in place. The sacred floor onwhichtheArkhadoncestoodwasthereforethesingleconstantfactorthathadweatheredall thestormsofhistory, thathadseenJewsandBabyloniansandRomansandChristiansandMuslimscomeandgo,andthatstillenduredtoday.Leaving theAl-AqsaMosque,and slippingonmy shoesagain, Inowmademywayupthrough the tree-linedprecinctsof theTempleMount to theDomeof theRock– theveryname ofwhich reflected its guardianship of theShetiyyah. A large and elegant octagonalbuilding facedwith rich blue tiling, its dominant exterior featurewas itsmassive golden

dome(which, indeed,couldbe seen frommanydifferentpartsofJerusalem).Tomyeye,however, therewas nothing overwhelming about this tall andperfectmonument.On thecontraryitconveyedacomplexfeelingoflightnessandgracecoupledwithanunderstatedbutreassuringstrength.Thisfirstimpressionwasenhancedandcompletedbytheinteriorofthebuilding,which

quiteliterallytookmybreathaway.Thesoaringceiling,thecolumnsandarchessupportingtheinneroctagon,thevariousnichesandrecesses,themosaics,theinscriptions–alltheseelementsandmanymoremeldedtogetherinasublimeharmonyofproportionanddesignthat gave eloquent expression to humanity’s yearning for the divine and that proclaimedthatyearningtobebothnobleandprofound.My glance had been drawn upwards when I entered – upwards into the cupola, the

farthestreachesofwhichwerelostinthecooldarknessoverhead.Now,however,asthoughattractedbysomepowerfulmagneticforce,Ifeltmyattentiontuggeddownagaintowardstheverycentreof themosquewhereahugetawnyrockperhapsthirtyfeetacross, flat inplaces,jaggedinothers,laydirectlybeneaththedome.ThiswastheShetiyyah and,as Iapproached it, Iwasaware thatmyheartwasbeating

more quickly than usual and that my breathing seemed laboured. It was not difficult tounderstandwhy theancientshad thoughtof thisgreatboulderas the foundation-stoneoftheworld or to seewhySolomonhad chosen it as the centrepiece of his Temple.Rough-texturedandasymmetrical,itjuttedoutabovethebedrockofMountMoriahassolidandasunshakableastheearthitself.Acarvedwoodenrailingsurrounded thewholecentralarea,but intoonecornerof this

railing was set a shrine through which I was allowed to push my hand to touch theShetiyyah. Its texture, smootheddownby the caressesof countless generationsofpilgrimsbeforeme,wasslick,almostglasslike,andIstoodthere,lostinmyownthoughts,drinkingin through the pores ofmy fingers the immense antiquity of this strange andwonderfulstone.Thoughitwasperhapsasmallvictory,itneverthelessmeantagreatdealtometobeinthisplaceandtosavourthismomentofquietreflectionatthesourceofthemysterythatIsoughttosolve.EventuallyIwithdrewmyhandandcontinuedmycircuitoftheShetiyyah.Atonesidea

stairway led down to a deep hollow beneath the stone – a cave-like cist known to theMuslimsasBirel-Arweh,the‘WellofSouls’.Here,accordingtothefaithful,thevoicesofthedead could sometimes be heard mingled with the sounds of the rivers of paradise. As Ientered,however,Icouldhearnothingexceptthemurmuredprayersofthehalf-dozenorsopilgrimswhohadprecededmeandwhowerenowslumpedinobeisanceonthecoldrockfloorinvokinginmellifluousArabicthenameofAllah,theCompassionate,theMerciful–adeity whose prophets, long before the time of Muhammad, had included Abraham andMosesandwho,inhisabsoluteanduncompromisingoneness,wasinnowaydifferentfromYahweh,theGodoftheArk.9IalreadyknewthatanumberofJewishandIslamiclegendsspokeofasealedandsecret

passagebeneaththeWellofSoulsleadingintothebowelsoftheearth,wheretheArkhadsupposedlybeenconcealedatthetimeofthedestructionofSolomon’sTemple–andwheremanybelieved that it rested still, guardedby spirits anddemons.10Asnoted inPart II, IsuspectedthattheKnightsTemplarcouldhavebeenmotivatedtosearchherefortheArkin

the twelfth century AD after learning of these legends.One variant of the tale thatmightparticularlyhaveexcitedtheirinterestpurportedtobeaneyewitnessaccountbyacertain‘Baruch’ofaninterventionbyan‘angeloftheLord’onlymomentsbeforetheBabylonianarmybrokeintotheTemple:

AndIsawhimdescendintotheHolyofHolies,andtakefromittheveil,andtheHolyArk,anditscover,andthetwotablets…Andhecriedtotheearthinaloudvoice,‘Earth,earth,earth,hearthewordofthemightyGod,andreceivewhatIcommittoyou,andguardthemuntilthelasttimes,sothat,whenyouareordered,youmayrestorethem,andstrangersmaynotgetpossessionofthem…’Andtheearthopeneditsmouthandswallowedthemup.11

IftheTemplarshadindeedbeeninspiredbythistexttosearchbeneaththeWellofSoulsthey would not, I was absolutely confident, have found the Ark there. The so-called‘ApocalypseofBaruch’(fromwhichtheabovequotationistaken)mighteasilyhaveseemedto them like a genuinely ancient document dating from the sixth century BC. The truth,however,asmodernscholarshiphadsubsequentlyrevealed,wasthatitwaswritteninthelate first century AD and that it therefore could not possibly have been an eyewitnessaccountoftheconcealmentofthesacredrelic,whetherbyanangelorbyanyotheragency.Onthecontraryitwas,frombeginningtoend,aworkofimaginativefictionwhich,despiteitseerieandevocativetone,possessednohistoricalmeritwhatsoever.12For this andother reasons, I felt sure that theTemplarswouldhavebeen frustrated in

their excavations beneath the Temple Mount. But I also suspected that they had laterlearned of Ethiopia’s claim to be the last resting place of the Ark and that a group ofknightshadultimatelygonetheretoinvestigatethisclaimforthemselves.13I, too, was following the same trail that those knights had stumbled upon so many

centuriesbefore,andIfeltthatitpointedcompellinglytowardsthesanctuarychapelinthesacredcityofAxum.Beforeattemptingtomakemyownwayintothewar-tornhighlandsofTigray, however, I wanted to be absolutely satisfied that there was no other country orplacewhere the lost reliccouldbe. Itwas thatdesire thathadbroughtmeto theoriginalsiteoftheTempleofSolomonon4October1990.AnditwasthatdesirethathaddrawnmetotheShetiyyah,onwhichtheArkhadoncestoodandfromwhichithadvanished.Thatwasmystartingpoint,butnowIintendedtousetherestofmystayinJerusalemto

talktoreligiousandacademicauthoritiesandtoexamineinthegreatestpossibledepthallthe circumstances known to have surrounded the mysterious disappearance of the relic.OnlyifIwasstillconfidentofthebasicmeritoftheEthiopianclaimafterIhadcompletedthat exercise would I finally commit myself to the Axum adventure. The January 1991TimkatceremonialsatwhichIhopedthattheobjectbelievedtobetheArkwouldbecarriedin processionwere, however, less than fourmonths away. Iwas therefore acutely awarethatmytimewasrunningout.

Whathousecanyoubuildme?

TheinstallationoftheArkintheTempleofSolomon,which–asIhadalreadyestablished–musthavetakenplacearoundtheyear955BC,14wasdescribedinthefirstbookofKings:

ThenSolomonassembledtheeldersofIsrael…AndthepriestsbroughtintheArkoftheCovenantoftheLordtoitsplaceintheTemple…intheHolyofHolies…Anditcametopass,whenthepriestswerecomeoutoftheholyplace,thatthecloudfilledthehouseoftheLord,sothatthepriestscouldnotstandtoministerbecauseofthecloud:forthegloryoftheLordhadfilledthehouseoftheLord.ThenspakeSolomon,‘TheLordsaidthathewoulddwellinthethickdarkness.Ihavesurelybuilttheeahousetodwellin,,asettledplacefortheetoabideinforever…ButwillGodindeeddwellontheearth?behold,theheavenandheavenofheavenscannotcontainthee;howmuchlessthishousethatIhavebuilded?’15

AccordingtotheScriptures,Solomonhadlater‘turnedawayhisheartafterothergods’andhad worshipped with particular enthusiasm ‘Ashtoreth the goddess of the Zidoniansand…Milcomtheabominationof theAmorites’.16Becauseof this tendencytoapostasyIfound it difficult to believe that themonarchwhose legendarywisdomwas said to haveexcelled‘allthewisdomofEgypt’17hadeverreallyheldYahwehinespeciallyhighesteem.AndforthesamereasonIdidnotthinkthathehadbeenpayingmetaphysicaltributetotheomnipotenceandomnipresenceoftheGodofIsraelwhenhehadexpressedhisdoubtsabouttheabilityoftheTempleto‘contain’theArk.Onthecontrary,itseemedtomethatwhenSolomonhad uttered these curiouswords he had been giving voice to genuine fears of apragmaticratherthanofaspiritualnature.Mightnotthesacredrelicstillbreakfree,eventhough it was anchored now to the very foundation-stone of the world? Might not theunpredictableenergiespentupwithinitstillbesufficientlypotentanddangeroustoburnthroughthe thickdarknessof theHolyofHoliesandtodestroythegreat ‘house’ thathadbeenerectedaroundit?Therewas,Ifelt,arealsenseinwhichtheTempleappearedtohavebeenbuiltlessasanearthlypalaceforadearlybelovedbutincorporealdeitythanasakindofprisonfortheArkoftheCovenant.WithintheHolyofHolies,abovethetwocherubimthatfacedeachotheracrosstherelic’sgoldenlid,Solomonhadinstalledtwoadditionalcherubimofgiantsize–grim guardians indeed, with wingspans of fifteen feet or more, all covered in gold.18MeanwhiletheHolyofHoliesitself–thepurposeofwhich,theBiblestatedexplicitly,hadbeen ‘to contain the Ark of the Covenant of Yahweh’19 – had been a perfect cube,foursquareandimmenselystrong.Measuringthirtyfeetlong,bythirtyfeetwide,bythirtyfeethigh,20itsfloor,itsfourwallsanditsceilinghadbeenlinedwithpuregold,weighinganestimated45,000pounds,21andrivetedwithgoldennails.22Norwas this golden cell the only feature of the Temple’s construction that caughtmyattention.Atleastasinterestingwasthepedigreeofthecraftsman–aforeigner–whohadbeencalledintocompletealltheothermetalworkthatSolomonhadrequired:

AndSolomonsentforHiramofTyre;hewasthesonofawidowofthetribeofNaphtali…andhewasfilledwithwisdom,andunderstanding,andcunningtoworkallworksinbronze.23

Thephraseemphasizedabove in italicshad jumpedoutatmefromthepageassoonas Ihadseteyesuponit.Why?BecauseIknewthattheveryfirstmentioninliteratureoftheGrailheroParzivalhaddescribedhim inalmostexactly the samewordsas ‘the son of thewidowedlady’.24Indeed,bothChrétiendeTroyes,thefounderofthegenre,andhissuccessorWolframvonEschenbach,hadgonetogreatlengthstomakeitclearthatParzival’smotherhadbeenawidow.25Could I be looking, I wondered, at yet another of the bizarre coincidences in which,through the use of dense and often deceptive symbolism, the fictional quest for theHolyGrailseemedtohavebeendeliberatelydevisedtoserveasacryptogramfortherealquestfor the lostArk? Ihad long since satisfiedmyself that theKnightsTemplarhadbeenkeyplayersinbothandthat,afterthedestructionoftheirorderinthefourteenthcentury,manyof their traditionshadbeenpreserved in Freemasonry. Iwas therefore intrigued to learnthatHiramofTyre,whotheBiblesaidhadbeencalledtoJerusalembySolomon,wasnotonlyawidow’ssonlikeParzival,butalsoafigureofimmensesignificancetoFreemasons–whoknewhimas‘HiramAbiff’,andwhomadereferencetohiminalltheirmostimportantrituals.26AccordingtoMasonictraditionHiramwasmurderedbythreeofhisassistantssoonafterhe had completed the bronzework of the Temple. And this event was for some reasonregardedassoladenwithmeaningthatitwascommemoratedintheinitiationceremoniesforMasterMasons – in which each initiate was required to play the role of themurdervictim. In one authoritative study I found this description of the relevant part of theceremonial(whichisstillinregularusetoday):

Blindfoldedontheground,theinitiatehearsthethreemurderersdecidetoburyhiminapileofrubbleuntil‘lowtwelve’(midnight),whentheywillcarrythebodyawayfromtheTemple.TosymbolisetheburialofHiramAbiff,thecandidateiswrappedinablanketandcarriedtothesideoftheroom.Soonhehearsabellstriketwelvetimesandiscarriedfromthe‘rubble’gravetoagravedugonthebrowofahill‘westofMountMoriah’(theTempleMount).Hehearsthemurderersagreetomarkhisgravewithasprigofacacia,thensetouttoescapetoEthiopiaacrosstheRedSea.27

Here, then,weremorecoincidences–aminorone in the formof thesprigofacacia (thesamewoodthatwasusedtomaketheArk),andamajoroneintheMasonictraditionthatHiram’s murderers had intended to flee ‘to Ethiopia’. I had no idea howmuch weight IshouldattachtosuchdetailsbutIcouldnotridmyselfofthefeelingthattheymustinsomewayberelevanttomyquest.Thissuspiciondeepened,furthermore,whenIturnedbacktotheBibletofindthatoneofthebronzeitemsofTemplefurniturethatHiramwassaidtohavebuiltwas

theSeaofcastmetal,tencubitsfromrimtorim,circularinshapeandfivecubitshigh;acordthirtycubitslonggavethemeasurementofitsgirth…Itwasahandsbreadthinthickness,anditsrimwasshapedliketherimofacup,likeaflower.Itheldtwothousandbaths.28

This ‘Sea’, I learned,hadstoodinthecourtyardoftheTemple.Ithadbeenahugebronzebasin,fifteenfeetindiameterandsevenandahalffeethigh.Ithadweighedaroundthirtytonneswhenemptybuthadnormallybeenkept fullwithanestimated10,000gallonsofwater.29Most authorities admitted frankly that they did not knowwhat its function hadbeen–althoughsomethoughtthatithadsymbolizedthe‘primordialwaters’referredtointhebookofGenesis30andothersbelievedthatithadbeenusedbythepriestsfortheirritualablutions.31I,however,foundneitherofthesehypothesessatisfactory–and,ofthetwo,thelatter seemed themost improbable because the Bible stated quite plainly thatHiramhadmadetensmallerbronzebasinsforpreciselythispurpose(placedonwheeledstands,eachbasinheld‘fortybaths’32).Afterreviewingtheevidence,therefore,Ienteredthefollowingspeculationinmynotebook:

Isitnotpossiblethatthebronze‘Sea’whichHirammadeforthecourtyardofSolomon’sTemplewasathrowbacktotheancientEgyptianritualsonwhichtheceremoniesoftheArkappeartohavebeencloselymodelled?InthefestivalofApetatLuxorthe‘Arks’containingeffigiesofthegodswerealwayscarriedtowater.33Andthis,too,ispreciselywhathappensinEthiopiatoday:atTimkatinGondarthetabotatarecarriedtotheedgeofa‘sacredlake’attherearofthecastle.34SoperhapsthebronzeSeawasalsoakindofsacredlake?

According to the Bible, the other items fashioned by Hiram for Solomon’s Temple hadincluded‘theashcontainers,thescoopsandthesprinklingbowls’35andalso

twobronzepillars;theheightofonepillarwaseighteencubits,andacordtwelvecubitslonggavethemeasurementofitsgirth;soalsowasthesecondpillar…Hesetupthepillarsinfrontofthevestibuleofthesanctuary;hesetuptheright-handpillarandnameditJachin;hesetuptheleft-handpillarandnameditBoaz.Sotheworkonthepillarswascompleted.36

JachinandBoaz, Idiscovered,also featured inMasonic traditions.37Accordingtothe ‘oldritual’ these two great pillars had been hollow. Inside themhad been stored the ‘ancientrecords’ and the ‘valuable writings’ pertaining to the past of the Jewish people.38 Andamongsttheserecords,theFreemasonsclaimed,hadbeen‘thesecretofthemagicalShamirandthehistoryofitsproperties’.39Mycuriositywasarousedbythismentionofthe‘magicalShamir’.Whathaditbeen?WasitjustapieceofMasonicarcana,orwasitreferredtointheBible?Afterapainstakingsearch, Iwasable toconfirmthat theword ‘Shamir’appearedonlyfourtimesintheOldandNewTestaments40–thriceasaplacenameandonceasthenameofaman.Clearly,therefore,noneofthesecouldhavebeenthe‘magical’Shamir,thesecretsofwhichtheMasonsclaimedhadbeenconcealedinHiram’sbronzepillars.IdidfindtheinformationthatIwaslookingfor,however–notintheScripturesbutinthe Talmudic-Midrashic sources at my disposal. Because Moses had commanded theIsraelites not to use ‘any tool of iron’ in the construction of holy places,41 Solomon hadorderedthatnohammers,axesorchiselsshouldbeusedtocutanddressthemanymassivestoneblocksfromwhichtheouterwallsandcourtyardoftheTemplehadbeenbuilt.Instead

he had provided the artificers with an ancient device, dating back to the time ofMoseshimself.42 This device was called the Shamir and was capable of cutting the toughest ofmaterialswithoutfrictionorheat.43Alsoknownas‘thestonethatsplitsrocks’,44

theShamirmaynotbeputinanironvesselforsafekeeping,norinanymetalvessel:itwouldburstsuchareceptacleasunder.Itiskeptwrappedupinawoollencloth,andthisinturnisplacedinaleadbasketfilledwithbarleybran…WiththedestructionoftheTempletheShamirvanished.45

Iwasfascinatedbythisoddandancienttradition,whichalsoclaimedthattheShamirhadpossessed ‘the remarkable property of cutting the hardest of diamonds’.46 I then found acollateral versionof the same storywhich added that it hadbeenquite noiselesswhile itwasatwork.47Allinall,Iconcluded,thesecharacteristics(likemanyofthecharacteristicsoftheArkoftheCovenant)soundedbroadlytechnologicalinnature,ratherthaninanyway‘magical’orsupernatural.AndIalsothoughtitsignificantthatthispeculiardevice–againliketheArk–hadbeendirectlyassociatedwithMoses.Finally itdidnot seemtomeentirely irrelevantthat the Freemasons had maintained their own separate traditions about it – traditionswhich stated that its secrets had been concealed inside the two bronze pillars placed ‘infrontofthevestibuleofthesanctuary’byHiramthewidow’sson.Withoutknowledgeofthoselong-lost‘secrets’,IrealizedthatIcouldnothopetogoanyfurther with this line of inquiry. At the same time, however, I felt that the story of theShamirdeepenedthemysterysurroundingtherealnatureofthegreatstrongholdonthetopofMountMoriahthathadbeenbuiltandexplicitlydedicatedas‘anhouseofrestfortheArkoftheCovenantoftheLord’.Withitsbronzepillarsanditsbronze‘Sea’,itsgiantcherubimanditsgoldeninnershrine,Solomon’sTemplehadclearlybeenaspecialplace,wonderfullymade, the focus of superstition and religious dread, and the centre of Jewish faith andculturallife.How,then,couldtheArkpossiblyhavedisappearedfromit?

Shishak,JehoashandNebuchadnezzarAnobviousanswertothelastquestion–which,ifcorrect,wouldcompletelyinvalidatetheEthiopianclaim–wasthattheArkcouldhavebeentakenbyforcefromtheTempleduringoneoftheseveralmilitarycatastrophesthatIsraelsufferedafterthedeathofSolomon.The first of these catastrophes occurred in 926 BC during the unsuccessful reign ofSolomon’ssonRehoboam.48Then,accordingtothefirstbookofKings,anEgyptianPharaohknownasSheshonq(or‘Shishak’)mountedafull-scaleinvasion:

InthefifthyearofkingRehoboam…ShishakkingofEgyptcameupagainstJerusalem:AndhetookawaythetreasuresofthehouseoftheLord,andthetreasuresoftheking’shouse;heeventookawayall.49

TherewasnothinginthistantalizinglybriefaccounttosuggestthatShishak’sbootyhadnotincludedtheArkoftheCovenant.ButiftheArkhadindeedbeencapturedjustthirtyyearsafter Solomonhad installed it in theTemple then it seemed tome that the scribeswould

havesaidso–andwouldinadditionhavelamentedthelossofthepreciousrelic.Theyhadnotevenmentionedit,however50–whichtomymindimpliedoneoftwothings:eithertheArkhadbeensecretlyremovedbeforethearrivaloftheEgyptianarmy(perhapsduringthereignofSolomonhimselfasEthiopiantradition insisted);or ithadremained insitu in theHolyofHoliesthroughouttheinvasion.ButthenotionthatthePharaohcouldhavetakenitlookedmostimplausible.Afurther indicationthatthiswassohadbeenleftbyShishakhimself intheformofhisvasttriumphalreliefatKarnak.Ihadalreadybecomequitefamiliarwiththatreliefduringmyvarious visits toEgypt and I felt sure that it hadmadenomentionof theArkof theCovenantor,forthatmatter,ofanysiegeorpillageofJerusalem.51OncheckingfurtherIwas now able to confirm that this impression had been correct. One authoritative studystatedunequivocallythatthemajorityofthetownsandcitieslistedashavingbeensackedbyShishakhadinfactbeeninthenorthernpartofIsrael:

Jerusalem,targetofShishak’scampaignaccordingtotheBible,ismissing.Althoughtheinscriptionisheavilydamaged,itiscertainthatJerusalemwasnotincludedbecausethelistisarrangedintogeographicalsequenceswhichallownospaceforthenameJerusalem.52

What then could have happened at the holy city to explain the Scriptural assertion thatShishak had taken away ‘the treasures of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of theking’shouse’?The academic consensus, I discovered,was that the Pharaohhad surrounded Jerusalembutthathehadneveractuallyenteredit;insteadhehadbeen‘boughtoffwiththetreasuresof Solomon’s temple and palace.’53 These treasures, moreover, could not possibly haveincludedtheArk,evenifithadstillbeentherein926BC;insteadtheywouldhaveconsistedoffarlesssacreditems,mainlypublicandroyaldonationsdedicatedtoYahweh.Suchitems,normallyquitepreciousandmadeofsilverandgold,werenotstoredintheHolyofHoliesbut rather in the outer precincts of the Temple in special treasuries that were alwaysmentioned in the Old Testament conjointly with the treasuries of the king’s house.54‘Occasionally,’asoneleadingbiblicalscholarputit,

thesetreasuriesweredepletedeitherbyforeigninvadersorbythekingsthemselveswhentheywereinneedoffunds.Thetreasuriesthusconstantlyoscillatedbetweenastateofaffluenceandwant…TheinvasionofShishak[had],therefore,nothingtodowiththeTemplesanctums,anditwouldbeentirelyinaccuratetoassociate[it]withthedisappearanceoftheArk.55

Preciselythesamecaution, Idiscovered,alsoappliedtothenextoccasiononwhichtheTemplehadapparentlybeen looted.This hadhappened at a timewhen theunified statethatDavidandSolomonhadforgedhadbeensplitintotwowarringkingdoms–‘Judah’inthe south (which included Jerusalem) and ‘Israel’ in the north. In 796 BC56 Jehoash, themonarch of the northern kingdom, joined battle at Bethshemesh with his JudaeancounterpartAmaziah:

AndJudahwasputtotheworsebeforeIsrael,andtheyfledeverymantotheirtents.AndJehoashkingofIsraeltookAmaziahkingofJudah…atBethshemesh,andcametoJerusalem,andbrakedownthewallofJerusalem…Andhetookallthegoldandsilver,andallthevesselsthatwerefoundinthehouseoftheLord,andinthetreasuriesoftheking’shouse.57

Onceagain,thispillageoftheTemplehadnotinvolvedtheHolyofHoliesortheArkoftheCovenant.Asoneauthorityontheperiodexplained:

JehoashdidnotevenentertheTemple’soutersanctum,certainlynottheinnerone…Thephrase‘thehouseoftheLord’mentionedinconnectionwithJehoash…issimplyashortenedformof‘thetreasuriesofthehouseoftheLord’.Thismaybeseenfromthefactthatthe‘treasuriesoftheking’shouse’whicharealwayscontiguouslymentionedwiththe‘treasuriesofthehouseoftheLord’arealsomentioned.58

Somuch then forShishakandJehoash.The reason thatneitherof themhadclaimed tohave taken the Ark, and the reason that neither had been reported by the Bible to havedoneso,wasnowquitecleartome:theyhadgotnowhereneartheHolyofHoliesinwhichthesacredrelichadbeenkeptandhadhelpedthemselvesonly tominor treasuresofgoldandsilver.The same, however, could not be said for Jerusalem’s next and greatest invader, KingNebuchadnezzarofBabylon.Heattackedandoccupiedtheholycitynotoncebuttwice,andevenonthefirstoccasion,in598BC,59 itwasclearthathehadpenetrateddeeply intotheTempleitself.TheBibledescribedthisdisasterinthefollowingterms:

ThetroopsofNebuchadnezzarkingofBabylonmarchedonJerusalem,andthecitywasbesieged.Nebuchadnezzar…himselfcametoattackthecitywhilehistroopswerebesiegingit.ThenJehoiachinkingofJudahsurrenderedtothekingofBabylon,he,hismother,hisofficers,hisnoblesandhiseunuchs,andthekingofBabylontookthemprisoner.ThiswastheeighthyearofKingNebuchadnezzar.ThelattercarriedoffallthetreasuresofthehouseoftheLord,andthetreasuresoftheking’shouse,andcutinpiecesallthegoldenfurnishingsthatSolomonkingofIsraelhadmadeforthesanctuaryofYahweh.60

What hadNebuchadnezzar’s booty consisted of? I already knew that the ‘treasures of thehouseoftheLord,andthetreasuresoftheking’shouse’couldnothaveincludedanytrulysacredobjectssuchastheArk.Asnotedabove,thesephraseshadveryspecificanddistinctmeaningsintheoriginalHebrewandreferredonlytodispensableitemsstoredintheroyalandpriestlytreasuries.MoresignificantbyfarwasthestatementthattheBabylonianmonarchhad‘cutinpiecesall the golden furnishings that Solomon king of Israel had made for the sanctuary ofYahweh.’ The Hebrew word that the translators of the Jerusalem Bible had rendered as‘sanctuary’was,Idiscovered,hekalanditsprecisemeaningwas‘outersanctum’.61Intrying

to envisage its location I found it useful to recall the basic layout of EthiopianOrthodoxchurcheswhich–asIhadlearnedonmytriptoGondarinJanuary1990–exactlyreflectedthetripartitedivisionoftheTempleofSolomon.62Byco-ordinatingthismentalpicturewiththebest scholarly researchon the subject Iwas able to confirmbeyondany shadowof adoubt that thehekalhadcorresponded to thek’eddestofEthiopianchurches.63Thismeantthat the ‘sanctuary of Yahweh’ despoiled by Nebuchadnezzar had not been the Holy ofHoliesinwhichtheArkhadstoodbutrathertheantechambertothatsacredplace.TheHolyofHoliesitself–theinnersanctum–hadbeenknowninancientHebrewasthedebirandcorrespondedtothemak’dasinwhichthetabotatwerekeptinEthiopianchurches.64If the Ark had still been in the Temple at the time of Nebuchadnezzar’s first attack,therefore – and that, as it turned out, was a very big if – then it was certain that theBabyloniankinghadnottakenit.Insteadhehadcontentedhimselfwithcutting‘inpieces’andcarryingoffthe‘goldenfurnishings’thatSolomonhadplacedinthehekal.65Theother‘furnishings’ that had been looted by Nebuchadnezzar – and the list was quite specific –wereasfollows:

thelamp-stands,fiveontherightandfiveontheleftinfrontofthedebir,ofpuregold;thefloralwork,thelamps,theextinguishersofgold;thebasins,knives,sprinklingbowls,incenseboats,censers,ofpuregold;thedoorsocketsfortheinnershrine–thatis,theHolyofHolies–andforthehekal,ofgold.66

Ofcourse, inthistranslation,theterms‘innershrine’, ‘debir’and ‘HolyofHolies’wereallusedinterchangeablytorefertothesamesacredplace–i.e.theplaceinwhichtheArkhadbeeninstalledbySolomonsomanycenturiesbefore.67OnceIhadsatisfiedmyselfthatthatwasindeedthecase,asinglesignificantfactsuddenlybecamecleartome:whilenotlootingtheHolyofHolies,Nebuchadnezzarhadnonethelessremoveditsdoor-sockets.FromthisitwassafetodeducethatthedoorshadbeentakenofftheirhingesandthattheBabylonianmonarch–or the soldierswhohadcarriedouthisorders –would thushavebeenable tolookrightintothedebir.Irealizedimmediatelythatthiswasanimportant,indeedacrucial,finding.GazingintotheinnersanctumtheBabyloniansshouldimmediatelyhavebeenabletoseethetwogiantcherubim,overlaidwithgold,thatSolomonhadplacedassentinelsovertheArk–andtheyshouldalsohavebeenabletoseetheArkitself.Sincetheyhadshownnocompunctioninremovingthegoldfromthefurnishingsofthehekal it thereforehadtobeaskedwhytheyhadnotimmediatelyrushedintothedebirtostripthefarlargerquantitiesofgoldfromitswallsandfromthecherubim,andwhytheyhadnottakentheArkasbooty.The Babylonians had demonstrated that they held the Jews – and their religion – incomplete contempt.68 There was thus no mileage in assuming that they might haverefrained fromlooting theHolyofHoliesoutofsomesortofaltruisticdesire tospare thefeelings of the vanquished. On the contrary all the evidence suggested that if they hadindeedbeenconfrontedbyrichpickingsliketheArk,andthegoldoverlayonthewallsandon the cherubim, then Nebuchadnezzar and his men would unhesitatingly have helpedthemselvestothelot.What made this even more probable was that it had been the normal practice of theBabyloniansatthistimetoseizetheprincipalidolsorcult-objectsofthepeoplestheyhad

conqueredandtotransportthembacktoBabylontoplaceintheirowntemplebeforethestatueoftheirgodMarduk.69TheArkwouldhavebeenanidealcandidateforthissortoftreatment.Yetithadnotevenbeenstrippedofitsgold,letalonecarriedoffintact.Indeedneitheritnorthecherubimhadbeenmentionedatall.

Thelogicalconclusion[Iwroteinmynotebook]isthattheArkandthegold-coveredcherubimwerenolongerinthedebirin598BCwhenthefirstBabylonianinvasiontookplace–and,indeed,thatthewalls,floorandceilingofthedebirhadalsobeenstrippedoftheirgoldpriortothatdate.ThiswouldseemtolendatleastprimafaciesupporttotheEthiopianclaim–sinceIhavealreadyestablishedthatShishakandJehoashdidnotgettheirhandsontheArk,orontheotherpreciouscontentsofthedebir,andsincetheyweretheonlypreviousinvaderstohaveacquiredanysortoftreasurefromtheTemple.

Of course the Babylonian assault on Jerusalem in 598 BC had not been the last thatNebuchadnezzarwouldmount–andtheconclusionthatIhadjustscribbledinmynotebookwouldbeprovedcompletelyfalseiftherewereanyevidencetosuggestthathehadtakentheArkthesecondtimethathesackedtheholycity.Afterthesuccessfuloperationof598BChehadinstalledapuppetking,Zedekiah,onthethrone.70 This ‘puppet’, however, turned out to have ideas of his own and, in 589 BC, herebelledagainsthisBabylonianoverlord.71Theresponsewasinstantaneous.NebuchadnezzarmarchedonJerusalemonceagainandlaidsiegetoit,finallybreachingitswallsandoverrunningitinlateJuneorearlyJulyoftheyear587BC.72Slightlylessthanamonthlater:73

Nebuzaradan,commanderoftheguard,anofficerofthekingofBabylon…burneddowntheTempleofYahweh,theroyalpalaceandallthehousesinJerusalem.The…troopswhoaccompaniedthecommanderoftheguard…brokeupthebronzepillarsfromtheTempleofYahweh,thewheeledstandsandthebronzeSeathatwereintheTempleofYahweh,andtookthebronzeawaytoBabylon.Theytooktheashcontainers,thescoops,theknives,theincenseboats,andallthebronzefurnishingsusedinworship.Thecommanderoftheguardtookthecensersandthesprinklingbowls,everythingthatwasmadeofgoldandeverythingmadeofsilver.Asregardsthetwopillars,theoneSeaandthewheeledstands…therewasnoreckoningtheweightinbronzeinalltheseobjects.74

This, then,was thedetailed inventoryoffered in theBibleofall theobjectsand treasuresbrokenuporcarriedofftoBabylonafterNebuchadnezzar’ssecondattackonthecity.Onceagain,andsignificantly,theArkoftheCovenantwasnotincluded–andnorwasthegoldthatSolomonhadusedtolinetheHolyofHoliesandtooverlaythegreatcherubimthathadstoodwithinthatsacredplace.Indeedabsolutelynothingelsewasmentionedatallanditwasclearthatthebulkoftheloottakenin587BChadconsistedofbronzesalvagedfromthepillars and the ‘Sea’ – and also from the wheeled basins – that Hiram had made four

centuriesearlier.Afactthatarguedverystronglyinfavourofthebasicveracityofthelistwasthatitwasentirely consistentwith the biblical account ofwhat had previously been stolen from theTemplein598BC.OnthatoccasionNebuchadnezzarhadleftthebronzeitemsinplacebuthadremovedthe‘treasuresofthehouseoftheLord,andthetreasuresoftheking’shouse’and had also stripped off all the gold from the furnishings of the hekal. This was why,eleven years later, Nebuzaradan’s haul of gold and silver had consisted only of a fewcensersandsprinklingbowls:75hehadnotbeenabletofindanythingmorevaluableforthesimplereasonthatallthebestitemshadbeenlootedandtakentoBabylonin598BC.SinceIhadalreadysatisfiedmyselfthatthoseitemshadnotincludedtheArk,andsincetherelichadnotbeenamongstthesecondlotofbootyeither,Ifeltincreasingconfidenceinmy conclusion that it must have disappeared at some stage prior to the Babylonianinvasions. By the same token the other oft-cited explanation for the loss of the relic –namelythatitmusthavebeendestroyedinthegreatfirethatNebuzaradanhadstarted76–alsolookedincreasinglyuntenable.IftheArkhadindeedbeentakenawaybefore598BC–perhapstoEthiopia–thenitwouldofcoursehaveescapedthedestructionoftheTemple.But was it safe, from this chain of reasoning, to deduce that it had gone to Ethiopia?Certainlynot.ResearchingthematterfurtherIfoundthatJudaictraditionsofferedseveralalternativeexplanationsforwhathadhappened–anyofwhich,ifsufficientlystrong,mightprovefatal totheEthiopiancaseandallofwhichthereforehadtobeconsideredontheirmerits.

‘Deepandtortuouscaches…’The first point that became clear tomewas that the Jews as a people had only becomeconsciousofthelossoftheArk–andconsciousthatthislosswasagreatmystery–atthetimeofthebuildingoftheSecondTemple.Iwasalreadyawarethatin598BCNebuchadnezzarhadsentintoexileinBabylonalargenumberoftheinhabitantsofJerusalem.77In587BC,aftertheburningofSolomon’sTemple,

Nebuzaradan,commanderoftheguard,deportedtheremainderofthepopulationleftbehindinthecity,thedeserterswhohadgoneovertothekingofBabylon,andtherestofthecommonpeople…ThusJudahwasdeportedfromthisland.78

Thetraumaofthebanishment,thehumiliationsofthecaptivity,andthefirmresolvethatJerusalem should never be forgotten, were soon to be immortalized in one of the mostpoignantandevocativepiecesofpoetryinthewholeoftheOldTestament:

BytheriversofBabylon,therewesatdown,yea,wewept,whenwerememberedZion.

Wehangedourharpsuponthewillowsinthemidstthereof,

Fortheretheythatcarriedusawaycaptiverequiredofusasong;andtheythatwastedus

requiredofusmirth,saying,SingusoneofthesongsofZion.

HowshallwesingtheLord’ssonginastrangeland?

IfIforgetthee,OJerusalem,letmyrighthandforgethercunning.

IfIdonotrememberthee,letmytonguecleavetotheroofofmymouth;ifIprefernotJerusalemabovemychiefjoy.79

Thisphysicalexileofanentirepeoplewasnottolastforverylong.Nebuchadnezzarhadbeguntheprocess in598BCandhadcompleted it in587.Slightly less thanhalfacenturylater, however, the empire that had expanded so dramatically under his rulewas utterlycrushed byCyrus theGreat, king of Persia,whose triumphant armies enteredBabylon in539BC.80This Cyrus, who has been described as ‘one of the world’s most astonishing empire-builders’,81 adopted an enlightened approach towards his subject peoples. There wereothers,liketheJews,whohadalsobeenheldcaptiveinBabylon.Hemadeithisbusinesstoset themall free.Moreover,hepermitted them to remove their confiscated idolsandcultobjectsfromthetempleofMardukandtocarrythesehomewiththem.82The Jews, of course, were unable to take full advantage of this latter opportunity,because their principal cult object, the Ark of the Covenant, had not been brought toBabylon in the first place. Nevertheless a large number of the lesser treasures thatNebuchadnezzar had seizedwere still intact, and these the Persians handed overwith alldueceremonytotheappropriateJudaeanofficials.TheOldTestamentcontainedadetailedreportofthetransaction:

KingCyrustookthevesselsoftheTempleofYahwehwhichNebuchadnezzarhadcarriedawayfromJerusalemanddedicatedtothetempleofhisgod.CyruskingofPersiahandedthemovertoMithredath,thetreasurer,whocountedthemouttoSheshbazzar,theprinceofJudah.Theinventorywasasfollows:thirtygoldenbowlsforofferings;onethousandandtwenty-ninesilverbowlsforofferings;thirtygoldenbowls;fourhundredandtensilverbowls;onethousandothervessels.Inall,fivethousandfourhundredvesselsofgoldandsilver.SheshbazzartookallthesewithhimwhentheexilestravelledbackfromBabylontoJerusalem.83

That return journey took place in 538 BC.84 Then, in the spring of 537 BC, the SecondTemplebegantobebuiltabovetherazedfoundationsoftheFirst.85Theworkwasfinallycompletedaround517BC,86andalthoughthiswasacauseforgreatrejoicingtherewerealsoreasons for sorrow. The removal of the Ark of the Covenant from the First Temple –wheneverithadoccurred–hadclearlybeenkeptsecretfromthepublic(notadifficulttasksincenoonebuttheHighPriestwassupposedtoentertheHolyofHolies).Now,however,afterthereturnfromBabylon,itwasimpossibletodisguisethefactthatthepreciousrelic

hadgone,and that it thereforecouldnotbe installed in the inner sanctumof theSecondTemple. This great change was explicitly admitted in the Talmud, which stated: ‘In fivethingstheFirstSanctuarydifferedfromtheSecond:intheArk,theArk-cover,theCherubim,the Fire, and the Urim-and-Thummim.’87 The Urim and Thummim had been mysteriousobjects (here referred to collectively as a single object) that had possibly been used fordiviningandthathadbeenkeptinthebreast-plateoftheHighPriestinthetimeofMoses.TheywerenotpresentintheSecondTemple.NeitherwasthecelestialfirethathadalwaysbeenassociatedwiththeArkoftheCovenant.AndofcoursetheArkitselfwasalsomissing–togetherwithitsthickgoldencoverandthetwogoldencherubimthathadbeenmounteduponit.88Thesecret, therefore,wasout: themostpreciousrelicof theJewish faithhadvanished,apparently into thin air. Moreover the people knew that it had not been brought intocaptivitywiththeminBabylon.Sowherecoulditpossiblyhavegone?Almost at once theories started to circulate and, in the normalway of things, some ofthesetheoriesquicklytookonthecharacterofrevealedtruths.ThemajoritysupposedthatNebuchadnezzar’slootershadfailedtofindtheArkbecause,beforetheirarrival,ithadbeencarefully hidden somewhere within Mount Moriah itself, where the Second Temple nowstoodonthesitepreviouslyoccupiedby theFirst.Accordingtoonepost-exilic legend, forexample,SolomonhadforeseenthedestructionofhisTempleevenwhilehewasbuildingit.Forthisreasonhehad‘contrivedaplaceofconcealmentfortheArk,indeepandtortuouscaches’.89Itwasthistradition,Ifeltsure,thatmusthaveinspiredtheauthoroftheApocalypseofBaruch to suggest that the relic had been swallowed by the earth below the great‘foundation stone’ known as the Shetiyyah. I knew, of course that no reliance could beplaced on that relatively late and apocryphalwork.Nevertheless Iwas aware that otheraccountsexistedwhichlikewiseidentifiedsomesecretcavernwithintheTempleMountasthelastrestingplaceoftheArk.Reinforcing the notion that that cavern might have been located directly beneath theHolyofHolies,theTalmudexpressedtheviewthat‘theArkwasburiedinitsownplace.’90And this entombment, it seemed, had been the work of King Josiah, who had ruled inJerusalemfrom640to609BC,91i.e.untiljustadecadebeforethefirstBabylonianseizureofthecity.Neartheendofhislongreign,thestorywent,foreseeing‘theimminentdestructionoftheTemple’, ‘JosiahhidtheHolyArkandallitsappurtenances,inordertoguardthemagainstdesecrationatthehandsoftheenemy.’92This,Ifound,wasquiteapervasivebelief.Notallthesources,however,agreedthattheplace of concealment had been in the immediate vicinity of the Holy of Holies. Anotherparalleltradition,recordedintheMishnah,suggestedthattherelichadbeenburied‘underthepavementofthewood-house,thatitmightnotfallintothehandsoftheenemy.’93Thiswood-househadstoodwithintheprecinctsofSolomon’sTemple,butitspreciselocationhadbeen forgotten by the time that the Jews returned from their exile in Babylon and thus‘remainedsecret forall time’.94Nevertheless theMishnah reported that apriesthadoncebeen working in the courtyard of the Second Temple and there, by accident, he hadstumbledupon‘ablockofpavementthatwasdifferentfromtherest’:

Hewentandtoldittohisfellow,butbeforehecouldmakeanendofthematter

hislifedeparted.SotheyknewassuredlythattheretheArklayhidden.95

An entirely separate account of the concealment of the relic was put forward in thesecond book ofMaccabees (awork excluded from the Hebrew Bible, but included in thecanon of the Greek and Latin Christian churches, and in the Apocrypha of the EnglishBible96).Compiledatsometimebetween100BCandAD70byaJewofPharisaicsympathies(whowroteinGreek),97theopeningversesof2Maccabees2hadthistosayaboutthefateoftheArk:

TheprophetJeremiah…warnedbyanoracle[oftheimpendingdestructionoftheTempleofSolomon],gaveinstructionsforthetabernacleandtheArktogowithhimwhenhesetoutforthemountainwhichMoseshadclimbedtosurveyGod’sheritage.OnhisarrivalJeremiahfoundacavedwelling,intowhichhebroughtthetabernacle,theArkandthealtarofincense,afterwardsblockinguptheentrance.98

In the opinion of the scholars who produced the authoritative English translation of theJerusalem Bible – from which the above quotation is taken – Jeremiah’s supposedexpedition to hide the Ark was nothingmore than an inspirational fable devised by theauthorof thesecondbookofMaccabeesaspartofadeliberateattempt to re-awaken theinterestofexpatriateJewsinthenationalhomeland.99TheeditorsoftheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurchlikewiseregardedthepassageasbeingofnohistoricalvalue.100AndsinceitwaswrittensomefivehundredyearsafterthedeathofJeremiahhimselfitcouldnotevenbesaidtobeaparticularlyancienttradition101–althoughitsauthorhadattemptedtodressitupassuchbyclaimingthathehadbasedhisaccountonadocumentfoundin‘thearchives’.102Itwasafact,however,thattheprophetJeremiah(unliketheauthorofMaccabees)hadlived at around the time of the destruction of Solomon’s Temple – whichmeant that hecould,justconceivably,haveplayedsomeroleintheconcealmentoftheArk.Moreover‘themountain which Moses had climbed to survey God’s heritage’ – Mount Nebo103 – was aknownplacethatstoodbarelyfiftykilometrestotheeastofJerusalemasthecrowflies.104Culturally appropriate because of its associations with the founder of Judaism, thisvenerated peak thus also looked like a feasible hiding place in terms of its geographicallocation.TheMaccabees story had therefore not been entirely dismissed by later generations ofJews;on thecontrary,althoughnever incorporated into theJewishcanonofScripture, ithad been substantially elaborated upon and embellished in the folklore – where, forexample, theknottyproblemof exactlyhowJeremiah (whohadbeenverymuchat oddswiththepriestlyfraternityintheTemple105)hadmanagedtogetthesacreditemsoutoftheHolyofHoliesandacrosstheJordanvalleytoNebowassolvedbyprovidinghimwithanangelforahelper!106After lookingback throughall theJewish traditions that Ihad surveyedconcerning thelastrestingplaceoftheArk,Ienteredthefollowingsummaryinmynotebook:

OutsideoftheTalmud,theMishnah,theApocalypseofBaruch,thesecondbookofMaccabees,andvariousrathercolourfullegends,thereisnothingofanysubstanceinJewishtraditionconcerningthewhereaboutsoftheArkoftheCovenant.SinceitnowseemscertainthatitwasnotlootedbyShishakorJehoashorNebuchadnezzar,itthereforefollowsthattheonlyalternativestotheclaimthatitisinAxumare(a)verysketchy,(b)historicallydubious,and(c)lackinginanycurrentvitality(bycontrastreligiousfeelinginEthiopiacontinuestobemassivelyfocusseduponthebeliefthattherelicisindeedthere).AllthismakestheEthiopiancaselookmoreandmorecredible.Nevertheless

theJewish‘alternatives’cannotbedismissedoutofhandsimplybecausetheyseemtobeabitflimsy.ACTION:findoutwhetheranyarchaeologistshaveexcavatedatMountNebo,

orinandaroundtheTempleMount–whicharetheonlytwolocationsproposedbytheJewsasthelastrestingplaceoftheArk.

IwrotethatnoteinmyhotelroominJerusalemonthenightofSaturday6October1990.Twodays later, on themorning ofMonday 8October, I attempted to go back to take asecond look at the Temple Mount, and to visit some excavations that I knew were inprogressjustoutsidethesacredprecincts,perhapsahundredmetrestothesouthoftheAl-AqsaMosque.AsIapproached,however–walkingalongthecitywallfromDavid’sTowerto the Dung Gate – the sound of gunfire and of people screaming forewarned me thatsomethinghadgoneseriouslywrong.

DeathontheMountWhatIhadwalked intosubsequentlycametobeknownas the ‘TempleMountmassacre’,andalthoughitrepresentedthecomingtoaheadofyearsofhatredbetweentheJewsandtheArabsofJerusalem, itsproximatecausewasademonstrationbyanultra-conservativeZionistgroupknownasthe‘TempleMountFaithful’.ThelargebannerthattheycarriedastheymarcheduptotheMoghrabiGateboreaStarofDavidandaprovocativeinscriptioninHebrewwhichsummarizedthekeyissueforallconcerned.Thatinscriptionread:

TEMPLEMOUNT–THESYMBOLOFOURPEOPLEISINTHEHANDSOFOURENEMIES

What the demonstrators hoped to do was to enter the Temple Mount itself through theMoghrabi Gate,march up to the Dome of the Rock, and there lay the cornerstone for aproposedThirdTemple.Thisambition,obviously,waspackedwithpoliticaldynamite:sincework began on the construction of the Dome of the Rock in the seventh century AD, thewholeoftheTempleMountareahadbeenasacredsiteofimmenseimportancetoIslamaswell as to Judaism. Moreover, much to the chagrin of groups like the ‘Temple MountFaithful’, it is the Muslims who are in possession of that site – which has contained noJewishplaceofworshipsincethedestructionoftheSecondTemplebytheRomansinAD70.Wishingtodefendthisstatusquo–againstwhatmusthave lookedtothemlikeagenuine

threat – an estimated five thousand militant Arabs had gathered inside the walls of theTempleMountandhadarmedthemselveswithstoneswhichtheyplannedtohurldownattheapproachingZionists.TheatmospherewasthushighlychargedwithemotionwhentheTempleMountFaithful

begantheirmarchonMonday8October.Andwhataddedenormouslytothetensionwasthe locationof theMoghrabiGate throughwhichthey intendedtopass.Openingout intothemaincompoundlessthanfiftymetresfromthefrontporchoftheAl-AqsaMosque,thisgate is built into the southern end of theWesternWall – the exposed exterior of which,knownasthe‘WailingWall’,istodaythesinglemostimportantJewishholyplace.DatingbacktoSecondTempletimes,it ispartofaretainingbuttressbuiltbyHerodtheGreatinthe late first century BC. It escapeddemolition by theRomans in AD 70 (because, said theMidrash, the ‘Divine Presence’ hovered over it) and, in later years, it became a potentsymbol of the nationalist aspirations of the Jewish people scattered during the diaspora.Even after the formation of the State of Israel it continued to be administered by theHashemiteKingdomof Jordan and itwas not until the SixDayWar of 1967 that itwasfinally incorporated into Israel proper.A large plazawas then cleared in front of it anddedicatedasaformalplaceofworship–where,tothisday,Jewsfromallovertheworldgather to lament the fact that they have no Temple. To avoid a potentially catastrophicconfrontationwithIslam,however,Jewishworshipinanyformcontinuestobebannedonthe Temple Mount itself, which remains under the exclusive control of the Muslims ofJerusalemandwhichdirectlyoverlookstheWailingWall.107BychoosingtotrytoentertheTempleMountthroughtheMoghrabiGate,therefore,the

TempleMountFaithfulwereasking for trouble.Accesswas in factdenied to themby theIsraeli police but, as they turned away, the five thousandArabswhohadgathered insidebegan to rain down showers of stones – not only on the heads of the zealots who hadparticipated in themarchbutalsoon the largenumbersofotherJews thenmaking theirdevotionsattheWailingWall.Inthiswaysomethingthathadstartedlifeasanapparentlysymbolicdemonstrationwasveryrapidlytransformedintoafull-scaleriotinwhichelevenIsraeliworshippers and eight policemenwere hurt, and inwhich twenty-oneArabswereshotdeadandonehundredandtwenty-fiveseriouslyinjured.BythetimeIarrivedonthescenetheworstof itwasover:pilesofstones layamongst

pools of blood at thebaseof theWailingWall; thewoundedwerebeing ferried away inambulances;andthepolice–dressedinriotgearandarmedtotheteeth–appearedtobeinfullcontrol.TheTempleMountitself,havingjustbeenstormedbythesecurityforces,wasoff-limits.SotoowastheareaofexcavationsimmediatelytothesouththatIhadintendedtovisit.HundredsofangryandexcitedJews,afewofthemproudlywearingblood-stainedbandages,milledaroundinadecidedlybellicosemoodandsoonawildcelebrationbeganinfront of theWailingWall – although exactly why anyone should have rejoiced over thebrutalkillingofascoreofArabyouthswassomethingthatIjustcouldnotunderstand.DisgustedanddepressedIeventuallyleftthearea,climbingupthestepsthatledintothe

JewishQuarteroftheoldcityandcrossingintotheStreetoftheChain–alongwhichIhadwalked a fewdays previously onmy first visit to the TempleMount.Here I saw furthergratuitous violence as the police, carrying guns and truncheons, rounded up Palestinianswhomthey suspectedofhavingbeenamongst the rioters.Oneyoungman,protestinghis

innocence in a high-pitched and terrified voice, was repeatedly punched and slapped;another ran at break-neck speed into a narrow alleywhere hewas cornered and beatenbeforebeingdraggedaway.Altogether,ithadbeenamostunpleasantmorninganditcastablightovertherestofmystayinJerusalem.Thiswassonotonlybecauseofthehumansufferingthatcurrenteventshadnowdirectly linked to theplacewhere theArkhadonce stood, but also because theTempleMount and the excavations to the south of it remained sealed off by the securityforcesuntil longafter Ihad left Israel.Despite these inauspiciousomens,however, Iwasdeterminednottowasteanyofthefewdaysremainingtomeinthatunhappycountry,andIthereforecontinuedwithmyinvestigationasbestIcould.

DiggingupsacredplacesTheimmediatequestionthatIwasseekingtoanswerwastheonethatIhadjotteddowninmy notebook on the night of Saturday 6 October: had any efforts been made byarchaeologists todigat theTempleMount,oratMountNebo, inorder to test theJewishtraditionsaboutthelastrestingplaceoftheArk?IbeganwiththeexcavationsthatIhadtriedunsuccessfullytovisitonthemorningof8October.ThoughIcouldnotnowgainaccesstothem,Iwasabletomeetwithsomeofthearchaeologists involved in them and to research their findings.What I learned was thatproper digging had started here in February 1968 – some eight months after Israeliparatroopers had seized control of Jerusalem in the Six Day War. And although all theexcavationsweresafelyoutsidethesacredprecinctsoftheTempleMounttheyhadbeenafocusofcontroversyfromtheverybeginning.AccordingtoMeirBen-Dov,FieldDirectorofthedig,earlyoppositioncamefrommembersoftheHigherMuslimCouncil,whosuspecteda plot against their interests. ‘The excavations are not in fact a scientific venture,’ theycomplained,‘theirZionistobjectiveisrathertounderminethesouthernwalloftheTempleMount,whichislikewisethesouthernwalloftheAl-AqsaMosque,asawayofdestroyingthemosque.’108ToBen-Dov’ssurprise,Christianswereatfirstalmostequallyunhelpful.‘Theysuspected’,heexplained, ‘that thepurposeof theexcavationwas to lay thegroundwork forbuildingtheThirdTempleandthewholebusinessaboutanarchaeologicalventurewasjustacoverforaninvidiousplot.AllIcansayisthatuntilyouactuallyheartheserumourswithyourown ears, they sound like the product of a demonic imagination. Yetmore than once –whether in jest or otherwise – people whose exceptional intelligence and abilities ashistorians and archaeologists are beyond question have come straight out and askedme:“Don’tyouintendtoreinstitutetheTemple?”’109The strongest opposition of all came from the Jewish religious authorities – whoseagreement to the dig was required by the government before any work could begin.Professor Mazar of the Archaeological Institute of the Hebrew University led thenegotiations with the Sephardi and Ashkenazi Chief Rabbis – both of whom turned himdownflatwhenhefirstapproachedthemin1967:

TheSephardiChiefRabbi,RabbiNissim,explainedhisrefusalbythefactthatthe

areaofourproposeddigwasaholyplace.Whenaskedtoelucidatehisanswerfurther,heintimatedthatwemightprovethattheWailingWallwasnotinfactthewesternwalloftheTempleMount.Besides,whatpointwasthereintakingthechanceandconductingadigforscientificpurposeswhentheywereirrelevantanyway?OntheotherhandtheAshkenaziChiefRabbi,RabbiUnterman,agonizedoverhalakhicproblems(questionsofJewishlaw).‘Whatwillhappen,’hemusedaloud,‘if,asaresultofthearchaeologicalexcavation,youfindtheArkoftheCovenant,whichJewishtraditionsaysisburiedinthedepthsoftheearth?’‘Thatwouldbewonderful!’ProfessorMazarrepliedinallinnocence.ButthevenerableRabbitoldthelearnedProfessorthatthatwaspreciselywhathefeared.SincetheChildrenofIsraelarenot‘pure’fromtheviewpointofJewishreligiouslaw,theyareforbiddentotouchtheArkoftheCovenant.HenceitisunthinkabletoevenconsiderexcavatinguntiltheMessiahcomes!110

The rabbi’s concern about the Ark was entirely orthodox. All Jews have indeed beenconsideredtobeinaconditionofritualimpuritysincethedestructionoftheSecondTemple–aconditionthatisonlysupposedtoendwiththecomingofthetrueMessiah.111Dogmaofthis sort thus represented a considerable obstacle in the path of the archaeologists.Neverthelesstheymanagedinduecoursetowintherabbisover–andalsotoovercometheobjections of the representatives of the other twomonotheistic faiths descended from theOldTestamentworshipofYahweh.Thedigwentahead.Moreover,despitethelocationofthesiteoutsidetheTempleMount,anumberofartefactsfromthedaysoftheFirstTemplewere recovered.Predictably, though,no traceof theArkof theCovenantwas found,andthe vast bulk of the discoveries proved to be from the later Second Temple,Muslim andCrusaderperiods.112In summary, therefore, I could see that Meir Ben-Dov’s excavations had certainly notvindicated the Jewish traditions about the concealment of the Ark. But neither had theyconclusivelydisprovedthosetraditions.Onlyonethingcoulddothat,andthatwouldbeathoroughandpainstakingdigontheTempleMountitself.Myownfeeling,asthereaderwillrecall,wasthatsuchadighadbeencarriedoutbytheKnightsTemplarlongcenturiesbeforethedisciplineofarchaeologywaseverinvented,andthatthey,too,hadfailedtofindtheArk.NeverthelessIstillneededtoknowwhetheranyexcavationshadbeenundertaken inmodern times, and if sowhathadbeen found. I putthesequestionstoDrGabbyBarkai,anarchaeologistatJerusalem’sHebrewUniversitywhospecializesintheFirstTempleperiod.‘Sincemodernarchaeologyemerged,’hetoldmebluntly,‘noefforthasbeenmadetodiginsidetheTempleMount.’‘Why?’Iasked.‘Because it’s theultimatesacredsite.TheMuslimauthoritiesareutterlyopposed toanykind of scientific investigations being undertaken there. It would be the worst kind ofsacrilegefromtheirpointofview.SotheTempleMountremainsariddleforarchaeology.Most ofwhatwe know about it is theoretical and interpretive. Archaeologicallywe onlyhave the findingsofCharlesWarren.AndParkerofcourse.Heactuallydiddig inside the

DomeoftheRock–in1910ifIremembercorrectly.Buthewasn’tanarchaeologist.Hewasalunatic.HewaslookingfortheArkoftheCovenant.’I was not sure from this statement whether Barkai had described Parker as a ‘lunatic’

becausehehad looked for theArk;orwhetherhehad looked for theArkbecausehehadbeenalunatic;orwhetherhislunacyhadbeenmanifestlyapparentbeforehehadstartedtodig inside theDome of theRock. This, however, seemed like an excellent opportunity torefrainfrommentioningthatI,too,waslookingfortheArk.Ithereforeconfinedmyselftoasking the archaeologist where Imight find outmore about Parker – and about CharlesWarren,theothernamehehadmentioned.Acoupleofdaysof archive research followed,duringwhich I learned thatWarrenhad

beenayoung lieutenant inBritain’sRoyalEngineerswhohadbeencommissionedby theLondon-basedPalestineExplorationFundtoexcavatetheTempleMountintheyear1867.Hiswork,however,hadbeenconfinedtomuchthesameareas–outsideandtothesouthofthesacredprecincts–thatweretobemorethoroughlyinvestigatedacenturylaterbyMeirBen-Dovandhiscolleagues.113ThedifferencewasthatWarrenhadveryactivelysoughtpermissiontoexcavateinsidethe

TempleMountaswell.ButallhiseffortshadbeenrebuffedbytheOttomanTurkswhothenadministered Jerusalem. Moreover, on the one occasion when he had managed to cut atunnel northwards and to burrow under the exteriorwalls, the sledgehammers and othertoolsusedbyhislabourershaddisturbedtheprayersofthefaithfulgoingonabovetheminthe Al-Aqsa Mosque. The result had been a hail of stones, a riot, and orders from IzzetPasha,thegovernorofthecity,thatthedigshouldbesuspendedforthwith.114Despite such difficulties,Warren had refused to be discouraged and had persuaded the

Ottomans to let him go back to work again. He had subsequently made several otherclandestineattemptstotunnelbeneaththeTempleMount,wherehehadplannedto‘locateandmapalltheancientremains’thathemightencounter.115Buthewasunabletorealizethisambitionandreachedonlythefoundationsoftheexteriorwalls.116OfcoursehedidnotfindtheArkoftheCovenant–therewasnoevidencethatithadeverbeenhisintentiontolook for it anyway.His chief interest had been in the Second Temple period and in thiscontexthedidmakemanydiscoveriesoflastingvaluetoscholarship.117ThesamecouldnotbesaidforMontagueBrownslowParker,asonoftheEarlofMorley,

whohadgone to Jerusalem in1909with the express intentionof locating theArk – andwhohadmadenocontributiontoscholarshipwhatsoever.Parker’s expedition, later politely described by the renowned British archaeologist

Kathleen Kenyon as ‘exceptional by any standards’,118 was the brainchild of a Finnishmystic named Valter H. Juvelius, who in 1906 had presented a paper at a SwedishuniversityonthesubjectofthedestructionofKingSolomon’sTemplebytheBabylonians.Juveliusclaimedtohaveacquiredreliable informationabout thehidingplace– insidetheTempleprecincts–of‘thegold-encrustedArkoftheCovenant’,andhealsosaidthataclosestudythathehadmadeoftherelevantbiblicaltextshadrevealedtheexistenceofasecretunderground passage running into the Temple Mount from some part of the city ofJerusalem.AfterporingoverthereportsofCharlesWarren’sexcavations,hehadconvincedhimselfthatthissecretpassagewouldbefoundtothesouthoftheAl-AqsaMosque,inthearea that Warren had already dug. Proffering the lure of the US $200 million that he

believedtheArkwouldbeworthifitcouldberecovered,Juveliusthereforesoughtinvestorstofinanceanexpeditionwhichwouldlocateandclearthatpassageinordertogainaccesstothetreasure.119Hisfund-raisingeffortswerenotcrownedwithsuccessuntil, inLondon,heencountered

Montague Brownslow Parker, then aged thirty, and won his support for the venture.MilkinghiscontactsintheBritisharistocracyandabroad,includingmembersofChicago’swealthyArmourfamily,Parkerveryquicklymanagedtoraisetheusefulsumof$125,000.The expedition accordingly went ahead and, by August 1909, had established itsheadquartersontheMountofOlives(whichdirectlyoverlookstheTempleMount).Digging began immediately on the site that Warren had previously so painstakingly

explored.MoreoverParkerandJuveliuswerenotdeterredbythefactthattheirillustriouspredecessor had found nothing of enormous significance; on the contrary they proceededwith optimism– since theyhadbynowhired an Irish clairvoyant to assist them in theirsearchforthesupposed‘secrettunnel’.Time passed. There were the predictable protests from the faithful of all religious

persuasions.And, aswinter came, theweather turned foul, flooding the excavationswithriversofmud.Understandably,Parkerwasdiscouraged.Hecalledatemporaryhaltanddidnotresumethedigagainuntilthesummerof1910.Severalmonthsoffreneticactivitythenfollowed. The secret tunnel, however, still obstinately refused to reveal itself and, in themeantime,oppositiontothewholeprojecthadgrowndecidedlymorepronounced.Bythespring of 1911 Baron Edmond de Rothschild, a Zionist and a member of the famousinternational banking family, hadmade it his personal mission to prevent the potentialdesecration of the holiest site of Judaism, and to this end had purchased a plot of landadjoiningtheexcavationsfromwhichhecoulddirectlythreatenParker.TheyoungBritisharistocratwasrattledbythisdevelopment.InAprilof1911,therefore,

heabandonedthesearch for the tunnelandresorted tomoredesperatemeans.JerusalemwasthenstillunderthecontroloftheOttomanTurksandthegovernorofthecity,AmzeyBeyPasha,wasnotamanknownforhisscrupuloushonesty.Abribeof$25,000securedhiscooperation,andanadditionalthoughsmallersumpersuadedSheikhKhalil–thehereditaryguardianoftheDomeoftheRock–toadmitParkerandhisteamtothesacredsiteandtoturnablindeyetowhatevertheydidthere.Thework,forobviousreasons,wascarriedoutatdeadofnight.DisguisedasArabs,the

treasurehuntersspentaweekexcavating thesouthernpartof theTempleMountclose totheAl-AqsaMosque–whereJuveliusand the Irishclairvoyantbothbelieved that theArkhadbeenburied.Theseeffortsprovedentirelyfruitless,however,andinthesmallhoursofthemorningof18April1911ParkerswitchedhisattentionstotheDomeoftheRock,andtothelegendarycavernssupposedtoliefarbelowtheShetiyyah.Inthosedaysthestaircaseleadingdowntothe‘WellofSouls’hadnotyetbeeninstalled

andParkerandhis teamhadto lowerthemselvesandtheirequipmentbymeansofropesfastenedtotheShetiyyahitself.TheythenlitstormlanternsandbegantohackawayatthefloorofthegrottointhehopethattheymightthusgainaccesstothelastingrestingplaceoftheArk.Disasterstruckbeforetheyhadevenbeguntoestablishwhetherotherhollowslaybeneath

them.ThoughSheikhKhalil,thehereditaryguardian,hadbeenboughtoff,anothermosque

attendant unexpectedly appeared (the story goes that he had decided to sleep on theTempleMountbecausehisownhomewasfullofguests).HearingthesoundofdiggingfromtheDomeoftheRockheburstin,peereddownintotheWellofSoulsand,tohishorror,sawanumberofwild-eyedforeignersattackingtheholygroundwithpicksandshovels.The reaction, on both sides, was dramatic. The shocked mosque attendant uttered apiercinghowlandfledscreamingintothenighttorallythefaithful.TheEnglishmen,wiselyrealizingthatthegamewasup,alsobeatahastyretreat.Notevenbotheringtoreturntotheir base camp, they left Jerusalem at once and made for the port of Jaffa – where,conveniently,amotoryachtthattheyhadcharteredlaymooredintheharbour.InthiswaytheymanagedtocheatthehystericalmobthatarrivedattheTempleMountonlymomentsafter theirdepartureandthatcarriedoff theunfortunateSheikhKhalil toanunspeakablefate.Beforemorningtherewerefull-scaleriotsinJerusalemandAmzeyBeyPasha–whowasrightlysuspectedofcomplicity–hadbeenassaultedandinsulted.HisresponsewastoclosetheTempleMountandtoissueordersthatthetreasurehuntersshouldbeapprehendedontheir arrival at Jaffa. No doubt he took this latter step in part to assuage his guiltyconscience.However, rumourshadspread thatParkerhad foundandabducted theArkofthe Covenant, andMuslim and Jewish leaderswere vociferous in their demands that thesacredrelicmustnotbeallowedtoleavethecountry.Alerted by telegraph, the Jaffa police and customs authorities arrested the fugitives,impounded all their belongings and made an extremely thorough search. They foundnothing. Somewhat nonplussed by this they then locked the baggage up but allowed theEnglishmentorowouttotheiryacht,inthesalubrioussurroundingsofwhich,ithadbeenagreed,theinterrogationwouldcontinue.Assoonasheandhiscolleaguesweresafelyonboard,however,Parkerorderedthecrewtoweighanchor.AfewweekslaterhewasbackinEngland.HehadfailedtofindthelostArk,buthehadsucceeded in losing the entire $125,000 with which investors in the United States andBritain had entrusted him.120 ‘The whole episode, and excavations,’ Kathleen Kenyonconcludedmanyyearslater,‘didnotredoundtothecreditofBritisharchaeology.’121British archaeologists, however,werenot involved in thenext attempt to find theArk,whichtookplaceinthe1920sandwhichfocussedonMountNebowhere,accordingtothebook of Maccabees, the prophet Jeremiah had concealed the sacred relic just before thedestructionofSolomon’sTemple.TheprimemoveronthisoccasionwasaneccentricAmericanexplorerwholikedtodressup in flowing Arab robes and who, though male, went by the curious name of AntoniaFrederickFutterer.AfterthoroughlysurveyingMountNebo(andalsoitsneighbouringpeakMountPisgah)heclaimed–withtrulyawe-inspiringoriginality–tohavefound…asecretpassage.ThispassagewasblockedbyawallofsomesortandFuttererdidnotattempttobreak it down.Whenhe examined it by flashlight, however, he discovered…an ancientinscription, which he faithfully copied and carried back to Jerusalem. There he madecontactwitha‘scholar’attheHebrewUniversitywhohelpfullydecipheredthehieroglyphsforhim.Themessageread:

HEREINLIESTHEGOLDENARKOFTHECOVENANT

UnfortunatelyFuttererwouldnotnamethescholarwhohadproducedthistranslation;nor,inthefurorethatfollowed,didanyonestepforwardtoclaimthathonour;norwasFutterersubsequentlyabletoproducethecopythatheclaimedtohavemadeoftheinscription;nordidheevergobacktoMountNebotoretrievetheArkfromitsallegedsecretpassage.122Half a century later, however, a new champion emerged to pick up the baton thatFutterer had dropped. That champion, too, was an American explorer, Tom Crotser byname,whoseprevious ‘discoveries’ had included theTowerofBabel,Noah’sArk, and theCity ofAdam. In 1981, by rather circuitousmeans, this gentleman acquired some papersthat Futterer had left, paperswhich apparently included a sketch of thewalled-up secretpassageonMountNebowheretheArkoftheCovenantwassupposedtolieburied.123MountNeboislocatedjustinsidetheborderofthemodernstateofJordananditwastothat country that Crotser now flew, togetherwith a group of zealous colleagues from anorganization known as the ‘Institute for Restoring History International’ (headquarters:Winfield, Kansas).124 Their mission, of course, was to salvage the Ark. To this end theyspent four days sleeping rough on Mount Nebo – much to the consternation of theFranciscansofTerraSantawhoownthesummit,whoguardtheByzantinechurchthatwaserected there over the supposed burial place of Moses, and who, for the past severaldecades,haveconductedcarefulandprofessionalarchaeologicalexcavationsinthearea.125Needlesstosay,theFranciscanshaveneverfoundtheArk,andnordidCrotser–atleastnot on Mount Nebo. After finishing there, however, he and his team moved on toneighbouringMountPisgah(whichFuttererhadalsovisited).Onthatpeaktheystumbledupon a gully which they were confident would give them access to the ‘secret passage’identifiedinFutterer’ssketch.Thefact thatpartof thefloorof thegullywasblockedbya lengthof tinsheetingonlyadded to their excitement. On the night of 31 October 1981 they removed this flimsyobstacleand,sureenough,apassagestretchedaheadofthem.Theyfollowedthepassage,which they saidwasabout four feetwideand seven feethigh, for adistanceof some sixhundredfeetintothebowelsoftheearth.TheretheycameacrossawallexactlyliketheonethatFuttererhaddescribedand,withoutfurtherado,theybrokeitdown.Beyond it was a rock-hewn crypt measuring roughly seven feet by seven feet andcontaining, according to Crotser, a gold-covered rectangular chest measuring sixty-twoinches long, thirty-seven inches wide and thirty-seven inches high. Beside it, apparently,were carryingpoles exactlymatching thebiblical descriptionof the carryingpoles of theArk of the Covenant. And off to one side lay cloth-wrapped packages which Crotserassumedtobethecherubimthat,intimesgoneby,hadbeenmounteduponthemercyseat.TheAmericanswerecertainthattheyhadfoundthesacredrelic.Theydidnotremoveit;neither did they touch it or open it; using flash-guns, however, they did take colourphotographsofit.ThentheyleftJordanandreturnedtotheUSAwheretheyimmediatelyinformed the press agency UPI about their discovery. The result was an internationallysyndicatednews storywhich,according to the journalist responsible, ‘gotmoreplay thananythingIwroteinmylife.’126So,had theArk reallybeen found?Obviously thephotographs taken in the cryptwerecrucialevidencethatmightvindicatethesensationalclaimthattheAmericanshadmade–ifsuitablyqualifiedbiblicalarchaeologistsweregiventheopportunitytostudythem. Itwas

thereforedifficulttounderstandwhyCrotsersteadfastlyrefusedtoreleasethesepicturestoanyone. Fewwere convinced by his argument that God had instructed him to give themonlytotheLondonbankerDavidRothschildwho,hesaid,wasadirectdescendantofJesusChristandhadbeenchosenbytheLordtobuildtheThirdTemple–inwhichtheArkoftheCovenant,retrievedfromitshidingplace,wouldoccupycentrestage.127AmemberofthesameinternationalbankingfamilythathadopposedMontagueParker’s

excavationsattheTempleMountin1910,Rothschildicilydeclinedtotakedeliveryofthephotographs – which Crotser still keeps in his home in Winfield, Kansas, which he stillrefusestorelease,butwhichhewillshowtoselectedvisitors.In1982,onesuchvisitorwastherespectedarchaeologistSiegfriedH.Horn,aspecialist

ontheMountNeboareaandtheauthorofmorethanadozenscholarlybooks.128Hespentsome time closely examiningCrotser’s photographswhich, unfortunately, seemed tohavecomeoutofthedevelopmentprocessratherbadly:

Allbuttwoshowedabsolutelynothing.Ofthetwothatregisteredimages,oneisfuzzybutdoesdepictachamberwithayellowboxinthecentre.Theotherslideisquitegoodandgivesaclearviewofthefrontofthebox.129

Immediatelyafter leavingCrotser’shouse,Horn(who isanaccomplished draughtsman)madeasketchoftheboxashehadobserveditintheslide.Somepartsoftheyellowmetaloverlay appeared to him to be brass, not gold, and, moreover, were stamped with adiamondpatternthatlookedmachine-worked.Moredamningbyfar,however,wasthefactthat a nailwith amodern style of head could be seen protruding out of the upper rightcornerofthefrontofthebox.130Hornconcluded:

Idonotknowwhattheobjectisbutthepicturesconvincedmethatitisnotanancientartefactbutofmodernfabricationwithmachine-produceddecorativestripsandanunderlyingmetalsheet.131

FromfictionstofactAfter working my way steadily through the archaeological records in Jerusalem I wasunable to trace any further references to expeditions that had sought to test the JudaictraditionsaboutthelastrestingplaceoftheArkoftheCovenant.AndthescholarswhomItalkedtoconfirmedthatthefieldwasindeedalimitedone:CharlesWarren,andlaterMeirBen-Dovandhisteam,hadduginthevicinityoftheTempleMount(thoughtheywerenotlookingfortheArk);MontagueBrownslowParker–notanarchaeologistbuta‘lunatic’,asGabby Barkai had described him – had dug inside the TempleMount but had not foundanything; Antonia Frederick Futterer had found, but not explored, a secret passage onMountNebowhichhehadbelievedtocontain theArk;and lastlyTomCrotserclaimedtohavefoundtheArkitselfinthatsamepassage–which,however,seemedtohavemigratedfromMountNebotoMountPisgahinthefiftyyearssinceFutterer’svisit.Andthatwasit.That,asthesayinggoes,wastheboilinglot–withthesoleexceptionof

myownactivities.AndwhatwasIdoing?WellIwaslookingfortheArk,too,ofcourse–a

venture inwhich, Imustconfess, Iwasdisconcerted todiscover that IhadbeenprecededonlybyMessianicvisionariesandharebrainedcranks.Mysavinggrace, I supposed,wasthat Ihadnot theslightest interest in thebuildingof

theThirdTempleandthatIdidnotbelievethattheArkhadbeenburiedbeneaththeDomeoftheRockorinMountsNeboorPisgah.Irealizedthatitwouldbepracticallyimpossibletoprove that those locations concealedno further secrets; but Iwas nowas satisfied as IeverwouldbethatthelostrelichadnotgonetoanyoftheplacesindicatedintheJudaictraditions,thatithadnotbeentakenbytheEgyptiansortheBabylonians,andthatithadnotbeendestroyedeither.Itsdisappearance, therefore, lookedmoreandmore likeagenuinelybafflingmystery–

‘oneof thegreatmysteriesof theBible’ asRichardElliottFriedman,ProfessorofHebrewandComparativeReligionattheUniversityofCalifornia,hadoncedescribedit.132Allmywork in1989and1990hadstrengthenedmyconviction that the solution to thatmysterymustlieinEthiopia.Andyet…Andyet…theoneproblemthatIhadnotconfrontedatall,atanystageofmyresearch,wasthatEthiopia’sclaimtopossesstheArkseemedtorestonfoundations that were every bit as flimsy as the Apocalypse of Baruch or the book ofMaccabees.To putmatters plainly, I was beginning to feel that theKebraNagast’s bold assertions

were not sufficiently reliable as a historicalwitness to justify a trip to the sacred city ofAxum–atripduringwhichIwouldhavetoputmyownlifeatrisk.TheinsistencethattheQueenofShebahadbeenanEthiopianandthelinkedpretencethatshehadborneasontoKingSolomonwho,induecourse,hadabductedtheArkfromJerusalem,hadmoretheringofpreposterous fictions thanof sober truths.Tobe sure, I haduncovereda greatdeal ofevidence in Ethiopia – persuasive evidence –which did lend considerable support to thenotion that the relic might really lie in the sanctuary chapel in Axum. And now I hadsatisfiedmyselfthatnootherlocationcouldhopetopresentamoreconvincingcase.That,however,waslessareflectionofthestrengthoftheKebraNagast’saccountofhowtheArkhadgottoEthiopiathanoftheweaknessofthealternatives.BeforefinallycommittingmyselftogoingtoAxum,therefore,IfeltthatIneededtofinda

more convincing explanation than that offered in the Kebra Nagast of how ‘the mostimportantobject in theworld intheBiblicalview’133 couldpossiblyhaveendedup in theheartofAfrica.By the time that I finally leftJerusalem inmid-October1990 Ihad foundthatexplanation–asIshallrecountinthenextchapter.

Chapter15HiddenHistory

Afterapainstakinginvestigation,IhadsatisfiedmyselfthatEthiopia’sclaimtobethelastresting place of the lost Ark was not challenged by any particularly strong or strikingalternative. That finding, however, had not been the only outcome ofmy research. As Iwroteinmynotebook:

NoonewhohasfollowedthestoryoftheArkfromitsconstructionatthefootofMountSinaiuntilthemomentofitsdepositioninSolomon’sTemplewouldseriouslydisputethatitwasanobjectofimmenseimportancetotheJewishpeople.AndyetthefactisthattheScriptures–sodominatedbythepresenceoftherelicbeforeSolomon–seemtoforgetaboutitentirelyafterhim.ItslossisformallyrecognizedatthetimeoftheconstructionoftheSecondTemple.Thegreatmystery,however,toquotethewordsofProfessorRichardFriedman,isthat:‘ThereisnoreportthattheArkwascarriedawayordestroyed…Thereisnotevenanycommentsuchas“AndthentheArkdisappeared,andwedonotknowwhathappenedtoit,”or“Andnooneknowswhereitistothisday.”Themostimportantobjectintheworld,inthebiblicalview,simplyceasestobeinthestory.’1

ReviewingtheevidenceIhadtoaskmyself:Whyshouldthisbe?Whyshouldthecompilersof theOld Testament have allowed theArk to vanish from the sacred texts – notwith abang,asonemighthaveexpected,butwithawhimper?TheKebraNagast,Iknew,didofferaclearanswertoexactlythisquestion.InChapter62itdescribedSolomon’sgriefafterhehaddiscoveredthathissonMenelikhadabductedtherelic from theTempleandcarried it off toEthiopia.Whenhehadhad time to collecthisthoughts, however, the king turned to the elders of Israel – who were likewise loudlylamentingthelossoftheArk–andwarnedthemtodesist:

Ceaseye,sothattheuncircumcisedpeoplemaynotboastthemselvesoverusandmaynotsayuntous,‘Theirgloryistakenaway,andGodhathforsakenthem.’Revealyenotanythingelsetoalienfolk…And…theeldersofIsraelmadeanswerandsaiduntohim,‘Maythygoodpleasurebedone,andthegoodpleasureoftheLordGod!Asforus,noneofuswilltransgressthyword,andwewillnotinformanyotherpeoplethattheArkhathbeentakenawayfromus.’AndtheyestablishedthiscovenantintheHouseofGod–theeldersofIsraelwiththeirKingSolomonuntothisday.2

Inotherwords,iftheKebraNagastwastobelieved,therehadbeenamassivecover-up.TheArkhadbeenremovedtoEthiopiaduringthelifetimeofSolomonhimself;all informationaboutthistragiclosshad,however,beensuppressed,whichwaswhynomentionwasmade

ofitintheScriptures.Therewas,Ithought,muchtorecommendthisargument.ItmadeagreatdealofsensetosupposethattheJewishkingwouldindeedhavesoughttokeepfromthecommonherdanyknowledgeof the lossof theArk.Butat the same time Ihad seriousproblemswith someotheraspectsoftheKebraNagastaccount–notablythoseconcerningtheQueenofSheba’sEthiopiancredentials,herallegedloveaffairwithSolomon,thebirthoftheirsonMenelik,thenotionthatthelatterhadbroughttheArktoEthiopia,andtheimplicationthatthishadhappenedinthetenthcenturyBC:

1ThereappearedtobenojustificationfortheKebraNagast’saudaciousclaimthattheQueenofShebahadbeenanEthiopianwoman.Itwasnotabsolutelyimpossiblethatshemighthavebeen(inhisAntiquitiesoftheJews,forexample,FlaviusJosephushaddescribedheras‘thequeenofEgyptandEthiopia’3).Onbalance,however,historicalresearchdidnotsuggestthatshehadstartedherjourneyintheAbyssinianhighlandswhen,astheBibleputit,shehadtravelledto‘Jerusalemwithaverygreattrain,withcamelsthatbarespices,andverymuchgold,andpreciousstones.’4

2IftheevidencelinkingtheQueenofShebatoEthiopiawasthin,thenevidencefortheveryexistenceofhersonMenelikwaseventhinner.IhadknownforsometimethathistoriansconsideredthesupposedfounderofEthiopia’s‘Solomonic’dynastytobeapurelylegendaryfigure–andIhadlearntnothingintwoyearsofresearchtopersuademethattheyweremistakenaboutthisrathercrucialpoint.3InparticularitseemedtobeinconceivablethatanadvancedcultureandacentralizedmonarchyofthekinddescribedintheKebraNagastcouldhaveexistedintheAbyssinianmountainsinthetenthcenturyBC.‘AtthetimewhenSolomonwasreigning,’asE.A.WallisBudgehadputit,‘thenativesofthecountrywhichwenowcallAbyssiniaweresavages.’5Thiswastheorthodoxviewandmyresearchhaduncoverednothingthatwouldenablemetorefuteit.4EvenmorefataltoanykindofliteralacceptanceoftheKebraNagaswastheevidencethatImyselfhadcollectedinEthiopia.OfallthemanytraditionsthatIhadencounteredinthatcountry,byfarthepurestandmostconvincinghadindicatedthattheArkoftheCovenanthadbeenbroughtfirstofalltoLakeTana,whereithadbeenconcealedontheislandofTanaKirkos.MemhirFisseha,thepriestwhomIhadinterviewedthere(seeChapter9),hadtoldmethattherelichadremainedontheislandforeighthundredyearsbeforeithadfinallybeentakentoAxumatthetimeofEthiopia’sconversiontoChristianity.SincethatconversionhadoccurredaroundAD330,theimplicationofthestrongfolkmemorypreservedonTanaKirkoswasthattheArkmusthavearrivedinEthiopiain470BCorthereabouts–inotherwordsaboutfivehundredyearsafterSolomon,MenelikandtheQueenofSheba.

These,ofcourse,werenottheonlydifficultiesthatIhadwiththeaccountgivenintheKebraNagast.Somethingelsethatbotheredmegreatly,forexample,wasthepracticalquestionofhowMenelikandhiscompanionscouldpossiblyhaveremovedsopreciousandsoheavyanobject as the Ark from the Temple of Solomon without attracting the attention of thezealousLeviteswhoguardedtheHolyofHolies.

AndIhadseveralother reservations too,allofwhich, togetherwith those listedabove,had forced me to agree with the academic experts that the Kebra Nagast was indeed aremarkable document but that it had to be taken with a very large pinch of salt. This,however, did not make me want to dismiss the great epic entirely. On the contrary, incommonwithmanyotherlegends,I feltthattherewaseverypossibilitythatitselaboratefictionalsuperstructuremighthavebeenerectedaboveasolidfoundationofhistoricaltruth.In short,while reluctantly rejecting the lovely ideaof the romancebetweenSolomonandSheba,andthecheekysuggestionthattheArkhadbeenstolenfromtheTemplebytheirsonMenelik,IsawnoreasontoconcludethattherelicmightnothavebeenbroughttoEthiopiabysomeothermeans,thuscreatinganenigmawhichtheKebraNagasthadmuchlatergoneontoexplaininitsownpeculiarlyoriginalandcolourfulway.Indeed,Iwassatisfiedthatthe social and cultural evidence in Ethiopia itself very strongly supported that country’sclaim to be the last resting place of the Ark. And, since I now also knew that no othercountryorplacehadastrongerclaim,IwasmoreinclinedthanevertobelievethattheArkreallywasthere.Nevertheless, the final pieces of the jigsaw puzzle remained to be put in place. If the

QueenofShebahadnotbeenSolomon’slover,andifshehadneverbornehimasoncalledMenelik as the legends claimed, thenwho in facthad brought theArk to Ethiopia – andwhen,andunderwhatcircumstances?

Theladydothprotesttoomuch,methinks…In my attempt to answer these questions I kept at the forefront of my mind the veryacceptable notion, put forward in the Kebra Nagast, that the removal of the Ark of theCovenant from the Holy of Holies could have been the subject of a cover-up – of aconspiracy of silence involving the priestly elite and the king. But, if not Solomon, thenwhichking?Partof thedefinitionofa ‘cover-up’,of course, is that it shouldbedifficult todetect. I

therefore did not expect that evidence of the sort that I was seeking would be easilyextractedfromtheOldTestament.Thatgreatandcomplexbookhadguardeditssecretswellformorethantwothousandyearsandtherewasnoreasontosupposethatitwouldsimplysurrenderthemtomenow.I began by typing up every single mention of the Ark of the Covenant that had ever

appearedintheBible.Evenwithaccesstothebestscholarshiponthesubjectitwasahardtask to track themall down, andwhen I had finished I hadbeforeme a documentmorethanfiftypageslong.Strikinglyandsignificantly,onlythelastpagecontainedreferencesthat related to theperiodafterSolomon’sdeath;all theothersconcerned themselveswiththestoryoftheArkduringthewanderingsinthewilderness,theconquestofthePromisedLand,thereignofKingDavid,andthereignofKingSolomonhimself.TheBible,as Iwaswellaware, containsahotch-potchofmaterialproducedby several

different schools of scribes over hundreds of years.Many of the references to the Ark, Iknew,wereveryoldindeed;butotherswererelativelylate.NoneofthoseinthefirstbookofKings, forexample,werecodifiedbefore the reignofJosiah (640–609 BC).6Thismeantthat the account of the Ark’s installation in Solomon’s Temple in 1 Kings 8, although

undoubtedlybasedonancientoralandwrittentraditions,hadbeentheworkofthepriestswho had lived long after the event. And exactly the same observation applied to all therelevantreferences inthebookofDeuteronomy,sincethis, too,wasa latedocumentthatdatedonlyfromthetimeofKingJosiah.7Therefore,iftheArkhadbeensecretlyremovedfrom theHoly ofHolies before the destruction of the Temple in 587 BC, it seemed tomeprobablethatthetracesofanycover-upwouldbefoundinKingsandinDeuteronomy–iftheyweretobefoundanywhere–forincompilingthesebooksthescribeswouldhavehadanopportunitytotamperwiththefactsinordertocreatethedesiredimpressionthat‘theglory’hadnotdepartedfromIsrael.OncloseexaminationofthetextsIcameacrossapassageinChapter8ofthefirstbookof

Kingsthatseemedsomehowoutofcharacter,thatjarredinacuriouswaywiththerestofthedescriptionofthegreatceremonythathadsurroundedthedepositionoftheArkintheHolyofHolies.Thatpassagereadasfollows:

ThepriestsbroughtintheArkoftheCovenantoftheLordtoitsplace,theinnershrineofthehouse,theMostHolyPlace,beneaththewingsofthecherubim.ThecherubimspreadtheirwingsovertheplaceoftheArk;theyformedascreenabovetheArkanditspoles.ThepolesprojectedandtheirendscouldbeseenfromtheHolyPlaceimmediatelyinfrontoftheinnershrine,butfromnowhereelseoutside;theyaretheretothisday.8

Why,Iwondered,hadthebiblicalscriberesponsibleforthispassagefounditnecessarytoassertthatthecarryingpolesoftheArkcould,inhisday,stillbeseenprojectingoutoftheinnershrine?Whatwouldhavebeenthepointofsuchastatementunless therelichad infact not been there at the time that these words were written (approximately 610 BCaccordingtotheauthorities9)?Theoddlydefensivetonehad,Ithought,theringofoneofthose emphatic declarations of innocence that guilty parties sometimesmake in order toobscure the truth. In short, like the famous lady inShakespeare’sHamlet, the author of 1Kings8hadarousedmysuspicionsby‘protestingtoomuch’.10I was pleased to discover that I was not alone in this intuition. In 1928 the leading

biblical scholar JulianMorgenstern had also been struck by the strangeness of thewords‘they are there to this day’.His conclusion, in an erudite paper published in theHebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,wasthatthescribemusthaveintended

toconvincehisreadersthatthestavesoftheArk,andtherefore,ofcourse,theArkitself,werepresentintheinnermostpartoftheTemple,eventhoughtheycouldnotbeseenbythepeopleatlarge,or,forthatmatter,byanyoneotherthantheHighPriest,whenheenteredtheHolyofHoliesonceayear,onYomKippur…Thefactthat[thescribe]seemstohavefeltcompelledtoinsistinthismannerthattheArkwasstillpresentintheTempleinhisday…indicatesthathemusthavehadtocontendwithaprevalentandpersistentdoubtofthis,adoubtfoundedinalllikelihooduponactualfact.11

Norwasthisall.TheverynextverseofthesamechapterofthebookofKingsinsisted:

TherewasnothingintheArkexceptthetwostonetabletsMoseshadplacedinit…thetabletsofthecovenantwhichYahwehhadmadewiththeIsraeliteswhentheycameoutofthelandofEgypt;theyarestilltheretoday.12

AndthebookofDeuteronomy,writtenatthesametime,saidalmostexactlythesamething–thetabletsofstonewereplacedintheArkbyMoses,‘andtheretheyhaveremainedeversince’.13Morgenstern’sanalysisof thesewordswas that they ‘musthavebeen inserted for someparticular purpose’.14 And, after referring to the originalHebrew text, he concluded thatthispurposecouldonlyhavebeentoprovide

adirectandpositiveaffirmation,almost,itwouldseem,inthefaceofadoubtorquestion,thatthetabletsoftheTenCommandmentswerestillpresentintheArkinthedays…oftheauthorofthisverse.15

Deuteronomy and the first book of Kings had, of course, dealt with widely differentperiodsof Israelitehistory.Crucially,however–andthepoint isso important that itwillbearrepetition–theyhadbothbeencompiledatthesametime.Thattime,asIhadalreadyestablished,hadbeenthereignofKingJosiah,i.e.from640to609BC.Mycuriosityaroused, I turnedto the typescript inwhich Ihadsetdownall thebiblicalreferences to the Ark. I remembered that there were very few in the whole of the OldTestamentwhich related to theperiodafter thedeathof Solomon.Now Idiscovered thattherewere in factonly two:onehadbeenwrittenduringJosiah’s reign; theotherquotedthewordsofJosiahhimself;andbothappearedonthelastpageofmydocument.

JosiahandJeremiahI had already come across Josiah in my research. When I had been investigating theantiquity of the religious customsof theblack JewsofEthiopia I had learned that it hadbeen during his reign that the institution of sacrifice had finally and conclusively beencentralized on Jerusalem and banned in all other locations (see Chapter 6). Since theFalashasthemselvesstillpractisedsacrificeinEthiopia(havingaltarsinalltheirvillages),Ihadconcludedinmynotebookthattheirancestors

musthavebeenconvertedtoJudaismatatimewhenitwasstillacceptableforthosefarawayfromthecentralizednationalsanctuarytopractiselocalsacrifice.ThiswouldsuggestthattheconversiontookplacebeforeKingJosiah’sban–i.e.nolaterthantheseventhcenturyBC.

MyresearchhadmovedonintoareasthatIhadnotevendreamtofwhenIhadoriginallywritten thosewords in1989,andnow Iwasconfrontedbyapeculiarly interesting setofcircumstances. Sitting inmyhotel room in Jerusalem inOctober1990 I thereforeopenedmynotebookagainandlistedthefollowingpoints:

•In1Kings8andDeuteronomytherearesignsofeffortsbeingmadetoconvincepeoplethattheArkwasstillinitsplaceintheTemple;thislookslikeanattempttocoverupthetruth–i.e.thattherelicwasinfactnolongerthere.•TherelevantpassageswerewritteninthetimeofKingJosiah.•FromthisIconcludethattheArkmayhavebeenremovedfromtheTempleduringJosiah’sreign;itismorelikelybyfar,however,thatitslosswasdiscoveredthenbutthatithadactuallyoccurredsomewhatearlier.Why?BecauseJosiahwasazealousreformerwhosoughttoemphasizetheparamountimportanceoftheTempleinJerusalem–andbecausetheraisond’êtreoftheTemplewasas‘anhouseofrestfortheArkoftheCovenantoftheLord’.ItisvirtuallyinconceivablethatsuchamonarchwouldhavepermittedtheultimatesymbolofJudaism,thesignandthesealofYahweh’spresenceonearth,tobetakenoutoftheHolyofHolies.Thelogicaldeduction,therefore,isthattheArkmusthavebeenspiritedawaybeforeJosiahcametopower–i.e.before640BC.

•ThereligiouscustomsoftheFalashasincludelocalsacrifice,apracticethatwasonlyconclusivelybannedduringJosiah’sreign.OnthebasisofthisandotherdataithasbeenmyopinionforsometimethattheancestorsoftheFalashasmusthavemigratedtoEthiopiabefore640BC.

•Surelythesematterscannotbeunconnected?

Thechainofevidencelookedconvincing:theArkwasremovedfromtheTemplebefore640BC; the ancestors of the Falashasmigrated to Ethiopia before 640 BC;was it therefore notreasonabletoassurethattheancestorsoftheFalashasmighthavetakentheArkwiththem?This struckmeasa fairly logicalhypothesis. Itdidnot,however,establishwhen before640BCthesupposedmigrationfromJerusalemhadtakenplace.Neitherdiditentirelyruleout thepossibility that theArkcouldhavebeen removedduringJosiah’s reign.Given theknownreligiousintegrityandtraditionalismofthatmonarchthelatternotionlookedlikeaverylongshot indeed.Nevertheless ithadtobeconsidered–ifonlybecause,asIalreadyknew(seepreviouschapter),certainJewishlegendshadfurnishedhimwithavalidmotive.In the last years of his reign, those legends said, he had foreseen the destruction of theTemplebytheBabyloniansandhadhidden‘theHolyArkandallitsappurtenancesinordertoguardthemagainstdesecrationatthehandsoftheenemy.’16Moreoverhewasbelieved–possiblybymiraculousmeans–tohaveconcealedtherelic‘initsownplace’.17IwasnowassatisfiedasIeverwouldbethattheArkhadnotbeenburiedintheTempleMount–oranywhereelseintheHolyLand.NeverthelessIstillhadtoaskmyself:wasthispossible? Could Josiah really have foreseen the fate of the Temple and taken steps tosafeguardtheArk?I looked into this scenario but concluded that, unless the Jewish king had possessed atrulyremarkablegiftofprescience,therewasjustnowaythathecouldhavepredictedtheeventsof598–587BC.Hedied in609BC, fiveyearsbeforeNebuchadnezzar– theauthorofJerusalem’s destruction – inherited the Babylonian throne.18 Moreover, Nebuchadnezzar’spredecessor Nabopolassar had shown little or no military interest in Israel and had

concentratedinsteadonwarswithAssyriaandEgypt.19Thehistoricalbackground toJosiah’s reign thereforedidnot support the theory thathemight have concealed theArk of the Covenant.More damning by far, however,was theverylastmentionofthesacredrelicintheOldTestament,whichcroppedupinapassageinthe second book of Chronicles – a passage that described Josiah’s campaign to restoretraditionalvaluestoTempleworship:

JosiahremovedalltheabominationsthroughouttheterritoriesbelongingtothesonsofIsrael…Andhesetthepriestsintheircharges,and…saiduntotheLevitesthattaughtallIsrael,whichwereholyuntotheLord,‘PuttheHolyArkinthehousewhichSolomonthesonofDavidkingofIsraeldidbuild;itshallnotbeaburdenuponyourshoulders.’20

It was immediately obvious to me that these few short verses, particularly the wordsemphasized in italics above, were of vital importance to my quest. Why? Quite simplybecauseJosiahwouldhavehadnoneedtoasktheLevitestoputtheArkintheTempleifithad already been there. Two inescapable conclusions emerged from this: (1) The kinghimself could not have been responsible for the removal of the relic because he plainlythoughtthatithadbeentakenbyitstraditionalbearers,theLevites;and(2)thedateoftheArk’sdisappearance from theTemple couldnowbe fixed to some timebefore Josiahhadmadethislittlespeech.Andwhenexactlyhadthatspeechbeenmade?HappilythebookofChroniclesprovidedaverypreciseanswer to thisquestion: ‘in theeighteenthyearof the reignofJosiah’21 – inotherwordsin622BC.22WhatChroniclesdidnotdo,however,wasgiveanyindicationatallthattheLeviteshadcompliedwiththeking’sorder;indeed,farfromthecolourfulceremonythatonemighthave expected to accompanyany reinstallationof theArk in theTemple,therewasnofollow-up–eitherinthisbookorinanyotherpartoftheBible–toJosiah’sstrangecommand.Onthecontrary,itwasclearthathiswordshadfallenondeafearsorontheearsofpeoplewhowerenotinapositiontoobeythem.Chronologically,asIhavealreadyobserved,Josiah’sspeechcontainedthelastreferencetotheArkoftheCovenantinthewholeoftheOldTestament.Inowturnedtoexaminethepenultimate reference. This occurred in the book of Jeremiah, in a chapter composed byJeremiah himself around the year 626 BC,23 and took the form of a prophetic utteranceaddressedtothepeopleofJerusalem:

Andwhenyouhaveincreasedandbecomemanyintheland,then–itisYahwehwhospeaks–noonewilleversayagain‘WhereistheArkoftheCovenantofYahweh?’Therewillbenothoughtofit,nomemoryofit,noregretforit,nomakingofanother.Whenthattimecomes,Jerusalemshallbecalled:‘ThethroneofYahweh’;allnationswillgatherthereinthenameofYahwehandwillnolongerfollowthedictatesoftheirownstubbornhearts.24

LikeJosiah, IknewthatJeremiahhadbeencredited incertainJewish legends–andinthe apocryphal book of Maccabees – with hiding the Ark (in his case on Mount NeboimmediatelybeforethedestructionoftheTemple–seepreviouschapter).Thewordsquoted

above,however,hadinfinitelygreatervalueashistoricaltestimonythanthelegendsortheApocrypha because they had been spoken at a known date by a real person, Jeremiahhimself.25Moreover,inthecontextofeverythingelsethatIhadlearned,therecouldbenodoubtaboutthemeaningofthesewords,orabouttheirwiderimplications.Toputmattersasplainly as possible, they corroborated the impressiongiven in Josiah’s speech that theArkwasno longer in theTempleby622 BC–andtheypushedback toat least626 BC thelikely date atwhich it had gonemissing. I say at least to 626 BC because that, as notedabove,was the year inwhich Jeremiah had uttered his prophecy. Itwas clear, however,thatindoingsohehadbeenresponding,atleastinpart,tosomeprevalentandprobablybythenquitelong-establishedanguishoverthelossoftheArk.Thiswastheonlypossibleexplanationfortheversewhichstated:‘Andwhenyouhaveincreasedandbecomemanyinthe land, then … no one will ever say again “Where is the Ark of the Covenant ofYahweh?” ’Obviously if peoplehadnot been saying such things in626 BC, and for someconsiderablewhilebeforehand,thentherewouldhavebeennoneedforJeremiahtohavemadesucharemark.InreachingthisjudgmentIwaspleasedtodiscoverthatIhadthefullsupportofoneofthe world’s leading biblical scholars, Professor Menahem Haran of Jerusalem’s HebrewUniversity.InhisauthoritativetreatiseonTemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael, thislearned academic had considered the passage in question and had reached the followingconclusion:

Thisversefollowsuponwordsofconsolationanditselfcontainsamessageofconsolationandmercy.WhattheprophetpromiseshereisthatinthegooddaystocometherewillnolongerbeanyneedfortheArk–implyingthatitsabsenceshouldnolongercauseanygrief.Thesewordswould,ofcourse,bedevoidofanysignificanceiftheArk[had]still…beeninsidetheTempleatthetime.26

OnthisbasisIfeltthatitwasentirelysafetoconcludethatIwouldhavetopeerbackintotheperiodbefore626 BC if Iwas to have any prospect of establishing the actual date onwhichtheArkhaddisappeared.MoreoverIdidnotthinkthatitwouldbeatallfruitfultodevotetimetoaclosestudyoftheearlieryearsofKingJosiah’sreign–i.e.from626BCbackto 640 BC. As I already knew, that monarch had sought unsuccessfully to have the relicreinstalledintheTemplein622BC;itwasthereforehardlylikelythathewouldhavebeenresponsible for its removal in the first place.The guilty partymust havebeenoneof hispredecessors – any one, in fact, of the fifteen kings who had ruled in Jerusalem sinceSolomonhadplacedtheArkintheHolyofHoliesin955BC.27

SearchandfindI was looking at a period of 315 years – from 955 BC down to Josiah’s accession to thethrone in 640 BC. In this time Jerusalem and the Temple had been at the centre of anenormously complex series of events. And although these events were described at greatlengthinseveralbooksoftheBible,theArkoftheCovenanthadnotbeenmentionedonce:

between Solomon and Josiah, as I had previously established, the sacred relic had beenenshroudedinathickblanketofsilence.Iresortedtoamodernresearchtooltofindoutjusthowthickthatancientblanketreallywas.On thedesk inmyhotel room inJerusalemwasa computerizededitionof theKingJamesAuthorizedVersionoftheBiblethatIhadbroughtwithmefromEngland.28For theperiodthatIwasnowinterestedinIknewthatitwouldbeuselesstorunasearch-and-findprogrammeonthewords‘Ark’or‘ArkoftheCovenant’or‘ArkofGod’or‘HolyArk’oranysimilar epithets: they simply did not appear. I did, however, have one other option, andthatwastolookforphrasesthathadbeenregularlyassociatedwiththeArkearlierintheScriptures,andalsoforreportsofafflictionsofthetyperoutinelycausedbytheArk.In therealmofafflictions I settledon theword ‘leprous’,because, inChapter12of thebook of Numbers Moses had punished Miriam for criticizing his authority by using thepowers of the Ark tomake her ‘leprous’.29 In the realm of phrases I chose ‘between thecherubims’,because theGodof Israelhadbeenbelieved todwell ‘between thecherubims’mountedon theArk’sgolden lidandbecause,prior to the reignofSolomon, this formulahadalwaysbeenusedinconnectionwiththeArkandneverinanyotherway.30I started by running the word ‘leprous’. My electronic Bible of course picked it up inChapter12ofthebookofNumbers,whichdescribedwhathappenedtoMiriam.AfterthatitoccurredonlytwicemoreinthewholeoftheScriptures:inthesecondbookofKings,wherethere was a plainly irrelevant reference to ‘four leprous men’ sitting by a gate in thenorthern Israelite city of Samaria;31 and in the second book of Chronicles – where itcroppedupinapassagethatlookedveryrelevantindeed.Thatpassage,in2Chronicles26,describedhowKingUzziah–whohadruledJerusalemfrom781to740BC32–‘transgressedagainsttheLordhisGod,andwentintotheTempleoftheLordtoburnincenseuponthealtarofincense.’33AtoncetheHighPriestAzariahandsomeofhisassistantsrushedinafterthemonarchhopingtodissuadehimfromcommittingthisactofsacrilegeattheveryentrancetotheHolyofHolies:

ThenUzziahwaswroth,andhadacenserinhishandtoburnincense:andwhilehewaswrothwiththepriests,theleprosyevenroseupinhisforeheadbeforethepriestsinthehouseoftheLord,frombesidetheincensealtar.34

It seemed thatUzziahhadnot actually entered theHolyofHolies (although the textwassomewhatambiguousonthispoint),buthehadcertainlystoodveryclosetoit.Moreoverhehadbeenholdingametalincenseburnerinhishand–andthat,sincethetwosonsofAaronhadbeenstruckdownatthefootofMountSinaiforoffering‘strangefirebeforetheLord’,35hadalwaysbeenadangerousthingtodowithinstrikingdistanceoftheArk.36Onthisbasis,therefore,Ifeltthattherewasatleastaprimafaciecaseforconcludingthatthe‘leprous’soresonUzziah’sforeheadhadbeencausedbyexposuretotheArk(andIwaslatertodiscoverthatothershadthoughtsotoo–anillustrationfromaneighteenth-centuryEnglishBiblereproduced in thepresentworkclearlyshowstheunfortunatekingstandingbesidetheArkattheverymomentthatheis‘smitten’).

Ifthemonarch’safflictionwascausedbytheArk[Iwroteinmynotebook]thenthismeansthatitwasstillpresentintheHolyofHoliesin740BC(Uzziah’sreign

endedinthatyearasaresultofwhathadhappenedtohim37).Thisnarrowsthefieldenormously,sincetheimplicationisthatthereliccouldonlyhavebeenremovedinthecenturybetweenthatdateandthebeginningofJosiah’sreign–i.e.atsomepointbetween740BCand640BC.

OfcourseIwaswellawarethattheUzziahincidenthadlittlevalueashistoricalevidence:itwasatantalizinghint–aclueifyoulike–butitwasquiteimpermissibletoconcludefromitthattheArkhaddefinitelystillbeenintheTemplein740BC.IneededsomethingstrongerifIwastobesatisfiedthatthathadindeedbeenthecase–andIfoundwhatIwaslookingforwhenIranasearchforthephrase‘betweenthecherubims’.Asnotedabove,inbiblicalpassagesreferringtotheperiodbeforethereignofSolomon,thesewords had been used exclusively in connectionwith the Ark, and in no otherwaywhatsoever.Althoughitwouldbenecessarytokeepacloseeyeonthecontext,IthereforefeltthatanyrecurrenceofthesewordsafterthedepositionoftherelicintheTemplein955BCwouldconstitutestrongevidencethatithadinfactstillbeenpresentintheHolyofHoliesonthedate–ordates–thatthephrasehadbeenused.AccordinglyIprogrammedmycomputertosearchforthewords‘betweenthecherubims’.A few seconds later I knew that theyhadbeen citedonly seven times in the entire post-Solomonicperiod.Twoofthesecitations,inPsalm80:1andinPsalm99:1,clearlyreferredtothecherubimoftheArk.Unfortunatelytheywereimpossibletodatewithanydegreeofaccuracy:38therewasasmallchancethattheywerepre-Solomonic,butthebalanceofscholarlyopinionheldthat the relevant verses were likely to have been composed in the ‘early years ofmonarchy’39–i.e.duringSolomon’slifetimeorwithinacenturyorsoofhisdeath.Thewords‘betweenthecherubims’alsocroppedupthreetimesinthebookofEzekiel,40whichwasalateworkwrittenaftertheyear593BC.41Inthiscontext,however,alltheusesof thephrasewere irrelevant tomy investigationbecause: (a) the ‘cherubims’ referred tohadbeenseenbyEzekielinavisionthatcametohimwhilehesatinhishouse;42(b)theyweredescribedashaving‘fourfaces’and‘fourwings’each,whereasthecherubimoftheArkhad each only one face and two wings;43 and (c) they were clearly living creatures ofenormoussize,nottherelativelycompactfigurinesofsolidgoldthathadfacedeachotheracrossthe‘mercyseat’.44Indeed,attheendofEzekiel’svision,hischerubims‘lifteduptheirwingsandmountedupfromtheearthinmysight…andthesoundofthecherubims’wingswas…even…asthevoiceoftheAlmightyGodwhenhespeaketh.’45In my hunt for references that might prove the continued presence of the Ark in theJerusalem Temple at particular periods, therefore, Ezekiel’s cherubims were of noconsequenceandcouldsafelybeignored.Thismeantthatoutofalltheoccurrencesofthephrasethat Ihad instructedmycomputer tosearchfor Iwasnowleftwithonlytwothatmightbeofanyhelptomeatall.TheseappearedinChapter37ofthebookofIsaiahandinChapter19ofthesecondbookofKings.46Bothrecountedthesameevent,bothwereofgreatimportance,andbothclearlyandunambiguouslyreferredtotheArkoftheCovenant– though theydidnotmention itbyname.This iswhat theysaid (the Isaiahversion, theolderofthetwo,isintheleft-handcolumn;theKingsversionisintheright-handcolumn):

HezekiahwentupuntothehouseoftheLord,and…prayeduntotheLord,saying,OLordofHosts,GodofIsrael,thatdwellestbetweenthecherubims,thouarttheGod,eventhoualone,ofallthekingdomsoftheearth.47

HezekiahwentupintothehouseoftheLord,and…prayedbeforetheLord,andsaid,OLordGodofIsrael,whichdwellestbetweenthecherubims,thouarttheGod,eventhoualone,ofallthekingdomsoftheearth.48

Asthereaderwillnodoubthaveobserved,bothpassagesnotonlyspokeofthesameeventbutalsodidsoinalmostexactlythesamelanguage.IndeedtheversesinKingscameveryclosetobeingaverbatimrepeatoftheversesinIsaiah.Thoseverses,scholarswereagreed,had beenwritten by Isaiah himself.49 And, since a great dealwas known about the life,timesandactivitiesofthisfamousprophet,itwaspossibletoputafairlyprecisedateonhisaccountofHezekiah’sprayertotheGodofIsraelthatdwelled‘betweenthecherubims’.Isaiahwascalledtothepropheticofficein740BC50–theveryyearinwhichKingUzziahhaddiedafterbeingsmittenwithleproussoresintheincidentdescribedearlier.51Hethencontinuedhisministry throughout the reigns of Jotham,Ahaz andHezekiah (respectively740–736BC,736–716BCand716-687BC).52Ofcrucialsignificancetomyinvestigationwasafact uponwhich academic opinionwas unanimous: the verse inwhichmy computer hadflaggedthephrase‘betweenthecherubims’hadbeenwrittenbyIsaiahin701BC–theyearinwhichtheAssyrianKingSennacheribhadtriedandfailedtocaptureJerusalem.53Indeed,ithadbeenonIsaiah’sdirectadvicethatHezekiah–theJudaeanmonarch–hadrefusedtosurrenderthecitytotheAssyrians.54Sennacherib’sresponsehadbeentosendaletter threatening death and destruction, and Hezekiah had actually been carrying thisletter55when he had gone up ‘unto the house of the Lord, and…prayed unto the Lord,saying,OLordofHosts,Godof Israel, thatdwellestbetween the cherubims, thouart theGod,eventhoualone,ofallthekingdomsoftheearth.’Hezekiah’sprayerhadcontinuedasfollows:

Inclinethineear,OLord,andhear;openthineeyes,OLord,andsee:andhearallthewordsofSennacherib,whichhathsenttoreproachthelivingGod.Ofatruth,Lord,thekingsofAssyriahavelaidwasteallthenationsandtheircountries.…Nowtherefore,OLordourGod,saveusfromhishand,thatallthekingdomsoftheearthmayknowthatthouarttheLord,eventhouonly.56

Miraculously, the Lord complied. First he sent his prophet Isaiah to Hezekiah with thismessage:

ThussaiththeLordconcerningthekingofAssyria,Heshallnotcomeintothiscity,norshootanarrowthere,norcomebeforeitwithshields,norcastabankagainstit…ForIwilldefendthiscitytosaveitformineownsake.57

Yahwehwasasgoodashisword.Thatverynight

TheangeloftheLordwentforth,andsmoteinthecampoftheAssyriansa

hundredandfourscoreandfivethousand:andwhentheyaroseearlyinthemorning,behold,theywerealldeadcorpses.SoSennacheribkingofAssyriadeparted.58

Therecouldbenodoubtaboutthehistoricityoftheseevents:theAssyrianshad surroundedJerusalem in701 BC and theyhad suddenly lifted their siege and fled.59 Scholars believedthatthishadhappenedbecausetheyhadbeenafflictedbyanoutbreakofbubonicplague.60Strangely,however,therewasnoevidencethatanyoneinJerusalemitselfhadgoneontocontract this easily transmissible disease. In the context of everything that I had learnedhitherto,therefore,IcouldnothelpbutwonderwhethertheArkoftheCovenantmightnotin someway have been involved in Sennacherib’s undoing. Themass slaughter that hadtakenplacedidsoundverymuchlikethesortof‘miracle’that,inearliertimes,therelichadsofrequentlyperformed.61But this was only an intuition, a hunch of my own. It had no status whatsoever asevidenceofthecontinuedpresenceoftheArkintheTemplein701BC.Whatdidhavethatstatus was Isaiah’s pure and eloquent testimony that King Hezekiah had prayed for hisdeliverancetothe‘GodofIsrael,thatdwellestbetweenthecherubims’.Themonarchutteredthis prayer inside the Temple.62 Moreover the full text of the first verse of the passagecontainingthiscitationnotonlystatedthathehadcarriedSennacherib’sthreateningletterwithhim–asnotedabove–butalsoaddedthathehad‘spreaditbeforetheLord’.63Injustsucha fashion, though inanearlierera, ‘Solomon…cametoJerusalemandstoodbeforetheArkoftheCovenantoftheLord…andofferedpeaceofferings.’64Injustsuchafashion,though in an earlier era, ‘David and all the house of Israel played before the Lord on allmannerof instrumentsmadeof firwood,evenonharps,andpsalteries,andon timbrels,andoncornets,andoncymbals.’65Andinjustsuchafashion,thoughinanearlierera,‘theLordseparatedthetribeofLevi,tobeartheArkoftheCovenantoftheLord,tostandbeforetheLordtoministeruntohim,andtoblesshisname.’66Tocutalongandconvolutedstoryveryshortindeed,thefactthatHezekiahhadspreadSennacherib’s letter out ‘before the Lord’, and then had prayed to the ‘God of Israel, thatdwellest between the cherubims’made it quite certain that the Ark of the Covenant hadbeenintheHolyofHoliesatthattime.Therewasnootherwayinwhichthispassagecouldbe interpreted.Andbecause itdid soeffectivelyprove thecontinuedpresenceof the relicwithin theTemple longafter the reignofSolomon italsodealta fatalblow to theKebraNagast’sclaimthattheArkhadbeenstolenbyMenelikwhileSolomonwasstillalive.IwasnotsurewhetherIshouldrejoiceoverthisdiscoveryorwhetherIshouldlamentit.Ialwaysfinditslightlydepressingwhenabeautifulmythisdiscredited.AndalthoughIstillhoped to vindicate the central contention of theKebraNagast – namely that theArk hadindeedgonetoEthiopia(althoughofcoursenotbythehandofMenelik)–IhadabsolutelynoideahowIwasgoingtodothis.Rather dispiritedly, therefore, I turned back to the piles of research papers and booksspreadoutallaroundmeinmyhotelroominJerusalem.Thegoodnews,Isupposed,wasthatmyinvestigationhadcomealongway.IhadsatisfiedmyselfthattheArkhadnotbeenremovedfromtheTempleeitherduringorafterthereignofKingJosiah,whichhadbegunin640BC.MoreoveritwasnowclearthatithadstillbeeninitsplaceintheHolyofHolies

in701BC,thedateofHezekiah’sprayer.Thisleftjustsixty-oneyearsinwhichitcouldhavedisappeared, and even that period could be narrowed down somewhat.Why? Because itseemed obvious that Hezekiah himself would not have allowed the sacred relic – beforewhichhehadprayedsoefficaciously–tobecarriedoffbyanyone.Hezekiahhaddied in687 BC and Josiahhad taken the throne in640 BC. Between themthere were only two monarchs – Manasseh (687–642 BC) and Amon (642–640 BC).67 Itfollowed that the lossof theArkmusthaveoccurredduring the reignsofoneorotherofthesetwokings.

ThesinofManassehAs I immersedmyself in thebiblical textsonceagain itquicklybecameapparent that theguiltypartycouldonlyhavebeenManasseh,whowascastigatedunmercifullybythescribesbecause:

HedidthatwhichwasevilinthesightoftheLord,aftertheabominationsoftheheathen…Forhe…rearedupaltarsforBaal…andworshippedallthehostofheaven,andservedthem.AndhebuiltaltarsinthehouseoftheLord…forallthehostofheaven…Andhemadehissonpassthroughthefire,and…usedenchantments,anddealtwithfamiliarspiritsandwizards:hewroughtmuchwickednessinthesightoftheLordtoprovokehimtoanger…Andhesetagravenimageofthegrovethathehadmadeinthehouse,ofwhichtheLordsaidtoDavidandtoSolomonhisson,Inthishouse,andinJerusalem,whichIhavechosenoutofallthetribesofIsrael,willIputmynameforever.68

Whatwasthis‘gravenimageofthegrove’thatManassehhadmade?AndwhereexactlyintheTemplehadheputit?To find an answer to the first question I temporarily abandoned the King JamesAuthorizedVersionoftheBible(fromwhichtheabovequotationistaken)andturnedtothemoremodernJerusalemBiblewhichinformedmethatthe‘gravenimageofthegrove’wasin facta ‘carved imageofAsherah’,anarborealpagandeity.69Theanswer to the secondquestionwasself-evident:the‘house’inwhichYahwehhadsaidthathewouldputhis‘namefor ever’ was the Holy of Holies of the Temple – the debir, the dense golden cell thatSolomonhad‘designed…tocontaintheArkoftheCovenantofYahweh.’70TheimplicationsofwhatIhadjustlearntwereenormous.Manasseh,whohaddone‘thatwhichwasevilinthesightoftheLord’,hadintroducedanidolintotheHolyofHoliesoftheTemple.IntakingthismomentousstepbackwardstowardspaganismitwasinconceivablethathecouldhaveallowedtheArkoftheCovenanttoremaininitsplace–sincetheArkwas the sign and the seal of Yahweh’s presence on earth and the ultimate symbol of thefiercelymonotheisticJudaicfaith.Atthesametimeitwasimprobablethattheapostatizingkingwouldactuallyhavedestroyedthesacredrelic:onthecontrary,withhispredilectionforenchantmentsandwizardry,hewouldhaveregardedthatasamostunwisethingtodo.Themostlikelyscenario,therefore,wasthathewouldhaveorderedtheLevitestoremovetheArk from the Temple before he installed his ‘Asherah’ in the inner sanctum. And this

wouldhavebeenanorderthattheywouldhavebeenmorethanhappytocomplywith:asfaithfulservantsofYahwehtheywouldhavedoneanythingwithintheirpowertoavoidthepollutionoftheobjectthattheyregardedasthe‘footstool’oftheirGod71–andtheycouldhardlyhave imaginedanyworsepollution than for it tohave toshare theHolyofHolieswith the graven image of some alien deity. As priests they would not have been in apositiontoprevailmilitarilyagainstapowerfulmonarchlikeManasseh;theirbestcourseofactionwouldhavebeentobowtothe inevitableandtocarrytheArkawaytoaplaceofsafety.There were even indications in the Bible that the relic’s enforced departure from theTemplemighthaveresultedinsomekindofmasspublicprotestagainsttheking–aprotestthathehadruthlesslysuppressed.Thiswasonlyguessworkonmypart,ofcourse,butsuchahypothesisdidhelptoexplainwhyManassehwassaidtohave‘shedinnocentblood…insuchgreatquantitythathefloodedJerusalemfromendtoend.’72Atany rate, itwasclear that the reignof thismonarchhad, in lateryears, come toberegardedasablot,anaberrationandanabomination.HehadbeensucceededbyhissonAmon in 642 BC and Amon had in turn been succeeded in 640 BC by Josiah, the zealousreformerwhowas famous (andbelovedof the scribes) forhaving restored the traditionalworshipofYahweh.WhyhadAmon’stenureofthethronebeensobrief?Because,astheBibleexplained,hehaddone

thatwhichwasevilinthesightoftheLord,ashisfatherManassehdid.Andhewalkedinallthewaythathisfatherwalkedin,andservedtheidolsthathisfatherserved,andworshippedthem…AndtheservantsofAmonconspiredagainsthim,andslewthekinginhisownhouse…andthepeopleofthelandmadeJosiahhissonkinginhisstead.73

Josiah,however,hadbeenonly ‘eightyearsoldwhenhebegantoreign’74and itwasnotuntileightyearsafterthat,theBiblereported,thathehadshownthefirstsignsofwantingto‘seekaftertheGodofDavid’.75Indeedtheyoungmonarch’spassionatereactionagainstthesinsofManassehandAmondidnotbeginuntilthe‘twelfthyear’ofhisreignwhen–atthe ageof twenty –he launcheda campaign ‘topurge Judahand Jerusalem from… thecarvedimages,andthemoltenimages’.76

Andhebroughtoutthegrove[Asherah]fromthehouseoftheLord,rightoutofJerusalem,untothebrookKidron,andburneditinthebrookKidron,andstampedittosmallpowder,andcastthepowderthereofonthecommonburyingground.77

Apassionatereactionindeed!And,moreover,onethatcouldbedated:ithadbeenin628BC,the twelfthyearofJosiah’s reign, thatManasseh’s loathsome idolhadat lastbeenrootedout of the Holy of Holies. The Ark, however, had certainly not been brought back in toreplaceit.AsIalreadyknew,Jeremiahhadbeenrespondingtopublicgriefatthecontinuedabsenceoftherelictwoyearslaterwhenhehadprophesiedthatatimewouldeventuallycomewhenpeoplewouldnolongerask‘whereistheArkoftheCovenantofYahweh’–a

timewhen theywouldhave ‘no regret for it’ andwhen theywouldnot consider ‘makinganother’.FouryearsafterthatJosiahhimselfhadratherforlornlyaskedtheLevitestorestoretheArktotheTemple,adding‘itshallnotbeaburdenforyourshoulders’.Thathadbeenin622BC,theeighteenthyearofhisreign,anditwasnocoincidencethatithadbeeninthatverysame year, having completed a lengthy nationwide purge, that he had ‘returned toJerusalem’andissuedorders‘torepairthehouseoftheLordhisGod’.78The repairs had been duly carried out by ‘carpenters and builders andmasons’.79 Thegreat mystery, however, was that the Levites had been unable to comply with Josiah’srequestthattheyshould‘puttheHolyArkinthehousewhichSolomonthesonofDavidkingofIsraeldidbuild.’IwasnowincreasinglysurethattheanswertothatmysterymustlieinEthiopia–althoughIwasnotyetinapositiontofathomoutexactlyhoworwhy.Meanwhile I sought academic support for my view that it must have been during thereignofManassehthattheArkhadgonemissinginthefirstplace.Ifoundthatsupportinanauthoritative treatise that Ihadalreadyhadoccasion toconsult several timesbefore–ProfessorMenahemHaran’sTemples and Temple Service inAncient Israel. Here, in a briefsectioninthemiddleofthebook,Ireadthat:

throughoutthevariouschangesthattookplaceintheKingdomofJudah,theTempleatJerusalemneverceasedtoserveexclusivelyasaTempleofYahweh…TherewasonlyonesingleperiodinitshistorywhenitwastemporarilydeprivedofitsoriginalfunctionandforashortwhileceasedtoserveasaTempletoYahweh…ThisoccurredduringthereignofManasseh…whosetupvesselsforBaal…intheoutersanctumandintroducedtheimageofAsherahintotheinnersanctumoftheTemple…ThisistheonlyhappeningwhichmayexplainthedisappearanceoftheArkandthecherubim…WeareentitledtoinferthattheimageofAsherah…wassubstitutedfortheArkandthecherubim.Somefiftyyearsafterwards,whenJosiahremovedtheAsherahfromtheTempleandburntitintheKidronValley,beatingittodustanddesecratingeventhedust,theArkandthecherubimwerenolongerthere.80

Aftermaking a number of telephone calls to the Hebrew University I managed to trackdownProfessorHaran. I told him that I had readhis book and that Iwas excited byhissuggestionthattheArkoftheCovenantmighthavebeenlostduringthereignofManasseh.Couldhesparemehalfanhourorsotodiscussthematterfurther?Herepliedthathewouldbeonly toohappy todo soand invitedme tovisithimathishome inJerusalem’sAlfasiStreet.Haranproved tobeanelderlybut robustman,grey-hairedand solidlybuilt – theveryimageofthetypeoflearnedbuteminentlypracticalbiblicalscholarthatonemeetssoofteninIsrael.Itoldhimalittleaboutmyownresearchandthenaskedwhetherhewascertainin his ownmind that the Ark had indeed been removed from the Temple inManasseh’stime.‘Yes,’herepliedwithconviction,‘IamascertainofthatasIcanpossiblybe.ThisiswhytheArk isnot referred to in the long listsofTemplevesselsand treasures thatwere latertakenbytheBabylonians.AndIshouldaddwithallmodestythatmyviewsonthissubject

haveneverbeenrefutedinscholarship.’Itookthisopportunitytoputaquestionthathadbeenbotheringmeforsometime:‘IftheArkwastakenoutasaresultofManasseh’sidolatrythenhowdoyouaccountforthefactthattheScripturesmakeabsolutelynomentionoftheloss?’‘Iaccountfor it inthisway.Tohavetowritedownsuchareportwouldhavefilledthescribeswithdisgust–withsuchahorriblefeeling–thatdefinitelytheywouldhaveavertedfrom it. I thereforebelieve that theydeliberately refrained from reporting the loss of theArk.EveninwhattheydidreportofManasseh’sreigntheirfeelingsofutterhorrordocomethrough.Yettheycouldnotbringthemselvestoindulgeinadescriptionoftheoccurrenceitself.’‘Doyouhaveanyideaatall’,Iaskednext,‘whatcouldhavehappenedtotherelicafteritwasremoved?’Haranshrugged:‘OnthatIcannotspeculate.Itisimpossibletoprove.Icanonlysaywithconfidence that the orthodox priests of Yahweh would under no circumstances havepermittedtheArkofYahwehtostayinthesameplaceastheidolofAsherah.’‘Sodoyouthinktheytookitawaysomewhere?Toaplaceofsafety?’Anothershrug:‘AsIsay,Icannotspeculateonsuchmatters.Howeveritisevidentfromourrecords,fromtheHolyWrit,thatJerusalemitself–infactthewholecountry–wasnotasafeplaceforthosewhowereloyaltotheworshipofYahwehduringManasseh’stime.’‘Are you referring to the passage in the book of Kings that talks about innocent bloodbeingspilled?’‘Yes.2Kings21:16.Andnotonlythat.Jeremiahalsospeaksobliquelyofthesameeventswhenhesays“yourswordhathdevouredyourprophets likeadestroying lion”. Ihavenodoubt that this was a reference to the acts ofManasseh and I infer from it that certainprophets had opposed him and that for this they were massacred. It is an interestingphenomenon, you know, that you do not find any prophets at all during the reign ofManassehhimself–Jeremiahcamejustafterwardsandothers,likeIsaiah,camejustbefore.ThegapwastheresultofpersecutionsandofasustainedcampaignagainsttheworshipofYahweh.’TheProfessorwouldnotbepushedany furtheronthissubjectandresolutelyrefusedtoindulgeinwhatheobviouslyregardedas idlespeculationaboutwhere theArkcouldhavegone.WhenImentionedmytheorythatitmighthavebeentakentoEthiopiahelookedatmeblanklyforabouthalfaminuteandthenconcluded:‘Thatseemsratherfar.’

AtempleontheNileAfter interviewing Menahem Haran I returned to my hotel feeling directionless andconfused.OfcourseithadbeenexcitingtogethisconfirmationthattheArkhadbeenlostduringManasseh’sreign.Thetroublewas,however,thatInowseemedtohavearrivedatthebrinkofadeepintellectualprecipice.Ethiopiawasindeed‘ratherfar’fromJerusalem,andIcouldseenogoodreasonwhytheloyalpriestsofYahwehwhohadcarriedthesacredrelicoutoftheTempleshouldsubsequentlyhavetakenittosuchadistantplace.Moreover,thedatesdidn’tfit.ManassehhadsatonthethroneinJerusalemfrom687to642BC,buttheTanaKirkostraditionsassertedthattheArkhadnotarrivedinEthiopiauntil

approximately470BC.SoIwasstilltwohundredyearsadrift.As I chewedover thisproblem I realized thatwhat Ineeded todowas to talk to some

Ethiopians.AndwhatbetterplacewasthereinwhichtotalktoEthiopiansthanintheStateofIsrael?Afterall,tensofthousandsofFalashas–whoclaimedcitizenshipunderthetermsoftheLawofReturn–hadbeenairliftedhereoverthepastdecade.Surelyamongstthemtheremustbe someelders,knowledgeable in the folkmemoryof theirpeople,whocouldhelpmetobridgethegeographicalandchronologicalabyssthatyawnedbeforeme?Further enquiries at theHebrewUniversityproduced thenameofShalvaWeil, a social

anthropologistwhohadspecializedinfar-flungJewishcommunitiesandwhowasregardedas something of an expert on Falasha culture. I telephoned her at her home and, afterintroducing myself, asked her if she could recommend any member of the Falashacommunity in Jerusalem who might be able to speak with authority on the ancienttraditionsoftheEthiopianJews.‘Yourbestbet’,sherepliedwithouthesitation,‘wouldbeRaphaelHadane.He’sapriest,a

very senior priest. He’s been here for a few years. He’s an elderly man and extremelyknowledgeable.Theonlyproblemishedoesn’tspeakEnglishsoyoushouldtrytoseehimwithhisson.’‘Whosenameis?’‘Yoseph Hadane. He came to Israel as a boy in the early 1970s and he’s now a fully

trainedrabbi.HedoesspeakfluentEnglishsohe’llbeabletotranslateforyou.’ArrangingthemeetingtookupmostofmylasttwodaysinJerusalem.Finally,however,I

didmanagetogettogetherwiththeHadanefamilyattheFalashaAbsorptionCentre,whichwas located in a suburb called Mevasserit Zion to the west of the city. Here I foundhundreds of Ethiopians, some newly arrived, others long-term residents, living in asomewhatramshacklehousingestate.RaphaelHadane,theFalashapriest,wasdressedinatraditionalAbyssinianshemmaand

sported a considerable beard. His son, the rabbi, was clean-shaven and wore a smartbusiness suit. For a long while we sat around drinking tea and exchanging pleasantrieswhile children played at our feet and various assorted relatives came and went. One oftheselatter,asithappened,hadbeenbornandbroughtupinthevillageofAnbober,whichIhadvisitedinJanuary1990onmytriptoGondar.‘DoesAnboberreallystillexist?’heaskedmeratherplaintively.‘It’sfiveyearssinceIleft

home.’‘It does still exist,’ I replied, ‘or rather itdid in January. The population seemed to be

mainlywomenandchildren,though.’‘Thisisbecausethemenemigratefirsttoprepareaplacefortheirfamilies.Didyoutalk

toanyonethere?’ItoldthemthatIhadinterviewedthepriest,SolomonAlemu,andthisbroughtsmilesof

recognition from everyone around the table. ‘They all know him well,’ explained RabbiHadane.‘Oursisasmallsociety…andcloseknit.’Eventually I switched on my tape-recorder and began the interview with the rabbi’s

venerable father. Much of what he had to say about Falasha culture and religion wasalreadyveryfamiliar.WhenIturnedtowhatwasnowthecentralissueforme,however–i.e. exactly how andwhen Judaism had arrived in Ethiopia – he toldme something that

mademeprickupmyears.IhadaskedaleadingquestionaboutMenelikandtheQueenofSheba–hoping,afterthe

ritual repetitionof theKebraNagast story, topin theoldmandownon thematterof thedatethatMenelik’ssupposedjourneyhadtakenplace.Hadanesurprisedmebydismissingthe legend entirely: ‘Some of us say that we are descended from the Israelites whoaccompaniedMenelik,butpersonallyIdonotbelievethat.AccordingtothetraditionsthatIheardinmychildhood,ourancestorswereJewswhohadfirstlivedinEgyptbeforetheycametoEthiopia.’‘But,’ I interjected, ‘the Kebra Nagast says that too. It says that Menelik and his

companionstravelledthroughEgypt.’‘ThatisnotwhatImean.AfterleavingIsrael,ourforefathersdidnotjusttravelthrough

Egypt.Theysettledinthatcountryforaverylongtime–forhundredsofyears.Andtheybuiltatemplethere.’Ileanedforwardoverthetape-recorder:‘Atemple?Wheredidtheybuildthistemple?’‘AtAswan.’This, I thought, was very interesting. Solomon Alemu, the priest at Anbober, had also

mentionedAswantomewhenIhadinterviewedhiminJanuary.AtthetimeIhadresolvedtomake a trip there. And I had in fact travelled quitewidely in Egypt since doing thatinterview.IhadnotyetgoneasfarsouthasAswan,however,andIwasnowbeginningtowonderwhether thatmight not have been amistake. If there had indeed been a Jewishtemple there, as Hadane had just indicated, then this was potentially a matter of greatimportance–becausethefunctionoftheTempleinorthodoxJudaismhadbeentohousetheArkoftheCovenant.IfitwastruethatatemplehadbeenbuiltatAswan,andifthishadhappened after the Ark had been removed from Jerusalem, then the implications wereobvious.HadanewasunabletobeatallspecificastothedateofthisAswantemple,however.All

hecouldtellmewasthatithadendured‘foralongwhile’butthatithadeventuallybeendestroyed.‘Whywasitdestroyed?’‘TherewasagreatwarinEgypt.Aforeignkingwhohadcapturedmanycountriescame

toEgyptanddestroyedallthetemplesoftheEgyptians.Buthedidnotdestroyourtemple.SowhentheEgyptianssawthatonlytheJewishtemplewasnotdestroyedtheysuspectedwewereonthesideoftheinvader.Becauseofthistheystartedtofightagainstusandtheydestroyedourtempleandwewereforcedtoflee.’‘AndyouwenttoEthiopia?’‘Not straight away.Our forefatherspassed first into Sudan, throughMeroe,where they

remainedforashortwhile.Buttheyweredrivenoutbyanotherwar.Thentheysplitintotwo parties: one group went following the Takazze river; the other group following theNile.AndinthiswaytheyarrivedinEthiopia,inQuara,closetoLakeTana.Therewemadeourhomes.TherewebecameEthiopians.AndbecausewewerefarfromIsrael,thoughwehadstayedintouchwithJerusalemallthetimethatwewereinEgyptandintheSudan,wenowlostthatcontactanditbecametousonlyamemory.’InextaskedHadanewhethertherewasanyplaceintheLakeTanaareathattheFalashas

regardedasbeingparticularlyimportantorsacred.

‘Three places,’ he replied. ‘The first, themost important, is Tana Kirkos, the second isDagaStephanos,thethirdisZegie.’Iraisedmyeyebrows:‘WhyisTanaKirkosthemostimportant?’‘Idonotknowexactly.Butallourpeopleregarditassacred.’My last questionwas a specific one about the Ark: ‘Ethiopian Christians say that theyhavetheArkoftheCovenantatAxum–theoriginalArkoftheCovenantthatwassupposedto have been brought from Jerusalem byMenelik, son of the Queen of Sheba and KingSolomon.You’vetoldmethatyoudon’tbelievetheMenelikstory.ButdoyoubelievethattheChristianshavetheArkastheyclaim?’‘Ourpeoplebelieve,andImyselfalsobelieve,thattheArkoftheCovenantisinAxum.As amatter of fact, some years ago, I and others of our spiritual leaderswent from ourhometoAxumtotrytoseetheArkforourselves.Wewereveryinterestedinthistraditionandwewanted to see theHolyArk. Sowewent there, andwe got toAxum, and to thechurch of SaintMary. Butwewere told that it was forbidden for us to enter the chapelwheretheArkis,becauseifweweretoenterintotherewewoulddie.Sowesaid,“OK.Wewill purify ourselves and thenwewill go in there andwewill see.” Sowe did that,wepurified ourselves, but still theChristian priestswould not permit us to enter the chapel.Becauseofthatwehadtoreturntoourplacewithoutseeingit.’‘I’veheard that it isbroughtout inpubliconceayear,at theceremonyofTimkat. YouwouldhavehadabetterchanceofseeingitifyouhadgonethereatTimkat.’Hadanelaughedbitterly: ‘Ihaveheardthattoo.But IdonotbelievethattheChristianswould ever bring out the true Ark. They would not do that. They will never show it toanyone.Theywilluseareplicainstead.Doyouknowwhy?BecausetheytooktheArkfromuslong,longago,andtheydonotwanttogiveitback.Theyarejealousofit.Sothereforethey keep it always concealed in its chapel, surrounded by bars, where no one mayapproachitotherthantheonewhoisappointedasitsguardian.’When I finally left the Falasha Absorption Centre at Mevasserit Zion and returned todowntown Jerusalem my head was literally buzzing with ideas and question. Of all theEthiopianJewswhomIhadtalkedtoduringthecourseofmyresearch,Hadanehadprovedtobebyfarthemostlucidandthemostinformative.ThestoryofhisattempttoseetheArkinAxumhadintriguedme.AndthespecialimportancethathehadaccordedtotheislandofTanaKirkoswassurelyofgreatsignificanceinthelightofwhatImyselfhadlearntthereduringmytripinNovember1989.Butwhathadinterestedmemostofallabouthisanswerswasthereferencethathehadmadetotheexistence,atsomeremoteperiodinhistory,ofaJewishtempleatAswan.IftherewasanytruthtothisthenIwouldcertainlyhavetogotothatUpperEgyptiantown,whichlaysometwohundredkilometrestothesouthofKarnakandLuxor.BackinmyhotelroomIdialledthenumberofDrShalvaWeil,thesocialanthropologistwhohadputmeintouchwithHadane.‘Howdidtheinterviewgo?’sheaskedbreezily.‘Verywell,thankyou.Mosthelpful.I’mgratefultoyouforthecontact.’I paused awkwardly. I always feel slightly silly putting completely idiotic questions toacademics.But therewasnogettingaround this one. I had to ask: ‘Duringour interviewHadanementionedsomethingtomeaboutatemple–aJewishtemple–atAswaninEgypt.

IknowwhatI’mgoingtosaynextisabitnuts,butI’velearntnottodismissfolk-traditionscompletelywithoutatleastcheckingthemout.Anyway,whatIwanttoaskyouisthis: isthereactuallyanypossibilitythatsuchatemplecouldeverhaveexisted?’‘Certainlyitexisted,’DrWeilreplied.‘Itwasapropertemple,dedicatedtoYahweh.Butitwasn’tactuallyinAswanproper.ItstoodontheislandofElephantineinthemiddleoftheNile.Thereare somearchaeologicalexcavationsgoingon there rightnow,asamatteroffact.’‘Andthisisland…Imean…isitfarfromAswan?’‘Notmorethantwohundredmetresinastraightline.Ittakesaboutfiveminutestosailthereinafelucca.’‘SoeffectivelyHadanewasrightwhenhetalkedaboutatempleatAswan?’‘Absolutelyright,yes.’‘ButdoesthistemplehaveanythingtodowiththeFalashas?Hadanesaidthatithadbeenbuiltbyhisforefathers.’‘It’spossible, I suppose.Academicsaredividedon the issue.Mostofusbelieve that theFalashasare thedescendantsofJewishmerchantsandsettlerswhoreachedEthiopia fromsouth Arabia. But there is one respectable body of opinion which holds that they aredescendedfromtheJewswhofledfromElephantine.’‘Fled?Why?’‘Theirtemplewasdestroyed–sometimeinthefifthcenturyBCIbelieve–andtheJewishcommunitythathadlivedontheislandvanishedafterthat.It’sabitofamystery,actually.Theyjustmeltedaway.ButI’mnotanexpert…Icanrecommendsomebooksifyoulike.’IthankedDrWeilforthisoffer,jotteddowntheshortbibliographythatshegaveme,andsaid goodbye to her in a state of some excitement. It had been in the fifth century BC,according to the Tana Kirkos traditions, that the Ark of the Covenant had arrived inEthiopia.NowIknewthataJewish templeon theupperNilehadbeendestroyed in thatsamecentury.WasitnotpossiblethatthattemplehadbeenbuilttwohundredyearsearliertohousetheArkafterithadbeenremovedfromJerusalemduringthereignofManasseh?I intendedto findoutand left Israel thenextday–not forLondon,as Ihadoriginallyplanned,butforEgypt.

Chapter16DooroftheSouthernCountries

AswanislocatedontheeastbankoftheNileatapointroughlyequidistantfromIsraelandfromthenorthernbordersofEthiopia.Wellplacedasa stagingpostbetween theAfricanandMediterraneanworlds, its namewas derived from the Greekword Seyene, which inturn was a corruption of the ancient Egyptian Swenet, meaning ‘making business’.1 Inantiquitythetownprofitedgreatlyfromarichtwo-waycommerceinwhichmanufacturedgoodsflowedsouthwardsfromthehighcivilizationofEgypt,andinwhichspices,aromaticsubstances,slaves,goldandivoryfromsub-SaharanAfricaweretradednorth.Itwasfromthislattercommodity,ivory,thattheislandinwhichIwasinterestedhadreceiveditsname,forElephantine(whichliesinthemiddleoftheNiledirectlyoppositeAswan)hadoncebeenknownsimplyasAbu,orElephantLand.2AtthereceptiondeskoftheNewCataractHotelinAswanIenquiredaboutElephantineandparticularlyaboutitsJewishtemple.ShalvaWeilhadalreadytoldmethatithadbeendestroyed in the fifth century BC but she had also said that archaeologists were workingthere,soIhopedverymuchthattheremightberuinstovisit.Mention of theword ‘Jewish’ did not elicit a favourable response from the hotel staff;despitetherelativelypositivediplomaticrelationshipthathadbeenforgedbetweenEgyptandIsrael inrecentyearsIhadforgottenhowmuchbadbloodandbitternessstilldividedthepeoplesofthetwoneighbouringcountries.Finally,however,Ididmanagetoextractthefollowing intelligence from the front-desk manager: ‘Many temples on Elephantine –Egyptian,Roman,maybeJewish…Idon’tknow.Youcangosee,takeafeluccaride,findout.Anywaytherearearchaeologiststhere,Germanarchaeologists.JustaskforMrKaiser.’MrKaiser,eh,IthoughtasIwalkedoutofthelobbyandintoafiercelyhotday,alikelystory!

IndianaJonesAfterashortfeluccaridetoElephantineIwasshowntoabuildingontheisland’swestbankwhereIwastold‘theGermans’lived.Imademywaytothefrontdoor,knocked,andwasadmitted by aNubianmanservantwearing a red fez.Without questioningme he ledmealongacorridorandintoaninterestingroom,thewallsofwhichwerelinedfromfloortoceilingwithwoodenshelves loadedwithbroken fragmentsofpotteryandotherartefacts.Thenheturnedtogo.Icoughed:‘Excuseme.Er…I’mlookingforMrKaiser.Couldyoucallhimplease?’The servant paused, favouredmewith an inscrutable stare and then left, still withoutsayinganything.Fiveminutesorsopassed,duringwhichIstoodditheringinthemiddleofthefloor,andthen…IndianaJonesappearedinthedoorway.Or,rather,notIndianaJoneshimselfbutaHarrison Ford lookalike. Wearing a Panama hat at a jaunty angle, he was tall and

muscular,ruggedlyhandsome,andgimlet-eyed.Clearlyhehadnotshavedforseveraldays.Iresistedastrongurgetoexclaim,‘MrKaiser,Ipresume’,andaskedlesstheatrically:‘AreyouMrKaiser?’‘No.MynameisCorneliusvonPilgrim.’Headvancedtowardsme,and,as I introducedmyself,heextendedastrongandsuntannedrighthandformetoshake.‘I’m visiting Elephantine’, I explained, ‘in connection with a project of mine. I’minterestedinthearchaeologyofthetemplehere.’‘Ahha.’‘Yes.YouseeI’minvestigatingahistoricalmystery…the…er…thelossof,ImeanthedisappearanceoftheArkoftheCovenant.’‘Ahha.’‘DoyouknowwhatImeanbytheArkoftheCovenant?’By now Cornelius von Pilgrim’s expression could only be described as glazed. ‘No,’ herepliedcurtlyinanswertomyquestion.‘YoudospeakEnglishdoyou?’Iasked.Iwantedtobesure.‘Yes.Quitewell.’‘Good.OK,then.TheArk.Nowlet’ssee.YouknowaboutMoses,right?’Afaintnod.‘AndtheTenCommandments,carvedontabletsofstone?’Anothernod.‘Well, the Ark of the Covenant was the chest made of wood and gold that the TenCommandmentswereputin.And…er…I’mlookingforit.’Cornelius von Pilgrim did not seem to be overly impressed. Then he said, without theslightesttraceofhumour:‘Ahha.LikeIndianaJonesyoumean?’‘Yes.That’s exactlywhat Imean.Anyway, the reasonwhy I’m inElephantine is that IwastoldongoodauthoritythattherewasaJewishtemplehere.MytheoryisthattheArk,somehow,wastakentoEthiopiainancienttimes.SonaturallyI’mwonderingwhetherthereisanypossibility–oranyarchaeologicalevidenceeven–thatitmighthavebeenbroughtherefirstbeforeitwenttoEthiopia.Yousee,IthinkitwasremovedfromJerusalemintheseventh century BC. So the question is – what happened in the intervening two hundredyears?’‘YouarewonderingwhetherduringthosetwocenturiestheArkcouldhavebeenkeptintheJewishtempleonthisisland?’‘Absolutely.InfactI’mhopingthatyouandyourteammayhaveexcavatedthetemple.IfyouhavethenI’dverymuchliketoknowwhatyoufound.’CorneliusvonPilgrimremovedhishatbeforedemolishingmyhopes.‘Yes,’hesaidafteraratherlengthypause,‘butonthesitethatyouareinterestedinthere’snothingtobeseen.We’dthoughttheremightbesomethingleft…beneaththeruinsoftheRomantemplethatwaslaterbuiltontopoftheJewishone.Butnowwe’vedugdownallthewaythroughthefoundations.Andthere’sjustnothing.Absolutelynothingatall.It’safactthattherewasasubstantialJewishsettlementherebetweentheseventhandthefifthcenturyBCbutnothingremainsofitnowforarchaeologyexceptsomeofthehousesofthepeople.That’sall, I’mafraid.’TryingtoignoretheimmensefeelingofdepressionthathadjustwashedovermeIasked:

‘Ifnothingremainsofthetemplethenhowdoyouknowthatitwaseverthere?’‘Oh.That isnotaproblem.That isnot indoubt.Forawhile therewasagreatdealof

correspondencebetweenthisislandandthecityofJerusalem.Theseletterswerewrittenonostraca–potsherds–andonpapyrusscrolls.ManyofthemhavebeenfoundandtranslatedandalargenumbermakespecificreferencetotheTempleofYahwehonElephantine.Thematteriswellattestedhistoricallyandbecauseofthiswedoknow,withinafewmetres,theexactsiteofthetemple,wealsoknowwhenthetemplewasdestroyed–itwas410BC–andfinally we know that the later Roman temple was built in the place where the Jewishtemplehadpreviouslystood.Itisallveryclear.’‘WhywastheJewishtempledestroyed?’‘Look…Iamnotanexpertinthesematters.Ispecializeintheremainsfromthesecond

millennium BC –well before your period. To find outmore detailed information youwillhavetotalktoacolleagueofminewhohastakenaspecialinterestintheJewishcolony.HeisMrAchimKrekeler.’‘Isheherenow?’‘Unfortunately not. He is in Cairo. But hewill return tomorrow.Will you still be here

tomorrow?’‘Yes. Imean… I don’t have long. I have to get back to England. But I canwait until

tomorrow.’‘Good.SoIsuggestthenthatyoucomebacktomorrow,intheafternoon,sayaroundthree

p.m.,andyouwillseeMrKrekeler.Meanwhile,ifyoulike,IwouldbehappytoshowyouwheretheJewishcolonywas…andthesiteofyourtemple.’ItookvonPilgrimuponthiskindoffer.AswewalkedIaskedhimunderwhoseauspices

theexcavationsonElephantinewerebeingconducted.‘Weare from theGermanArchaeological Institute inBerlin,’he replied. ‘Wehavebeen

workinghereforanumberofyears.’Wehadarrivedatthefootofalowhill.Ontheslopesaboveus,spreadoutoverawide

area,was amaze of rubble andmasonry, amidstwhich partially reconstructed dry-stonewallsbetrayedtheoutlinesofrooms,housesandstreets. ‘This’, saidvonPilgrim, ‘wasthepartoftheoldtownofElephantinewheretheJewishpeoplelived.’Webegantoclimb,pickingourwaywithcareamongstthecrumblingruins.Bythetime

wereached thesummit Iwasquiteoutofbreath–but Ihadalsoshakenoff themoodofdepressionthathadassailedmeearlier.ThoughIcouldnothaveexplainedexactlywhy,Ifeltthattherewassomethingaboutthisplacewhichwas…right–somethinghauntingandevocativethatspokeofancientdaysandhiddenhistories.CorneliusvonPilgrimhadledmetothehighestpointontheislandofElephantine.Now

he gestured around us and said: ‘The Jewish temple was here, beneath where we arestanding.’Ipointedtoamassive,brokencolumnthatloomedjustaheadofusandtoourrightand

askedwhatitwas.‘PartoftheRomantempleItoldyouabout.Asamatteroffactthere’sevidencethatquite

a number of other temples stood here at different periods, dedicated to the gods of thevariousforeignpowersthatoccupiedEgyptinthefirstmillenniumBC.Oftenthearchitectsofthesetempleswouldre-usethematerialsfromtheearlierbuildings.This,Ithink,iswhy

the Jewish temple so completely disappeared. It was destroyed, knocked down, maybeburnt, and then itsmasonrywas broken up and incorporated into the walls of the nexttemple.’‘IaskedbeforewhytheJewishtemplewasdestroyed.Youdidn’tgetroundtotellingme

…’‘Broadly speaking we believe that there was a problem between the members of the

JewishcommunityandtheEgyptianresidentsoftheisland.YouseetherewasanEgyptiantempletoo…’‘Onthesamesite?’‘No.TheJewishtemplehadbeenbuiltmoreor lessbesideit.’TheEgyptiantemplewas

overthere’–hegesturedinthedirectionofanotherpileofrubble–‘andsomeremainsfromithavebeenfound.ItwasdedicatedtothegodKhnum.Hewasaram-headedgod.Allhiseffigies show himwith the head of a ram.Andwe speculate from this that some serioustensionmayhavearisenbetweentheJewishpriestsandtheEgyptianpriests.’‘Whytension?’‘Well,it’sobvious.ItisknownthattheJewsherepractisedsacrificeandalmostcertainly

they sacrificed rams.Thiswouldnothavemade thepriests ofKhnumveryhappy. SoweguessthatatacertaindatetheysimplyturnedontheJewsandperhapsmassacredthem,orperhapsexpelledthemfromtheisland,andthenafterwardsdestroyedtheirtemple.’‘Andyousaidthatthatdatewas410BC?’‘Yes.That’sright.ButyoumusttalktoAchimKrekelerformoredetails.’

Themissinglink?I returned the next afternoon as von Pilgrim had suggested. Meanwhile I had spent asleepless night and a restless morning thinking through everything that I had learned,workingoutthelogicofeventsandtryingtoarriveatsometentativeconclusions.As a result of this process – evenbeforemymeetingwithKrekeler – Iwas reasonably

confidentinmyownmindthattheJewishtempleonElephantinemightindeedprovetobethemissinglinkinthechainofcluesthatIhadassembledovertheprevioustwoyears.IfIwasright,andifagroupofLeviteshadleftJerusalemwiththeArkoftheCovenantduringthe reignofManasseh, then theycouldhardlyhavechosenabetterplaceof safety.HeretheywouldhavebeenfarbeyondthereachofthewickedJewishkingwhohadintroducedanidolintotheHolyofHolies.Moreover,sinceIhadestablishedtherelationshipbetweentheceremonyoftheArkandthefestivalofApet(heldeachyearatLuxorjusttwohundredkilometrestothenorth–seechapter12),itseemedtomethatthisUpperEgyptianislandcould also have been seen by the fugitive priests as a uniquely appropriate location:surroundedonallsidesbythesacredwatersoftheriverNile,mighttheynothavefeltthattheyhadreturnedtotheirroots?Allthiswasspeculation.Whatwascertain,however,wasthataJewishtemplehadbeen

builthereatapproximatelytherighttimetohaveshelteredtheArkafteritsremovalfromtheHolyofHoliesinJerusalem.Itwasalsocertainthatthatsametemplehadsubsequentlybeendestroyedduringthesamecenturyinwhich–accordingtotheTanaKirkostraditions–theArkhadbeenbroughttoEthiopia.Allthis,itseemedtome,addeduptoacompellingly

suggestiveseriesofevents.AndIwasnotgreatlyworriedbythe fact that thedateof theElephantine temple’s destruction – 410 BC –was approximately sixty years later than thedate that I had calculated for the Ark’s arrival on Tana Kirkos (470 BC). Over the hugeperiodof timebetween the fifthcenturybcand the twentiethcentury AD it seemed tomequitepossiblethattheEthiopianoraltraditionsonwhichIhadbasedthatcalculationcouldhavegoneadriftbysixtyyearsorso.I was therefore in an optimistic frame of mind when I arrived back at the GermanArchaeologicalInstitute’shouseformymeetingwithAchimKrekeler.Astocky,friendlymaninhismid-thirtieswhospokegoodEnglish, I foundhimporingover fragmentsofancientpapyrus which, he explained, had to be handled with great care because they wereexceptionallybrittle.‘Andit’spapyrilikethesethathaveprovidedthemainevidencefortheexistenceoftheJewishtemple?’‘Yes, and for its destruction. After 410 BC a number of letters were sent to Jerusalemdescribing what had happened and seeking funds and permission for a possiblereconstruction.’‘Butthetemplewasneverrebuilt,wasit?’‘No,definitelynot.Infactallthecorrespondencesuddenlystoppedaround400BC.AfterthatitseemsthattheJewishpeopleleftElephantine.’‘Doyouknowwhathappenedtothem?’‘No.Not really.But clearly theyhadbeen in troublewith theEgyptians for some time.Probablytheywereforcedtoleave.’‘Andyoudon’tknowwheretheywent?’‘Noinformationonthathaseverbeenfound.’At some length I explained toKrekelermy interest in theArkof theCovenantandmyfeelingthatitmighthavegottoEthiopiabywayofElephantine.Ithenaskedwhetherhethoughtthattherewasanypossibilityatallthatthesacredreliccouldhavebeenbroughttotheisland.‘Of course it ispossible.Anything is possible.But I had alwaysunderstood that theArkwasdestroyedwhentheTempleinJerusalemwasburntdownbytheBabylonians.’‘That’s the orthodox theory. But I’m fairly sure that it was taken out quite some timebeforethen–intheseventhcenturyBC,duringthereignofManasseh.SooneofthethingsthatI’mhopingyou’llbeabletogivemeisaprecisedateforthebuildingofthetemplehereinElephantine.’‘I’m afraid there is no precise date. Opinions vary. But personally I would have nodifficulty in accepting that itmight have been built some time in the seventh century BC.Otherscholarsalsosharethatview.’‘Anddoyouhaveanyideawhatthetemplewouldhavelookedlike?Iknowyouhaven’trecovered anymaterial artefacts but I’mwondering whether theremight have been anyhintsinthepapyri?’‘A few.No sacredwritings as such have yet been recovered. Butwe have found a fairamountofdescriptive informationabout theexteriorof the temple.Fromthiswecansayfor certain that it had pillars of stone, five gateways alsomade of stone, and a roof ofcedarwood.’

‘WouldithavehadaHolyofHolies?’‘Presumably. It was a substantial building, a proper temple. But there is insufficientevidencetobecertainwhethertherewasaHolyofHoliesornot.’We continued to talk around the subject for another hour or so. Finally, however,KrekelerannouncedthathistimewasshortashewasduetoreturntoCairothenextdayand he had much to do. ‘I can lend you two of the best academic publications onElephantine,’ he offered, ‘as long as you promise to bring them back tomorrow. Theysummarizeall themainfindingsof theresearchthathasbeendoneherebyscholars frommanydifferentcountriessincetheturnofthecentury.’When I returned to my hotel I was carrying the weighty tomes that Krekeler hadmentioned.TheyfullyrepaidthelongnightthatIspentstudyingthem.

TheArkinElephantineHereiswhatIlearnedabouttheJewishTempleonElephantine–thekeyfactsofrelevancetomyquest,asIrecordedtheminmynotebook:

1Thetemple,asKrekelertoldme,musthavebeenabuildingofsomeconsiderablesize.Quitealotofinformationaboutitsappearancesurvivedinthepapyriandthearchaeologistshaveconcludedthatitsdimensionswereninetyfeetlongbythirtyfeetwide.3Inoldmeasurementsthisis,ofcoursesixtycubitsbytwentycubits.4Interestingly,theBiblegivesexactlythesamemeasurementsforSolomon’sTempleinJerusalem.5

2TheElephantineTemplewasroofedwithcedarwood;6sowasSolomon’sTemple.7

3Itseems,therefore,thatSoloman’sTemplemusthaveprovidedthemodelfortheElephantineTemple.SincetheformerhadoriginallybeenbuilttoaccommodatetheArkoftheCovenant,isitnotprobablethatthelatterwasaswell?

4AnimalsacrificewasroutinelypractisedattheElephantineTemple–includingtheall-importantsacrificeofalambastheopeningriteofPassoverweek.8ThisishighlysignificantsinceitindicatesthattheJewishcommunitymusthavemigratedtoElephantinebeforethereformsofKingJosiah(640-609BC).ThosereformsconclusivelybannedsacrificeatanylocationotherthantheJerusalemTemple(abanthatwassubsequentlyrespectedevenbytheexilesduringthecaptivityinBabylon).OnElephantine,however,sacrificecontinuedtobeanimportantritualfortheJewsinthesixthandfifthcenturiesBC.9SincethoseJewswereengagedinaregularcorrespondencewithJerusalemtherecanbenodoubtthattheywouldhaveknownaboutJosiah’sban.Nevertheless,theycontinuedtoperformsacrifices.Theymust,therefore,havefeltthattheyhadsomespecialauthoritysotodo.ItgoeswithoutsayingthatthepresenceoftheArkoftheCovenantintheirtemplewouldhaveprovidedthemwithalltheauthoritytheyneeded.

5InthisconnectionitisworthyofnotethattheElephantineJewsclearlythoughtthatYahwehresidedphysicallyintheirtemple:anumberofpapyrispeakofhim–innouncertainterms–as‘dwelling’there.10InancientIsrael(andduringthewanderingsin

thewilderness)YahwehwasbelievedtoresidewherevertheArkwas;11indeedthisbeliefonlyreallychangedafterthelossoftheArkhadbeenrecognized.12WhentheJewsofElephantinespokeofYahwehasadeitywhowasphysicallypresentwiththem,therefore,itfollowsthattheycouldwellhavebeenreferringtotheArk.

6TheElephantineJewsfrequentlyspokeofthedeitydwellingintheirtempleas‘theLordofHosts’or‘YahwehofHosts’.13Scholarsrecognizethisphraseasanarchaicone.14ItwasfrequentlyusedinconnectionwiththeArk(e.g.intheperiodbeforeSolomon’sTemplewasbuilt‘thepeoplesenttoShilohthattheymightbringfromthencetheArkoftheCovenantoftheLordofHosts.’15).

7AlltheabovefactorslendcredibilitytotheviewthattheArkcouldhavebeenlodgedintheElephantineTemple–and,indeed,thatitspresenceontheislandcouldhavebeenthereasonforthebuildingofthatTempleinthefirstplace.Krekelerwasrighttotellmethatnoexactdateofconstructionhasyetbeenestablished.Fromtheliterature,however,itisclearthatthescholarswhoanalysedthepapyrididagreatdealofworkonpreciselythissubject.TheypointoutthatbytheearlyseventhcenturyBCtherewasalreadyasubstantialJewishpopulationontheislandofElephantine,madeupmainlyofagarrisonofmercenariesinthepayoftheEgyptians.TheseJewishsoldiers,togetherwiththeirfamilies,wouldhaveconstitutedaviablesocialcontextfortempleworship.Onthebasisofthisandagreatdealofotherevidence,theconsideredopinionofthescholarsisthereforethattheElephantineTemplemusthavebeenbuiltbytheyear650BC.16

8Itisimpossibletooverstatethesignificanceofthisdate.Why?BecauseitfallsduringthereignofManasseh–thekingwhointroducedanidolintotheHolyofHoliesoftheJerusalemTemple,thuscausingtheArktoberemoved(probablybypriestswhoremainedloyaltothetraditionalworshipofYahweh).Itwasadifficultenoughtasktoestablishthatthesacredrelicmustindeedhavebeentakenoutatthistime17–but,havingcompletedthattask,IamsatisfiedthatthereisnoevidenceintheBibleaboutwhereitmighthavebeentakento(evenProfessorMenahemHaranwasunabletoputforwardanytheoriesastowhatcouldhavehappenedtoitafteritleftJerusalem).

9TheacademicauthoritieswhostudiedtheElephantinepapyri,andwhoarrivedatthedateof650BCfortheconstructionoftheTemple,wereclearlynotawarethattheArkcouldhavegonemissingfromJerusalemduringthereignofManasseh.Iftheyhadbeenthentheywouldcertainlyhaveputtwoandtwotogether.Theywereaware,however,ofthewidespreadoutragecausedbythatmonarch’s‘paganinnovations’,andtheyconcludedthatthisoutragewastheonlypossibleexplanationfortheotherwiseinexplicablefactthataJewishtemplewasbuiltonElephantine:

Manasseh’sreignwasaccompaniedbymuchbloodshedanditmaybesurmisedthatpriestsaswellasprophetsopposedhispaganisation.SomeofthepriestsfledtoEgypt,joinedtheJewishgarrisonatElephantine,andthere…erectedtheTemple.18

10ThesearethewordsofBezalelPorten,authoroftheauthoritativestudyArchivesfrom

Elephantine.PortenneverthelessremainspuzzledbythefactthataJewishtemplecouldhavebeenbuiltatElephantineatall,becauseofthenotion,deeplyentrenchedwithinJudaism,‘thatforeignsoilwasuncleanandthat,therefore,noTempletotheLordmightbeerectedonit.’19Hepointsoutthat,afterthedestructionofSolomon’sTempleinJerusalem,theJewscarriedoffintoexileinBabylon‘werecounselledbyJeremiahtosettledownandpray(notsacrifice)totheLord.’Thesameauthorthenadds:‘thereisnoevidencethatanyTempletoYHWHwaserectedinBabylonia’andasks:‘Withwhatjustification,then,didtheJewsatElephantineerecttheirtemple?’20

11ItseemstomethattheanswertoPorten’srhetoricalquestionisobvious:theirjustificationwasthattheyhadbroughtwiththemfromJerusalemtheArkoftheCovenantandthattheynowneededtobuild‘anhouseofrest’forit,21justasSolomonhaddonesolongbefore.

ElephantineandtheFalashasWhen I returned to England I felt quite confident that I had at last uncovered the realsequenceofeventsunderlyingthemysteryofthelostArk.Seeking supporting evidence I went to the School of Oriental and African Studies inLondonandacquiredcopiesof the twoout-of-printvolumes thatAchimKrekelerhad lentme,volumesthatInowwantedtoexaminemuchmorethoroughly.Ialsoassembledotherrelevantsources,includingTheHistoryofHerodotus(becauseIhadlearnedthatthefamousGreekscholarhadpaidavisittoElephantinearoundtheyear450BC22).This further research effort proved fruitful. One thing that had been botheringme, forexample, was why Josiah – the zealous traditionalist who had inherited the throne inJerusalem two years after Manasseh’s death – had not sought to get the Ark back fromElephantine.Theanswer to thatquestiondidnotprovedifficult to find.As Ihadalreadyestablished,Josiah’sreformshadnotstarteduntilthetwelfthyearofhisreign(whenhewastwenty) and his restoration of the Temple had only begun in the eighteenth year of hisreign (622 BC).23 By this time relations between Judah and Egypt had deteriorateddramatically – so much so, in fact, that Josiah was ultimately killed fighting theEgyptians.24EvenifhehadknownthattheArkhadbeentakentoElephantine,therefore,hewouldnothavebeen inaposition to enforce its return fromapowerful countrywithwhichhewasatwar.Havingsatisfiedmyselfon thispoint I thenmovedon toconsider thenext stageof thelosthistorythatIwasattemptingtoreconstruct–thejourneyoftheArkfromElephantineintoEthiopiaduringthefifthcenturyBC.MyinterviewinJerusalemwiththeFalashapriestRaphaelHadanehadraisedtheintriguingpossibilitythattheancestorsofEthiopia’sblackJewsmighthavebeenmigrantsfromElephantine–becausetherecouldbenodoubtthathehad been speaking of that island when he had told me that his forefathers had built atempleatAswan.MoreoverthenotionthattheFalashasmighthavereachedEthiopiafromElephantinewassupportedbythefindingsofmyownearlierresearch.InNovember1989Ihadbeenstruckbythe ‘ethnographicfingerprint’ofFalashasettlementaroundLakeTanaand–onthebasisofthisandotherevidence–Ihadconcludedthat:

thereligionofSolomoncouldonlyhaveenteredEthiopiafromthewest–throughEgyptandtheSudanalongtheancientandwell-travelledtraderoutesprovidedbytheNileandTakazzerivers.

ForsometimebeforereachingthatconclusionIhadbeenprofoundlydissatisfiedwiththelargebodyofacademicopinionwhichheldthattheFalashaswerethedescendantsofJewsfrom southernArabiawhohadarrived inEthiopia after AD 70 (seeChapter6). Now, as IfollowedupthebibliographythatthesocialanthropologistShalvaWeilhaddictatedtomein Jerusalem, I discovered that a number of other theories had been put forward tochallengetheprevailingorthodoxy.ThoughrepeatedlyridiculedbythemastersofEthiopianstudieslikeProfessorEdwardUllendorff,25someofthedissentingvoiceshadsuggestedthattheancestorsoftheFalashascouldwellhavebeenconvertedtoJudaismbymigrantsfromthe Jewish colony on the island of Elephantine.26 No doubt there had been extensivecommercial and cultural contacts between Yemen and Ethiopia during this period; thereality was, however, that several quite substantial Jewish communities had beenestablished in Egypt for hundreds of years before any Jews had settled in south Arabia.Given the profoundly Old Testament character of Falasha religion, therefore, logicsuggestedthattheJewishfaithmusthavebeencarriedsouth-eastwardsfromEgyptandintoEthiopiainagradualprocessof‘culturaldiffusion’.27Tobesure,therewerenoabsolutelyunassailablehistoricalfacts linkingtheFalashas toElephantine. Idid,however,comeacrossagreatmanytantalizingcluesandcoincidenceswhich seemed to me to be highly suggestive of such a link. All the evidence wascircumstantialandnoneofitactuallyprovedmytheorythattheArkhadreachedEthiopiainthefifthcenturyBCafterspendingtwohundredyearsintheJewishTempleonElephantine.Viewedinthecontextofeverythingelsethat Ihadlearned,however– inIsrael, inEgyptandinEthiopiaitself–mylatestfindingstookonadifferentandentirelymorepersuasiveaspect.Set out below, as I recorded them inmynotebook, are theprincipal conclusions that Ireachedandtheevidenceonwhichtheywerebased:

1ThefactthattheJewishcommunityatElephantinepractisedsacrifice–andthatitcontinuedtodosolongafterKingJosiah’sreforms–issurelyhighlysignificant.OneoftheproofsoftheantiquityofJudaisminEthiopiaistheextremelyarchaiccharacterofFalashareligion,inwhichanimalsacrificeofpreciselythekindcarriedoutatElephantineplaysacrucialrole.28ThisaddsweighttothehypothesisthattheFalashasarethe‘culturaldescendants’ofJewishmigrantsfromElephantineandthereforeprovidesstrongsupportforthethesisthattheArkoftheCovenantmayhavebeenbroughttoEthiopiafromthatisland.2InitsheydaytheJewishTempleonElephantinehaditsownwellestablishedpriesthood.Inthevowel-lesslanguageofthepapyrithesepriestsarereferredtoasKHN.29Thisword,ofcourse,becomeskahenwhenthevowels‘a’and‘e’areadded.FalashapriestsarealsocalledKahen.30

3OneofthenamesgiventotheJewishTempleonElephantinewasMSGD.31Itmeant

‘placeofprostration’.32TothisdaytheFalashasinEthiopiahavenosynagogues;neitherdotheyhaveatemple;theydo,however,calltheirsimplehousesofworshipMesgid33(i.e.MSGDwiththevowels‘e’and‘i’added).Inthiscontextitisalsoworthyofnotethatitwasexactlyinaprostrateposition,kneestotheground,thatKingSolomononceprayedbeforetheArkoftheCovenantofYahweh.34

4InhisinterviewwithmeinJerusalemRaphaelHadanesaidthattheJewishTemplebuiltbyhisforefathers‘atAswan’hadbeenexemptedfromagreatdestructionthathadbeeninflicteduponEgyptiantemplesbya‘foreignking’:

‘hedidnotdestroyourtemple.SowhentheEgyptianssawthatonlytheJewishtemplewasnotdestroyedtheysuspectedthatwewereonthesideoftheinvader.Becauseofthistheystartedtofightagainstusandtheydestroyedourtempleandwewereforcedtoflee.’

In525BCaforeignkingdidinvadeEgyptanddidindeeddestroymanytemples.35HisnamewasCambysesandhewastheruleroftheexpansionistPersianEmpirethathadbeen founded by his father Cyrus the Great. The Elephantine papyri preserve thisrecollectionofhim:

whenCambysescameintoEgypthefoundthis[Jewish]Templebuilt.They[thePersians]knockeddownallthetemplesofthegodsofEgypt,butnoonedidanydamagetothisTemple.36

ThePersiansremainedinpowerinEgyptuntilveryclosetotheendofthefifthcenturyBC. During this period the Jews on Elephantine co-operated closelywith them. Itwasafter their protection had been effectively removed that the Jewish Temple on thatislandwasfinallydestroyed.37RaphaelHadane’sfolktraditionsabouttheoriginsoftheFalashasarethereforeborneoutbyestablishedhistoricalfacts.5HadanealsoreportedthathispeopleespeciallyveneratedtheislandofTanaKirkos–thesameislandtowhichIwastoldtheArkhadbeenbroughtinthefifthcenturyBC.Moreover,MemhirFisseha,theChristianpriestwhomIinterviewedonthatisland,toldmethattheArkhadbeenkeptthere‘insideatent’foreighthundredyearsbeforebeingtakentoAxum.38Itseemstomehardlysurprisingthatatentor‘tabernacle’mighthavebeenusedonTanaKirkostosheltertheArk.IfmytheoryiscorrectthentheJewswhobroughttherelictherehadjustexperiencedthedestructionoftheirownTempleonElephantineandwouldhaveknownalsooftheearlierdestructionofSolomon’sTemplebyNebuchadnezzar.TheycouldwellhavedecidedthatitwastimetoabandonformaltemplesforeverandtoreturntothepuretraditionofthedesertwanderingswhentheArkhadalwaysbeenhousedinatent.6Lastbutnotleast,RaphaelHadanetoldmethattheancestorsoftheFalashasreachedEthiopianotonlybywayofAswan(i.e.Elephantine)butalsothattheypassedthroughthecityofMeroe‘wheretheyremainedforashortwhile’.ThesesametwoplaceswerealsonamedbySolomonAlemu,theFalashapriestwhomIinterviewedatthevillageofAnboberinJanuary1990.Canitbeacoincidencethat,afterbeinglosttohistoryfor

morethan1,500years,theruinsofMeroewerefinallyunearthedby–guesswho?Answer:theywerediscoveredin1772bytheScottishexplorerJamesBruce.39

ThelandoftheDesertersAllthis,Ifelt,verystronglysuggestedthatIwasontherighttrack–andthefactthatthesiteofancientMeroehadbeendiscoveredbynoneother thanmyold friendJamesBruceonlyservedtoquickenmyenthusiasmforthechase.TheScottishexplorer,Iwassure,hadmadehisepicjourneytoEthiopiainordertolocatetheArkoftheCovenant(seeChapter7). How appropriate therefore that he should also have located the fabled city throughwhichthesacredrelichadpassedonitsjourneytotheAbyssinianhighlands.Buthaditreallypassedthatway?Therewasstill,itseemedtome,onevitalquestionthatIhadnotyetsatisfactorilyanswered:whyshouldtheJewsofElephantinehavemigratedtothesouthwiththeArkoftheCovenantaftertheylefttheisland?Whynotheadnorth–backtowardsIsrael,forexample?I found that therewere several possible explanations for this, all of which could haveplayed a role. For a start, by the fifth century BC, the Jews in Jerusalemhad got used tolivingwithouttheArk.Solomon’sTemplewaslonggoneandanewonehadbeenbuilttoreplaceit.ThisSecondTemple,furthermore,wasadministeredbyanentrenchedpriesthoodwhichwoulddefinitelynothavewelcomedcompetitorsfromElephantine.By the same token, theElephantineJewswouldhave feltalienandoutofplace in thetheological environment afforded by Jerusalem in the fifth century BC. Religious thinkinghadmovedon,Godwasnolongerthoughtofasthequasi-corporealdeitywhohaddwelled‘between the cherubims’, and the forms of worship in which the Ark had once occupiedcentrestagehadbeenlargelyabandoned.The return of the relic would, therefore, have led to many potentially catastrophicproblems.ItwouldhavebeenquiteobvioustotheElephantinepriesthoodthatinordertoavoidtheseproblemstheywouldhavetostayawayfromJerusalem.Butwherecouldtheygoinstead?Clearly,theycouldnotremaininEgypt,sincetheEgyptianshadturnedagainstthemanddestroyed theirTemple.Nor, for thesamereason,could theyhavebeensureofsafe passage if they had chosen to travel north in order to leave that country. A logicalsolution, therefore,would have been to turn towards the south. Itwas notwithout goodreasonthattheGovernorofAswanandElephantinewastitled‘GovernoroftheDooroftheSouthernCountries’.40 In order to take their precious relic to safety the Jewswould onlyhaveneededtoopenthatmetaphorical‘door’andheadoffintothose‘SouthernCountries’,whichwereknowncollectivelyas‘Ethiopia’–aGreekwordmeaning‘burntfaces’appliedatthattimetoallareasinwhichdark-skinnedpeoplelived.41The fugitives would by no means have been venturing forth into a terrifying terraincognita.Onthecontrary,therewasdirectevidencethatmembersoftheJewishcommunityhadbeeninvolvedinmilitaryexpeditionsfartothesouthasearlyasthesixthcenturyBC.42Furthermore, I discoveredwell documented instances of previous migrations – migrationsthathadnotnecessarilyinvolvedJewsbutthathadseenlargenumbersofpeoplefromtheAswanareatravellingandsettlingin‘theSouthernCountries’.Forexample,Herodotus,the‘father of History’, reported that four days’ journey beyond Elephantine the river Nile

ceasedtobenavigable:

Youwillthendisembarkandtravelalongthebankforfortydays,fortherearesharprocksintheNileandmanyreefsthroughwhichyouwillbeunabletosail.Havingmarchedthroughthiscountryinfortydays,youwillembarkagaininanotherboatandsailfortwelvedays,andthenyouwillcometoagreatcity,thenameofwhichisMeroe.ThiscityissaidtobethemotherofallEthiopia…Fromthiscity,makingavoyageofthesamelengthofsailingasyoudidfromElephantinetothemothercityoftheEthiopians,youwillcometothelandoftheDeserters…TheseweretwohundredandfortythousandEgyptians,fighterEgyptians,whorevoltedfromtheEgyptiansandjoinedtheEthiopians…inthetimeofKingPsammetichus.WhenthesepeoplehadsettledamongtheEthiopians,theEthiopiansbecamemorecivilised,throughlearningthemanneroftheEgyptians.Forfourmonthsoftravelspace,then,sailingandroad,beyonditscourseinEgypt,theNileisaknowncountry.Ifyouaddalltogether,youwillfindthatittakesfourmonthsofjourneyingfromElephantinetotheseDesertersofwhomIspoke.43

Isaidearlierthatthemassexodusof‘theDeserters’fromElephantinehadnotnecessarilyinvolved Jews, and I could find no proof that it had.Herodotus had stated very clearly,however,thatthisexodushadoccurredinthetimeofthePharaohPsammetichus(595–589BC44). Iwasthereforeexcitedtolearnfromanimpeccablesourcethat ‘JewshadbeensentoutasauxiliariestofightinthearmyofPsammetichusagainsttheKingoftheEthiopians.’45On the basis of this well documented historical fact it did not seem unreasonable toconcludethattheremightindeedhavebeensomeJewsamongsttheDeserters.AnotheraspectoftheHerodotusreportwhichIfoundintriguingwasthatitmadespecificmention ofMeroe – throughwhich, according to Raphael Hadane, the forefathers of theFalashas had passed on their way to Abyssinia. Moreover, Herodotus had gone toconsiderablelengthstoexplainthathis‘Deserters’hadlivedafullfifty-sixdays’sailbeyondMeroe.IfthisjourneyhadbeenmadeontheAtbarariver,whichflowsintotheNilejusttothe north ofMeroe (and intowhich, in turn, the Takazze also flows) then itwould havebrought the traveller as far as the borders ofmodern Ethiopia, and perhaps across thoseborders.46HerodotushadwrittenhisreportinthefifthcenturyBC.ItfollowedthatifagroupofJewsbearing theArkof theCovenanthad chosen to flee southwards fromElephantine in thatsamecenturythentheywouldhavepassedthrough‘knowncountry’almostallthewaytoLakeTana.Moreover,simplelogicsuggestedthattheAbyssinianhighlandscouldhavebeenanattractivedestination for them–coolandwellwatered, thesegreenmountainswouldsurelyhavelookedlikeaGardenofEdenbycomparisonwiththedesertsoftheSudan.

BeyondtheriversofCushCould the fugitives fromElephantine havehad foreknowledge of this ‘gardenbeyond the

wilderness’?Wasitpossiblethatinmakingtheirjourneytothesouththeymightnotonlyhavebeentravellingthrough‘knowncountry’butalsogoingtowardsalandinwhichtheyalready had kin and co-religionists? As my research progressed I did find evidence tosuggestthatthiswasindeedpossibleandthatJewscouldwellhaveventuredintoAbyssiniaatdatesevenearlierthanthefifthcenturyBC.Partofthisevidencewasbiblical.ThoughIknewthattheuseoftheword‘Ethiopia’intheScriptures could not automatically be assumed to refer to the country now going by thatname, I also knew that therewere circumstances inwhich itmight have done. As notedabove,‘Ethiopia’isaGreekwordmeaning‘burntfaces’.IntheearliestGreekeditionsoftheBible, theHebrew term ‘Cush’was translated as ‘Ethiopia’ andwas used to refer, as oneleading authority put it, to ‘the entire Nile Valley south of Egypt, including Nubia andAbyssinia’.47Whatthismeantwasthatbiblicalreferencesto‘Ethiopia’mightormightnotrefertoAbyssiniaproper.Likewise, inEnglishtranslationsthathadrevertedtotheuseoftheword‘Cush’,Abyssiniamightormightnothavebeenimplied.InthiscontextitseemedtomeatleastworthyofnotethatMoseshimselfhadmarriedan‘Ethiopianwoman’48 –according toanundeniablyancientverse in thebookofNumbers.Added to this was the curious testimony of the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus –supportedbyseveralJewishlegends–whichassertedthatbetweenhisfortiethandeightiethyearstheprophethadlivedforsometimein‘Ethiopia’.49Other passages in the Scriptures also referred to ‘Ethiopia’/‘Cush’. Many were plainlyirrelevant tomy interests. Some, however,were intriguing and raised thepossibility thatthe scribes responsible for themhadnot hadNubiaor anypart of theSudan inmindbutratherthemountainouslandintheHornofAfricathatwecall‘Ethiopia’today.Onesuch,withwhichIwasalreadyfamiliar,occurredinthesecondchapterofthebookofGenesisandreferredtotheriversthatflowedoutoftheGardenofEden:‘AndthenameofthesecondriverisGihon;thesameisitthatcompasseththewholelandofEthiopia.’50Aglance at a map showed me that there was a very real sense in which the Blue Nile,sweeping out from Lake Tana in a wide loop, did indeed compass ‘the whole land ofEthiopia’.Moreover,asIhadbeenawareforsometime,51thetwinspringsregardedasthesourceofthatgreatriverareknowntothisdayasGiyonbytheEthiopiansthemselves.52Another interesting passage occurred in Psalm 68, described by Jon D. Levenson,AssociateProfessoroftheHebrewBibleintheDivinitySchooloftheUniversityofChicago,as‘oneoftheoldestpiecesofIsraelitepoetry’.53ThispsalmincludedacrypticreferencetotheArkof theCovenant54andalsomade the followingstrangeprediction: ‘Ethiopia shallsoonstretchoutherhandsuntoGod.’55IcouldnothelpbutwonderwhyEthiopiahadbeengivenprominenceinthiswayasalikelycandidateforconversiontothereligionofIsrael.Unfortunately,therewasnothinginthepsalmitselfwhichhelpedtoanswerthisquestion.However,inapassagewrittensomewhatlaterbytheprophetAmos(whoseministrylastedfrom783to743BC56),therewereindicationsthatsomethingsomomentoushadhappenedinEthiopia/Cushthattheinhabitantsofthatdistantlandwerenowtoberegardedasbeingonaparwiththe ‘ChosenPeople’of Israel.Threedifferenttranslationsofthesameverse(Amos9:7)helptoillustratewhatImean:AreyenotaschildrenoftheEthiopiansuntome,Ochildrenof

ArenotyouandtheCushitesallthesametome,sonsofIsrael?–

ArenotyouIsraeliteslikeCushitestome?

Israel?saiththeLord.(KingJamesAuthorizedVersion)

itisYahwehwhospeaks.(JerusalemBible)

saystheLord.(NewEnglishBible)

WhileIrealizedthatitwouldbepossibletointerpretthisverseinanotherway–i.e.tounderstand from it that the children of Israelwere no longer to be accorded any specialprivileges by Yahweh – it seemed to me that the more obvious reading also had to beconsidered.BytheeighthcenturyBC,whenAmoswasprophesying,was itnotconceivablethat therecouldalreadyhavebeena flowofHebrewmigrants southwards throughEgyptand into the highlands of Abyssinia? There was no proof for this admittedly wildspeculation.Itwasanundeniablefact,however,thatoutofallthevastswatheofterritorythatAmoscouldhavebeenreferringtowhenhespokeofEthiopia/Cush,onlyonespecificarea was known to have adopted the Judaic faith in antiquity (and, moreover, to haveadheredtothatfaithrightupuntilthetwentiethcenturyAD).Thatarea,ofcourse,layinthevicinityofLakeTana,theFalashahomelandsincetimeimmemorial.Thenext biblical passage that caughtmyattentionwas in thebookof Zephaniah, andhad beenwritten at some time between640 and622 BC57 – i.e. during the reign of KingJosiah.AgainIfoundithelpfultoviewsidebysidethreeseparatetranslationsofthesameverse(Zephaniah3:10),whichsupposedlyquotedthewordsoftheLord:FrombeyondtheriversofEthiopiamysuppliants,eventhedaughterofmydispersed,shallbringmineoffering.(KingJamesAuthorizedVersion)

FrombeyondthebanksoftheriversofEthiopiamysuppliantswillbringmeofferings.(JerusalemBible)

FrombeyondtheriversofCushmysuppliantsoftheDispersionshallbringmetribute.(NewEnglishBible)

Since therewasabsolutelynodoubt that this versehadbeenwrittenbefore622 BC – andthuswellbeforetheexileandcaptivityoftheIsraelitesinBabylon–itwaspertinenttoaskthefollowingquestions:

1WhenZephaniahhadreferredtoa‘dispersion’whateventexactlyhadhebeentalkingabout?2Whichpartofbiblical‘Cush’hadhehadinmindwhenhehadenvisagedthesuppliantsoftheLordbringingofferings‘frombeyondtheriversofEthiopia’?

Inanswertothefirstquestion,Ihadtoconcludethattheprophethadbeentalkingaboutsomekindofvoluntarypopularmigration,becausetherehadbeennoenforced‘dispersion’of the Hebrews from the Holy Land prior to Zephaniah’s time. As regards the secondquestion,thereaderwillrecallthatthebiblicalterm‘Cush’connoted‘theentireNileValley,south of Egypt, including Nubia and Abyssinia’. The verse quoted above, however,contained internal evidencewhich helped to narrow down the precise geographical area

thatZephaniahhadbeenspeakingof.Thatevidencelayinthephrasevariouslytranslatedas‘beyondtheriversofEthiopia’.Sincemorethanoneriverwasinvolved,theNileValleyasfarsouthasMeroecouldberuledout.EastofMeroe,however,flowedtheAtbara,andbeyondthattheTakazze,whiletothesouth(roughlyparallel totheAtbara)theBlueNilerusheddownfromAbyssinia.These,surely,weretheriversofEthiopia,andbeyondallofthemlayLakeTana.ThepossibilitythattheprophethadhadthetraditionalareaofFalashasettlement in mind when he had written this intriguing verse could not, therefore, beentirelydismissed.MyfeelingthattheremightbesomethingtothisspeculationstrengthenedwhenIranacomputer check and discovered that the phrase ‘beyond the rivers of Ethiopia/Cush’ hadonly been used on one other occasion in the entire Bible. The King James AuthorizedVersiontranslatedtherelevantpassage(fromChapter18ofthebookofIsaiah)asfollows:

Woetothelandshadowingwithwings,whichisbeyondtheriversofEthiopia:Thatsendethambassadorsbythesea,eveninvesselsofbulrushesuponthewaters,saying,Go,yeswiftmessengers,toanationscatteredandpeeled,toapeopleterriblefromtheirbeginninghitherto;anationmetedoutandtroddendown,whoselandtherivershavespoiled!58

The other translations of the same passage,which I reproduce below side by side, addedfurthershadesofmeaningtoanalreadyrichandhauntingmessage:CountryofwhirringwingsbeyondtheriversofCush,whosendambassadorsbysea,inpapyrusskiffsoverthewaters.Go,swiftmessengerstoapeopletallandbronzed,toanationalwaysfeared,apeoplemightyandmasterful,inthecountrycriss-crossedwithrivers.(JerusalemBible)

Thereisalandofsailingships,alandbeyondtheriversofCushwhichsendsitsenvoysbytheNile,journeyingonthewatersinvesselsofreed.Go,swiftmessengers,gotoapeopletallandsmooth-skinned,toapeopledreadednearandfar,anationstrongandproud,whoselandisscouredbyrivers.(NewEnglishBible)

Fallingas itdid inChapter18of thebookof Isaiah, itwascertain that thispassagehadbeenwrittenbyIsaiahhimself.59Thismeant,ofcourse,thatitcouldbeaccuratelydatedtohis lifetime which, as I already knew,60 had been a long one, spanning the reigns ofJotham,AhazandHezekiah(respectively740–736BC,736–716BCand716–687BC61).Infact,theprophethadalmostcertainlysurvivedintothereignofManasseh,themonarchwhoseidolatry,Iwasnowquitecertain,hadledtotheremovaloftheArkoftheCovenantfromtheHolyofHoliesoftheJerusalemTemple.Iwasthereforeinterestedtolearnofastrongand ancient Jewish tradition which held that Isaiah had died a martyr at the hands ofManassehhimself.62WhatIfoundevenmoreinterestingwasthewayinwhichtheprophethadspokenofthemysteriouslandthatlay‘beyondtheriversofCush’.TheKingJamesAuthorizedVersionof

theBiblesuggestedthathehadcursedthislandbutthemorerecenttranslationsconveyednosuchimpression.Allthreerenderings,however,didagreeonitsgeographicalcharacter:notonlywasitlocated‘beyond’rivers,butalsoitwasitself‘spoiled’,or‘scoured’,or‘criss-crossed’byrivers.Inmyview, this informationmade itvirtuallycertain that Isaiahhadbeenreferring toAbyssiniaandtotheareaoftraditionalFalashasettlementthere.ThehighcountryaroundLakeTanaisindeed‘criss-crossed’byrivers(whichalsospoilandscouritbycarryingawayhugequantitiesofitsprecioustop-soil).Therewereothercluesaswell:

1Theinhabitantsofthelandweresaidtobetalland‘peeled’,or‘smooth-skinned’,or–intheauthoritativeJerusalemBibletranslation–‘bronzed’.This,Ithought,wasadescriptionthatcouldeasilybeappliedtomodernEthiopians,whoseglowing,chestnut-browncomplexionsarequitedistinctfromthe‘black’,negroidskintonesfoundinotherAfricancountries.

2Thelandwascuriouslydescribedas‘shadowingwithwings’(ormoredirectlyasa‘countryofwhirringwings’).This,Ifelt,mightverywellbeareferencetothegiantlocustswarmsthat,everydecadeorso,laywasteEthiopia,overshadowingthefieldsofthepeasantsandfillingtheairwithadrywhirringsoundthatsendsshiversdownthespine.

3FinallyIsaiahhadmadespecificmentionofthefactthatthemessengersofthelandtravelledin‘vesselsofbulrushes’orin‘papyrusskiffs’,orin‘vesselsofreed’.Tothisday,asIwasverywellaware,thosewhodwellaroundthevastinlandseaofLakeTanamakeextensiveuseofpapyrus-reedboatsknownastankwas.63

All in all, therefore, I felt that the biblical data did lend a considerable degree ofcredibilitytotheviewthatsomekindofrelationshipmighthavebeenestablishedbetweenIsrael and theAbyssinianhighlands at a very earlydate.Moses’sEthiopianwife, Isaiah’s‘people tall and bronzed’, and Zephaniah’s ‘dispersed’ suppliants – who would return toJerusalem‘frombeyondtheriversofCush’–allmadeitverydifficulttoresistthesuspicionthatHebrewshadbeentravellingtoEthiopia,andprobablysettlingthere,longbeforethefifthcenturyBC.If,asIsuspected,theJewishpriestsofElephantinehadbroughttheArkoftheCovenanttotheislandofTanaKirkosinthatsamecenturythenit followedthattheywouldhavebeencomingtoa landinwhichtheirco-religionistshadalreadyestablishedasecurefoothold.

Wavesofmigration?OutsidetheBiblewasthereanyevidenceatallwhichmightsupportthishypothesis?Ifeltthat therewas.The research that Imyselfhadconducted inEthiopiaduring1989–90, forexample,hadalreadyraisedthepossibilitythattheremighthavebeensuccessivewavesofHebrew migration over an immense span of time extending back into the remotestantiquity.MoststronglysuggestiveofthishadbeenthelonginterviewthatIhadconductedwithWambarMulunaMarsha,HighPriestofthe‘Hebraeo-Pagan’Qemant(seeChapter11).

HehadtoldmethatAnayer, the founderofhis religion,hadcometo theLakeTanaareafrom‘thelandofCanaan’.WhenIhadmadeacloserexaminationofQemantreligionIhadestablishedthatitcontainedapeculiarmixtureofpaganandJewishpractices–thelatterreflectedparticularlyinthedistinctionsbetween‘clean’and‘unclean’foods–coupledwithareverencefor‘sacredgroves’whichboreacloseresemblancetotheveryearliestformsofJudaism(thepatriarchAbrahamhad‘plantedagroveinBeersheba,’andhad‘calledthereonthenameoftheLord’.64Suchtendencieshadprobablybeenquitewidespreadduringtheearlyperiodof Israelite settlement inCanaan,andhadenjoyedabrief resurgenceduringManasseh’s reign,buthadbeenthoroughlyandfinallystampedoutbyKingJosiah in theseventhcenturyBC.Theimplicationwasthat the forefathersof theQemantmusthavemigratedtoEthiopia

fromCanaanataveryearlydate.BycontrasttheFalashaslookedlikethedescendantsofslightlymorerecentmigrants.TheirreligionincludedcertainpracticesalsobannedbyKingJosiah–notablyanimalsacrificeatlocalshrines–butotherwiselookedlikearatherpureform of Old Testament Judaism (and was certainly not adulterated with any obviouslypaganbeliefs).NeighboursinthemountainsandvalleysaroundLakeTana,theQemantandtheFalashas

maintainedthattheywererelatedtoeachother(WambarMulunaMarshahadtoldmethatthe founding family of his religion and the founding family of the Falasha religion hadtravelled‘onthesamejourney’andhaddiscussedapossiblemarriagealliance–whichtheyhadultimatelyfailedtomake).Such folklore, as I subsequently established, did reflect an ethnographic truth. The

FalashasandtheQemantwereindeedrelatives:bothweresub-sectionsof thegreatAgawtribe of western central Ethiopia65 – an ethnic group considered to represent the oldeststratumofpopulation in theHornofAfrica.66 Becauseof this, themother-tongueof bothpeoples was a dialect of Agaw, classified, interestingly enough, as belonging to the‘Cushitic’groupoflanguages.67SemitictonguesrelatedtoHebrewandArabic(forexample,AmharicandTigrigna)werealsopresentinEthiopiabutwerenotspoken(exceptassecondlanguages)eitherbytheFalashasorbytheQemant.The explanation for this anomaly, and the deductions that flowed logically from it,

seemedtometobeobvious.Iwroteinmynotebook:

ThefirstsmallbandsofHebrewsmusthavebeguntomigratefromIsraeltoEthiopiaaverylongtimeago.IsuspectthatthisprocessstartedasearlyasthetenthcenturyBC(perhapsevenearlier)andthatitcontinuedatleastuntiltheendofthefifthcenturyBC.OntheirarrivalintheLakeTanaareathemigrantswouldhavefoundthemselvesamongsttheoldest-establishedinhabitantsofEthiopia–suchastheAgaw–andwouldhaveintermarriedwiththem,thusgraduallylosingtheirowndistinctethnicidentity.Atthesametime,however,theywouldhavepassedontheJudaicfaithandculturethattheyhadbroughtwiththem.Inthisfashion,bysaythesecondorfirstcenturyBC,therewouldhavebeennomore‘Hebrews’assuchlivinginEthiopia,only‘Hebraized’or‘Judaized’peopleswhotoallotherintentsandpurposeswouldhavelookedlikenativeEthiopiansandwhowould,ofcourse,havespokenanativeEthiopianlanguage

(Hebrewhavinglongsincebeenforgotten).Themoderndescendantsofthese‘Hebraized’or‘Judaized’peoplesaretheQemantandtheFalashas–theblackJewsofEthiopia–andtheirmother-tongue,adialectofAgaw,isindeedanativeCushiticlanguage.Andwhataboutthe‘Semitic’peoplesofEthiopiasuchasthepolitically

dominantChristianAmharas?Almostcertainlytheyare,astheethnographersmaintain,thedescendantsofSabaean/SouthArabiansettlerswhomovedintothehighlandsinseparateandsomewhatlaterwavesofimmigration.JudaisminoneformoranotherwasprobablyquitewellestablishedamongstindigenousAgawgroupsbythetimethattheseSabaeanconquerorsarrived–whichwouldexplainwhytheircultures,too,weregradually‘Judaized’andwhyJudaicelementssurvivetothisdayinthecuriouslyOldTestamentcharacterofAbyssinianChristianity.‘TherewerealwaysJewsinEthiopia,fromthebeginning,’wrotethe

PortugueseJesuitBalthazaTellezintheseventeenthcentury.68Inthisjudgementhewas,Isuspect,farclosertothetruththanthosemodernscholarswhoascribearelativelylatedatetothearrivalofJudaism–andwhoseemtobecompletelyblindtoalltheevidencethatrunscontrarytotheirownprejudices.

Themysterious‘BRs’Whilepossessingthemeritofexplainingagreatdealthathithertohadneverbeenproperlyexplained,IwaswellawareofapotentialweaknessinthetheorythatIhadjustoutlinedinmynotebook:might itnot reflectmyown prejudices rather than the facts?Tobe sure, itwasafactthattheFalashaspractisedanarchaicformofJudaism;likewiseitwasafactthatQemantreligioncontainedmanyancientHebraicelements;andinasimilarfashionitwasa fact that the Christianity of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church was riddled through andthroughwith practices that were unmistakably Judaic in origin. But from all this was itlegitimatetoconcludethattherehadbeenwavesofHebrewimmigrationintoEthiopiaforhundredsofyearsbeforethefifthcenturyBC–when,asIbelieved,theArkoftheCovenanthadbeenbrought from the islandofElephantineon theupperNile to the islandofTanaKirkos?If Iwasright,andif therehadindeedbeenpriorHebrewsettlementinthatarea,then therewould no longer be anymystery aboutwhy Ethiopia (rather than some othercountry)hadbeenchosenasthelastrestingplaceoftheArk.But was I right? Thus far the evidence that I had gathered in support ofmy evolving

theoryhadtakentwodistinctlydifferentforms:(1)socialandethnographicdataabouttheFalashasandtheQemant,notablyconcerningtheirreligiousbeliefs,theirfolkloreandtheirrelationships to one another; (2) clues, scattered throughout the Old Testament, whichseemedtobearwitnesstosomekindofsustainedHebrewmigrationtoAbyssiniainthefirsthalf of the firstmillennium BC. If there had really been such amigration, however, thensurelytherewouldbeproofofitoutsidetheBibleandoutsidetheobservedpeculiaritiesofFalashaandQemantculture?TheimpressionisticmaterialthatIhadalreadygatheredwasstronglysuggestive,butwhatIreallyneededinordertomakeacompletecasewastangiblearchaeologicalordocumentaryevidenceofHebrewsettlementinEthiopiapriortothefifth

centuryBC.I had never come across such evidence and I knew that I was swimming against thecurrent of scholarly opinion in seeking for it now. Nevertheless I put out feelers to mycontacts in the academicworld in an attempt to discoverwhether therewas anything ofimportancethatImighthavemissed.Not longafterwards I received throughthemailapaperwritten inFrenchbyacertainJacqueline Pirenne and published in 1989 by the Université des sciences humaines deStrasbourg.69ThepaperhadbeensenttomebyaprofessorofEgyptologyatamajorBritishuniversity.Inhiscoveringnotewhosaid:

JustalinetoencloseaphotocopyofanarticlebyJacquelinePirenne,givenatarecentconferenceinStrasburg.Frankly,fromascholarlypointofview,Iconsidershe’sgone‘wayoverthetop’;she’sundoubtedlyaveryableperson,knowsherancientArabiandocumentation,buthas(fornotafewofus)improbableideasonanc.Arabianchronology&scriptorigin.Thisessayisfascinating,butmorefictionthanhistory,Ifear.(Beeston,Igather,criticiseditheavilyatarecentmeetingoftheSeminarforArabianStudies;he’spre-eminentlysane,thoughnomoreinfalliblethantherestofus.)

Inaturallywonderedwhytheprofessorshouldhavethoughtthatapaperbysomeonewhoknewher ‘ancientArabiandocumentation’ couldpossiblybeofany relevance tomyownresearch. After I had had the paper translated into English, however, I could see exactlywhyhehadthoughtthat,andIwasalsoabletounderstandwhymembersoftheacademicestablishmenthadreactedwithhostilitytoJacquelinePirenne’sviews.To strip a rather complex thesis down to its bare essentials, the main thrust of herargumentwasthatscholarswhohadexaminedthehistoricalrelationshipbetweenEthiopiaand South Arabia had been completely wrong: far from Sabaean influences reachingEthiopiafromtheYemen,ashadpreviouslybeensupposed,theflowhadinfactbeenintheoppositedirection,inotherwordsfromEthiopiatoSouthArabia:

TheSabaeans…arrivedfirstofallinEthiopianTigrayandenteredYemenviatheRedSeacoast…Thisconclusion,whichistheabsolutecontrarytoallrecognizedviews,istheonlyone…toexplainthefactsanddothemjustice.70

PirennethenwentontodemonstratethattheoriginalhomelandoftheSabaeanshadbeeninnorth-westArabiabutthatlargenumbersofthemhademigratedfromtheretoEthiopia(‘viatheHammamatriverbedandalongtheNile’)intwoseparatewaves,thefirstaround690BC and the secondaround590 BC.Whyhad they emigrated? Inorder to avoidpayingtribute to the Assyrian invader Sennacherib on the first occasion and in order to avoidpayingtributetotheBabylonianconquerorNebuchadnezzaronthesecond.This thesis was not as far-fetched as it sounded: during their respective campaignsSennacherib andNebuchadnezzarhadnot confined themselves to their famousattacksonJerusalem; itwasa fact that theyhadalsopressedon intonorth-westArabia,wheretheymightindeedhaveencounteredanddisplacedSabaeantribes.ThismuchIalreadyknew.I

did not feel, however, that Iwas in a position either to condemnor condone the rest ofPirenne’sargument,namelythather fugitiveSabaeanshadreachedEthiopiabyfollowingtheNileValleyandthenhadmigratedonwardsfromthereacrosstheRedSeaandintotheYemen.Norwasthisargument,interestingthoughitwas,centraltoPirenne’simportanceformyowninvestigation.Whatcaughtmyeye,andfinallyconvincedmethatIwasontherighttrack,washer analysis of a Sabaean inscription found inEthiopia anddated to the sixthcenturyBC. Translatedby the linguistR. Schneider andoriginallypublished in anobscurepaper entitled ‘Documents épigraphiques de l’ethiopie’,71 this inscription honoured aSabaeanmonarchwhodescribedhimself as a ‘noble fighterking’ andboasted that in theempirehehadestablishedinthenorthandwestofEthiopia,hehadreigned‘overDa’amat,the Sabas, and over the ‘BRs, the whites and the blacks.’72 Who were the ‘BRs, Pirenneasked:

R.Schneiderdidnotventureanyinterpretation…buttheterm,witnessedinAssyrianinscriptions–theAbirus–maybeattributedtotheHebrews…ItisnaturalthatHebrewswouldhaveemigratedatthesametimeasthesecondwaveofSabaeans,sincethefirstcaptureofJerusalembyNebuchadnezzar…followedbydeportationtoBabylon,wasin598BC,whereastheattacksofthesameNebuchadnezzaragainsttheArabswerein599–598BC…Identificationofthe‘BRsas‘Hebrews’whoarrived[inEthiopia]withthesecondwaveofSabaeansexplains…theexistenceoftheFalashas,blackbutJewish…Theyarethedescendantsofthese‘Hebrews’whoarrivedinthesixthcenturyBC.73

WhatPirennehadnot givenany consideration towas thepossibility that the ‘BRs’ – astandard way of writing the word ‘Hebrews’ (i.e.ABIRUS) in early alphabets lacking invowels – might have arrived in Ethiopia before any of the Sabaean incursions. She hadsimplydeduced,because the inscription thatmentioned themhadbeendated to the sixthcenturyBC,thattheymusthavemigratedinthatcentury.Onthebasisofmyownresearch,however, I now felt very confident in concluding that the ‘BRs’ overwhom the SabaeanconquerorshadclaimedsuzereintycouldwellhavebeeninEthiopiaforsomeconsiderablewhilebeforethat–and,moreover,thattheirnumberswerestillbeingaddedtoatthattime(and afterwards) by the arrival via the Nile Valley of more small bands of Hebrewimmigrants.Thislatterpointwasstillintherealmoftheory;JacquelinePirenne’sgifttome,however,layinthefactthatshehaddrawnmyattentiontodefinitearchaeologicalanddocumentaryproof of the existence in Ethiopia, in the sixth century BC, of a people called the ‘BRs’.Academicsmightargueuntileternityaboutwhothese‘BRs’reallywere,butImyselfwasnolongerinanydoubt:

•theyhadbeenHebrewswho,atthatearlystage,hadnotyetsubmergedtheiridentitywiththatoftheindigenousAgawamongstwhomtheyhadsettled;•theyhadworshippedaGodcalledYHWH;

•inconsequence,whentheArkoftheCovenantofYahwehwasbroughtfromElephantinetoEthiopiainthefifthcenturyBCtherewasaveryrealsenseinwhichitcouldbesaidtohavearrivedinareceptiveandappropriaterestingplace.

AchapelofmischanceThere remainedvery littlemore forme todo.Throughouta longandcircuitoushistoricalinvestigation I had been trying to satisfy myself that there might be genuine merit toEthiopia’sclaimtopossessthelostArk.Ihaddonethatnow.Iwaswellawarethatscholarsmightdisputemyfindings,andthe

conclusionsthatIhaddrawnfromthem–but,really,theapprovalofthe‘experts’andthe‘authorities’wasnotwhatIhadsoughtduring1989and1990.InsteadmygoalhadbeenaninneroneinwhichIalonehadbeenthejudgeandfinalarbiterofalltheevidenceandofallthearguments.Thecentralissuehadbeensimple:tojourneytotheancientTigrayancityofAxum,and

tothesanctuarychapelinwhichtheArkwassupposedtolie,Iwouldhavetobepreparedtoacceptphysicalrisksandalsotoovercomeaprofoundspiritualuneaseatthethoughtofputtingmyself intothehandsoftheTPLF–armedrebelswhohadgoodcausetohatemebecauseof the cosy links that Ihadhitherto enjoyedwith theverygovernment that theywere shedding blood to overthrow. I had not been prepared to accept those risks, or tostruggle tomaster my own fears, unless I could first convincemyself that in so doing Iwouldbeembarkingonanadventurethatwasneither foolishnorquixoticbutratheronethatIcouldbelieveinandtowhichIcouldcommitmyself.I now did believe that therewas a very high degree of probability that the Arkmight

indeed lie inAxum,and Iwas thereforeprepared tocommitmyselfabsolutely to the laststageofmyquest–thejourneyto‘thesacredcityoftheEthiopians’withalltherisksanddangersanddifficultiesthatthatwouldentail.Thiswasnotadecisionthat Ihadarrivedat lightly;onthecontrary,over theprevious

months, Ihaddeterminedlysoughtouteveryexcuse thatmightpossiblyhave justified theabandonmentofthewholechancyproject.Insteadoffindingsuchexcuses,however,IhadonlystumbleduponmoreandmorecluesthatappearedtopointunerringlyinthedirectionofAxum.Ihadlookedforalternativerestingplaces fortheArk,butnoneof thosethat legendor

tradition offeredhad seemed in the least bit likely. I had looked for proofs that the relicmight have been destroyed, but no such proofs existed. I had established that theKebraNagast’s claims about Solomon, Sheba and Menelik could not literally be true – only todiscover that these same claims might well serve as a complex metaphor for the truth.Certainly,theArkoftheCovenantcouldnothavegonetoEthiopiaintheeraofSolomon;butitwasentirelyplausiblethatitmighthavemadethatjourneylater,atthetimeofthedestructionoftheJewishTemplethathadstoodontheislandofElephantineintheupperNile.All inall, therefore,whatevertheacademicsmightthink,IknewthatIhadreachedthe

end of a long personal road and that I could not any more put off or avoid the finalreckoning:ifIwastopreserveanysenseofmyownintegrity,ifIwasnotinlateryearsto

feeldishonouredandashamed,thenIwouldhavetodomylevelbesttoreachAxum–nomatter the risks that I would have to run, no matter the demons of self-interest andcowardicethatIwouldhavetoovercome.Itwasacliché–perhapsoneoftheoldestclichésknowntoman–butitseemedtomethatwhatreallycountedwasnotsomuchthatIshouldattain the sacred city but rather that I should try to get there, not somuch that I shouldactually find the Ark but rather that I should find within myself sufficient reserves ofcharactertomaketheattempt.I was, in my own eyes, far from being an Arthurian knight clad in shining armour.

Nevertheless, at this moment in my life, I had no difficulty in understanding why SirGawain, on his way to the perils that awaited him at the Green Chapel, had chosen toignore the siren song of the squirewho had sought to dissuade him from completing hisquestandwhohadwarnedhim:

‘ifyoucomethereyou’llbekilled…thereforegoodSirGawain…ridebyanotherroute,tosomeregionremote!GointhenameofGod,andChristgraceyourfortune!AndIshallgohomeagainandundertaketoswearsolemnly,byGodandhissaintsaswell,stoutlytokeepyoursecret,notsayingtoasoulthatyouevertriedtoturntail.’74

Afterconsideringhisposition,Gawainhadreplied:

‘Itisworthyofyoutowishformywellbeing,man,andIbelieveyouwouldloyallylockitinyourheart.Buthoweverquietyoukeptit,ifIquitthisplace,fled…inthefashionyoupropose,Ishouldbecomeacowardlyknightwithnoexcusewhatever…IwillgototheGreenChapel,togetwhatFatesends.’75

Withjustsuchresolve,thoughwithlesschivalry,IwasnowdeterminedthatImustgotomyown ‘chapel of mischance’76 to find there whatever Fate might send me. And, like SirGawain,IknewthatIwouldhavetomakethatjourneyatthedawnofaNewYear–forthesolemnfeastofTimkatfastapproached.

PartVI:Ethiopia,1990-91

TheWasteLand

Chapter17SuppingwithDevils

Aftermy trips to Israel and Egypt I returned to England inOctober 1990withmymindmadeup: IwouldhavetogotoAxum,andtheoptimumtimetotravel therewouldbe inJanuary 1991. If I could arrive before the 18th of that month then I would be able toparticipate in the Timkat ceremony, during which I hoped that the Ark itself would becarriedinpublicprocession.RaphaelHadane, theFalashapriestwhomIhad interviewedinJerusalem,haddoubtedwhether the genuine article would actually be used: ‘I do not believe that the ChristianswouldeverbringoutthetrueArk,’hehadtoldme,‘theywouldnotdothat.Theywillnevershowittoanyone.Theywilluseareplicainstead.’ComingasithadfromamanwhohadhimselfjourneyedtoAxuminthehopeofseeingthesacredrelic,thiswarningbotheredmeagreatdeal.Nevertheless I sawnoalternativebut togoaheadwithmyplan– and thatmeantconfrontingmyownfears.WithEthiopia’scivilwarcontinuingtogoagainstthegovernmenttherewouldnolongerbe any doubt that I would have to put myself into the hands of the Tigray People’sLiberationFrontifIwasseriousaboutgettingtoAxum.OvertheyearsIknewthattheyhadtakendozensofforeignersintotheareastheycontrolledwithouttheslightestharmcomingtoanyone.I,however,wasterriblyafraidthatharmmightcometome.Why?TheanswertothisquestionlayinthecloselinksthatIhadestablishedwiththeEthiopianregimeovertheperiod1983–9.Attheendof1982Ihadabandonedjournalism,myformeroccupation,andhadsetupapublishingcompanyofmyown,thepurposeofwhichwastoproducebooksandotherdocumentationforawiderangeofclients,includinganumberofAfrican governments. One of my earliest deals had been with the Ethiopian TourismCommission; indeed,asreported inChapter I, ithadbeenthatdeal thathadtakenmetoAxuminthefirstplace,waybackin1983.Theresulthadbeenacoffee-tablebook1whichhadbeenlikedbyseniormembersoftheEthiopiangovernmentandwhichhadledtothecommissioningofseveralsimilarprojects.In theprocess Ihadmetandgot toknowmanypowerfulpeople:ShimelisMazengia, theHeadofIdeology,otherPolitburoandCentralCommitteeactivistsincludingBerhanuBayihand Kassa Kebede, and last but by no means least Ethiopia’s so-called ‘Red Emperor’,PresidentMengistuHaileMariamhimself–themilitarystrong-manwhohadseizedcontrolof the country in themid 1970s andwhose reputation for ruthless suppression of dissentwasvirtuallywithoutparallelanywhereinAfrica.Thereisasenseinwhichwhenyouworkcloselywithpeopleyougraduallybegintoseethings their way. This happened to me during the 1980s and, by the second half of thedecade, I was one of the Ethiopian government’s staunchest supporters. Though I neverapprovedofthatgovernment’suseofdomesticrepression,Imanagedquitesuccessfullytopersuademyself that particular initiatives taken by itwere justified and helpful.Notableamongst these was the policy of resettlement inaugurated in 1984–5 with the goal of

moving more than a million peasants from famine-stricken Tigray (then still undergovernmentcontrol)tovirginlandsinthesouthandwestofthecountry.AtthetimeIwasconvinced that this ‘was necessary’ because vast areas of the north had become‘uninhabitable wastelands on the verge of total, irreversible ecological collapse.’2 Thepolitical leaders of the TPLF, however, looked at resettlement in quite a different way,seeing itasagrave threat to the rebellion that theywere thendesperatelyattempting toconsolidate. The real aim underlying this ‘sinister’ policy, they were convinced, was todeprivethemofvitalgrass-rootssupportintheirownhomeregion(since,obviously,everypeasantremovedfromTigrayrepresentedonelesspotentialrecruitfortheFront).Bybackingresettlement, therefore–andIdidsopubliclyonanumberofoccasions– Ihad worked directly and explicitly against the interests of the TPLF. Moreover I hadidentifiedmyselfcloselywiththeEthiopiangovernmentinotherwaysaswell.AfterseveralmeetingswithPresidentMengistu,forexample,IhadbeenaskedtoprofilehimfortheBBCWorldService.Thatprofile,airedin1988,hadportrayedhiminafarmorefavourablelightthanmostpeoplebelievedhedeserved.WhatIhadsaidhadbeenagenuineexpressionofmyownviews–havinggottoknowthemanquitewellIhadconcludedthathischaracterhadagreatdealmoredepthandsubtlety to it thanhehadeverbeforebeengivencreditfor. The end result, however, had been tomakeme vastly unpopularwith his legions ofcriticsandtogivetheTPLFfurtherreasontoconcludethatIwasfirmlyinthegovernment’scamp.Finally,in1988andtheearlypartof1989,myinvolvementwiththeAddisAbabaregimehad taken on awhole new dimension. In a bizarre series of journeys spread out over aperiodofmore than a year I had carriedmessages back and forthbetweenEthiopia andneighbouringSomalia,whereanotherAfricandictatorwithwhomIwasonfriendlyterms,PresidentMohamed Siyad Barre,was then still in power. The purpose of these trips hadbeentolendsupporttoafalteringdiplomaticpeaceprocessbetweenthetwocountries,andmymainrolehadbeentoreassureeachheadofstatethathisoppositenumberwasinfactseriousaboutnegotiatingandsubsequentlyrespectingapropertreaty.At the time I had thought that what I was doing was honourable, worthwhile andmanifestly in a good cause.Moreover it had flatteredmyego toplay thepart of ‘honestbroker’ between opponents as powerful and as dangerous as Mengistu and Barre. Suchpsychological inducements, however, had completely blinded me to the downside of myactivities–theextenttowhichtheclosepersonalrelationshipsthatIwasobligedtobuildwith these cruel and calculating menmight corrupt and compromise my own character.There is an old proverb which recommends that anyone planning to sup with the devilshouldusea longspoon.Duringmylittleburstofamateurdiplomacyin1988and1989Isuppedwithtwodevils–andunfortunatelyIneglectedtouseaspoonatall.DidIemergefromtheexperiencetaintedinanyway?ThehonestanswertothatquestionisaresoundingYes.CertainlyIdid.IcouldalsoaddthatIregretmyactionsandthat,ifIhad my time over again, I surely would not allow myself to be lured by flattery andpersonalambitionintosuchvilecompany.Thefactwas,however,thatInowhadtolivewiththeconsequencesofmyownmistakes.OneoftheseconsequenceswasthattheEthio-SomalipeaceprocessinwhichIhadplayedaparthadinvolvedanagreementbybothsidestocutoffallthefinanceandarmsthatthey

hadhithertoprovided toeachother’s rebelgroups.Thisnaturallyaffected the interestsoftheTPLFwho,overaperiodof severalyears,hadbuiltupa substantial support-office inMogadishu,theSomalicapital.Onceagain,therefore,Ihaddemonstratedmyselftobeanenemyof theTigrayan cause and a friend toMengistuHaileMariam, thedictatorwhomtheyregardedastheveryincarnationofevil.Thiswas the background againstwhich,with considerable trepidation, Imademy first

overtures to the TPLF’s London office inNovember 1990. I expected that themost likelyresultwasthattheywouldflatlyrefusemyrequesttogotoAxum.Alternatively,however,paranoia and a guilty conscience had conspired to produce a different and even moreworryingscenarioinmyownmind:theguerillaswouldagreetotakemetothesacredcity;then, after I had crossed the border from Sudan into Tigray, theywould arrange a fatal‘accident’.Melodramaticandevenabsurdthoughthisfearmightseem,itwasveryrealtome.

Questorcoverstory?TheresponseoftheTPLFtomyinitialapproachwasunderwhelming.Yes,theyknewwhoIwas.Yes,theyweresurprisedthatIshouldwanttogotoAxum.Butno,theydidnotobjecttomyplans.Therewas a problem, however. A visawould be required from the government of the

Sudan before I could even fly to Khartoum. An internal travel permit from that samegovernmentwould alsobenecessary to enableme to cross thehundreds of kilometres ofdesertbetweenKhartoumandtheTigrayanfrontier.Unfortunatelyneither visas norpermitswere readily forthcoming forBritish citizens in

the closing months of 1990. By then a major conflict in the Arabian Gulf lookedunavoidable, and Sudan had thrown in its lotwith Iraq. Britain, by taking theAmericanside,hadthereforerendereditsnationalsvirtuallypersonanongratainKhartoum.Didn’ttheTPLFhavewaystogetaroundthatban?Yes,theytoldme,theydid.However,

they reserved their efforts for visitors who were their friends or for visitors who couldactivelyassisttheircause.SinceIwasnotafriend,andsinceIdidnotappeartobeofferingthem anything that was to their immediate advantage, I would have to make my ownarrangements with the Sudanese authorities. If I succeeded with that and if I could getmyself as far as the frontier town of Kassala, then the TPLF would take me across theborderfromthereandwouldallowmetoproceedtoAxum.Mycontactswith theSudaneseEmbassy inLondononlyadded tomygrowing senseof

futility and depression. As a writer I was obliged to lodge my visa request with theInformationCounsellor,DrAbdelWahabEl-Affendi,whoturnedouttobeadapperyoungfellow in a suit. He told me, very politely, that I should abandon hope at once: in thepresentpoliticalclimatetherewasabsolutelynochancethatIwouldbepermittedtoenterSudanandevenlessthatIwouldbeallowedtotravelinternallyfromKhartoumtoKassala.‘WouldithelpiftheTPLFsupportedmycase?’Iasked.‘Certainly.Willthey?’‘Er…notatthemoment.Theyhaveotherpriorities.’‘Well, there you are,’ sighedDrAffendiwith the air of amanwhohas just proved his

point,‘you’rewastingyourtime.’Iasked:‘WouldyoumindforwardingmyapplicationtoKhartoumanyway?’TheInformationCounsellorsmiledbroadlyandturnedbothhishandspalmsupwardsin

aneloquentgestureofinsincereapology:‘Iwillbehappytodothat,butIassureyouthatnogoodwillcomeofit.’Throughout themonthofNovember I stayed in touchwithDrAffendiby telephone.He

hadnonewsforme.AndaftermyfirstdiscussionwiththeTPLFon2NovemberIwentbacktoseethemagainonthe19th, this timeforameetingwithTewoldeGebru, theirheadofmission.DuringthatmeetingIhadthesensethatmymotiveswerebeingskilfullyprobedbya clevernegotiatorwhose aimwas to findoutwhether I couldbe takenat face valueorwhethermy real reason forwanting to go toAxummight not havemore to dowith themilitaryambitionsoftheAddisAbabaregime.Ofcourse,IknewthatIwasonlyinterestedintheArkoftheCovenant.Notforthefirst

time,however,itoccurredtomethatmyso-called‘quest’couldeasilylooktotheTPLFlikethe cover story of a spy. Iwas therefore not surewhether I should be elated or alarmedwhen, at the end of our conversation, Tewolde told me that he would ask the Front’sKhartoumofficetofacilitatemyvisaandtravelpermitapplications.

AdealDuring thenext threeweeks Iheardnothing further from theTPLFor from theSudaneseEmbassy inLondon.A stalemate seemed tohave set inand Ibegan to realize that Iwasgoingtohavetodosomethingtoforcethepace.The idea that I finally came up with was very simple. It was clear that an intense

propagandacampaignwasbeingwagedalongside thewaron theground inEthiopia.Aspart of this campaign the government had accused the TPLF – probably wrongly – oflootingandburningchurches.IthereforedecidedthatImighthaveachanceofsecuringtherebels’ co-operation if I could offer them the prospect of a television news report aboutreligious freedom inTigrayunder their administration–a report inwhich theywouldbegiventheopportunitytorefutetheallegationsthathadbeenlevelledagainstthem.Ididnotwant tomakeapublic statement in themedia in favourof theTPLF–partly

becauseofaresidualsenseofloyaltytopeopleinthegovernmentlikeShimelisMazengiawhohadhelpedmeovertheyears,andpartlybecauseIfoundtheprospectofacompletevoltefacedistasteful.ItwastruethatmyviewsonEthiopia’spoliticalproblemshadalreadychanged,andthattheywerestillchanging.NeverthelesstostandupandsupporttheTPLFnowjustbecauseIneededtogettoAxumwaspreciselythesortofbehaviourthat,inrecentmonths,Ihadcometodespisemostinmyself.The solution that I had thought up to get around this problem was, however, almost

equallydevious.IwouldnotmakeorpresentthetelevisionnewsreportonTigray.Iwouldgetsomeoneelsetodoitforme.ThepersonwhomIhadinmindwasanoldfriend,aformerBBCproducernamedEdward

Milnerwhohadgonefreelancesomeyearspreviously.HehadrecentlycomebackfromtheSouth American country of Colombia where he had filmed a special report for Britain’sChannel4News.Ithereforethoughttherewasagoodchancethathemightbeinterestedin

doingastoryonTigrayforthesameoutlet.Ofcoursetherecouldbenoquestionofsteeringhim inanyparticulardirection. I knewhim tobeamanof integrityand Iknew thathewould insistoncompleteeditorial freedomto filmandreportexactlywhathe saw in thefield.NeverthelessIthoughtthattheTPLFmightshowmoreinterestinmyapplicationtogotoAxumif,bythisdevice,Icouldconnectmyownproposedtriptoanimportantpieceoftelevisioncoverage.Allrebelgroups,inmyexperience,arekeenonpublicityandIdidnotthinkthattheTPLFwouldprovetobeanyexception.Accordingly, onMonday10December, I telephonedTewoldeGebruagain.When Ihadmethimon19NovemberhehadtoldmethathewouldrequesttheFront’sKhartoumofficetofacilitatemyvisaandtravelpermitapplications.Inowaskedhimiftherehadbeenanyprogressonthis.‘Noneatall,’hereplied.‘OurpeopleinSudanareverybusyandyourcaseisn’treallyapriorityforthem.’‘WoulditmakeadifferenceifIwasabletoofferyousometelevisioncoverage?’‘Dependswhatitwouldbeabout.’‘It would be about the whole issue of religious freedom in Tigray – and about therelationshipbetweentheTPLFandthechurch.Youmaybewinningthewaronthegroundbutitseemstomethatyou’relosingthepropagandawar…’‘Whatmakesyousaythat?’‘I’llgiveyouanexample.You’vebeenaccusedrecentlyoflootingandburningchurches,right?’‘Yes.’‘Whichpresumablyhasdoneyousomeharm?’‘Actuallyithasdoneusagreatdealofharmbothwiththepeopleandinternationally.’‘Andisittrue?’‘No.Nottrueatall.’‘Neverthelessit’sbeensaid–andoncemudofthatsorthasbeenthrownittendstostick.’I playedmy trump card: ‘It’s quite obvious that it’s part of a well planned governmentpropagandacampaignagainstyou.Listen,letmequoteyousomethingfromareportinTheTimesof19October.’Ihadinfrontofmeaclippingthatmyresearchassistanthadgivenme. ‘The Ethiopian government’, I now read, ‘particularly wants church support in itsstruggleagainst furtherdisintegrationof thestate.PresidentMengistusaid recently:“Ournationistheproductoftheprocessofhistoryandithasexistedforthousandsofyears.Thisisprovedby existinghistorical relics.” Ironically, thePresident alsowants to contrasthisliberalizing regime with what is perceived as the continuing communism and anti-clericalismofthesecessionistmovements…’‘Iamfamiliarwiththatreport,’Tewoldeinterjected.‘AnyliberalizationthatMengistuisdoing is justacynicalmeasuredesignedtowinpopularsupportnowthathesees thathecannotdefeatusonthebattlefield.’‘But that’s not really the issue. The point is that you need to do something about youranti-clericalimage.ApropernewsstorytelevisednationallyhereinBritainwouldhelpyoua lot. Ifwe filmed that storyatTimkat –which iswhen Iwant tobe inAxum– then theprocessions and the whole atmosphere would help to demonstrate that the TPLF aren’tagainstthechurchandthatyouaretheresponsibleguardiansofthemostprecioushistorical

relicofall.’‘Youcouldberight.’‘SoshallIgoaheadandseeifIcanorganizesometelevisioncoverage?’‘Thatwouldbeagoodidea.’‘AndifIsucceeddoyouthinkyou’llbeabletoarrangethevisasandpermitsintime?’‘Yes.IthinkIcanguaranteethat.’

TheeleventhhourAfter finishing with Tewolde I got straight on the phone to my friend Edward Milner,explainedthesituationtohimandaskedwhetherhewasinterestedinofferingtheTigraystorytoChannel4News.Hewas interestedand,byWednesday12December,hadsecuredawrittencommitmentfromthechannelwhichwefaxedtotheTPLFtogetherwithEd’spassportdetails.Wealsosent a covering letter saying that we would have to leave for Tigray no later thanWednesday9January1991–wellaheadofTimkat.Twomoreweekswent by and still we had heard nothing definite from the TPLF. Thevisasandpermits,althoughnowforcefullyrequested,hadsimplynotcomethrough.‘CheckwithmeimmediatelyaftertheNewYear,’Tewoldeadvised.ByFriday4January1991Ihadgivenuphopeentirelyandwasbeginningtoexperienceanoddmixtureofregretandrelief:theformerbecauseIhadfailedtocompletemyquest;thelatterbecauseIhadatleastsatisfiedmyownsenseofhonourbytryingmybest–andbecauseInowseemedtobesafefromallthedangers,realorimaginary,thatthejourneyintoTigrayhadthreatened.Then,lateintheafternoon,Tewoldecalled:‘Youcangoahead,’heannounced,‘everythingisarranged.’EdandIflewtoKhartoumon9Januaryasscheduled.FromthereanoverlandtrekoflessthanaweekwouldbringustothesacredcityofAxum.

Chapter18ATreasureHardtoAttain

EdMilner and I disembarked from the KLMAirbus that had carried us to Khartoum andsteppedout into themoist embraceof anAfricannight.Wehadnovisas, only referencenumbers given to us by theTPLF in London. These, however,were clearly known to theimmigrationofficerwhohandledourarrivalandwhoretainedourpassportswhilewewenttocollectourluggage.Marriedtoa lovelyThaiwife,andwithtwobeautifulchildren,Edwasbestmanatmyweddingandisoneofmyoldestfriends.Shortandstockilybuiltwithdarkhairandangularfeatures,he isalsoaconsummatetelevisionprofessional–averitableone-manbandwhoproducesanddirects,shootsfilmandrecordssoundallbyhimself.Thesespecialskills,quiteapartfromhiscontactsatChannel4,hadmadehimanidealchoiceforthistrip,forwhileIhadneededtooffertheTPLFanewsstoryIhadnotwantedmyownworkinAxumtobecomplicatedbythepresenceofalargefilmcrew.Ed’sfullnameisJohnEdwardDouglasMilner.InthearrivalshallatKhartoumAirport,therefore,wenaturallyprickedupourearswhenweheard thesewordsover the tannoy:‘John Edward, John Edward, John Edward. Will Mr John Edward please report toImmigrationOfficeimmediately.’Edcompliedandthendisappeared.HalfanhourlaterIhadcollectedallourluggageandhadbeenhandedmypassportdulystampedbyimmigration.Afurtherhalfanhourpassed,then an hour, then an hour and a half. Finally, well after midnight, with all the otherpassengers cleared through customs and the airport virtually deserted, my colleaguesurfacedagain lookingperplexedbutcheerful. ‘Forsomereason,’heexplained, ‘thenameJohnEdward appears on thepoliceblacklist. I’ve tried tomake it clear to them that I’mJohnEdwardMilnerbuttheydon’tseemtogetthepoint.They’vekeptmypassport.Ihavetocomebacktomorrowmorningtopickitup.’The TPLF had sent a car to the airport to meet us. Its driver, who spoke no English,whiskedus through thedeserted streetsofKhartoum, stoppingevery fewminutesat roadblocksmannedbyloutish,heavilyarmedsoldierswhoilliteratelyexaminedthelaissezpasserthathecarried.IhadbeenintheSudanbefore–indeed,between1981and1986Ihadvisitedthecountryregularly.Iwasimmediatelyaware,however,thatmuchhadchangedsincethen.Forastartitwasclearfromtheroadblocksthattherewasnowastrictlyenforcedcurfew,somethingthatwouldhavebeenunheardofintheolddays.Also,thoughIcouldn’tquiteputmyfingeron it, the atmosphere felt different. There was an eerie quality about the blackenedbuildings,thelitter-strewnalleyways,andtheroamingpacksofstraydogs.Alwaysamess,Khartoumtonightfeltuglyandout-of-jointinawaythatwasentirelynewtome.WehadarrivedinthecentreofthecityandpresentlyweturnedrightontotheShariah-el-Nil, justtothenorthoftheimposingVictorianpalacewhere,intheyear1885,GeneralCharlesGordonwaskilledbytheMahdi’sdervishes.

Shariah-el-Nil means ‘Nile Street’ or ‘Nile Way’ and we were, indeed, now drivingalongsidethatgreatriver.OverheadacanopyofNeemtreesblottedoutthestarswhiletoourright,glimpsedbetweenthethicktrunksandhangingbranches,theNileitselfcouldbeseenflowingsedatelytowardsdistantEgypt.Onour leftwepassed thevacant terraceof theGrandHotel, once an elegantmeetingplace,nowlookingratherseedyandrun-down.Soonafterwardswecametoa lastcheck-point at a roundabout, andhere thedriverwas once again obliged toproducehis laissezpasser.ThenwewerewavedontothespitoflandattheconfluenceoftheBlueandWhiteNileswhere theKhartoumHilton stands.Aswepulled into thehotel’swell lit courtyard Iwaslookingforwardverymuchindeedtotwoorperhapsthreedoublevodkas,tonicandabucketof ice.When I later attempted toorder these items from roomservice,however, IwasremindedofanimportantfactthatIhadforgotten:sincetheadoptionofIslamiclawinthemid-1980s,alcoholhadbeenbannedintheSudan.Thenextmorning,Thursday10January,EdandItookataxitotheofficesoftheReliefSociety of Tigray, where the TPLF in London had told us to report to make the finalarrangementsforourtrip.Ournames,wenoticed,werescrawledinchalkonablackboardinanupstairsroom;howevernoonethereseemedtoknowanythingelseaboutus.Neitherwas it immediately possible to make contact with Haile Kiros, TPLF head of mission inKhartoum: always unreliable, the city’s telephone system appeared to have broken downentirelythatmorning.‘Can’twejustdriveovertotheTPLFoffice?’IaskedoneoftheRESTofficials.‘No.Betteryoustayhere.WewillfindHaileKirosforyou.’Bymid-morningtherewasnonews.WedecidedthatIshouldstayputtowaitforHaileKirosandthatEdshouldgototheairportinthetaxitocollecthispassport.Hedidthis.Twohourslater,however,hehadfailedtoreturnandtherewasstillnosignoftheTPLFofficial,orindeedofanyonewhoappearedtobeevenremotelyinterestedinmeormyplanstogettoAxum.Thesilverliningtothisparticularcloud,Ireflected,wasthatsuchalaid-backattitudedidnot lendcredibility tomyparanoid fancies that Imightbemurdered inTigray. Indeed,amuch more realistic prospect was beginning to suggest itself to me, namely that allconcernedcouldturnouttobetoocomatoseandslow-movingtogetmetoTigrayatall.I looked atmywatch and found that it was after one o’clock. In less than an hour, Iremembered, all offices in Khartoum would close down for the day, probably includingthoseofRESTandtheTPLF.Tomorrow,Friday,wastheIslamicsabbath. ItwasthereforeclearthatnothingverymuchwasgoingtohappenbeforeSaturday12January.AndwherewasEd?PerhapshehadgonedirectlybacktotheHilton.Itriedtotelephonethehotelbutofcoursecouldnotgetthrough.FeelingincreasinglyirritatedIwroteanoteforHaileKirosgivinghimmyroomnumberandaskinghimtocontactme.IthenhandedthisnotetooneofthefriendlyyoungpeoplemanningtheRESTofficeandwalkedoutontothestreetinsearchofataxi.FirstIwentbacktotheHilton,butEdwasnotthere.Then,justincase,IwenttoRESTagain,buthewasnotthereeither.FinallyIorderedmydrivertotakemetotheairport–where, with much patient inquiry, I managed to establish that my colleague had beendetainedandwasbeing‘interviewed’bythepolice.

CouldIgoinandseehim?No.CouldIgetanyfurtherinformationatall?No.Whenmighthereappear?‘Today, tomorrow, maybe Saturday,’ explained the English-speaking businessman who

hadkindlyassistedme.‘Nobodyknows.Nobodywillsay.ItistheNationalSecurityPolicewhoareholdinghim.Verybadmen.Veryimpossibleforyoutodoanything.’By now genuinely concerned, I hurried over to the airport information kiosk which –

amazingly–wasopen.There,notwithoutsomedifficulty,Iobtainedthetelephonenumberof the British Embassy. Then I found a public telephone which actually worked and,moreover,wasfreeofcharge.Unfortunately,however,nooneansweredattheotherend.Twominutes later Iwas inmytaxiagain.Thedriverdidnotknowwhere theEmbassy

was–althoughhehadclaimedotherwise–andeventuallylocateditbyacuriousprocessoftrialanderrorwhichtookslightlymorethananhour.I spent what was left of the afternoon back at the airport with two British diplomats

whomIhadfounddrinkingillegalsubstancesattheEmbassyclub.Theseofficials,however,were nomore successful than I had been in establishingwhy – or evenwhere – Edwasbeingheld.Theirefforts,moreover,werecomplicatedbythefactthatYasserArafat,leaderofthePalestineLiberationOrganization,hadjustarrivedinaLibyanjettodiscusstheGulfcrisis with Sudan’s military dictator, General Omar el-Bashir. Bristling with automaticweapons,platoonsofsoldiersroamedaroundgivingventtopatrioticanti-Westernfeelingsand generallymaking life unpleasant for everyone.Neitherweremy two diplomats in aparticularly good mood. ‘All British citizens have been warned to stay away from thisbloodycountry,’oneofthemremindedmewithafaintnoteofaccusationinhisvoice.‘Nowperhapsyoucanseewhy.’Aroundninethatevening,withEdstillnotrescued,IwasdroppedbackattheHiltonfor

dinner. Then, just after ten, tomy great relief he appeared in the lobby looking a littlegrimyandtiredbutotherwisenonetheworseforwear.Hehelduphishandsashesatdownatmytable.Theywerecoveredwithblackink.‘I’ve

beenfinger-printed,’heexplained.Hethenattempted–fruitlessly–toorderalargeginandtonic.Finally,withonlyminimaldisgruntlement,hesettledforawarmnon-alcoholicbeer.

OntheroadAsit turnedout,EdhadnotbeenheldbythedreadedNationalSecurityPolicebutbytheSudanesebranchofInterpol.Apparentlythename‘JohnEdward’wasoneofthehalfdozenor so aliases used by an internationally wanted drugs dealer. Ed’s fate had been sealedwhen the investigating officers had noticed that his passport contained a visa stamp forColombia,thecocainecapitaloftheworld.Thefactthathehadbeentheretofilmanewsstory forChannel4hadnot impressed theSudanesedetectivesatall,norhadhisdistinctnon-resemblance to the photograph of thewantedman that had beenwired by Interpol.Fortunately a set of fingerprints had been sent as well and, rather late in the evening,someone had the bright idea of comparing Ed’s fingerprints with these. His release had

followedshortlyafterwards.ThenextdaywetoldthestorytoHaileKiros,theTPLFrepresentative,whoturnedupat

theHiltoninthemiddleoftheafternoon.Thoughithadbeenratherworryingatthetime,itwasrisibleinretrospectandthethreeofushadagoodlaughaboutit.We then began to discuss the logistics of the trip to Axum and, as we did so, I found

myself watching Haile Kiros closely. I could detect absolutely nothing in his demeanour,however,tosuggestthathemightwishmeanyharmwhatsoever.Onthecontrary,hewasan affable, easy-going, sophisticated individual who was clearly devoted to the cause ofoverthrowing the Ethiopian government but otherwise appeared to be entirely withoutmalice.AswetalkeditbegantodawnonmejusthowbadlyImighthavegotthingsoutofperspectiveintheprecedingmonths.ConfrontedwiththefriendlyrealityofHaileKiros,allthefearsandanxietiesthatIhadsufferedattheprospectofputtingmyselfintothehandsoftherebelslookedunwarrantedandallthedarkimaginingsthatIhadadmittedintomylifeseemedabsurd.OnthemorningofSaturday12JanuarywewerejoinedbyaTPLFofficialwhomIwas

onlyevertoknowbythesinglenameof‘Hagos’.Leanandslightlybuilt,withacomplexionscarredbychildhoodsmallpox,heexplainedthathehadbeenassignedtoaccompanyustoAxum–wherehehadbeenborn – and to returnwithus from therewhenourworkwascomplete. Meanwhile, here in Khartoum, he would facilitate our travel warrants to theborderandwouldalsohelpustohireavehicleforthejourney.Bynoonwehadcompletedthepaperworkandbytheearlyeveningwehaddoneadeal

withanEritreanbusinessmanresidentintheSudanwhoagreedtoprovideuswithasturdyToyota Landcruiser, an even sturdier driver named Tesfaye, and six jerry-cans for sparefuel.AtUS$200perdaytherentalseemedtomeabargain:Iknew,yousee,thatmuchofourjourneywouldhavetobemadebynightonprecariousmountaintrackssoastoavoidthe unwelcome attentions of the Ethiopian government aircraft that still patrolled thedaytimeskiesabovetherebelprovinceofTigray.Thenextmorning,Sunday13January,weleftKhartoumjustbeforedawn.Aheadofus

layhundredsofkilometresofSudanesedesert intowhichwenowmotoredathigh speed.Tesfaye, our driver, was a piratical-looking character with woolly hair, tobacco-yellowteeth, and a wandering eye; he handled the Landcruiser with masterful confidence,however,andclearlyknewtheroutewell.Besidehiminthefrontofthevehicle,keepinghisowncounsel,satHagos.EdandIoccupiedtherearbenchandsaidlittletoeachotherasthesunofawhite-hotdaygraduallyrosetogreetus.WewereaimingforthefrontiertownofKassalawhere,thatevening,aconvoyoflorries

operatedbytheReliefSocietyofTigraywouldbemarshallingtocrosstheborder.OurplanwastojointhatconvoyandridewithitasfaraswecouldinthedirectionofAxum.‘Itissafertotravelinalargegroup,’Hagosexplained,‘incaseanythinggoeswrong.’ThejourneyfromKhartoumtoKassalahelpedmetorealizejusthowdrearandemptythe

landscapesoftheSudanreallywere.Allaroundus,inalldirections,anaridplainstretchedaway towards the horizon, making me aware, as I had never been before, of the softrelentlesscurveoftheplanet’ssurface.Then,asthedaysoaredtowardsnoon,webegantopassthedesiccatedcorpsesofsheep,

goats,cattleand–finallyandalarmingly–ofcamelsaswell.Thesewerethefirstcasualties

ofagreatfamineinwhichpeople,too,wouldsoonperish–butwhichthegovernmentoftheSudanhad thus far refusedeven toacknowledge, let alone to seek to remedy.This, Ithought,wassurelyanactoffatalarroganceonitspart–thecallousfollyofyetanotherAfricandictatorshipobsessedwithmaintainingitsownprestigeandpowerat thepriceofimmensehumansuffering.But Ihad supported just suchdictatorships in thepast,hadn’t I?Andevennow I couldhardlybesaidtohaveseveredallmylinkswiththem.SowhowasItojudge?WhowasItofeelregret?AndbywhatrightdidIseeknowtoempathizewiththedispossessed?

KassalaShortlybeforetwothatafternoonwecrossedthesilt-ladenstreamoftheAtbararivernearitsconfluencewith theTakazzeand I realized,almostwitha senseof shock,howrapidlyandhowremorselesslythegreatdistancethathadonceseparatedmefromAxumwasnowbeing narrowed.Only amonth before, that distance had looked impossible to bridge – achasmdeep andwide ragingwith nameless dreads. It therefore seemed almost amiraclethatIwashereandthatIhadbeenallowedtosetmyeyesupontheveryriversthatIfeltsuretheHebrewmigrantshadfollowedwhentheyhadbroughttheArkoftheCovenantintoEthiopia–themightyriversthatscouredthelandshadowingwithwings,thatpoureddowninto the thirsty deserts of the Sudan, thatmergedwith theNile, and that flowedonpastElephantine and Luxor, past Abydos and Cairo, to spend themselves at last in theMediterraneanSea.Soon after three p.m. we arrived in Kassala, which was built around an oasis of datepalmsanddominatedbyaweirdgraniteoutcroppingwhichrearedupmorethan2,500feetabovethesurroundingplain.Thatredandwitheredhill,Irealized,thoughitappearedtobeisolated,wasinfactthefirstharbingerofthegreathighlandsofEthiopia.Ifeltathrillofexcitementattheknowledgethattheborderwasnowsoclose–justafewkilometresaway–andlookedaroundwithrenewedinterestattheturbulentfrontiertownthroughwhichwewere driving. Everywhere, oblivious to the enervating heat, crowds ofpeoplemilled about, filling the dusty streetswith bright colours and loud sounds.Here agroup of quick and subtle Highlanders, down from Abyssinia to barter the trade of themountainsforthetradeofthedesert,stoodarguingwithastall-keeper;thereafuzzy-hairednomadsatastridehisgrumblingcamelandgazedattheworldwitharroganteyes;hereaMuslimholyman,dressed inrags,bestowedbenedictionsupon thosewhowouldpayhimand curses upon those who would not; there a child, squealing with glee, pursued amakeshifthoopwithanoutstretchedstick…HagosdirectedTesfayetodriveustoasmall,flat-roofedhouseontheoutskirtsoftown.‘You have to stay here,’ he explained, ‘until it is time for us to cross the border. TheSudaneseauthoritiesarea littleunpredictableat themoment.So it’sbetter thatyoukeepyourheadsdownandremainindoors.Thatwaytherewillbenochanceofanyproblem.’‘Wholiveshere?’IaskedasweclimbeddownfromtheLandcruiser.‘ThisisaTPLFhouse,’Hagosexplained,showingusintoacleancourtyardaroundwhichanumberofroomswerearranged.‘Rest,getalittlesleepifyoucan.It’sgoingtobealongnight.’

AcrosstheborderAtfivethateveningweweredriventoahuge,open,dustyexpanseofgroundlitteredwiththe bones of slaughtered quadrupeds. Swarms of blowflies buzzed around and here andthere, amongst themouldering vertebrae and the fusty shoulder-blades, lay little piles ofstinkinghuman faeces.Tomyright, thoughtfullyarranging itselfbetweenKassala’sgreatgranitebutteand the town itself, the sundescended the sky ina surreal extravaganzaoftangerineandmagenta.Thewholecollage,Ithought,lookedlikesomeexistentialistvisionoftheendofallflesh.‘Whereexactlyarewe?’IaskedHagos.‘Oh…thisiswheretheconvoyassemblesbeforecrossingtheborder,’explainedtheTPLFofficial.‘Wewillwaitmaybehalfanhour,maybeanhour.Thenwewillgo.’Ed immediately climbeddownout of the Landcruiser andwent offwith his tripod andvideocameratofindavantagepointfromwhichtofilmthelorriesarriving.HisstoryforChannel4wouldfocusnotonlyonreligiousissues,asIhadtoldtheTPLF,butalsoontheburgeoningfamineinTigray.WhilehewasmakinghispreparationsIwanderedpensivelyabout,wardingofffliesandlookingforsomewheretositdownandcompletemynotesfortheday.Thecharnelhouseatmosphere,however,hadthoroughlydisconcertedme.Besides,withthesunnowrestingonthehorizon,thegloamingwasalreadytoodeeptowritein.Acoolnessalsohadfilledtheair,anunexpectedchillaftertheheatoftheafternoon,andakeenwindsangamongstthederelictbuildingsthatringedthemarshallingground.Peoplewalked toand fro– shadowy figuresofmenandwomenwho seemed tohavecomeherefrom nowhere with nowhere to go. Meanwhile small groups of ragged children hadgatheredtoplayamidsttherubbishandthebones,theirhigh-pitchedgigglesmingledwiththelowingofapassingherdofcattle.AndthenIheardtherumbleofapproachingvehiclesaccompaniedbyacrashingofgears.Looking back in the direction fromwhich these soundswere coming I saw a glimmer ofheadlights,thenadazzlingbeam.Finally,outofthemurk,themammothshapesofperhapstwentyMercedeslorriesmaterialized.AstheyrolledpastmeIcouldseethateachonewasloadedupwithhundredsofsacksofgrain,loadedsoheavilythatthesuspensionsaggedandthechassisgroaned.Thetruckspulledtoahaltinparallelfilesinthecentreoftheopengroundandthere,intwosandthrees, theirnumberwasaugmentedbyotherssnakingoutfromtown.Soontheeveningairwasfilledwithbillowingcloudsofdustandthesoundsofrevvingengines.Andthen,asthoughonasignal–thoughnonewasgiven–thewholeconvoystartedtomove.I ran back to the Landcruiser where Ed, helped by Hagos, was hurriedly stowing hiscameraequipment.Thenwealljumpedintothevehicleandsetoffinpursuitofthelorries’tail-lights.Thetrailthatwewerefollowing,Icouldsee,wasdeeplyruttedandgroovedandIwonderedhowmanyconvoysoverhowmanyyearshadpassedthiswaybearingfoodforpeoplemadehungrybythefollyandwickednessoftheirowngovernment.Inourfastercarwesoonovertookthelastofthetrucks,andwepassedperhapsadozenmorebeforeTesfaye–whowasclearlyenjoyingtheroleofsafari-rallydriver–slottedusinto position in themiddle of the convoy.All around us now the dust and sand that thevehicleswerethrowingupcreatedawildandturbulentagitation,sometimesreducingthe

visibilitytojustafewfeet.Strainingmyeyestopeeroutofthewindowsatthenightasitrushedby, I experienceda sensationof tremendousmomentumcoupledwith a feelingofinevitability. Iwas onmyway, goingwherever Iwould go, to getwhatever Fatewouldsend.AndIthought:thisiswhereIwanttobe;thisiswhatIwanttodo.ShortlybeforesevenwearrivedattheborderandhaltedataSudanesearmycheck-point– just a collection of mud huts in the middle of a bleak and furrowed plain. Carryinghurricanelanterns,afewuniformedmenemergedoutofthedarknessandbegantocheckdocumentsandidentities.Then,onebyone,thelorriesaheadofuswerewavedthrough.WhenourturncameHagoswasorderedoutofthecarbyanofficerwhoquestionedhimclosely,makingfrequentgestures towardsthebackseat–whereEdandIweredoingourbest not to look conspicuous. At one point our passports were produced and minutelyexaminedundertheheadlights.Thensuddenlytheofficerseemedtoloseinterestinusandwalkedofftoharasstheoccupantsofthenextlorryinthequeue.HagosclimbedbackintotheLandcruiserandslammedthedoor.‘Anyproblems?’Iaskednervously.‘No.Noneatall,’repliedtheTPLFofficial.Heturnedandgavemeabroadsmile:‘Don’tworry.TheyarenotgoingtoarrestEdagain.Everythingisinorder.Wecango.’He said something in Tigrigna to Tesfaye who happily released the handbrake andgunnedtheengine.ThenwerolledforwardacrosstheborderandonintoEthiopia–thoughnotyet intoTigray.Ourroute, Iknew,wouldtakeus first throughterritorycontrolledbytheEritreanPeople’sLiberationFront,aguerillamovementolderthantheTPLFwhichhadbeen fighting for the independence of Eritrea for almost thirty years andwhich now, inearly 1991, was nearer than ever before to achieving its objective. As we drove I askedHagosaboutthelinksbetweenthetworebelgroups.‘Weco-operateclosely,’heexplained.‘ButtheEPLFiscampaigningtocreateaseparateEritreanstatewhereasweintheTPLFdonotseektosecedebutonlytomakeitpossibleforademocraticgovernmenttobeelectedinEthiopia.’‘AndtodothatyouhavetooverthrowMengistu?’‘Certainly.HeandhisWorkers’Partyarethemainobstaclestofreedominourcountry.’We drove on for about half an hour, during which we saw no sign of the rest of theconvoy. Then suddenly lights appeared in front of us and we pulled to a halt amongstparkedlorriesinwhatseemedtobeabroadvalleysurroundedbylowhills.‘Whyarewestopping?’IaskedHagos.‘Wewillwaitfortheothervehiclesbehindustocatchup.AlsowewillcollectsomeTPLFfighterswhowilltravelwithusasguardsfortheconvoy.’Without furtherexplanationHagosthengotoutof theLandcruiseranddisappeared.Edgrabbedhiscameraandahand-heldlightandwalkedofftoo.Amoment later Idecided that Imightaswell stretchmy legsandhavea lookaround.Steppingdownintothevelvetycoolnessofthenight,Istoodforawhilequiteclosetothevehiclegazingupatthesky.Iwasawareofthefainteffulgenceshedbytheclustersofstarsand thecrescentmoonaboveme,and Icould justmakeout the silhouettesof thenearbytrucks,theirheadlightsnowextinguished.Offtomyright,almostlostindeepshadow,wasa grove of acacia thorn trees. Further away awhite rock at the top of a hill reflected adelicateincandescence.

GraduallymyeyesadjustedandIwasabletoseemoreandmoreofwhatwasgoingonaroundme.Groupsoffierceandbrigandish-lookingmenstoodhereandthereorcroucheddownonthegroundtalkinginlowvoices.Andwhereastherehadbeennogunsinevidencewhilewewerestill insidetheSudan,everyonenowappearedtobearmedwithautomaticweapons.Feeling slightly apprehensive, I walked amongst the parked lorries and, after a fewmoments, came across Hagos, whowas conversingwith several TPLF fighters dressed inbattlefatigues.AsIapproachedIwasstartledtoheartheharshmetallicclunkofanAK47assaultriflebeingcockedandIthought:I’mgoingtogetshotandit’sgoingtobenow.But insteadHagoswelcomedmeand introducedme to theothermen. IhadevenbeenwrongaboutthenoiseIhadheard–whichturnedouttohavebeenproducedbyaweaponbeingexpertlystrippedandcleaned.NotforthefirsttimeIexperiencedasenseofshameattheself-inflictedterrorsthatIhadenduredinthemonthsbeforesettingoutonthistrip.AndIresolvedthathenceforwardIwouldtrusttherebels–who,afterall,hadalsobeenobligedtotrustme.It was quite some time before we were back on the road: one of the lorries that hadpassedthroughtheborderpostbehindushadpuncturedatyreanditseemedtobeamatterof policy to keep the convoy together. Eventually, however, we set off and drove forperhapsanothertwohours.Then–andIdon’tthinkitwaslaterthanelevenp.m.–westoppedagain.Weseemed,though I could not be sure, to be in the middle of a vast plain. Here all the vehiclesarrangedthemselvessidebysideintoastraightrankanddousedtheirheadlights.‘Wewon’tbegoinganyfurthertonight,’Hagosannouncedafteramoment’ssilence.‘Whynot?’Iasked.‘Thereisshelternearbyandwewillhavetospendtomorrowthere.Thenextsafeplaceistoofaraheadforustoreachbeforesunrise.’Andwith that, cradling an AK47 that he had somehow acquired, the TPLF official fellasleep.

BreakfastatTesseneiI slept, too – though rather badly – with my feet and shins stuck out of the open side-window of the Landcruiser. Then, after a few hours of troubled dreams and restlessdiscomfort,Iwasawakenedbytheasthmaticsoundsofenginesturningoverandthesmellofdieselsmoke.Wedidnotdrivefar.Lessthanakilometreawaytherewasacopseoftall,thicklyleavedtreesunderwhichtheentireconvoyproceededtoconcealitself.Iwatchedwithamazementascanvastarpaulinswereproducedanddrapedoverallthevehicles,includingourown.‘Tocutout reflections,’Hagosexplained. ‘Fromtheairwewillbealmost invisibleunlessanyshining metal attracts the MiGs.’ He then added that even the most careful attempts atcamouflage could not guarantee our safety: ‘Sometimes the pilots just bomb and strafewoodlandlikethisontheoff-chancethatrelieftruckswillbetakingcoverthere.’Thesunhadrisenwhiletheconvoywasbeinghiddenand,inthepalelightoftheearlymorning, like a salutary lesson, I could see the blackened and burnt-out hulks of three

Mercedes lorries. ‘Theyhit thosea fewweeksago,’ saidHagos. ‘Itwas justbad luck.’Hethenbrokealeaf-coveredbranchfromoneofthetreesandwalkedoutontothesandyplainbehindus.TherehejoinedTesfayeandseveraloftheotherdriverswhoweremethodicallyengagedinbrushingoverthecriss-crossednetworkoftyretracksleadingtothecopse.AtaroundeightinthemorningallwasdoneandHagosproposedthatwewalkintothenearbyEritreantownofTessenei.‘Howfaristhat?’Iasked.‘Notfar.Halfanhourorso.Weshouldbequitesafe.TheMiGsaremainlyinterestedinhigh-valuetargetsliketrucks.Theydon’tusuallyshootupsmallgroupsofpeopleoutintheopen.’‘Andwhataboutthetowns?’‘Sometimestheyattackthetownsiftheyseeanyvehiclesoranylargepublicgathering.Tesseneihasbeenbombedmanytimes.’The walk was a pleasant one, along an earth path through little clumps of scrubvegetationamidstwhichbrightlycolouredbirdsdartedprettilytoandfro.LookingaroundIcouldseethatwewereinrisingcountryand,inthefardistance,IthoughtthatIcouldjustmakeoutthehazysilhouettesofloftymountains.Tessenei itselfwas surroundedbyerodedgranitehills inaboulder-strewnvalley.Notasinglecarmovedonthelargelyunpavedstreetsbuttherewerepeopleeverywhere:childrenplaying,anoldwomanleadingaheavilyladendonkey,threeattractiveteenagegirlswhocoveredtheirfacesandfledgigglingasweapproached,andlargenumbersofarmedmen–allofwhomgreeteduswithwarmsmilesandcheerfulwaves.The town, frankly,wasamess.Mostof thepoor, flat-roofedbuildings showed signsofhouse-to-house fighting–gapingholesblownthroughwalls, façadescrateredbymachine-gunbullets,collapsedmasonry.Aboveus,toourright,wasthehospital,completelygutted.Underfoot,everywherewewalked,werecountlessspentshellcasesthatformedaglittering,clinkingcarpet.IaskedHagos:‘Whathappenedhere?’‘Afewyearsago,whenthegovernmentseemedtobewinningthewar,Tesseneiwasoneof the last strongholds of the EPLF. In fact the Ethiopian army seized the town severaltimes,but theEPLFalwaysgot itbackagain.Therewasagreatdealofheavy fighting–verybrutal,verybloody.Butnowthefrontlineisfarawayanditispeacefulhere–exceptforthebombing.’A fewminutes laterHagos ledus intoa smallhotelwhich consistedofperhaps twentyrooms arranged in a square around an earthen courtyard. Here, under a canopy ofcamouflage netting, several groups of Eritreans were sitting at tables drinking cups ofcoffeeandconversinglight-heartedly.Awaitressbustledtoandfroandapromisingaromaofcookingfilledtheair.Therewas, I decided, a ratherdécontracté, boulevard atmosphere about this little scenewhichcontrastedremarkablywith thedevastationoutside.People,clearly,couldadapt toalmostanycircumstances–nomatterhowgrim–andfindawaytomakelifebearable.Asthoughreadingmythoughts,Hagossaidtomeaswesatdown:‘Theydon’thavemuch,butatleasttheyarefreenow.Andconditionsaregettingbettereveryday.’Evidencethatthiswasindeedsosoonarrivedintheformofabreakfastoffriedeggsand

asix-packofDutchbeer.‘Whereonearthdidtheygetthisfrom?’IsplutteredasIopenedmyfirstcan.‘SincetheEPLFtookbacktheportofMassawafromthegovernmentlastyeartherehasbeenbeerinEritrea,’explainedHagoswithasmile.Heopenedacanforhimselfandtookalongswig,thenadded:‘ItisagreatluxuryafterKhartoum,isitnot?’Inthisfashion,drinkingbeerandchattingwithhalfthepopulationofTessenei–whohadbynowtroopedintothehoteltoseetheforeigners–wewhiledawaymostofthemorning.AtnoonwetunedintoEd’sshort-waveradioandlistenedtotheincreasinglygloomynewsfrom the Arabian Gulf. It was now Monday 14 January and the UN deadline for thewithdrawalofIraqitroopsfromoccupiedKuwaitwasduetoexpireatmidnightonthe15th.Wethensleptforafewhours,awokeatfourp.m.,andwalkedouttorejointheconvoyintimeforitsscheduleddepartureatsix.

ThemagicandthemarvelsThatnight’sjourneyseemedtogoonforever,althoughinrealityitonlylastedforelevenhours.FulldarknesshadfallenbythetimeweleftTessenei.Tesfayemanoeuvredusintohisfavouritespotinthemiddleoftheconvoyandthen,amidstthenowfamiliarcloudsofdust,webegananepicdrivethroughthewesternfoothillsofEthiopia’sgreatcentralescarpmentandthenupintothemountainsbeyond.Aroundoneinthemorningwestoppedtorefill theLandcruiser’stankfromthereekingjerry-cansthatwehadbroughtwithus.Stiffandcramped,bruisedfromthepoundingIhadtakenonthebumpyandruttedtracks,Isteppeddownfromthevehiclewhilethisoperationwasunderwayandwatchedthe lorries thathadbeenbehindusrollbyonebyone, theirheadlightsblazing,airbrakeshissing.WhenthelastofthemhadgonepastanddisappearedItookadeepbreath,andgazedupat the constellationsoverheadand felt grateful towhatevergood fortune itwas thathadallowedmetobehere.Thenwewerebackontheroad,backamongstthepotholesandthegullies,lurchingforwardtocatchupwiththeconvoy.Soon I became aware, as I had not been before, that we were ascending increasinglyprecipitousgradients,windingaroundhairpinbends that seemed tohang suspendedoveremptyspace,poweringforwardacrossbleakstretchesofplateau,andthenclimbingagain.AndIhadthesenseofgreatdistancesbeingcoveredandofprofoundchangesintheterrain.I knew that at some point in the past few hourswe had crossed over the border fromEritreaintoTigray.Andgradually,thoughmybodyachedfromtheunremittingpummellingthatitwastaking,Ifoundmyselfslippingintoadream-likestateinwhicheverythingthathadhappenedtomeduringthepasttwoyears,thestrangetwistsandturnsofmyquest,thedead-ends, and themoments of discovery, seemed tomerge into a single continuous andcoherent form. And I understood, all at once andwith boundless clarity, that the searchwhichhadobsessedmeforsolongwouldamounttojustapoorandmeaninglessadventureifithadbeenmotivatedonlybyavariceandambition.Lyingintheremotedarknessofitssanctuary, theArkofGodmightglitterwithancientgold,but its realvaluedidnot lie inthat. Neither did it matter that it was an archaeological treasure beyond price. Indeednothingaboutitthatcouldbemeasured,orcalculated,orevaluated,orcostedouthadthe

slightestsignificance,andifIhadeversetmyeyesonthesethings(andIknewinmyheartthat Ihad) then theerror that Ihadcommittedvergedondesecration–notof theobjectsought,butoftheseeker,notofthetheHolyArk,butofmyself.Andwhere,ifnotinthematerialworld,didthetruevalueofthereliclie?Why…initsmystery, of course, and in its enchantment, and in the hold that it had exercised uponhumanimaginationsinmanydifferentlandsacrossallthelongandwearycenturies.Theseweretheenduringthings–themagicandthemarvels,theinspirationandthehope.Bettertoholdfasttothemthantoephemeralprizes;bettertoaspirewithacertainnobilityandtowinnothingthantosucceedandlaterbeashamed.

LonelyroadJust before dawn, exhausted, grey fromhead to toewith the fine, powdery grime of theroad,wepulled into a small townwherenot a single light flickered,not a singlepersonstirred.HereHagosbeatunmercifullyona lockeddooruntil itwasopened.ThenweunloadedEd’s camera equipment and other luggage that wemight need during the day andwentinsidewhileTesfayedroveofftohidetheLandcruisersomewhere.Wefoundourselvesinahalf-covered,half-opencourtyardwherepeoplelaysleepingonrudimentarybeds.Someofthesebeds,fortunately,wereemptyandEd,HagosandIquicklyacquiredthreeofthem.Ithenwrappedmyselfinasheet,closedmyeyesandfellinstantlyasleep.A fewhours later,when Iawoke in fulldaylight,my twocompanionshaddisappearedand a dozenTigrayanswere sitting around staring atmewith keen interest. I said goodmorning to them, got up with as much dignity as I could muster, washed my face in adribble of water from a tap attached to ametal barrel, and then sat down to writemynotes.SoonEdandHagos cameback – theyhadbeen filming thedistributionof someof thefoodbroughtbytheconvoy.Iaskedwherewewere.‘ThisisCherero,’Hagosreplied. ‘It’sanimportanttowninthispartofTigray.Alsoit isthedestinationoftheconvoy.Allthetruckshaveunloadedhere.’‘HowfarisittoAxum?’‘Onemorenightofdriving.Butitissomewhatunsafeforustoproceedalone.Itmaybeadvisableforustowaithereuntilanotherconvoyassembles.’Ilookedatthedateindicatoronmywatch.ItwasTuesday15January–justthreedaysawayfromthestartofTimkat.‘Doyouthinkwe’llhavetowaitlong?’Iasked.‘Two, three days maybe. Or maybe we will be lucky and have the chance to leavetonight.’‘Whydoyousaythatit’sunsafeforustoproceedonourown?’‘BecausethegovernmentsendssaboteursintoTigrayfromtheirgarrisonatAsmara.Theysendoutsmallteamstoambushvehiclesmovingontheroads.ALandcruiserlikeourswithjustafewpeopleinitwouldmakeagoodtargetforsuchanattack.’‘Whatabouttheconvoys?Aren’ttheysubjecttoattacktoo?’

‘No.Almostnever.Toomanylorries.Toomanyguards.’The day passed long and slow, hot, boring and sticky. Then, as evening came down,Hagos,whohadbeenoutandaboutforseveralhours,announcedthatnoconvoywouldbeleavingthatnight.‘Iadvise’,hesaid,‘thatwestay–atleastuntiltomorrow.’Seeingthelookofhorrorthatthisremarkhadinducedonourfaceshethenadded:‘Butofcourse,itisuptoyou.’EdandIhadalreadymadeupourmindsonthispoint,whichwehaddiscussedbetweenourselvesatsomelengthduringtheafternoon.WethereforetoldtheTPLFofficialthatwewouldliketopresson–unlesshethoughtitcompletelyfoolhardyforustodoso.‘No.ItisOK.IunderstandthatyouwanttogettoAxumbeforeTimkat.Thedangerisnotverygreat.ButIwillseeifwecanbringoneotherTPLFfighterwithusincasethereisanytrouble.’Atduskwesetoffagain.OnthefrontbenchbesideHagoswastheguardhehadpromised–a teenageboywithstartlinglywhite teeth,anextravagantAfro,anAK47,and threeorfourmagazinesofspareammunition.HewasacheerfulsortoffellowwholaughedagreatdealandinsistedonplayingTigrayanwarsongsatmaximumvolumeontheLandcruiser’sstereo aswe drove through the night. But I couldn’t help feeling that all his energy andbravadowouldnotbesufficienttokeepthebulletsatbayifanyonedecidedtoshootusup–fromthecover,say,ofthatbushoverthere,orofthatclumpoftrees,orfrombehindthatbouldereven.Iwasamazedathowdifferentitfelttobetravellingalonelikethis,unescorted,withnogreatrumblinglorriesinfrontofusandnonebehind.Beforewehadseemedpartofsomeprodigiousandinvinciblearmyrelentlesslybeatingdownthebarriersofdarkness,drivingawaytheshadowswithabarrageoflight.Nowweweresmall,vulnerable,forsaken.Andaswewoundourwayamongst thewitheredtreesof themountainslopes Iwasconsciousoftheimmensityofthesewildlandsandoftheirbleakandimplacablehostility.We climbed for several hours, the engine labouring under the stress, the outside airtemperaturedroppingsteadily.Thensuddenlyweemergedatthetopofanarrowpasstofindarmedmenblockingourpath.ImutteredsomeexpletivebutHagos reassuredme: ‘Nothing toworryabout.There isaTPLFcamphere,guardingtheroad.Theseareourpeople.’Openinghisdoor,heexchangedwordsandhandshakeswiththerebelswhohadnowsurroundedtheLandcruiser.Thenwewerewavedthroughanimprovisedbarrierandemergedmomentslaterontoawindsweptplateauwherecampfiresflickeredamongstwoodenhuts.Wepaused forhalf anhour todrink teaand thenwewereon themoveagain, edgingforwardthroughthelonelynight.Behindus,onebyone,thelightsofthecampdisappearedandwerereplacedbyshadows.Time passed. I dozed, then awoke again to find that we were skirting the lip of animmensevalley:toourleftthemountainside,stonyandclose,toourrightaplungingabyssdefined by the road’s ragged edge. And then, out of the inky blackness that filled thechasm’sfloor,abrilliantfireflysoareduptowardsus,aspeckofpureenergypullingbehinditaghostly,luminescenttrail.Inafractionofasecondthisglowingapparitionhadreachedus. It streakeddirectlyacrossourpath,narrowlymissing the frontwindscreenof thecar,andthenextinguisheditselfagainsttheembankment.

As this happened Tesfaye jammed on the brakes and switched off all the Landcruiser’slights.MeanwhileHagosandtheguardwhomwehadbroughtwithusfromChereroleapedoutandrushedtotherimoftheprecipiceclutchingtheirAK47S.The two men, I thought, looked lithe and dangerous, businesslike and unafraid. Theyseemedtomoveinharmonytogether,asthoughtheywerecompletingsomemanoeuvreforwhichtheyhadbeenwelltrained.‘Whatonearth’sgoingon?’askedEd,whohadbeenawakenedfromadeepsleepbythedramatic,skiddingstopofthevehicle.‘I’mnotsure,’Ireplied,‘butIratherthinkwe’vejustbeenshotat.’IwasabouttosuggestthatitmightbeinourintereststogetoutofthecarwhenHagosand his companion came running back towards us. They clambered up on to the frontbench,slammedthedoorbehindthemandorderedTesfayetoproceed.‘Iassumethatwasatracerbulletwesaw,’Iremarkedafewmomentslater.‘Yes,’repliedHagosmatter-of-factly.‘Someonedowninthevalleyfiredoffafewroundsatus.’‘Buttherewasonlyone.’‘No,no.Weonlysawone.Severalshotswouldhavebeenfired–ashortburst.Thenormalpractice is to load a round or two of tracer at the top of each magazine to enable thegunnertocorrecthisaim.Therestofthebulletsareoftheordinarytype.’‘Charming,’remarkedEd.Wedroveoninsilenceforawhile,thenIaskedHagos:‘Whodoyouthinkshotatus?’‘Itwouldhavebeengovernmentagents.AsItoldyou,theyareconstantlysendingsuchpeopleintoTigraytocausetrouble.Atnighttheycannotbombusfromtheairsotheymakeuseofthesesabotagesquadsinordertodisruptthetrafficmovingontheroads.Sometimestheysucceed…’Anotherquestionhadoccurredtome: ‘Whydidn’ttheycarryonfiring?Weweresittingducksupthere.’‘Toodangerousforthem.Sincetheymisseduswiththefirstburstandsincetheywerenotveryclosetous,theywouldhavebeenunwisetocontinuewiththeattack.TherearealotofTPLFfightersinthisarea.Aprolongedexchangeoffirewouldhaveattractedattention.’‘Oh…Isee.’I restedmyheadwearily against the sidewindowof the Landcruiser and thought howeasily life could be stolen by amindless bullet and how fragilewe allwere beneath ourblusterandconceit.Ataroundthreethatmorning,pickingupspeedonametalledroad,wedrovebyafieldinwhich a tank lay derelict, its turret blown askew, its gun-barrel drooping impotently.Then,toour left, Isawthehulkingruinsofanancientbuildingbathedinstarlight. Iwasovertakenbyanacute,almostpoignant,senseofdejàvuandIasked:‘Wherearewe?’‘WearecomingintoAxum,’answeredHagos.‘WehavejustpassedtheQueenofSheba’spalace.’Afewminuteslaterweenteredthesmalltown,turnedrightandleftthroughthenarrowstreets,andthenpulledtoahaltinfrontofawalledenclosuredrapedwithcreepingvinesand tropical flowers.While the others knocked on the gate to gain admission, I slippedunnoticedaroundthesideoftheLandcruiser,droppedtomykneesandkissedtheground.It

was,Iknew,anextravagantandsentimentalgesture.Butsomehowitfeltright.

StrategyIn the morning I was awakened by bright sunlight streaming through the uncurtainedwindowoftheroomthathadbeenassignedtome.Inthesmallhours,whenwehadarrived,everything had been in darkness, for there was no electricity in Axum. But now, as Istepped outside, I could see that we were lodging in a pleasant little guest house builtaroundapatchofgreenlawn.Iambledovertoaterracewheresomechairswerearranged.There,inacorner,akettlewasboilingpromisinglyonastovefashionedoutofalargeoilcan.Nearbywasakitcheninwhichtwowomen,whomIjudgedtobemotheranddaughter,werechoppingvegetables.I was greeted with smiles and was almost immediately provided with a cup of sweet,scented tea. Then I sat down and collectedmy thoughtswhile Iwaited for the others towakeup.ThedatewasnowWednesday16January1991.During thenight thathad justpassed,the UN deadline for the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait had expired – and Iwondered,inaratherabstractway,whetherWorldWarIIIhadbrokenout.Meanwhile,injusttwodays’time,theTimkatceremonieswereduetobeginhereinAxumandIneededtohaveastrategyworkedoutbeforethen.I found myself curiously reluctant to march straight round to the Saint Mary of Zionchurch and to the sanctuary chapel. Strangely, having come all thisway, those few finalsteps seemed the hardest of all to take. This was partly natural diffidence, partlysuperstitiousdread,andpartlybecauseIfeltthatanearlyvisittothechurchofSaintMaryofZionwouldalerttheprieststomypresenceandwouldprobablyensurethatthetrueArkwouldnot on this occasion be carried out in the Timkat processions. It therefore seemedlogicalthatIshouldholdbackandkeepalowprofileuntilthebeginningoftheceremony.Then,inthescrumofwilddancingthatIknewwouldoccur,Imightfindsomeopportunitytogetclosetotherelicandtotakeaproperlookatit.There was, however, an argument against this strategy. Ever since my discussion inJerusalemwith the Falasha elderRaphaelHadane I had become aware that the realArkmightnever be used in theTimkat processions – that a replicamight be substituted for itwhilethegenuinearticleremainedsafelyinsidethechapel.IfthiswassothenclearlythesoonerIintroducedmyselftotheAxumprieststhebetter.Iwouldhavenothingtogainbywaiting andnothing to losebybeingopenandaboveboard.Quite the contrary, in fact,because only by talking to the clergymen at great length would I have any chance ofpersuading them that I did not represent a threat, that I was sincere, and that I was aworthycandidateforadmissionintothepresenceoftheArk.Forthesereasons,facedwithirrevocabledecisionsthathadtobemaderightaway,IwasinsomethingofaquandaryasIsatdrinkingmyteaonthatmorningof16January.Inalittlewhileableary-eyedEdappearedfromhisroom,clutchingashort-waveradiotohisear.‘Hasthewarstarted?’Ishouted.‘Wellno,actually.Ithasn’t.Thedeadline’spassedbuttherearenoreportsofanyfighting

atall.Nowwhataboutsometea?Orcoffee?Coffeewilldo.Andsomebreakfast. Is thereanyofthataround?’WhileEdwasbeingcateredfor,Hagosalsoarrived–thoughnotfromhisroom.Hehadobviouslybeenintotownalreadybecause,intowbehindhim,wasavenerablebeardedoldfellowinflowingvestments.‘Thisismyfather,’explainedtheTPLFofficial,makingpoliteintroductionsallround.‘Heis a priest at SaintMaryof Zion church. I toldhimabout your interest in theArkof theCovenantandhesaidthathewouldliketomeetyou.’

AnhonourandaburdenI had, of course, talked to Hagos about my quest on several occasions during our longjourneyfromKhartoum.IhadlearntbeforewesetoutthathewasanativeofAxumbutithadnotoccurredtomeforamomentthathemighthaveanyconnectionswiththechurch,letalonethathisfatherwouldactuallyturnouttobeapriest.PerhapsifIhadknownthatIwouldhavebeenmoreguarded inmy remarks–but thenagainperhapsnot. Ihad likedHagosfromthebeginningandhadnotwantedtokeepanythingfromhim.The end result was that any element of surprise that I might have retained had beenremoved,notoutofdesignormaliceonanyone’spartbutas theresultofapure fluke. Idecided,therefore,thattherewasnolongeranypointinattemptingtobeguardedorcloak-and-daggeraboutwhatIwasheretodo.Betterbyfartoputallmycardsonthetableandaccepttheconsequences,whetherpositiveornegative.Ihada longdiscussionwithHagos’s father,whoseemed intriguedby thenotion thataforeignershouldhavecomeallthiswayinthehopeofseeingtheArkoftheCovenant.‘AndwillIseeit?’Iasked.‘DuringtheTimkatceremonies?DotheyusetherealArkordotheyuseareplica?’Hagos translated my question. There was then a pregnant pause which the old maneventuallybrokewith this reply: ‘On suchmatters I amnotqualified to speak.Youmusttalktomysuperiors.’‘Butyouknowtheanswer,don’tyou?’‘Iamnotqualifiedtospeak.Itisnotmyresponsibility.’‘Whoseresponsibilityisit?’‘First and foremost youmustmeet theNebura-ed, the most senior of all the priests inAxum.Withouthisblessingyouwillbeabletodonothing.IfhegrantshispermissionthenyoumustalsotalkwiththeguardianoftheArk…’‘Iwasherebefore,’Iinterrupted,‘in1983,andImettheguardianthen.Ishestillalivedoyouknow?Orhassomeoneelsetakenoverfromhim?’‘Unfortunatelythatonedied,fouryearsago.Hewasveryold.Henamedhissuccessortoreplacehimandthisnewmanisnowathispost.’‘AndhealwaysstaysatthechapelwheretheArkiskept?’‘ItishisburdenthathemayneverleavetheArk.Doyouknowthathispredecessor,theguardian whom you met, attempted to run away when he was told that he had beenappointed?’‘No,’Ireplied,‘Ididn’tknowthat.’

‘Yes.HefledoutsideAxum,intothemountains.Othermonksweresentafterhimtocatchhim.When theybroughthimbackhe stillwanted toescape.Hehad tobechainedat thechapelformanymonthsbeforehefullyacceptedhisresponsibility.’‘Chained,yousay?’‘Yes.Chainedinsidethechapel.’‘I’msurprised.’‘Why?’‘Becauseitsoundslikehereallydidn’twantthejob.IwouldhavethoughtitwasagreathonourtobeappointedasguardianoftheArk.’‘Anhonour?Yes,certainly.But it isalsoaheavyburden.Afterhetakesuphispost thechosenmonkhasnolifeoutsidetheArk.Heexiststoserveit,toburnincenseroundaboutit,tobebeforeitconstantly.’‘And what would happen if it were ever taken out of the chapel – during Timkat, forexample?Wouldtheguardiangowithit?’‘Hemuststayclosetoitatalltimes.Butyoushouldspeaktoothersaboutthesematters.Iamnotqualified…’I put several other close questions about the Ark, but all of them produced the sameresponse fromtheoldman–suchmatterswerenothisbusiness,hecouldn’t say, Iwouldhave to talk to someone more senior. Interestingly, however, he did tell me thatgovernmentofficialshadcometoAxumshortlybeforethetownwascapturedbytheTPLFandhadattemptedtoremovetherelic.Iasked:‘How?Imean,whatdidtheydo?Didtheytrytogointothechapel?’‘Not at first. They wanted to persuade us that the Ark should go with them to AddisAbaba.Theysaidthattherewasfightingcomingandthatitwouldbesaferthere.’‘Andwhathappened?’‘Whentheybecameforcefulandaggressiveweresistedthem.Theycalledsoldiers,butweresisted them. The whole town heard what they were trying to do and there weredemonstrationsinthestreets.EventuallytheyreturnedtoAddisAbabaempty-handed.Soonafterwards,thanksbetoGod,Axumwasliberated.’IwasawarethatthefatherofaguerillafighterwaslikelytobebiasedinfavouroftheTPLF.NeverthelessIasked:‘Sincethegovernmentforcesleft,havethingsimprovedherefortheclergy,orhavetheygotworse?’‘Definitelythingsarebetter.Infactthesituationinthechurchesisverygood.Wegotothechurchtopraywhenwelike–asmuchaswe like,day,night,evening,wheneverwewish.Before,underthegovernment,duetothecurfewthattheyhadimposed,wewerenotallowedtogotothechurchatnight,ortogohomefromthechurchatnight.Ifwewentoutfromthechurch,evenforfreshair,theycameandtookustoprison.Butwedon’thavetofearnow.Wecansleepsafeinourhomesandgotochurcheverydaylikenormalpeople,and feel safe.We don’t have to spend the night in the church for fear thatwemight becaughtwalkinghomeatnight.During thegovernment’s timewenever felt relaxedwhenweattendedservices.Therewasalwaysfear,notknowingwhatmighthappentousorthechurch.Nowwepractiseourfaithinpeace.’

CroixpattéeHagos’sfathereventuallyleft,promisingthathewouldarrangeameetingformewiththeNebura-ed,thechiefpriestoftheSaintMaryofZionchurch.HedidnotadvisethatIshouldattempttocontacttheguardianoftheArkbeforethismeetinghadtakenplace:‘Thatmightcausesomebadfeeling.Thingsshouldbedoneintheproperorder.’Althoughthisstrategyseemedtometobefullofpotentialpitfalls, Irealizedthat Ihad

littlechoicebuttogoalongwithit.Ithereforedecided,whilewaitingforanappointmentwiththeNebura-ed,thatIwouldexploresomeofthearchaeologicalsiteswhichIhadvisitedalltoobrieflyin1983–andothersthatIhadnotbeenabletoseeatall.I remembered that therewas supposed tobe anancient carvingof a lionessona rock

facenearthequarrieswhereAxum’sfamousstelaehadbeencutinpre-Christiantimes.Thatcarving had been out of bounds in 1983 because it had been located beyond the areacontrolledbythemilitarygarrison.Now,however,itwasaccessible.WhileEdwentoffwithanotherTPLFofficialtofilmvarioussequencesforhisChannel4

news story, I persuadedHagos to takeme to the quarries in the Landcruiser. Thiswas ariskythingtodobecauseofthedangerofanairstrike.However,wewouldbedrivinglessthanfivekilometresandwouldbeabletoconcealthevehiclewhenwearrived.We set off out of townpast the so-calledQueenof Sheba’s palace and soon came to a

rock-strewn hillside. We parked in a gully, covered the Landcruiser with its camouflagetarpaulin,andthenbegantohikeupthescree.‘Whatdoyouthinkofmychancesofpersuadingtheprieststoletmeintothechapelto

seetheArk?’Iaskedaswewalked.‘Oh … they will not allow you to do that,’ replied Hagos confidently. ‘Your only

opportunitywillbeduringTimkat.’‘ButdoyouthinktheyreallydobringtheArkoutatTimkat?Ordoyouthinktheyusea

replica?’Ashrug:‘Idon’tknow.DuringmychildhoodIbelieved,andallmyfriendsbelieved,that

itwasthetrueArkratherthanareplicawhichwascarriedatTimkat.Weneverquestionedthatfact.Itwasnotevenanissueforus.ButnowIamnotsosure…’‘Why?’‘Itdoesnotseemlogical.’Hagoswouldbedrawnnofurtheronthissubjectandforthenextfifteenminutesorsowe

climbedstrenuouslyincompletesilence.Thenhepointedoutagiantboulderacrossaridge:‘Yourlionessisthere,’hesaid.Ihadnoticedthathehaddevelopedaslightlimp.‘Whathappenedtoyourleg?’Iasked.

‘Didyousprainit?’‘No.Iwasshot.’‘Oh.Isee.’‘It happened a few years ago, in a battle with government forces. The bullet passed

throughmyshin,shatteringthebone.SincethenIhavenotbeenfitenoughtoparticipateinactiveservice.’We had come now to the boulder and Hagos led me round its side. There, although

partiallyoccludedbydeepshadow,Icouldquiteclearlymakeoutthegiganticsilhouetteofacharginglionesscarvedinlowrelief.Itwasextensivelyeroded.Neverthelessitconveyed

alifelikesenseofferocityandsinuousgrace.IknewthatTheodoreBent,aBritishtravellerandamateurarchaeologistwhohadvisited

Axuminthenineteenthcentury,hadalsoseenthiscarving–whichhehadlaterdescribedas‘averyspiritedworkofart,measuring10 ft.8 in. fromthenose to the tail.Therunningattitude is admirably given, and the sweep of the hind legs shows that the artist hadthoroughcommandofhissubject.’Benthadthenadded:‘Afewinchesfromthenoseofthelionessisacirculardiskwithrays,probablyintendedtorepresentthesun.’1Inowexaminedthis‘circulardiskwithrays’,whichturnedouttoconsistoftwopairsof

elliptical incisions cut into the bare rock. If these incisions had been arranged around awatch-facethenthetoppairwouldhavepointed,respectively,to10o’clockand2o’clockand the bottom pair to 4 o’clock and 8 o’clock. I therefore found it easy to understandBent’sinterpretationofthedevice:atfirstglanceitdidindeedlooklikeaseriesofspokes–orrays–emanatingoutwardsfromadisk-shapedcentre.It was far from being that, however. Indeed the ‘circular disk’ that the traveller had

describedwas an illusion. If he had bothered to trace the complete shape defined by thespaces between the elliptical incisions he would have found that the result was not arepresentationof thesunatallbutofacroixpattéewitharms thatwidenedout fromthecentrepoint–inotherwords,aperfectTemplarcross.‘Hagos,’Isaid,‘amIseeingthingsoristhatacross?’AsIaskedthisquestionIranmyfingersaroundtheoutlinethathadimmediatelybeenso

apparenttome.‘Itisacross,’affirmedtheTPLFofficial.‘Butitshouldn’tbethere.Thelionessisdefinitelypre-Christian–sohowcomethere’sthis

Christiansymbolbesideit?’‘Whoknows?Maybesomeoneaddeditlater.Thereareothercrosses,justlikethisone,at

thesiteofKingKaleb’spalace.’‘Ifyoudon’tmind,’Isaid,‘IthinkIwouldverymuchliketogoandseethem.’

TheworkofangelsIhadvisitedKaleb’spalacein1983andIknewthattheruinsdatedtothesixthcenturyAD,theearlypartoftheChristianerainAxum.Irememberedthatitwasahill-topfortresswithdeepdungeonsandchambersbeneath.2 I did not, however, remember seeing any crossesthere.Now,aswedrovebackintotown,Ilookedforwardimpatientlytoexploringthepalace

again. In 1983 the Templars had held no significance forme.Mymore recent research,however, had raised the possibility that a contingent of knights could have come fromJerusalemtoEthiopiainsearchoftheArkoftheCovenantatthetimeofKingLalibela(AD1185–1211)andcouldlaterhaveservedasbearersfortheArkitself.3ThereaderwillrecallthatIhadfoundwhatlookedlikestrikingsupportforthistheoryinaneyewitnessaccountgiven by the thirteenth-century Armenian geographer Abu Salih – an account that hadspokenof theArkbeingcarried inAxumbymenwhowere ‘whiteandred incomplexionwithredhair’.4If those men had indeed been Templars, as I very strongly suspected, then it was

reasonable to suppose that theymight have left somemementos of their order behind inAxum.Itthereforeseemedtomeatleastpossiblethattheoddlyout-of-placecroixpattéeontherockbesidethecarvedlionesscouldhavebeenputtherebyaTemplarartist.This particular type of cross, as I knew very well, was not one that was common orpopular in Ethiopia: indeed in all my years of travels in that country the only place inwhichIhadeverseenonehadbeenontheceilingoftherock-hewnchurchofBetaMaryaminthetownofLalibela–atownthathadbeenthecapitaloftheverykingwhoIbelievedhad brought the Templars to Ethiopia in the first place.5 Now I had found another croixpattéeontheoutskirtsofAxumand,ifHagoswasright,IwasabouttoseeseveralmoreintheruinsofKingKaleb’spalace–astructurethatcouldwellhavebeenstillstandingandinhabitedinthethirteenthcentury.AfterdrivingpastthegrassareawherethemajorityofAxum’sgreatstelaewerelocated,we skirted the huge and ancient reservoir known as theMai Shum. In local tradition, Iremembered,thiswassupposedtohavebeentheQueenofSheba’spleasurebath.Sincethecoming of Christianity, however, it had been used for the curious baptismal ritualsassociatedwithTimkat. Here, in two days’ time, the Ark was supposed to be brought inprocessionatthestartoftheceremoniesthatIhadcometowitness.Leaving theMaiShumbehindus,wemotoredabouthalfwayup the steepandbrokenpathleadingtothesiteofKingKaleb’spalaceandcompletedthejourneyonfootafterfirstcamouflagingthecar.Hagosthenledmeintotheruinswherehepokedaroundforawhileamongst the rubblebefore finally exclaiming in triumph: ‘Here!Overhere! I think this iswhatyouwanttosee.’Ihurriedtojoinhimandsawthathehadretrievedablockofsand-colouredstoneabouttwo feet square and six inches thick. Out of it had been carved four elliptical holes ofpreciselythesameshapeanddispositionastheelliptical incisionsnearthecarvingof thelioness.Inthiscase,however,becausetheholespassedrightthroughtheblock,therecouldbenoambiguityatall about the shapeof the remaining stone: it formedanotherperfectTemplarcross.‘WhenIwasachild,’musedHagos,‘Iandmyfriendsusedtoplayuphere.Inthosedaysthereweremanyblocks like this lyingaround. Iexpect thatall theotheronesmusthavebeenremovedsincethen.’‘Wherewouldtheyhavebeentaken?’‘Thetownspeopleconstantlyre-usethestonesfromtheruinstobuildorrepairtheirownhomes.Sowe’reluckytohavefoundthisblockintact…Butthereareothercrosses,justthesameshapeasthisone,inthecellarsunderthepalace.’Wemade ourway down a flight of stairs into the dark dungeons that I had visited in1983. Then, by flashlight, I had been shown a number of empty stone cofferswhich theAxumites believed had once contained great riches in gold and pearls.Now, producing abox of matches, Hagos showedme a Templar cross carved into the end of one of thesecoffers.‘Howdidyouknowthatwasthere?’Iaskedinamazement.‘EveryoneinAxumknows.AsIsaid,IusedtoplayintheseruinswhenIwasaboy.’Hethenledmeintothenextchamber,struckamatch,andshowedmetwomoreTemplarcrosses–one,rathercrudelyformed,onthefarwallandanother,beautifullyexecuted,high

uponthelongersidewall.UntiltheflamegutteredoutIstoodgazingupatthesecrosseslostinthought.IknewthatImightneverbeabletoprovemyhypothesistothecompletesatisfactionofarchaeologistsor historians, but I now felt certain inmyownheart that theTemplars had indeedbeenhere.The croixpattée hadbeen their characteristic emblem,worn on their shields and ontheir tunics. Itwas entirely in keepingwith everything else that I had learnt about themthatsomeoftheirnumbershouldhavecomedownhere,intotheobscuredarknessofthesedungeons,toleavethatemblemonthewalls–asakindofpuzzleperhaps,orasasign,forfuturegenerationstowonderover.‘Arethereanytraditions’,IaskedHagos,‘aboutwhocarvedthesecrosseshere?’‘Some of the townspeople say that they were the work of angels,’ replied the TPLFofficial,‘butofcoursethatisnonsense.’

AbearerofbadnewsIdidnothearfromHagos’sfatheruntilafternighthadfallen,andwhenIdidthenewswasbad.HecameroundtothelittleguesthouseinwhichwewerestayingshortlyafterseventhateveningtotellmethattheNebura-edwasoutoftown.Myfirstreaction,whichIdidnotvoice,wasthatitwasextremelyunlikelythatthechiefpriestof theSaintMaryofZionchurchwouldbeabsentat this timeofyear.WithTimkatjust around the corner, and many preparations to make, his presence would surely berequiredinAxum.‘Howunfortunate,’Isaid.‘Where’shegone?’‘HehasgonetoAsmara…forconsultations.’‘ButAsmaraisstillingovernmenthands.Howcanhegothere?’‘TheNebura-edmaygoanywhere.’‘AndwillhebebackbeforeTimkat?’‘Iamtoldthathewillnotreturnforseveraldays.HisdeputywillstandinforhimduringtheTimkatceremonies.’‘Sowhatdoesthismeanformywork?WillIbeabletotalktotheguardianoftheArk,forexample?TherearesomanyquestionsthatIhavetoask.’‘WithoutthepermissionoftheNebura-edyouwillbeabletodonothing.’Hagos’s father was clearly an innocentmessenger, so I had no right or reason to feelfuriouswithhim.NeverthelessitseemedobviousthattheinformationhehadjustdeliveredwaspartofastrategytopreventmefromlearningmoreabouttheArk.Thoughtheywouldprobably be polite and friendly towards me as individuals, the plain fact was that themonks and priests of Axum would not co-operate with my investigation without thepermissionof theNebura-ed.Sadly,however, theNebura-edwasabsent.Therefore I couldnot obtain his permission. Therefore I would not be able to find out anything of anysignificancefromanyone;norwouldIbeable todoanyof thethings that Ihadcomesomany miles to do. In this classically Abyssinian fashion, I would be neutralized withoutanyoneactuallyhavingtorefusemeanything.Theclergymenwouldnothavetobeboorishorrude;onthecontrarytheywouldonlyneedtoshrugandtellmewithdeepregret thatthisorthatcouldnotbedonewithoutthesanctionoftheNebura-ed,andthat–onthisor

thatmatter–theythemselveswerenotqualifiedtospeak.‘Isthereanyway,’Iasked,‘thatwecangetamessagetotheNebura-ed–aboutmywork

here?’‘WhileheisinAsmara?’laughedHagos’sfather.‘Impossible.’‘OKthen.Whataboutthedeputychiefpriest?Can’thegivemethepermissionIneed?’‘I do not think so. To give you that permission he would first have to obtain the

permissionoftheNebura-ed.’‘Inotherwordshewouldhavetogetpermissiontogivemepermission?’‘Exactly.’‘Butcan’tIatleasttry?Can’tIevenmeetthedeputyandexplaintohimwhyI’mhere?

Whoknows?Hemightbewillingtohelpme.’‘Perhaps,’ saidHagos’s father. ‘At any rate Iwill talk to the deputy tonight and Iwill

bringyouhisanswertomorrow.’

SanctuaryoftheArkThenextmorning,Thursday17January1991,wewereallupandaboutbeforedawn.Edhad wanted to shoot some general views at sunrise and Hagos had suggested that thesummitofoneof the several stonyhillsbehind the townwouldprovide thebestvantagepoint.Accordingly, at four-thirty a.m. we rousted Tesfaye, our driver, out of the bed that he

beensharingwithalocalprostitutevirtuallynon-stopsinceourarrival.Ontheroadbeforefive,weshoved theaerialofEd’s short-waveradiooutof thewindow.Thereceptionwasbad,foggedwithstatic.NeverthelesswemanagedtounscrambleenoughofthebroadcasttounderstandthatwarhadfinallybrokenoutintheGulf,thatAmericanbombershadflownhundreds of sorties against Baghdad during the night, and that massive devastation hadbeencaused.ApparentlytheIraqiairforcehadnotmanagedtosendupasinglefighterinresponse.‘Soundslikeit’sallover,’commentedEdwithacertainamountofsatisfaction.‘Idoubtthat,’saidHagos.‘Wewillhavetowaitandsee.’Wesatinsilenceforawhile,listeningtothecontinuingreports,asTesfayemanoeuvred

us up the steep track towards the summitwewere heading for. The skywas still almostcompletelydarkandhewasperhapsdreamingof thehumidpleasureshehadso recentlybeenenjoying;atanyratehemanagedtohalfroll thevehicleatonepointandonly justavoideddrivingusovertheedgeofasmallcliff.Ed, Hagos and I took this as our cue to get out. Leaving Tesfaye to deal with the

camouflagetarpaulinwethenwalkedtherestofthewaytothesummit.Itwasashorthikethroughthelitterofanoldbattlefield.‘Thiswaswherethelastpartof

the Ethiopian army garrison held outwhenwe tookAxum from them,’ explainedHagos.‘Theyweretoughfighters,fromtheSeventeenthDivision.Weover-ranthemineighthours.’Allarounduswere smashedmilitary lorries,burnt-outarmouredpersonnelcarriersand

guttedtanks.And,asthesunbegantocomeup,Inoticedthathugeamountsofmunitionswere still lying underfoot. Most of the debris consisted of spent shells and chunks ofshrapnel. There were also several 81mm mortar bombs, rusty but unexploded, which

nobodyhadbotheredtoremove.Eventually we reached the summit, upon which perched the twisted and blackened

wreckageofabarrackblock.Therebeneaththecrimsonskyofmorning,IstoodandgazedgloomilydownonthetownofAxum.Behind me was the devastated ruin of a building. Its corrugated aluminium roof, still

partiallyintact,creakedandgroanedeerilyinthecolddawnbreeze.Onthegroundinfrontofmewasasoldier’shelmet,splitacrossthebrowbysomeanonymousprojectile.Furtheroff,inacrater,layasoldier’srottingboot.ThelightwasstrongernowandfarbelowIcouldseethegardeninthecentreofAxum

wherethemaincollectionofgiantstelaestood.Beyond,acrossadesertedsquare,setbackinasecludedcompound,rosethebattlementsandtowersofthegreatchurchofSaintMaryofZion.Andbythesideofthatimposingedifice,surroundedbybarbedironrailings,satasquatgreygranitechapel,windowlessandbarred,withadomeofgreencopper.Thiswasthe sanctuary of theArk, near and yet far away, approachable and yet unapproachable.Withinitlaytheanswertoallmyquestions,proofordisproofofallmywork.AccordinglyIlookeddownatitwithlongingandrespect,withhopeandagitation,withimpatiencebutalsowithuncertainty.

MenofstrawWe returned to the guest house for breakfast. And there we sat until mid-morningsurroundedbyagroupofunusuallysombreandpensiveTigrayans–allofwhomhadcometo hear the news that boomed and crackled out of Ed’s short-wave radio and thatHagossolemnlytranslatedfor them.Lookingaroundat the faces,youngandold,handsomeandplain, Iwas struck by the poignancy of this intense interest in a distantwar. Perhaps itprovidedadistractionfromthehome-grownconflictthathadkilledandmaimedsomanyinthis little town. Perhaps it arose from feelings of sympathy at the thought of the savagebombingthatotherswerenowenduring.Taking in the nuances of this scene, I realized that such freedom of associationwould

havebeenquiteimpossibleforthebrowbeatenandterrorizedtownsfolkinthedayswhentheEthiopiangovernmentstillruledinAxum.Anditseemedtome,thoughtherewasgreatpoverty,thoughtheschoolswereclosed,thoughpeoplecouldnotmoveopenlyforfearofairstrikes,thoughfarmerscouldhardlyploughtheirfields,andthoughfaminethreatened,thatthingswerebetterhere–farbetter–thantheyhadbeenbefore.Aroundelevena.m.,afterEd’sfilmingscheduleforthedayhadbeenworkedout,Hagos

andIwalkedintotowninthedirectionofthemainstelaepark.AtonepointwepassedahandpaintedTPLFmuralwhichdepictedPresidentMengistu as a raveningdemonwith ablood-stained swastikaonhis capand linesof armed soldiersmarchingoutofhismouth.HalfadozenMiGscircledabovehisheadandhewassurroundedbytanksandartillery.ThecaptionproclaimedinTigrigna:WewillneverkneelbeforethedictatorMengistu.’Wewalkedonthroughthepot-holedstreetsofAxum,pastpoormarketstallsandempty

shops, amongst the simple houses, encountering on our way a constant stream ofpedestrians – monks and nuns, priests, urchins, dignified elders, peasants in from thecountryside,townsfolk,awomancarryingahugeearthenpotofwater,groupsofteenage

boystryingtolookstylishliketeenagerseverywhere.AndIthought:afewyearsagoIwouldhave been quite happy to stand by while the government took all these people away toresettlementcamps.‘Hagos,’Isaid,‘thingsaresodifferentinAxumsinceyouexpelledthegovernmenttroops.Ican’tquiteputmyfingeronit,buttheatmosphere’scompletelychanged.’‘Itisbecausenooneisafraidanymore,’theTPLFofficialrepliedamomentlater.‘Notevenofthebombingandtheairraids?’‘Wefearthosethings,ofcourse.Buttheyaremoreofanuisancethanaterror–andwehavefoundwaystoavoidthem.Inthepast,whenthegovernmentwashere,wecouldnotavoidthecrueltyofthegarrisons,thetortures,therandomarrests.Thatwastheterrorthatoppressedusforsolong.Yetwhenweconfrontedit,doyouknowwhathappened?’‘No.Notexactly.’‘We discovered that it had been spread bymen of straw and that freedomhad alwaysbeenwithinourgrasp.’We had reached the garden of the stelae. As I walked amongst the great monoliths, Imarvelledat theartistryandat thesheerskillof the forgottenculturethathadconceivedthem.AndIrememberedthat in1983theguardianmonkhadtoldmethattheyhadbeenraisedupbytheArk–by‘theArkandthecelestialfire’.AtthetimeIhadnotknownwhattomakeoftheoldman’swords:now,withall Ihadlearned,Iknewthathecouldhavebeentellingthetruth.Initshistorythesacredrelichadworkedmanygreatmiracles:theerectionofafewhundredtonsofstonewouldsurelynothavebeenbeyonditspowers.

MiraclemaderealThat afternoon at fourHagos’s father came to the guest house to report that the deputychiefpriestwouldseeus.Hesaid that forreasonsofprotocolhecouldnotaccompanyustherebutgaveusprecisedirectionsastowhereweshouldgo.HagosandIthenwalkedovertotheSaintMaryofZionchurchandenteredintoawarrenof small dwellings built around the rear of the compound. Passing under a low archwecametoagateway.Weknockedandwereadmittedtoagardenwhere,onabench,satanelderlymandressedinblackrobes.Whenhe sawusapproachinghemurmuredaquiet command.Hagos turned tomeandsaid:‘Youmuststayhere.Iwilltalkonyourbehalf.’An earnest conversation then ensued. Watching it from a distance I felt … impotent,paralysed, nullified, invalidated. I considered rushing forward and passionately pleadingmycase.ButIknewthatmyentreaties,howeverheartfelt,wouldfallonearstunedonlytotherhythmsoftradition.EventuallyHagoscameback.‘Ihavetoldthedeputyeverything,’heexplained.‘Hesaysthat hewill not talk to you.He says that on amatter as important as the Ark only theNebura-edandtheguardianmonkarequalifiedtospeak.’‘AndIassumethattheNebura-edisstillaway?’‘Still away.Yes.But I havegoodnews.Thedeputyhas accepted for you to talk to theguardian.’

Afewminuteslater,havingfollowedamazeofdustypaths,wecametotheSaintMaryofZionchurch.Passing in frontof itwearrivedat themetal railings thatsurroundedthesanctuarychapel.Istoodforawhile,staringthroughtheserailings.IcalculatedthatwithanenergeticclimbandashortdashIcouldreachthelockeddoorofthebuildinginabouttenseconds.Half joking, I mentioned this idea to Hagos, who responded with a look of genuinehorror.‘Don’tthinkofit,’hecautioned.HegesturedbackinthedirectionofSaintMaryofZionwherehalfadozentallyoungdeaconswereloitering. ‘Asaforeigneryoucommandgreatrespect.Butifyouweretocommitsuchsacrilegeyouwouldcertainlybekilled.’‘Wheredoyousupposetheguardianis?’Inowasked.‘Heisinside.Hewilljoinuswhenheisready.’Wewaitedpatientlyuntilthesunwaslowinthesky.Then,asthedarknessdeepened,theguardianappeared.Hewasa tall,heavilybuiltman,perhaps twentyyearsyounger thanhis predecessor. Like his predecessor, his eyes were occluded with cataracts. Like hispredecessorheworethickrobesredolentofincense.Heshowednoinclinationtoinviteusinbutapproachedandshookhandswithusthroughtherailings.Iaskedhisname.Inagravellyvoiceherepliedsimply:‘GebraMikail.’‘Pleasetellhim’,IsaidtoHagos,‘thatmynameisGrahamHancockandthatIhavespentthelasttwoyearsstudyingthehistoryandtraditionsoftheArkoftheCovenant.Pleasetellhim that I have comeall theway fromEngland, a journeyofmore than seven thousandkilometres,inthehopethatIwillbeallowedtoseetheArk.’Hagosrelayedthismessage.Whenhehadfinishedtheguardiansaid:‘Iknow.Ihavebeeninformedofthisalready.’‘Willyouallowmetoenterthechapel?’Iasked.Hagos translated thequestion.Therewas a longpause, and then the expected answer:‘No,Icannotdothat.’‘But,’Iprotestedlamely,‘IhavecometoseetheArk.’‘ThenIregretthatyouhavewastedyourjourney.Becauseyouwillnotseeit.Youshouldhaveknownthisif,asyousay,youhavestudiedourtraditions.’‘Iknewit,andyetIhoped.’‘Manyhope.ButotherthanmyselfnoonemayvisittheHolyArk.NoteventheNebura-ed.NoteventhePatriarch.Itisforbidden.’‘Thisisagreatdisappointmentforme.’‘Thereareworsethingsinlifethandisappointment.’Iasked: ‘Canyouat least tellmewhattheArk looks like?I thinkthat Icouldgoawaycontentifyouwouldtellmethat.’‘IbelievethattheArkiswelldescribedintheBible.Youcanreadthere.’‘ButIwantyoutotellmeinyourownwordswhatitlookslike.ImeantheArkthatrestshereinthesanctuary.Isitaboxmadeofwoodandgold?Doesithavetwowingedfiguresonitslid?’‘Iwillnotspeakaboutsuchmatters…’

‘Andhowis itcarried?’ Icontinued. ‘Is itcarriedonpoles?Or insomeotherway?Is itheavyorlight?’‘IhavesaidthatIwillnotspeakaboutsuchmatters,andthereforeIwillnotspeak.’‘And does it perform miracles?’ I persisted. ‘In the Bible the Ark was described as

performingmanymiracles.SohereinAxumdoesitalsoperformmiracles?’‘Itperformsmiracles.Anditisinitself…miracle.Itismiraclemadereal.Andthatisall

thatIwillsay.’Withthistheguardianthrusthishandthroughthebarsagainandclenchedmyownhand

firmlyforamomentasthoughinfarewell.‘Ihaveanotherquestion,’Isaidinsistently.‘Justonemorequestion…’Afaint,affirmativenod.‘Tomorrowevening’,Icontinued,‘isthebeginningofTimkat.WillthetrueArkbebrought

outthen,fortheprocessiontotheMaiShum,orwillareplicabeused?’As Hagos translatedmywords into Tigrigna the guardian listened, his face impassive.

Finally he replied: ‘I have already said enough. Timkat is a public ceremony. You mayattenditandseeforyourself.Ifyouhavestudiedasyouhaveclaimed,eventhoughitmayonly have been for two years, I think that youwill be able to know the answer to yourquestion.’Andwiththatheturnedawayandslippedintotheshadowsandwasgone.

ThesecretbehindthesignsTheobject thatwascarriedtotheMaiShumreservoirwhentheTimkat ceremoniesbeganlateintheafternoonofFriday18January1991wasabulkyrectangularchestoverwhichwasdrapeda thickblueclothembroideredwithanemblemofadove.AndI rememberedthat inWolfram’sParzival the dove, too, had been the emblemof theGrail.6 Yet I knew,beyond any shadow of a doubt, that what I was looking at was neither Grail nor Ark.Ratheritwasinitselfanemblemandasymbol,atokenandasign.As the Falasha priest Raphael Hadane hadwarnedmemonths before, the sacred relic

keptinthesanctuarychapelremainedthere–jealouslyguardedintheHolyofHolies.Whatwas brought out in public procession was therefore merely a replica of it – a replica,however, that was quite different in form from the familiar flat tabotat that I had seenparadedduringthepreviousyear’scelebrationsatGondar,andthatdidindeedaccordwiththeshapeanddimensionsofthebiblicalArk.How,then,canIbesosurethatitwasareplica?Theanswerissimple.Notforasingle

momentduringthewholeofthetwo-dayceremonydidGebraMikail, theguardianmonk,leavethesanctuarychapel.Lateintheafternoonofthe18th,astheprocessioncarryingthecloth-wrappedchestmovedawayinthedirectionoftheMaiShum,Isawhimsittingtherebehindtheironbars,leaningagainstthegreygranitewallofthesquatbuilding,seeminglylostincontemplation.Hedidnotevenlookupasthepriestsdeparted,anditwasplainthattheobjectwhichtheyborealoftheldnospecialimportanceforhim.Then,whentheyweregone,hedisappearedinsidethechapel.MomentslaterIheardhis

slowarrhythmicchant.AndhadIbeenpermittedtomovecloserIknewthatIwouldhaverecognizedthesweetsavouroffrankincense.

For what was Gebra Mikail doing, there in the thick darkness, if not offering up afragrancepleasingtotheLordbeforetheHolyArkofHisCovenant?Andwhyelseshouldhe, who had been selected from amongst all his brethren to fulfil a precious trust, havestayedclosedwithinthesanctuaryuntilmorning,ifthesacredandinviolablerelicthathehadforfeitedhisownfreedomtoguardhadnotremainedtherewithhim?InthiswayIbelieveatlastthatIdidglimpsethesecretbehindthesymbol,theglorious

enigmaproclaimedinsomanywondroussigns–proclaimedandyetnotrevealed.FortheEthiopiansknowthatifyouwanttohideatreeyoumustplaceitinaforest.Andwhatelsearethereplicasthattheyvenerateintwentythousandchurchesifnotaveritableforestofsigns?AttheheartofthatforestliestheArkitself,thegoldenArkthatwasbuiltatthefootof

Mount Sinai, that was carried through the wilderness and across the river Jordan, thatbroughtvictorytotheIsraelitesintheirstruggletowinthePromisedLand,thatwastakenuptoJerusalembyKingDavid,andthat–around955BC–wasdepositedbySolomonintheHolyofHoliesoftheFirstTemple.Fromthere,somethreehundredyearslater,itwasremovedbyfaithfulpriestswhosought

topreserveitfrompollutionatthehandsofthesinnerManassehandwhoboreitawaytosafetyonthefar-offEgyptianislandofElephantine.Thereanewtemplewasbuilttohouseit,atempleinwhichitremainedfortwofurthercenturies.When the templewasdestroyed,however, its restlesswanderings resumedagainand it

was carried southward into Ethiopia, into the land shadowingwith wings, into the landcriss-crossedbyrivers.Havingcomefromoneislanditwastakentoanother–togreenandverdant Tana Kirkos –where it was installed in a simple tabernacle andworshipped bysimplefolk.Fortheeighthundredyearsthatfolloweditstoodatthecentreofalargeandidiosyncratic Judaic cult, a cultwhosememberswere the ancestors of all Ethiopian Jewstoday.Then theChristians came, preaching a new religion, and – after converting the king –

theywereable toseize theArk for themselves.They took it toAxumandplaced it in thegreat church that they had built there, a church dedicated to Saint Mary the Mother ofChrist.Manymoreyearsthenwentbyand–asthewearycenturiespassed–thememoryofhow

theArkhadreallycometoEthiopiagrewblurred.LegendsbegantocirculatetoaccountforthenowmysteriousandinexplicablefactthatasmallcityintheremotehighlandsofTigrayappearedtohavebeenselected–presumablybyGodHimself–asthelastrestingplaceofthe most precious and prestigious relic of Old Testament times. These legends wereeventuallycodifiedandsetdowninwritingintheformoftheKebraNagast–adocumentcontaining so many errors, anachronisms and inconsistencies that later generations ofscholarswereneverabletoseetheirwaythroughtothesingleancientandreconditetruthconcealedbeneaththelayersofmythandmagic.That truth,however,was recognizedby theKnightsTemplar,whounderstood its earth-

shakingpowerandwhocametoEthiopia inpursuitof it. Itwas,moreover,expressedbyWolframvonEschenbachinhisstoryofParzival,wheretheHolyGrail–‘theconsummationofheart’sdesire’–servedasanoccultcryptogramfortheHolyArkoftheCovenant.In Wolfram’s text the heathen Flegetanis was said to have penetrated the hidden

mysteriesof the constellationsand tohavedeclared ina reverentialvoice that therewasindeed‘athingcalledtheGral’.Hedeclaredalsothatthisperfectthing,thisspiritualthing,wasguardedbyaChristianprogenybredtoapurelife.Andheconcludedhissoothsayingwiththesewords:‘ThosehumanswhoaresummonedtotheGralareeverworthy.’7SotoothosehumanswhoaresummonedtotheArk–forArkandGrailareoneandthesame.I,formypart,however,wasneverworthyenough.IknewitevenasItraversedthewasteland.IknewitasIapproachedthesanctuarychapel.Iknowitstill.Andyet…Andyet…‘myheartisglad,andmyverysoulrejoices,andmyfleshalsoshallrestinhope.’

Datta.Dayadhvam.Damyata.Shantihshantihshantih

References

Chapter1Initiation

1Forexample,seeJulianMorgenstern,‘TheBookoftheCovenant’,HebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,vol.V,1928,reprintedbyKTAVPublishingHouseInc.,NewYork,1968,p.118:‘theArkitselfcameinpopularthoughtandspeechtobeidentifiedwiththedeity;theArkitselfwastoallextentsandpurposesthedeity.’ThedirectidentificationoftheArkwithGodiswellillustratedinthefollowingpassagefromNumbers10:35:‘Anditcametopass,whentheArksetforward,thatMosessaid,Riseup,Lord,andletthineenemiesbescatteredandletthemthathatetheefleebeforethee’(KingJamesAuthorizedVersion).TheJerusalemBibletranslationofthesameverse,whichmakesuseofYahweh,thenameofGod,reads:‘AndastheArksetout,Moseswouldsay,Arise,Yahweh,mayyourenemiesbescatteredandthosewhohateyourunfortheirlivesbeforeyou.’TheInterpreter’sDictionaryoftheBiblecomments:‘TheArkisnotonlyseenastheleaderofIsrael’shost,butisdirectlyaddressedasYahweh.ThereisvirtuallyanidentificationofYahwehandtheArk…thereisnodoubtthattheArkwasinterpretedastheextensionorembodimentofthepresenceofYahweh’(TheInterpreter’sDictionaryoftheBible:AnIllustratedEncyclopaedia,AbingdonPress,Nashville,1962,pp.222–3.2SeeExodus37:1,whichgivesthedimensionsoftheArkasfollows:‘twocubitsandahalfwasthelengthofit,andacubitandahalfthebreadthofit,andacubitandahalftheheightofit.’Themeasurementsinfeetandinchesareextrapolatedfromtheancientcubit,whichwaseighteeninches.SeeDrJ.H.Hertz(ed.),ThePentateuchandtheHaftorahs,SoncinoPress,London,1978,p.327.TheJerusalemBible,footnote(b),p.87,concurs(JerusalemBible,Eyre&Spottiswoode,London,1968).3Exodus37:7–9.41Chronicles28:2.5RichardElliottFriedman,WhoWrotetheBible?,JonathanCape,London,1988,p.156.6TheInterpreter’sDictionaryoftheBible,op.cit.,p.222.7ThephraseistakenfromJ.TheodoreBent’snineteenth-centurybookonAxum,TheSacredCityoftheEthiopians:TravelandResearchinAbyssiniain1893,Longmans,Green,London,NewYorkandBombay,1896.8Eritreawasinfactdecolonizedin1952.ForthenexttenyearsitwasfederatedwithEthiopiabutkeptitsownseparateidentity.In1962,afterwhatwaswidelybelievedtobeariggedreferendum,thefederalrelationshipwasdissolvedandEthiopiatookoverfullcontroloftheterritory,whichthenceforwardwasgoverneddirectlyfromAddisAbaba.HaileSelassiearguedthatapartfromthebriefcolonialinterludeEritreahadalwaysbeenanintegralpartofEthiopiaandshouldremainso.ManyEritreans,however,feltdifferently.9G.W.BHuntingford(ed.),ThePeriplusoftheEritreanSea,HakluytSociety,London,1980.10ReportedinA.H.M.JonesandElizabethMonroe,AHistoryofEthiopia,OxfordUniversityPress,1955,pp.32–3.

11J.W.McCrindle(trans,anded.),TheChristianTopographyofCosmos,anEgyptianMonk,HakluytSociety,London,1898.12TheRufiniushistoryoftheconversionofEthiopiatoChristianityisreportedatlengthinA.H.MJonesandElizabethMonroe,AHistoryofEthiopia,op.cit.,pp.26–7.SeealsoGrahamHancock,RichardPankhurst,DuncanWilletts,UnderEthiopianSkies,EditionsHL,LondonandNairobi,1983,pp.34–5.13ReportedbyRichardPankhurst,writinginHancock,PankhurstandWilletts,UnderEthiopianSkies,op.cit.14ForafullaccountofthefindingsofthisdigseeS.C.Munro-Hay,ExcavationsatAxum:AnAccountofResearchattheAncientEthiopianCapitaldirectedin1972–74bytheLateDrNevilleChittick,RoyalGeographicalSociety,London,1989.15AnothertraditionsaysthatthecoffersareinfactcoffinsandthattheyoncecontainedthebodiesofKalebandGebre-Maskal.16C.F.BeckinghamandG.W.BHuntingford(eds),ThePresterJohnoftheIndies:ATrueRelationoftheLandsofPresterJohn,beingtheNarrativeofthePortugueseEmbassytoEthiopiain1520writtenbyFatherFranciscoAlvarez,Cambridge,publishedfortheHakluytSocietyattheUniversityPress,1961,vol.I,pp.151–3.17Ibid.,footnote2,p.151.18Ibid.,pp.145–8.

Chapter2Disenchantment

1FromArticleIIofthe1955(revised)Constitution.2AymroWondemagegnehuandJoachimMotovu,TheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch,TheEthiopianOrthodoxMission,AddisAbaba,1970,p.48.3Ibid.,p.46.4Ibid.,p.152.

Chapter3TheGrailCipher

1Thebookwaspublishedin1990.CarolBeckwith,AngelaFisher,GrahamHancock,AfricanArk:PeoplesoftheHorn,CollinsHarvill,London,1990.

2WilliamAnderson,TheRiseoftheGothic,Hutchinson,London,1985,p.34.Andseeingeneralpp.33–7.

3ForachronologyseeChartres:GuideoftheCathedral,EditionsHouvet-la-Crypte,Chartres,pp.12–13.

4JohnJames,MedievalFrance:AGuidetotheSacredArchitectureofMedievalFrance,HarrapColumbus,London,1987,p.71.

5MalcolmMiller,Chartres:TheCathedralandtheOldTown,PitkinPictorials,Norwich,UK,pp.13and18.SeealsoChartres:GuideoftheCathedral,op.cit.,ForewordwrittenbyEtienneHouvet,custodianofthecathedral,p.3.

6Chartres:GuideoftheCathedral,op.cit.,p.53.7SirE.A.WallisBudge,TheQueenofShebaandherOnlySonMenelik:bangthe‘BookoftheGloryofKings’(KebraNagast),OxfordUniversityPress,1932,p.29.InaconversationwithSolomontheQueenofShebaisquotedassaying:‘FromthismomentIwillnotworshipthesun,butwillworshipthecreatorofthesun,theGodofIsrael…becauseofthisIhavefoundfavourwiththee,andbeforetheGodofIsrael,myCreator.’

81Kings10:1–13;1Chronicles9:1–12.9ForagoodrésuméofthescholarlyconventionalwisdomseeH.StJohnPhilby,TheQueenofSheba,QuartetBooks,London,1981.

10MalcolmMiller,ChartresCathedral:IllustratingtheMedievalStainedGlassandSculpture,PitkinPictorials,Norwich,UK,p.14.SeealsoChartres:GuideoftheCathedral,op.cit.,pp.37–47.

11Genesis14:18;Psalm110:4.12MalcolmMiller,ChartresCathedral:IllustratingtheMedievalStainedGlassandSculpture,op.cit.,p.20.

13Chartres:GuideoftheCathedral,op.cit.,p.42.14SeeExodus37:1andChapter1,note2above.15Chartres:GuideoftheCathedral,op.cit.,p.40.16LouisCharpentier,TheMysteriesofChartresCathedral,RILKO,London,1983(originallypublishedbyRobertLaffont,Paris,1966),p.70.

17Chartres:GuideoftheCathedral,op.cit.,p.37.18LouisCharpentier,TheMysteriesofChartresCathedral,op.cit.,p.68,photographicsectionbetweenpp.32and33,andp.113.

19See,forexample,RobertGraves,TheWhiteGoddess,Faber&Faber,LondonandBoston,1988edn,p.161.

20Hebrews7.21LouisCharpentier,TheMysteriesofChartresCathedral,op.cit.,p.113.22SeeD.D.R.Owen(trans.),ChrétiendeTroyes:ArthurianRomances,J.M.Dent,London,1988,Introduction,p.x.

23SirThomasMalory,LeMorted’arthur,PenguinClassics,London,1988–seehalf-tidepage.

24SeeEdwinH.Zeydel(trans.anded.),TheParzivalofWolframvonEschenbach,UniversityofNorthCarolina,ChapelHill,1951,p.14.SeealsoWolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980,Introduction,p.8.

25SirThomasMalory,LeMorted’arthur,op.cit.,pp.190and213.26WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.239.27LadyFlaviaAnderson,TheAncientSecret:FirefromtheSun,RILKO,London,1987,p.15.

28Ibid.29ChrétiendeTroyts,ArthurianRomances,op.cit.,p.417.30Ibid.,pp.417–18.31Ibid.,p.459.32EmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranz,TheGrailLegend,Coventure,London,1986,pp.29and116.(OriginallypublishedbyWalterVerlag,Olten,1980,andintheUSAbySigoPress,Boston,1970.)SeealsoA.M.Hatto’sForewordtoWolfram’sParzival,op.cit.,p.7.OldCatalangrazalandProvençalgrasalbothalsomeant‘vessel,cuporbowlofwood,earthenwareormetal’.

33Theword‘holy’appearsinnolessthanthirtybooksoftheOldTestament.34JohnMatthews,TheGrail:QuestfortheEternal,Thames&Hudson,London,1987,p.12.

35SeeF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.162.

36WilliamAnderson,TheRiseoftheGothic,op.cit.,p.65.37ForadiscussionseeM.KilianHufgard,‘SaintBernardofClairvaux’,MedievalStudies,vol.II,EdwinMellenPress,1989,p.143:‘ItwouldbeimpossibletocalculatethefullextentofBernard’sinfluenceontheiconographyoftheearlyGothiccathedrals.’

38SeeJohnMatthews,TheGrail:QuestfortheEternal,op.cit.,p.12.39ForadiscussionseeBodoMergell,DerGraalinWolframsParsifal,Halle,1952.SeealsoEncyclopaediaBritannica,Micropaedia,15thedn,1991,vol.V,pp.408–9,whichstatesthattheQuestedelSaintGraal‘wasclearlyinfluencedbythemysticalteachingsofSaintBernardofClairvaux’.

40AnexcellentdiscussionofthissymbolismiscontainedinJohnMatthews,TheGrail:QuestfortheEternal,op.cit.,pp.14–17.

41F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,

op.cit.,p.827.42JohnMatthews,TheGrail:QuestfortheEternal,op.cit.,p.15.43Ibid.,p.15.44M.KilianHufgard,‘SaintBernardofClairvaux’,op.cit.,p.141.45F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,pp.42–3and87–8.

46HelenAdolf,‘NewLightonOrientalSourcesforWolfram’sParzivalandotherGrailRomances’,PublicationsoftheModernLanguagesAssociationofAmerica,vol.62,March1947,pp.306–24.

47Ibid.,p.306.‘Iamindebted’,wroteAdolf,‘tothepioneersinthisfield,toVeselovskijandSinger,foundersoftheEthiopiantheory.’A.N.VeselovskijhadwrittenseveralworksontheoriginoftheGraillegendwhichhadbeenpublishedinRussiabetween1886and1904;S.SingerhadbeenaGermanacademicwritingataboutthesametime.DetailsoftheirworksaretobefoundinAdolf’sBibliography,p.324.

48Ibid.,p.306.49See,forexample,ChrétiendeTroyes,ArthurianRomances,op.cit.,IntroductionbyD.D.R.Owen,p.ix–xviii.SeealsoJessieL.Weston,FromRitualtoRomance,CambridgeUniversityPress,1920,particularlyChapter6whereshespecificallyrejectsthecauldronsofCelticmythologyasbeingtheprototypesfortheGrail,adding‘thesespecialobjectsbelongtoanotherlineoftraditionaltogether’(pp.69–70).ShealsorejectstheothercommonderivationintheCupoftheLastSupperandtheLanceofLonginus(p.68).ItwasJessieWeston’sscholarlybookthatlargelyinspiredT.S.Eliot’spoemTheWasteLand.SeeT.S.Eliot,SelectedPoems,Faber&Faber,London,1961,p.68.

50WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.410.51WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.SeeinparticularForeword,pp.7–8.Atypicalexampleoftheclosecorrespondencesbetweenthetwotextsistobefoundinthenear-identicaldescriptionsoftheGrailprocessionandofthesubsequentdisappearanceoftheGrailcastle(Wolfram,pp.123–31;Chrétien,pp.415–22).TheEncyclopaediaBritannica,11th(1910)edn,confirmsthatParzivalwas‘beyondalldoubt’arenderingofa‘Frenchoriginal’(entryunder‘WolframvonEschenbach’,p.775).SeealsoMargaretFitzgeraldRichey,TheStoryofParzivalandtheGrail,AsRelatedbyWolframvonEschenbach,BasilBlackwell&Mott,Oxford,1935,pp.10–11:‘theexternalresemblances[betweenWolfram’saccountandChrétien’s]aresoclose,notonlyintheorderingoftheepisodesbutalsoinpointsofdetail,thatmanyscholarsregardChrétien’spoemastheonespecificbasisofWolfram’s.’

52HelenAdolf,‘NewLightonOrientalSourcesforWolfram’sParzival’,op.cit.,p.307.53Forconfirmationoftheuseofstone‘whiteandbeautifullikemarble’inthemostprecioustabotsseeC.F.BeckinghamandG.W.B.Huntingford(eds),ThePresterJohnoftheIndies:ATrueRelationoftheLandsofPresterJohn,beingtheNarrativeofthePortugueseEmbassytoEthiopiain1520writtenbyFatherFranciscoAlvarez,Cambridge,publishedfor

theHakluytSocietyattheUniversityPress,1961,vol.II,p.543.54HelenAdolf,‘NewLightonOrientalSourcesforWolfram’sParzival’,op.cit.,p.309.55WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,forexamplep.240.AnotherevenmorespecificexampleoftheGrail’slegislativefunctionoccursonp.406.56Ibid.,p.246.57Judges20:27–8.581Samuel3:1–11.591Chronicles28.Noteinparticularverse19.60WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.243.61LouisGinzberg,TheLegendsoftheJews,TheJewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,Philadelphia,1911,vol.III,pp.128–9.62WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.232.Emphasisadded.63TheJewishEncyclopaedia,Funk&Wagnells,NewYork,1925,vol.II,p.107.SeealsoMenahemHaran,TemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,ClarendonPress,Oxford,1978,reprintedbyEisenbrauns,WinonaLake,Indiana,1985,p.246.Haranstatesthescholarlyviewthat‘theArkheldnotthetwotablesofthelawbut…ameteoritefromMountSinai’.64ForadiscussionseeEmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranz,TheGrailLegend,op.cit.,p.148,footnote28.65JenniferWestwood(ed.),TheAtlasofMysteriousPlaces,GuildPublishing,London,1987,p.74.66Ibid.67ForalengthyandveryscholarlydiscussionoftheselinksseetwopapersbyJulianMorgenstern:‘TheBookoftheCovenant’,HebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,vol.V.1928;and‘TheArk,theEphodandtheTentofMeeting’,HebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,vol.XVII,1942–3;bothreprintedbyKTAVPublishingHouse,NewYork,1968.In‘TheBookoftheCovenant’,p.118,Morgensternwrites:‘ThemostnaturalassumptionisthattheArkcontainedabetyl…Thisconceptionwas,ofcourse,commonamongsttheprimitiveSemites,andtheevidenceisamplethatitwascurrentinancientIsrael.’68W.H.Roscher,LexikondergriechischenundrömischenMythologie,1884,citedinEmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranz,TheGrailLegend,op.cit.,p.148.69WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.239.70See,forexample,EmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranz,TheGrailLegend,op.cit.,pp.149and157.71JohnMatthews,TheGrail:QuestfortheEternal,op.cit.,p.17.EmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranzalsosuggestasimilarderivation:TheGrailLegend,op.cit.,p.148.72WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,e.g.pp.225,240.73Ibid.,pp.126–7.74Tan.Terumah,XI;also,withslightvariations,Yoma39b.CitedinTheJewish

Encyclopaedia,vol.II,op.cit.,p.105.75IKings8:12.76ZevVilnay,LegendsofJerusalem:TheSacredLand,TheJewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,Philadelphia,1973,vol.I,pp.11–12.77E.g.,Exodus40:20–38.78ChrétiendeTroyes,ArthurianRomances,op.cit.,p.417.79Ibid.80Exodus37:1–2.81Exodus37:6.82Exodus34:29–30.ThisistheJerusalemBibletranslation,directfromHebrew,ratherthanthroughGreekinthecaseoftheKingJamesAuthorizedVersion(TheJerusalemBible,Eyre&Spottiswoode,London,1968).TheKingJamesVersionhasthetwoversesasfollows:‘Anditcametopass,whenMosescamedownfromMountSinaiwiththetwotablesoftestimonyinMoses’hand,whenhecamedownfromthemount,thatMoseswistnotthattheskinofhisfaceshonewhilehetalkedwithhim.AndwhenAaronandallthechildrenofIsraelsawMoses,behold,theskinofhisfaceshone;andtheywereafraidtocomenighhim.’83WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.125.84Ibid.,p.125.85Ibid.,p.125.86Ibid.,pp.125and401.87Ibid.,p.239.88Ibid.,p.389.891Chronicles15:2.SimilarlyseeDeuteronomy10:8.90SirE.A.WallisBudge,KebraNagast,op.cit.91Ibid.,p.98.92Ibid.,p.79.93Ibid.,p.95.94Inhistranslation,SirE.A.WallisBudgeusedavarietyofdifferentwordsandphrasestorefertotheArkoftheCovenant–e.g.‘Zion’,‘HeavenlyZion’,‘TabernacleofHisLaw’,‘TabernacleofHisCovenant’,‘TabernacleoftheLawofGod’.Hemakesclearatseveralpointsthatthesetermsareallcompletelyinterchangeableandthattheyrefertoexactlythesamething.Forexample,inhisIntroduction(p.xvii),hespeaksof‘theTabernacleoftheLawofGod,i.e.theArkoftheCovenant’.Likewise,withinthemainbodyofthetranslation,thereareseveralpoints,cross-referencedtobiblicalpassages,atwhichthisinterchangeabilityoftermsfortheArk(including‘Zion’and‘HeavenlyZion’)isunequivocallyspelledout–e.g.pp.14–15and178.Forpurposesofclarityinmyowntext,andwithapologiestoBudge,Ihaveadoptedthepolicyofsimplifyingthisconfusingterminologicalspaghetti.InallmyquotationsfromtheKebraNagastthe

familiarepithets‘ArkoftheCovenant’,‘ArkofHisCovenant’,‘ArkofGod’,‘ArkoftheLord’,andjustplain‘Ark’willbeused.95SirE.A.WallisBudge,KebraNagast,op.cit.,p.169.96Ibid.pp.94–5.97WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.393.

Chapter4AMaptoHiddenTreasure

1WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980,p.22.2Ibid.,p.17.3Ibid.,p.22.4See,forexample,H.StJohnPhilby,TheQueenofSheba,QuartetBooks,London,1981,pp.58–60.5WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.30.6Ibid.,p.27.7Ibid.,p.24.8Ibid.,p.34.9Ibid.,p.39.10Ibid.11Ibid.12Ibid.,p.56.13Ibid.,p.40.14Ibid.,p.66.15ThecomplextangleofrelationshipsinParzivalrequiressomeunravelling.Onpp.439–47ofthePenguinClassicsedition,ProfessorA.T.Hattoprovidesausefulglossaryofpersonalnames.Feirefizisdescribedonp.440as‘Parzival’sinfidelhalf-brother;sonofGahmuretandhisfirstwifeBelacane’.16SirE.A.WallisBudge,TheQueenofShebaandherOnlySonMenelik:beingthe‘BookoftheGloryofKings’(KebraNagast),OxfordUniversityPress,1932,p.35.17Ibid.,p.37.18Ibid.,p.38.19SeeChapter3,note94above.20SirE.A.WallisBudge,KebraNagast,op.cit.,p.102.ForafurtherexampleoftheemphasisonskincolourintheKebraNagastsetp.156.21WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,ProfessorA.T.Hatto’sfootnotetop.40.22A.N.Veselovskij,‘OntheProblemoftheOriginoftheGrailLegend’,Zurnal[Journal]ofthe[Russian]MinistryfortheEnlightenmentofthePeople,Moscow,February1904,p.452.SeealsoHelenAdolf,‘NewLightonOrientalSourcesforWolfram’sParzivalandotherGrailRomances’,PublicationsoftheModernLanguagesAssociationofAmerica,vol.62,March1947,p.310.23SirE.A.WallisBudge,KebraNagast,op.cit.,p.46.24DrE.Littman(trans.anded.),TheLegendoftheQueenofShebaintheTraditionofAxum,BibliothecaAbessinica(StudiesConcerningtheLanguages,LiteratureandHistoryofAbyssinia),vol.I,PrincetonUniversityLibrary,1904,p.9.

25SeeChapter3above.26WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,pp.406–7.27Ibid.,p.408.28See,forexample,C.F.BeckinghamandG.W.B.Huntingford(eds),ThePresterJohnoftheIndies:ATrueRelationoftheLandsofPresterJohn,beingtheNarrativeofthePortugueseEmbassytoEthiopiain1520writtenbyFatherFranciscoAlvarez,Cambridge,publishedfortheHakluytSocietyattheUniversityPress,1961.29WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.408.30LindaB.Parshall,TheArtofNarrationinWolfram’s‘Parzival’andAlbrecht’s‘JüngererTiturel’,CambridgeUniversityPress,1981,p.1.31HenryandMaryGarland,TheOxfordCompaniontoGermanLiterature,OxfordUniversityPress,1986,p.892.32DorothyReich,AHistoryofGermanLiterature,Blackwood,EdinburghandLondon,1970,p.95.33LindaB.Parshall,TheArtofNarrationinWolfram’s‘Parsival’andAlbrecht’s‘JüngererTiturel’,op.cit.,p.1.34NoEnglishtranslationexistsofDerJüngererTiturel.ThatitdepictsthelastrestingplaceoftheHolyGrailasbeing‘thelandofPresterJohn’is,however,notindispute.Readerswhowishtofollowthematterfurther,andwhoreadGerman,arereferredtoK.A.Hahn,Titurel,Leipsig,1842.SeealsoWernerWolfandKurtNyholm’seditededitioninseveralvolumesintheDeutscheTextedesMittelalters(DTM)series,originallypublishedbytheAcademyofSciencesoftheGDR,Berlin,1955–84.35WolframvonEschenbach,Parsival,op.cit.,p.408.36Ibid.,p.408.37Ibid.,p.373.38Ibid.,p.377.39SeeEncyclopaediaBritannica,11th(1910)end,p.304.SeealsoSergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistoryto1270,Haile-SelassieIUniversity,AddisAbaba,1972,pp.254–5.40Ibid.41Ibid.42Ibid.,p.261.43Ibid,andEncyclopaediaBritannica,op.cit.,p.305.44EncyclopaediaBritannica,op.cit.,p30545ForadiscussionseeIrmgardBidder,Lalibela:theMonolothicChurchesofEthiopia,M.DuMont,Cologne,p.11.46SeeChapter1aboveforfulldetails.47HelenAdolf,‘NewLightonOrientalSources’,op.cit.,p.306.48E.A.WallisBudge,AHistoryofEthiopia,London,1928,p.178.

49ExtractfromTheTravelsofMarcoPolo,quotedinHenrySah,AVoyagetoAbyssiniaFrankCassandCo.,London,1967,AppendixV.50EncyclopaediaBritannica,op.cit.,p.306.51C.F.BeckinghamandG.W.B.Huntingford(eds),ThePresterJohnoftheIndies,op.cit.,seep.5.52Ibid.,e.g.p.296.53EncyclopaediaBritannica,op.cit.,p.306.54Ibid.,p.306.55Ibid.,p.306.56Ibid.,p.304.57Ibid.,p.306(emphasisadded).58DavidBuxton,TheAbyssinians,Thames&Hudson,London,1970,p.45.59SeeChapter3above.60JohnMatthews,TheGrail:QuestfortheEternal,Thames&Hudson,London,1987,p.69.61EncyclopaediaBritannica,Opecit.,p.591.

Chapter5WhiteKnights,DarkContinent

1EmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranz,TheGrailLegend,Coventure,London,1986,pp.10–11.(OriginallypublishedbyWalterVerlag,Olten,1980,andintheUSAbySigoPress,Boston,1970.)2WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980,p.232.Seealsop.213.3Ibid.,p.410.4Ibid.,p.233.5Ibid.,p.214.6SeeJessieL.Weston’stranslationofParzival,DavidNutt,London,1894,‘ExcursusA:Wolfram’sSource’,pp.191–2.SeealsoEmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranz,TheGrailLegend,op.cit.,p.152.7Ibid.8See,forexample,TheHutchinsonEncyclopedia,Hutchinson,London,1988,p.481.9SeeinparticularF.Kampers,DasLichtlandderSeelenundderHeiligeGral,Cologne,1916,pp.20–7.SeealsoEmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranz,TheGrailLegend,op.cit.,p.152.ThatgreatauthorityonParzival,JessieWeston,concurs.See‘ExcursusA’tohertranslationofParzival,op.cit.,particularlyp.191,lastparagraph.10EmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranz,TheGrailLegend,op.cit.,p.152.11WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,forexamplepp.228,393and406.12Ibid.,p.241.13Ibid.ProfessorA.T.Hatto’s‘IntroductiontoaSecondReading’,p.438.14MargaretFitzgeraldRichey,TheStoryofParzivalandtheGraal,AsRelatedbyWolframvonEschenbach,BasilBlackwell&Mott,Oxford,1935,p.198.15Ibid.,p.211.Seealsop.198:‘ThisidentificationwiththeTemplarsisverystriking,andwhatelseistoldinconnectioninthetextofParzivalagreeswiththecharacterofthatOrder.’16LouisCharpentier,TheMysteriesofChartresCathedral,RILKO,London,1983,p.68.17As,forexample,inGaetanDelaforge,TheTemplarTraditionintheAgeofAquarius,ThresholdBooks,Vermont,1987,p.68.18TheprincipalsourcefordiscussionofWolfram’svisittotheHolyLandisKarlBertau,DeutscheLiteraturimeuropäischenMittelalter,C.H.Beck,Munich,1974.191Chronicles28:2.ThewordsarethoseofSolomon’sfather,KingDavid,whohadhopedtobuildtheTemplefortheArk,butwhohadbeeninstructedbyGodtoleavethistasktoSolomon.20WilliamofTyre,AHistoryofDeedsdoneBeyondtheSea(E.BabcockandA.C.Kreytrans.),OctagonBooks,NewYork,1986,vol.I,pp.524–5.21EncyclopaediaBritannica,11thedn,1910,p.593.

22EdwardBurman,TheTemplars:KnightsofGod,AquarianPress,Wellingborough,1986,p.21.

23JohnJ.Robinson,BorninBlood,Century,London,1990,p.66.OriginallypublishedintheUSAin1989byM.Evans.

24EncyclopaediaBritannica,Micropaedia,15thedn,1991,vol.III,p.133.ThecitywassoldtotheKingofFrancein1286.

25EdwardBurman,TheTemplars,op.cit.,p.27.SaintBernard’smother,Aleth,wasAndrédeMontbard’ssister.

26Interestingly,itisthoughtpossiblethatSaintBernardhimselfprovidedthemodelforSirGalahad,theherooftheCistercianQuestedelSaintGraal.SeeEdwardBurman,TheTemplars,op.cit.p.30.SeealsoEncyclopaediaBritannica,Micropaedia,15thedn,1991,vol.V,pp.79–80and408–9.

27JohnJ.Robinson,BorninBlood,op.cit.,p.66.28EdwardBurman,TheTemplars,op.cit.,p.21.29ChrétiendeTroyes,ArthurianRomances,J.M.Dent,London,1988,D.D.R.Owen’sIntroduction,p.ix.

30StevenRunciman,AHistoryoftheCrusades,PenguinBooks,London,1987,vol.II,p.157.

31Ibid.SeealsoEncyclopaediaBritannica,11thedn,1910,p.591.Then,asnow,theMosqueofOmar,betterknownastheDomeoftheRock,stoodoverthesiteofSolomon’sTemple.SeealsoF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.1345.

32StevenRunciman,AHistoryoftheCrusades,op.cit.,vol.II,p.157.33JohnG.Robinson,BorninBlood,op.cit.,p.66.34StevenRunciman,AHistoryoftheCrusades,op.cit.,vol.II,p.15735MeirBen-Dov,IntheShadowoftheTemple:TheDiscoveryofAncientJerusalem,Harper&Row,NewYork,1985andKeterPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1985,p.347.

36Ibid.37ZevVilnay,LegendsofJerusalem:TheSacredLand,JewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,Philadelphia,vol.I,1973,p.11.

38SeeProfessorRichardElliottFriedman,WhoWrotetheBible?,JonathanCape,London,1988,Chapter1,pp.155–6,quotedinChapter1,p.7above.

39ZevVilnay,LegendsofJerusalem,op.cit.,p.11.40Ibid.,pp.123and324,note136.SeealsoN.A.Silberman,DiggingforGodandCountry,AlfredA.Knopf,NewYork,1982,p.186.Seealso‘TheSyriacApocalypseofBaruch’inH.F.D.Sparks(ed.),TheApocryphalOldTestament,ClarendonPress,Oxford,1989,pp.843and844.

41MalcolmBarber,‘TheOriginsoftheOrderoftheTemple’,StudiaMonastica,vol.XII,1970,pp.221–2.

42JeanRichard,LeRoyaumeLatindeJerusalem,PressesUniversitairesdeFrance,Paris,1953,p.105.

43Ibid.44EmmaJungandMarie-LouisevonFranz,TheGrailLegend,op.cit.,pp.131and126.45SeetheessayonrelicsinJohnJames,MedievalFrance:AGuidetotheSacredArchitectureofMedievalFrance,HarrapColumbus,London,1987,pp.36–40.

46Ibid.,p.39.47GaetanDelaforge,TheTemplarTraditionintheAgeofAquarius,op.cit.,p.68.48Ibid.49F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,p.162.

50EdwardBurman,TheTemplars,op.cit.,p.23.51F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,pp.162and1345.

52Ibid.,p.162.53Ibid.,pp.162and1345.SeealsoEncyclopaediaBritannica,11thedn,1910,p.591.54F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,pp.1345–6.

55ForadiscussionofthefinancialactivitiesoftheTemplarsseeEdwardBurman,TheTemplars,op.cit.,pp.74–97.

56F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,p.162:‘InthedisputedelectionwhichfollowedthedeathofPopeHonoriousIIin1130BernardsidedwithInnocentIIagainsttheantipope,Anacletus,andwaseventuallysuccessfulinsecuringInnocent’svictory.’

57InthePapalBullOmneDatumOptimum.SeeEdwardBurman,TheTemplars,op.cit.,p.41.

58S.Howarth,TheKnightsTemplar,London,1982,p.194.59Ibid.,pp.193–5.60C.N.Johns,‘ExcavationsatPilgrim’sCastle,Atlit,1932’,QuarterlyoftheDepartmentofAntiquitiesinPalestine,vol.III,no.4,1933,pp.145–64.

61JohnWilkinson,JoyceHillandW.F.Ryan(eds),JerusalemPilgrimage1099–1185,HakluytSociety,London,1988,p.294.

62Ibid.63MeirBen-Dov,IntheShadowoftheTemple,op.cit.,p.346.64JohnWilkinson,JoyceHillandW.F.Ryan(eds),JerusalemPilgrimage1099–1185,op.cit.,p.294.

65LouisCharpentier,TheMysteriesofChartresCathedral,op.cit.,p.70.66ForageneraldiscussionseeM.KilianHufgard,‘SaintBernardofClairvaux’,Medieval

Studies,vol.II,EdwinMellenPress,1989.Seeinparticularpp.140–1and143–50.67QuotedinRobertLawlor,SacredGeometry:PhilosophyandPractice,Thames&Hudson,London,1989,p.10.68Ibid.69M.KilianHufgard,‘SaintBernardofClairvaux’,op.cit.,pp.148–9.70Ibid.,p.139.71Ibid.,p.129.72SergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistoryto1270,Haile-SelassieIUniversity,AddisAbaba,1972,pp.265–7.73EncyclopaediaBritannica,11thedn,1910,p.306.SeealsoA.H.M.JonesandElizabethMonroe,AHistoryofEthiopia,ClarendonPress,Oxford,1966,p.53:‘TherecanbelittledoubtthattheKing,whoseenvoyhaddiscoursewithMasterPhilip,wastheKingofAbyssinia,whowastheonlyChristianKingintheNearEastwhocouldhavesentsuchanembassy.’74SergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistoryto1270,op.cit.,pp.239–87.75SeeDavidBuxton,TheAbyssinians,Thames&Hudson,London,1970,pp.44ff.SeealsoJeanDoresse,AncientCitiesandTemplesofEthiopia,ElekBooks,London,1959,p.92,andSergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistoryto1270,op.cit.,pp.225–32.76SeeWolfLeslau,FalashaAnthology,YaleUniversityPress,NewHavenandLondon,1979,Introduction,pp.xx–xi.77RichardPankhurst,AnIntroductiontotheEconomicHistoryofEthiopiafromEarlyTimesto1800,LalibelaHouse/Sidgwick&Jackson,London,1961.78SergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistoryto1270,op.cit.,p.265.79AgoodsummaryofthislegendisgivenbyProfessorRichardPankhurstinGrahamHancock,RichardPankhurstandDuncanWilletts,UnderEthiopianSkies,EditionsHL,LondonandNairobi,1983,pp.58–9.Forfurtherdetails,seeJ.Perruchon,ViedeLalibela,rotd’ethiopie,Paris,1892,andGedleLalibela(AmharictranslationfromGe’ez),Haile-SelassieIUniversity,AddisAbaba,1959.80SergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistoryto1270,op.cit.,seeinparticularpp.265and266.Lalibela’ssojourninJerusaleminalsoreportedinJeanDoresse,AncientCitiesandTemplesofEthiopia,op.cit.,p.113.81SergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistory,op.cit.,p.265.82Ibid.83SeeDavidBuxton,TheAbyssinians,op.cit.,p.44.SeealsoIrmgardBidder,Lalibela:theMonolithicChurchesofEthiopia,M.DuMont,Schauberg,Cologne,pp.14and108.84SergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistory,op.cit.,pp.272–3.SeealsoJeanDoresse,AncientCitiesandTemplesofEthiopia,op.cit.,p.113.85SergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistory,op.cit.,p.112.

86Ibid.,p.262.87DavidBuxton,TheAbyssinians,op.cit.,p.45.88A.H.M.JonesandElizabethMonroe,AHistoryofEthiopia,op.cit.,p.53.InOctober1990IvisitedtheEthiopianmonasteryontheroofoftheChapeloftheInventionoftheCross.89AgoodaccountoftherestorationoftheSolomonicdynastyisgiveninRichardPankhurst,AnIntroductiontotheEconomicHistoryofEthiopia,op.cit.,pp.60–71.90EncyclopaediaBritannica,op.cit.,p.594.91ForexampleseeHelenAdolf,‘NewLightonOrientalSourcesforWolfram’sParzivalandOtherGrailRomances’,PublicationsoftheModernLanguagesAssociationofAmerica,vol.62,March1947,p.308.92AnEnglishtranslationoftheletterisgiveninfullinSergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistory,op.cit.,pp.255–61.93Ibid.94Ibid.95SirE.A.WallisBudge(trans.anded.),TheBandletofRighteousness:AnEthiopianBookoftheDead,Luzac,London,1929.See,forexample,pp.41ff.96Thisconflict,anditsimplications,arediscussedinChapter6below.97FulltextoftheletterinSergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistory,op.cit.,pp.255–61.98Ibid.99IrmgardBidder,Lalibela,op.cit.,p.29.100WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,forexamplepp.406,393and241.101Ibid.,p.406.102Ibid.,p.251.103Ibid.,p.252.104Ibid.,p.252,footnote.105AnindependentstatefromAD1056untilitpassedtotheHabsburgsinthethirteenthcentury,StyriawasannexedbyHiderin1938andisnowanalpineprovinceofsouth-eastAustria(capitalGraz).Slovenesareincludedamongsttheinhabitantsoftheprovince–andWolframmentionsSlovenesafterreferringto‘theRohas’.Thisinsertionofadeliberateambiguityintohistext,leavingroomfortwoormorepossibleinterpretations,isthesortoftechniquethatWolframrepeatedlyemploysinhisencodingofvitalinformation.Inthiswayheveilsthetruthhewishestoconveyinanalternativemeaningthatmostwillacceptastheonlypossiblemeaningofhiswords.106FordetailsoftheTemplarcroixpattéeseeAndreaHopkins,Knights,Collins&Brown,London,1990,pp.72–91.107UNESCOwasinvolvedintherestorationofsomeoftheLalibelachurchesinthe1960sandsubsequentlyadoptedthemasaworldheritagesite.Theyaredescribedas‘A

remarkablecouplingofengineeringandarchitectureandauniqueartisticachievement.’SeeALegacyforAll:TheWorld’sMajorNatural,CulturalandHistoricSites,UNESCO,Paris,1982,p.74.

108See,forexample,D.R.Buxton,‘TheChristianAntiquitiesofNorthernEthiopia’,Archaeologica,no.92,1947,p.23.

109C.F.BeckinghamandG.W.BHuntingford(eds),ThePresterJohnoftheIndies:ATrueRelationoftheLandsofPresterJohn,beingtheNarrativeofthePortugueseEmbassytoEthiopiain1520writtenbyFatherFranciscoAlvarez,Cambridge,publishedfortheHakluytSocietyattheUniversityPress,1961,vol.I.pp.11–13.

110Ibid.,p.223.111Ibid.,p.226.112Ibid.,p.227.113WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.406.114Ibid.,p.406.

Chapter6ResolvingDoubts

1LeR.P.Dimotheos,DeuxansdeséjourenAbyssinie:ouviemorale,politiqueetreligieusedesAbyssiniens,Jerusalem,1871,p.137.

2Ibid.,p.141.3Ibid.,p.141.4Ibid.,p.143.5AsnotedinChapter1above,thesanctuarychapelwasbuiltbythelateEmperorHaileSelassiein1965.

6Again,seeChapter1above.7LeR.P.Dimotheos,DeuxansdeséjourenAbyssinie,op.cit.,p.141.8Ibid.,p.141.9SergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistoryto1270,Haile-SelassieIUniversity,AddisAbaba,1972.

10SeeChapter3above.11Exodus37:1–2.12B.T.Evetts(trans.anded.),AbuSalih,ChurchesandMonasteriesofEgyptandsomeNeighbouringCountries,Oxford,1895.

13Ibid.,p.287.14Ibid.,p.288.15Numbers4:5–6.16ForashortsummaryoftheplaceofAmharicandothernorthernEthiopiclanguageswithintheSemiticlanguagegroupasawholeseeEdwardUllendorff,TheEthiopians:anIntroductiontoCountryandPeople,OxfordUniversityPress,London,1973,Chapter6,‘Languages’,pp.111ff.ArabicisalsoaSemiticlanguage,andAmharichasthesecondlargestnumberofspeakersofanySemiticlanguageafterArabic.

17See,forexample,JulianMorgenstern,‘TheArk,theEphodandtheTentofMeeting’inHebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,vol.XVII,1942–3,KTAVPublishingHouse,NewYork,1968,p.249.

18SeeforexampleEdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElementsinAbyssinian(Monophysite)Christianity’,JournalofSemiticStudies,vol.I,no.3,1956,p.233,footnote6.Hesaysthattobotis‘derivedfromtheJewishPal.Aramaictebuta(tebota)whichinturnisaderivationfromHebrewtebah.’

19SeeGenesis6:7ff.ThefirstreferencetoNoah’sArkastebahcomesinverse14ofthischapter.

20SeeExodus2:3.ForconfirmationthattebahisusedintheBibletorefertotheArkofNoahandalsotoMoses’sArkofbulrushesseeBruceMetzger,DavidGoldstein,JohnFerguson(eds),GreatEventsofBibleTimes:NewPerspectivesonthePeople,PlacesandHistoryoftheBiblicalWorld,GuildPublishing,London,1989,p.12.

21E.A.WallisBudge,TheQueenofShebaandherOnlySonMenelik:beingthe‘BookoftheGloryofKings’(KebraNagast),OxfordUniversityPress,1932,pp.14–15.22Ibid.,p.14.23EdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElementsinAbyssinian(Monophysite)Christianity’,op.cit.,p.234.UllendorffalsoadvancesthesameargumentinhisexcellentEthiopiaandtheBible:TheSchweichLectures1967,publishedfortheBritishAcademybyOxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.84.24EdwardUllendorff,‘TheQueenofShebainEthiopianTradition’,inJamesB.Pritchard(ed.),SolomonandSheba,PhaidonPress,London,1974,p.108.25KebraNagast,op.cit.,Introduction,p.xlii.26JeanDoresse,AncientCitiesandTemplesofEthiopia,ElekBooks,London,1959,p.21.27A.H.M.JonesandElizabethMonroe,AHistoryofEthiopia,ClarendonPress,Oxford,1966,p.16.28KebraNagast,op.cit.,p.29.29SeeChapter2above.30EdwardUllendorff,EthiopiaandtheBible,op.cit.,p.18.31Ibid.,pp.117and17–21.32Ibid.,pp.16–17.33ForaninformativeaccountofthenegativeimpactofChristianmissionaryactivityonFalashaculture,seeDavidKessler,TheFalashas:TheForgottenJewsofEthiopia,SchockenBooks,NewYork,1985.34DatefromTheJerusalemBible,Eyre&Spottiswoode,London,1968,ChronologicalTable,p.345.35J.M.Flad,FalashasofAbyssinia,London,1869,p.3.36Foragoodandup-to-datereferenceonJewishfestivalsseeGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,JerusalemPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1989.ForHanukkahseep.319.37Ibid.,p.576.SeealsoJ.S.Trimingham,IslaminEthiopia,FrankCass,London,1965,pp.20–1.Thisscholarlyandmeticulouslyresearchedbook,firstpublishedin1952,containsarecommendablegeneralround-uponEthiopia,‘TheRegionanditsFolk’,pp.1–31.38HenryA.Stern,WanderingsamongtheFalashasinAbyssinia,London,1862.ReprintedbyFrankCass,London,1968,p.188.39Ibid.,pp.188–9.40InfactafewyearslaterSternwaspunished,ontheorderoftheEthiopianEmperorTewodroswhohadhimfloggedwithinaninchofhislife(thoughnotbecausehehadinterferedwiththeFalashas).Sternwasimprisoned,alongwithseveralotherEuropeans,andwaseventuallyrescuedbytheNapierexpeditiontothecitadelofMagdalawhichcosttheBritishtaxpayerseveralmillionpounds.

41DatefromTheJerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.343.42Leviticus17:8–9.43SeeGeoffreyWigoder(ed.)TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,op.cit.,p.615.44F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.1221.45Ibid.46Ibid.SeealsoGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,op.cit.,pp.618and693.47Ibid.,pp.481–3and695–6.48‘[TheFalashas]are…theonlyJewsintheworldwhoseworshipisfocusseduponsacrificeonthealtar’,J.S.Trimingham,IslaminEthiopia,op.cit.,p.21.49See,forexample,DavidKessler,TheFalashas,op.cit.,p.69andWolfLeslau,FalashaAnthology,YaleUniversityPress,NewHavenandLondon,1979,pp.xxviff.50JamesBruce,TravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNileintheyears1768,1769,1770,1771,1772and1773,Edinburgh,1790,vol.I,p.500.51ForBruce’sviewsonthissubject,seeforexampleTravels,vol.II,p.293inwhichhedescribesJudaismasbeingthereligionofEthiopia‘longbeforeChristianity’.52BeforethesackofMagdalathemanuscriptwasseenbyFladandtranslatedforhimbytheEmperor’slibrarian.SeeJ.M.Flad,FalashasofAbyssinia,op.cit.,p.4.53JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.I,p.485.54Ibid.55See,forexample,A.H.M.JonesandElizabethMonroe,AHistoryofEthiopia,op.cit.,p.30.SeealsoJeanDoresse,AncientCitiesandTemplesofEthiopia,op.cit.,pp.85–6.56KebraNagast,op.cit.,pp.225ff.57ForconfirmationoftheFalashas’ownuseofthetermBetaIsrael,seeforexampleWolfLeslau,FalashaAnthology,op.cit.,Introduction,p.ix.Theword‘Falasha’itselfisderivedfromanancientEthiopictermmeaning‘Immigrant’or‘Stranger’.58Seenote94toChapter3above.Fortheuseof‘Zion’asanepithetorsynonymfortheArkoftheCovenantintheKebraNagastseeSirE.A.WallisBudge,KebraNagast,op.cit.,forexample,pp.14–15and178–79.Seealsop.223.59KebraNagast,op.cit.,p.227.60Ibid.,pp.226and227.61AfulltranslationofEldad’streatiseisgiveninElkanAdler,JewishTravellers,London,1930.Seep.11.62Foradiscussion,seeTheJewishEncyclopaedia,FunkandWagnallsCo.,NewYork,1925,vol.V,pp.90–1.SeealsoTheUniversalJewishEncyclopaedia,vol.IV.p.46.63DatefromTheJerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.344.64QuotedinElkanAdler,JewishTravellers,op.cit.,p.13.

65SeeforexampleDavidKessler,TheFalashas,op.cit.,p.68ff.SeealsoEncyclopaediaJudaica,vol.VI,whichKesslercitesextensively.SeealsoGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,op.cit.,pp.568–70,andWolfLeslau,FalashaAnthology,op.cit.,Introduction,p.xxiii.

66QuotedinElkanAdler,JewishTravellers,op.cit.,p.12.67Ibid.,p.11.68BenjaminofTudela’sbookoftravelsistranslatedinElkanAdler,JewishTravellers,op.cit.,seep.60.

69R.L.Hess,‘AnOutlineofFalashaHistory’,JournalofEthiopianStudies,no.6,AddisAbaba,1967.SeealsoElkanAdler,JewishTravellers,op.cit.,p.153.

70S.Mendelssohn,TheJewsofAfrica,London,1920.71JosephHalévy,LaGuerredeSarsa-DengelcontrelesFalachas,Paris,1907.72Ibid.Adonaiis,ofcourse,oneoftheHebrewnamesofGod.73Ibid.74JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.II,p.293.75Ibid.,vol.I,p.486.76JosephHalévy,TravelsinAbyssinia,London,1877.77ReportedinDavidKessler,TheFalashas,op.cit.–towhoseaccountIamgreatlyindebted.

78TheFalashas:TheJewsofEthiopia,MinorityRightsGroupReportno.67,London,July1985.

79SeeChapter2above.80WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980,p.125.

Chapter7ASecretandNever-EndingQuest

1FortheadoptionofChristianitybytheRomanEmpireunderConstantinesee,forexample,J.M.Roberts,ThePelicanHistoryoftheWorld,Penguin,London,1981,pp.281–4.Fordetailsonthecivilization,powerandprosperityoftheAxumiteEmpireseeChapter1above.

2EdwardGibbon,TheHistoryoftheDeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire,London,1788.3SeeChapter4aboveforadiscussion.4See,forexample,EdwardBurman,TheTemplars:KnightsofGod,AquarianPress,Wellingborough,1986.SeealsoMalcolmBarber,TheTrialoftheTemplars,CambridgeUniversityPress,1989.

5MalcolmBarber,TheTrialoftheTemplars,op.cit.,page45.6SeeF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,pp.117and119.

7Ibid.,p.300.8MalcolmBarber,TheTrialoftheTemplars,op.cit.,p.2.9Ibid.,p.3.10JamesBruce,TravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNileintheyears1768,1769,1770,1771,1772and1773,Edinburgh,1790,vol.I,p.528.

11Ibid.,p.530.12Ibid.,p.530.Interestingly,thenotionthatEthiopiamighttakestepstointerrupttheflowoftheNiletothedisadvantageofEgyptisstillincirculation.InJanuary1990,forinstance,awareoftheclosemilitaryandeconomicco-operationthatwasthenbeingdevelopedbetweenEthiopiaandIsrael,theEgyptiangovernmentofficiallywarnedEthiopiaandIsraelnotto‘tamper’withtheBlueNile.SeeTheIndependent,London,6January1990,p.16.

13SeeEdwardBurman,TheTemplars,op.cit.,p.123.14JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.I,p.530.15Ibid.,p.532.16Foradiscussion,seeChapter5above.17JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.I,p.528.18B.T.Evetts(trans.anded.),AbuSalih,ChurchesandMonasteriesofEgyptandsomeNeighbouringCountries,Oxford,1895.

19Ibid.,p.288.Emphasisadded.20Thisrenderingof‘blondhair’insteadof‘redhair’isgiveninadirecttranslationfromtheoriginalmadebythatgreatlinguistProfessorEdwardUllendorffinhisEthiopiaandtheBible:TheSchweichLectures1967,publishedfortheBritishAcademybytheOxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.26.

21SecrecywasenshrinedwithintherulethatgovernedtheTemplarorder,andbetrayal

ofsecretswaspunishablebyexpulsionorworse.SeeforexampleEdwardBurman,TheTemplars,op.cit.,p.46.SeealsoJohnJ.Robinson,BorninBlood,Century,London,1990,p.77.22O.G.S.Crawford(ed.),EthiopianItinerariescirca1400–1524,CambridgeUniversityPressfortheHakluytSociety,1958,p.212.23Ibid.,pp.213and214.24ExtractfromForesti’schronicletranslatedinIbid.,p.215.25Ibid.,p.212.26Ibid.,pp.214–15.27ThesignificanceofthedataisindeedthatitconfirmsameetingwithPopeClementVsomewherein1306.ThatmeetingmaynotnecessarilyhavetakenplaceinAvignon–whichanywaywasnotpartofFranceatthattimeandwhichdidnotbecometheofficialseatofthePopeuntiltheyear1309.Between1305(thedateofhiscoronationinLyons)andMarchof1309,whenheofficiallytookupresidenceinAvignon,ClementVhadanitinerantexistence,travellingaroundFranceandbasinghimselftemporarilyinvariouscities.ItispossiblethathedidmeetwiththeenvoysinAvignon:eventhoughhehadnotyetestablishedhisofficialseattherein1306hecouldwellhavebeentemporarilyinresidenceatthetime.AlternativelytheenvoysmayhavetravelledtomeethimelsewhereinFrance.Foresti’sabstractfromtheoriginalchroniclewasmadenearlytwohundredyearsafterthatchroniclewaswritten.ItmaybesurmisedthattheoriginaldidnotevenstatewhereinFrancethemeetingbetweentheenvoysandthePopetookplace.IfsoForestimaybeexcusedforjumpingtotheconclusionthatthevenuewasAvignonsincethatwasthePope’sofficialseatformostofhisperiodinoffice.Forestimaysimplynothaveknownthathedidnotmovethereofficiallyuntil1309.Atanyrate,establishingtheprecisevenueofthemeetingisamatterofminorsignificance.Thepointisthatameetingdidtakeplace.ForadiscussionoftheseissuesseeE.UllendorffandC.F.Beckingham,TheHebrewLettersofPresterJohn,OxfordUniversityPress,1982,pp.6–7.28Thisisconfirmed,forexample,inRichardPankhurst,AnIntroductiontotheEconomicHistoryofEthiopiafromEarlyTimesto1800,LalibelaHouse/Sidgwick&Jackson,London,1961,pp.64–5.SeealsoSirE.A.WallisBudge,TheQueenofShebaandherOnlySonMenelik:beingthe‘BookoftheGloryofKings’(KebraNagast),OxfordUniversityPress,1932,Introduction,p.xxxvii.29KebraNagast,op.cit.,Introduction,ppxviandxxli.30MordechaiAbir,EthiopiaandtheRedSea,Cass,London,1980,p.47.31MalcolmBarber,TheTrialoftheTemplars,op.cit.,pp.47–8.32Ibid.,p.48.33Possiblyasmanyastwenty-fourknights.SeeMalcolmBarber,TheTrialoftheTemplars,op.cit.,p.46.34See,forexample,JohnJ.Robinson,BorninBlood,op.cit.,p.138.35SeeMalcolmBarber,TheTrialoftheTemplars,op.cit.,pp.193–220.

36Ibid.,p.203.37SeeJohnJ.Robinson,BorninBlood,op.cit.,pp.150–1.38Ibid.,pp.150–1.39Ibid.,p.153.SeealsoO.A.Haye,ThePersecutionoftheKnightsTemplars,Edinburgh,1865,p.114.

40TheMonymuskReliquary,whichmaynowbeseenattheNationalMuseumofAntiquities,QueenStreet,Edinburgh.ItissaidtohavebeenmodelledontheTempleofSolomon.ForaccountsofitsroleatBannockburnseearticlebyDavidKeysinTheIndependent,London,29July1989,p.38.SeealsoRoberttheBruce,PitkinPictorials,London,1978,p.15.

41TheoldestMasonicdocuments,theOldCharges,datebacknoearlierthanthemid-1300s,i.e.justafterthesuppressionoftheTemplars.See,forexample,AlexanderHorne,KingSolomon’sTempleinMasonicTradition,AquarianPress,Wellingborough,1972,p.25.

42KennethMackenzie,TheRoyalMasonicCyclopaedia,AquarianPress,Wellingborough,1987(firstpublished1877).Seepp.84and420–1.

43Ibid.Seepp.593–4and719–22.44Ibid.,p.325.45Itwasin1717,afterfourcenturiesofcompletesecrecy,thatFreemasonryfirstofficiallydeclareditsexistence.

46KennethMackenzie,TheRoyalMasonicCyclopaedia,op.cit.,pp.719–22.47JohnJ.Robinson,BorninBlood,op.cit.48Ibid.,p.137.49HyginusEugeneCardinale(ed.),OrdersofKnighthood,AwardsandtheHolySee,VanDurenPublishers,1985,p27.

50Ibid.,pp.27and207–8.51Ibid.,p.27.Papalconfirmationtooktheformofthegrantingofaconstitution:Adeaexquibus.

52AsmallandintrepidgroupofDominicanfriarswenttoEthiopiaasevangelistsinthefourteenthcentury(anditisamatterofsomeinterestthattheyweresentbythesamePope,JohnXXII,whohadgrantedconfirmationtotheOrderofChrist).Somewhatlater,inthefifteenthcentury,aVenetianpainternamedNicholasBrancaleonewasattachedtothecourtofEmperorBaedaMariam.

53Zurara,quotedinEdgarPrestage,ThePortuguesePioneers,Adam&CharlesBlack,London,1933,p.158.

54Ibid.,p.27.55Ibid.,pp.215–16.56Ibid.,pp.165–6.57Ibid.,pp.168–70.

58Ibid.,p.170.59Ibid.,p.30.60Ibid.,pp.32and212–13.61Ibid.,p.27:‘Henrywasacrusaderbydisposition.’62Ibid.,pp.27and160.63Ibid.,p.29.64WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980,p.232.65EdgarPrestage,ThePortuguesePioneers,op.cit.,pp.161and155.66Ibid.,p.154.67Ibid.,p.170.68Ibid.69Ibid.70Ibid.71EncyclopaediaBritannica,Micropaedia,15thedn,1991,vol.V,p.100.72EdgarPrestage,ThePortuguesePioneers,op.cit.,pp.251–2.73Ibid.,p.257.74Ibid.75Ibid.,seeChapterXII.76AusefulaccountofCovilhan’sjourneytoEthiopiaisprovidedbyJamesBruceinTravels,op.cit.,vol.II,pp.103–13.SeealsoEdgarPrestage,ThePortuguesePioneers,op.cit.,pp.214–21.

77EdgarPrestage,ThePortuguesePioneers,op.cit.,p.216.78A.H.M.JonesandElizabethMonroe,AHistoryofEthiopia,ClarendonPress,Oxford,1966,p.62.

79C.F.BeckinghamandG.W.B.Huntingford(eds),ThePresterJohnoftheIndies:ATrueRelationoftheLandsofPresterJohn,beingtheNarrativeofthePortugueseEmbassytoEthiopiain1520writtenbyFatherFranciscoAlvarez,CambridgeUniversityPressfortheHakluytSociety,1961,vol.I,p.227.

80Ibid.,p.226.81CaptainSirRichardF.Burton,FirstFootstepsinEastAfrica,London,1894,reprintedDarfPublishers,London,1986,vol.II,p.5.

82Ibid.,p.6.SeealsoJamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.II,pp.162–72,andA.H.MJonesandElizabethMonroe,HistoryofEthiopia,op.cit.,pp.82–3.

83JeanDoresse,AncientCitiesandTemplesofEthiopia,ElekBooks,London,1959,p.127.84JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.II,p.164.85A.H.M.JonesandElizabethMonroe,HistoryofEthiopia,op.cit.,p.83.86JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,volII,p.173.

87QuotedinPhilipCarman,TheLostEmpire:theStoryoftheJesuitsinEthiopia,Sidgwick&Jackson,London,1985,p.8.

88EdwardGibbon,TheHistoryoftheDeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire,op.cit.89ThebestoverallaccountofDonChristopher’smissionisgivenbyBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.II,pp.181ff.SirRichardBurton,FirstFootsteps,op.cit.,pp.6–11,alsocontainsusefulmaterial.Inaddition,thecampaigniswellcoveredinallthegeneralhistories.

90JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.II,p.185.91ReportedinTheItinerarioofJeronimoLobo,TheHakluytSociety,London,1984,pp.206–7.

92JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.II,pp.187–8.93Ibid.,pp.190–1.94Ibid.,p.418.95A.H.M.JonesandElizabethMonroe,HistoryofEthiopia,op.cit.,p.108.ProfessorEdwardUllendorf,TheEthiopians,OxfordUniversityPress,1973,p.76.ThetraditionoftheArk’ssojournonLakeTanaduringandaftertheGragncampaignsiswellknowninEthiopiaandwasrepeatedtomeinaninterviewwiththeHeadoftheEthiopianOrthodoxChurchinBritain,ArchpriestSolomonGabreSelassie.TheanswerstothequestionsthatIaddressedtothearchpriestweregiventomeinwritingon12July1989.

96JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.II,p.409.PhilipCarman,TheLostEmpire,op.cit.,p.156.

97JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.I,pp.481–2.98ProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘JamesBruceofKinnaird’,ScottishHistoricalReview,T.Nelson,Edinburgh,1953,p.129.

99JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.III,p.598.100See,forexample,discussioninAlanMoorehead,TheBlueNile,PenguinBooks,London,1984,pp.34–5.SeealsoProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘JamesBruceofKinnaird’,op.cit.,pp.133–6.

101ForBruce’scommentsonPaezsee,forexample,Travels,op.cit.,vol.II,pp.244,245,266,344,andvol.III,p.617.LikewiseanextensivetreatiseonLobo’sbook(whichhadbeentranslatedintoEnglishbyDrSamuelJohnsonin1735asAVoyagetoAbyssinia)appearsinvol.IIIofTravels,pp.133–41.Seealsovol.III,p.426forafurthercommentonLobo.

102Indeedhenotonlyfailedtogivethemcreditfortheirachievementsbutalsoblatantlyplagiarizedtheiraccounts.Here,forexample,isPaezonhisownvisittothetwinspringswhichlietothesouthofLakeTanaandwhichareregardedasthesourceoftheBlueNile:‘OnApril21intheyear1618,beingheretogetherwiththekingandhisarmy,Iascendedtheplaceandobservedeverythingwithgreatattention;Idiscoveredfirsttworoundfountains,eachaboutfourpalmsindiameter,andsaw,withthegreatestdelight,whatneitherCyrus,thekingofthePersians,norCambyses,nor

AlexandertheGreat,northefamousJuliusCaesar,couldeverdiscover.Thetwoopeningsofthesefountainshavenoissueintheplainatthetopofthemountain,butflowfromthefootofit.Thesecondfountainliesabutastonecastwestfromthefirst’(quotedinAlanMoorehead,TheBlueNile,op.cit.,p.34).JeronimoLoboreachedthesourcesometwelveyearsafterPaez,aroundtheyear1630.Hereishisdescription:‘Thesourceofthisfamousriver,theobjectofsomuchsearchingbuthiddenforsolong,isdiscovered…onaverygradualslopemadebyacertainmountain,seemingrathermorelikearatherirregularfieldthanamountainslopewithquiteanexpanseofopen,flatground,whereonecanseeforafairdistance.Inthisgraduallyrisingplain,onediscovers,inthedriestpartofsummer,twocircularpoolsorwellsofwater,whichwecanmoreappropriatelycallpitsfourspansinwidthandseparatedfromeachotherbyadistanceofastone’sthrow…Thewholeplain,especiallythepartnearthesaidwells…isswollenandunderminedwithwater…andthereasonitdoesnotswallowupanyonewhowalksonitisthat,sinceallthelandisgreenandthisparthasmanyvariousgrassesandherbs,therootsaresointertwinedthat…theycansupportanyonewhowalksonthefield’(TheItinerarioofJeronimoLobo,op.cit.,p.228).Bruce’sown‘discovery’wasmadeon4November1770(acenturyandahalfafterPaezandLobo)andwasprecededbyhisguidepointingouttohima‘hillockofgreensod…in[which]thetwofountainsoftheNilearetobefound…Throwingoffmyshoes,Irandownthehilltowardsthelittleislandofgreensods,whichwasabouttwohundredyardsdistant;thewholesideofthehillwasthickgrownoverwithflowers,thelargebulbousrootsofwhichappearingabovethesurfaceoftheground…occasionedtwoveryseverefallsbeforeIreachedthebrinkofthemarsh;Iafterthiscametotheislandofgreenturf…andIstoodinraptureovertheprincipalfountainwhichrisesinthemiddleofit.‘Itiseasiertoguessthantodescribethesituationofmymindatthatmoment–standinginthatspotwhichhadbaffledthegenius,industry,andinquiryofbothancientsandmodernsforthecourseofnearthreethousandyears.Kingshadattemptedthisdiscoveryattheheadofarmies,andeachexpeditionwasdistinguishedfromthelastonlybythedifferenceofthenumberswhichhadperished,andagreedaloneinthedisappointmentwhichhaduniformly,andwithoutexception,followedthemall…ThoughamereprivateBritonItriumphedhere,inmyownmind,overkingsandtheirarmies’(JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.III,pp.596–7).AsIreadandre-readBruce’sdescriptionIcouldnothelpbutfeelthatitwasakindofbastardizedpasticheoftheearlierexperiencesofPaezandLobo(mixingtheintertwinedrootsandswollengreenmarshesofthelatterwiththeformer’sallusionstokingsandconquerors).Moreover,asIhavealreadystated,itcannotbedeniedthattheScottishtravellerwasthoroughlyfamiliarwiththewritingsofbothhispredecessors.

103AlanMoorehead,TheBlueNile,op.cit.,p.49.ProfessorEdwardUllendorff,inhispaper‘JamesBruceofKinnaird’,op.cit.,describesBruceas‘oneofthegreatuniversalsavantsandmenofactionoftheeighteenthcentury’andquotesthecommentofthebrothersd’abbadie,theFrenchexplorers,whosaidthattheyhadconsultedtheTravelsasadailytext-bookand‘hadneverdiscoveredamis-statement,andhardlyevenan

errorofanyconsiderableimportance’.104JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.III,p.615.105Ibid.,p.131.106Reportedin‘theAnnalsofEmperorIyasuI’inI.Guidi(ed.),AnnalesIohannisI,IyasuI,Bakaffa,Paris,1903,pp.151–9.SeealsoJeanDoresse,AncientCitiesandTemplesofEthiopia,op.cit.,p.180.SeealsoR.Basset,‘Etudessurl’histoired’ethiopie’,JournalAsiatique,Octobre-Novembre-Décembre1881,p.297.

107IsubsequentlylearnedfromProfessorRichardPankhurst(conversationinAddisAbabaTuesday4December1990)thatBrucehadinfactownedcopiesofthetwoprincipaldocumentsofIyasu’slife,thefullchronicleandtheabbreviatedchronicle.BoththesedocumentstellthestoryofthekinggoingintotheHolyofHoliesandopeningtheArk.InhisTravelsBrucegaveapottedhistoryofallthesolareclipsesandcometsthathadbeenseeninEthiopiaduringthefewcenturiespriortohisownvisit.InthispottedhistoryhedrewextensivelyonIyasu’sabbreviatedchronicle,whichhadmentionedasightingofRichaud’sCometin1689.AsPankhurstputit:‘Thepointisthis.Afterdescribingthecomet,theabbreviatedchroniclegoesonintheverynextparagraphtoreportIyasu’sencounterwiththeArkin1690.SoBrucemusthaveknownaboutit.Thatbeingso,hissuggestionthattherelichadbeendestroyedbytheMuslimsintheearly1500sdoesindeedlooksuspicious.’

108JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.I,pp.365–492.109Ibid.,vol.I,pp.471–3.110Ibid.,vol.I,p.472.111Ibid.,vol.I,pp.472–3.Seealsopp.444–6.112Ibid.,vol.I,p.475.113Ibid.,vol.I,p.476.114Ibid.,vol.I,pp.471and478.115Ibid.,vol.III,pp.128–33.E.g.:‘Onthe18th,inthemorning,we…cameintotheplainwhereinstoodAxum’(p.128);and:‘Onthe19thofJanuary,IfoundthelatitudeofAxumtobe14°6’36”north…’(p.133).

116SeeChapter1above.117ThetraditionoftheoriginalArkbeingbroughtoutonlyatTimkatisalsoconfirmed,forexample,inRuthPlant,ArchitectureoftheTigré,Ethiopia,RavensEducationalandDevelopmentServices,Worcester,1985,p.206:‘ItissaidthattheoriginalArkoftheCovenant,broughtbyMenelikIfromJerusalem,isheldintheTreasury.Onlyonemonkisallowedtoseeit,althoughthecasketisledinprocessionatthetimeofTimkat.’

118ProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘JamesBruceofKinnaird’,op.cit.,p.141.119Ibid.,p.141.120Ibid.,p.141.121JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.I,pp.483–4.122AlanMoorehead,TheBlueNile,op.cit.,p.31.

123KebraNagast,op.cit.,Budge’sIntroduction,pp.xxxiiandxxxiii.124AroundthethirdtosecondcenturiesBC.SeeR.H.Charles(trans.),TheBookofEnoch,SocietyforthePropagationofChristianKnowledge,London,1987,Introduction,p.xiii.125H.F.D.Sparks(ed.).TheApocryphalOldTestament,ClarendonPaperbacks,Oxford,1989,p.170:‘AmongtheEthiopicmanuscriptsthatBrucebroughtbackwerethreecontainingwhatisnowknownas“1Enoch”or“EthiopianEnoch”.Oneofthesemanuscripts(nowintheBodleianLibraryatOxford)contained“1Enoch”only;thesecond(alsointheBodleian)contained“1Enoch”followedbyJob,Isaiah,“theTwelve”,Proverbs,Wisdom,Ecclesiastes,CanticlesandDaniel;thethird(nowintheBibliothèqueNationaleinParis)isatranscriptofthesecond.’126KennethMackenzie,TheRoyalMasonicCyclopaedia,op.cit.,pp.200–2.127Ibid.128MajorF.B.Head,TheLifeofBruce,theAfricanTraveller,London,1836.129J.M.Reid,TravellerExtraordinary:TheLifeofJamesBruceofKinnaird,Eyre&Spottiswoode,London,1968.130ElginoccupiedthepositionofGrandMasterMasonofScotland,1961–5.DebrettsIllustratedPeerage,Macmillan,London,1985,p.412.

Chapter8IntoEthiopia

1ForfurtherdetailsseeChapter12below.2RichardPankhurst,writinginGrahamHancock,RichardPankhurstandDuncanWilletts,UnderEthiopianSkies,EditionsHL,LondonandNairobi,1983,p.24.SeealsoYuriElets,EmperorMenelikandhisWarwithItaly,SaintPetersburg,1898.

Chapter9SacredLake

1JamesBruce,TravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNileintheYears1768,176g,1770,1771,1772and1773,Edinburgh,1790,vol.III,pp.425–7.

2E.g.SergewHable-Selassie,AncientandMedievalEthiopianHistoryto1270,AddisAbaba,1972,p.26.

3Seenote102toChapter7above.4See,forexample,AlanMoorehead,TheBlueNile,PenguinBooks,London,1984,pp.12–13and34.SeealsoMajorR.E.Cheesman,LakeTanaandtheBlueNile:AnAbyssinianQuest,Macmillan,London,1936.

5AlanMoorehead,TheBlueNile,op.cit.,p.17.6Forafurtherdiscussionsee,forexample,LucieLamy,EgyptianMysteries,Thames&Hudson,London,1981,pp.7–8.

7H.L.Jones(ed.),TheGeographyofStrabo,LoebLibrary,London,1940.8E.L.Stevenson,GeographyofClaudiusPtolemy,NewYork,1932.9Aeschylus,Fragment67,quotedinJeanDoresse,AncientCitiesandTemplesofEthiopia,Elek,London,1959.

10ForadiscussionseeEdwardUllendorff,EthiopiaandtheBible,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.2.

11JamesBruce,Travels,op.cit.,vol.III,p.387.12SeeforexampleGaalyahCornfeld,ArchaeologyoftheBibleBookbyBook,Harper&Row,SanFrancisco,1976,pp.25and118.

13Leviticus4:6.14Leviticus5:9.15HerbertDanbyDD(trans.),TheMishnah,OxfordUniversityPress,1933,pp.166,167and168.

16Ibid.,p.168.

Chapter10GhostinaMaze

1E.A.WallisBudge,TheQueenofShebaandHerOnlySonMenelik,bringthe‘BookoftheGloryofKings’(KebraNagast),OxfordUniversityPress,1932,p.145.

2WhichhadsupposedlytakenplaceduringthereignofSolomoninJerusalem,i.e.inthetenthcenturyBC.Axumwasnotfoundeduntilsomeeighthundredyearslater.SeeS.C.Munro-Hay,ExcavationsatAxum,BritishInstituteinEasternAfrica,London,1989,pp.19–24.

3E.g.theguardianmonk.SeeChapter1above.E.A.WallisBudgealso(wrongly)makestheassumptionthatMenelik’sdestinationwiththeArkwasAxum.IntheIntroductiontohisEnglishtranslationoftheKebraNagasthestates:‘TheTabernacleoftheLawofGod,i.e.theArkoftheCovenant,hadbeenbroughtfromJerusalemtoAxumbyMenelik,Solomon’sfirstbornson,accordingtotheEthiopians.’ManyEthiopiansdosaythis.Itissignificant,however,thattheKebraNagastmakesnosuchclaimandonlyspecifies‘DebraMakeda’astheplacetowhichtheArkwasbrought.FortheBudgepassagequotedaboveseeKebraNagast,op.cit.,Introduction,p.xvii.

4MajorR.E.Cheesman,LakeTanaandtheBlueNile:AnAbyssinianQuest,FrankCass,London,1968(firstpublished1936),pp.174–5and179.Cheesman,whovisitedTanaKirkosintheearly1930s,wasalsotoldoftheArktraditionsontheisland(seepp.174–80).ThisistheonlyotherreferencetothesetraditionsthatIhavebeenabletofindintheliterature–areflectionoftheextremeisolationofTanaKirkosandofthefactthattheislandhasneverbeenthesubjectofaproperscholarlyorarchaeologicalstudy.

5WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980.See,forexample,pp.132and392–405.

6MargaretFitzgeraldRichey,TheStoryofParzivalandtheGrailasRelatedbyWolframvonEschenbach,BasilBlackwell&Mott,Oxford,1935,p.198.AnotherinterpretationofthemeaningofMunsalvaescheis‘wild’or‘savage’mountain.See,forexample,footnotebyProfessorA.T.HattotoWolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.123.

7Psalm130:3–7.Emphasisadded.8SeeforexampleTheNewCollinsThesaurus,Collins,LondonandGlasgow,1984,p.594.9WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.121.10Ibid.,pp.120–1.11Confirmationofthisfactisavailableinawiderangeofsources,forexampleinthesurveyofChristianandJewishEthiopiancustomsprovidedbyJ.S.TriminghaminhisauthoritativeIslaminEthiopia,FrankCass,London,1976,p.26.SeealsoDavidKessler,TheFalashas:TheForgottenJewsofEthiopia,SchockenBooks,NewYork,1985,p.68.

12Kings9:26:‘AndkingSolomonmadeanavyofshipsinEzion-geber,whichisbesideElath,ontheshoreoftheRedsea,inthelandofEdom.’FortheidentificationofEzion-geberwithmodernElatsee,forexample,GaalyahCornfeld,ArchaeologyoftheBibleBookbyBook,Harper&Row,SanFrancisco,1976,pp.110–11.

13KebraNagast,op.cit.,pp.77–8:‘Andtheyloadedthewagons,andthehorses,andthemulesinordertodepart…Andasforthewagons,nomanhauledhiswagon…andwhetheritwasmen,orhorses,ormules,orloadedcamels,eachwasraisedabovethegroundtotheheightofacubit;andallthosewhorodeuponbeastswereliftedupabovetheirbackstotheheightofonespanofaman,andallthevariouskindsofbaggagewhichwereloadedonthebeasts,aswellasthosewhoweremountedonthem,wereraiseduptotheheightofonespanofaman,andthebeastswerelifteduptotheheightofonespanofaman.Andeveryonetravelledinthewagons…likeaneaglewhenhisbodyglidethabovethewind.’

14SeeforexampleBiblicalArchaeologyReview,May/June1988,p.3i.15KebraNagast,op.cit.,p.78.16IlaterconfirmedthattheTakazzewasfrequentlyreferredtobyEthiopiansas‘theNile’andviceversa–forexample,inAxumitetextsofthefourthcenturyandmanylaterdocuments.ForadiscussionseeL.P.Kirwan,‘TheChristianTopographyandtheKingdomofAxum’,GeographicalJournal,London,vol.138,partII,June1972,pp.172–3.

17Ilaterlearnedthatthissameroutewasmuchmorethanjustplausible.ThroughoutrecordedhistoryithadbeengreatlyfavouredbymerchantsandbypilgrimstravellingbetweenEthiopiaandJerusalem.SeeO.G.SCrawford,EthiopianItineraries,CambridgeUniversityPressfortheHakluytSociety,London,1958.

18JamesBruce,TravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNileintheYears1768,1769,1770,1771,1772and1773,Edinburgh,1790,vol.III,p.252.

19J.M.Flad,FalashasofAbyssinia,London,1869,p.10.20See,forexample,TheFalashas:TheJewsofEthiopia,MinorityRightsGroupReportNumber67,London,1985.SeealsoDavidKessler,TheFalashas,op.cit.,p.10,andProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElementsinAbyssinian(Monophysite)Christianity’,JournalofSemiticStudies,vol.I,no.3,1956,p.254.

21DavidKessler,TheFalashas,op.cit.,p.92.22IngeneralforhistoricaldetailontradeandpilgrimageroutesbetweenEthiopiaandJerusalemthroughEgyptandtheSudanseeEthiopianItineraries,op.cit.

Chapter11AndDaviddancedbeforetheArk…

1F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.465.

2Ibid.3See,forexample,RichardPankhurst,ASocialHistoryofEthiopia,InstituteofEthiopianStudies,AddisAbabaUniversity,1990,pp.41and193.

4Theabsolutenon-recognitionbyCopticChristiansoftheuniquetabot/ArktraditionsofEthiopiawasforcefullyconfirmedinJune1989inaninterviewinLondonwithBishopSerabionandFatherBishoiBoushraoftheCopticOrthodoxChurch.TheinterviewwascarriedoutonmybehalfbyCarolineLasko,afreelanceresearcher.

5AymroWondmagegnehuandJoachimMotovu,TheEthiopianOrthodoxChurch,TheEthiopianOrthodoxMission,AddisAbaba,1970,pp.11–14.

6TheIndependent,London,20November1990,p.11.7Ibid.SeealsoTheFalashas:TheJewsofEthiopia(MinorityRightsGroupReportNo.67),MinorityRightsGroup,London,1985,pp.12–13.

8FrederickC.Gamst,TheQemant:APagan-HebraicPeasantryofEthiopia,Holt,Rinehart&Winston,NewYork,1969.

9Ibid.,p.4.10Ibid.,p.122.11Genesis12:9–10.12Genesis41:27.13Leviticus11:3–4,7:‘Whatsoeverparteththehoof,andisclovenfooted,andcheweththecud,amongthebeasts,thatshallyeeat.Neverthelesstheseshallyenoteatofthemthatchewthecud,orofthemthatdividethehoof:asthecamel,becausehecheweththecud,butdividethnotthehoof;heisuncleantoyou…Andtheswine,thoughhedividethehoofandbeclovenfooted,yethechewethnotthecud;heisuncleantoyou.’

14SeeDeuteronomy14:21:‘Yeshallnoteatofanythingthatdiethofitself.’SeealsoLeviticus17:13–14:‘AndwhatsoevermantherebeofthechildrenofIsrael…whichhuntethandcatchethanybeastorfowlthatmaybeeaten;heshallevenpouroutthebloodthereof…Foritisthelifeofallflesh;thebloodofitisforthelifethereof:thereforeIsaiduntothechildrenofIsrael,Yeshalleatthebloodofnomannerofflesh:forthelifeofallfleshisthebloodthereof.’

15Exodus23:19and34:26;Deuteronomy14:21.16CompareExodus35:2–3:‘Sixdaysshallworkbedone,butontheseventhdaythereshallbetoyouanholyday,aSabbathofresttotheLord:whosoeverdoethworkthereinshallbeputtodeath.YeshallkindlenofirethroughoutyourhabitationsupontheSabbathday.’

17Genesis21:33.

18InhisArchaeologyoftheBibleBookbyBook(Harper&Row,SanFrancisco,1976,p.65),GaalyahCornfeldputsitthisway:‘Altarswerethefocalpointofbothhighplaces,bamoth,andtemples.ThebamothwereessentiallyCanaanitesitesofworship,butwereacceptablealsoinearlierIsraelitereligion.Theywereusuallyopenareas,withsacredtreesandstonepillars,masseboth,associatedwiththealtar.’

19See,forexample,Judges6:25,1Kings16:33;2Kings21:3;2Kings23:15;Isaiah27:9.202Kings23:7.21TheFalashas:TheJewsofEthiopia(MinorityRightsGroupReportNo.67),op.cit.,p.9.22GeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,JerusalemPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1989,p.684.

23Ibid.,p.548.24Leviticus15:19:‘Ifawomanhaveanissue[of]blood…sheshallbeputapartsevendays:andwhosoevertouchethhershallbeuncleanuntiltheeven.’

25‘Andintheeighthdaythefleshofhisforeskinshallbecircumcised’,Leviticus12:3.26Leviticus1:9.27SeeProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElementsinAbyssinian(Monophysite)Christianity’,JournalofSemiticStudies,vol.I,no.3,London,1956,pp.249–50.Ullendorffstates:‘Thedateofcircumcisionontheeighthdayisshared…byJewsandEthiopiansonly.ThisisthemoreremarkablebecausemembersoftheCopticChurchinEgypt[whichwasresponsibleforEthiopia’sconversion]arecircumcisedatanagebetweensixandeightyears,andGallas,MuslimsandotherinfluencesinEthiopia,withwidelyvaryingdates,wouldallcombinetoshaketheEthiopianconfidenceintheeighthday.Yetthisdatehasbeensteadfastlymaintained,nodoubtundertheinfluenceofthePentateuchalinjunction…IhavenodoubtthatthemaintenanceofcircumcisionamongAbyssiniansispartofthoseelementsofHebraic-JewishlorewhichhavebeensotenaciouslypreservedinthatpartofAfrica.’

28Ibid.,pp.243–4.29Ibid.,pp.245–6.SeealsoGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,op.cit.,pp.192–4and604–6.

30ProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElements’,op.cit.,pp.242–3and247,note3.

31SeeinparticularExodus19:15andLeviticus20:18.32Genesis32:32:‘ThereforethechildrenofIsraeleatnotofthesinewwhichshrank,whichisuponthehollowofthethigh.’

33ProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElements’op.cit.,p.242.34Ibid.,p.236.IamgreatlyindebtedtoProfessorUllendorff’spaperforalertingmetothesecorrespondences.

35Exodus28:4.36Ibid.37Ibid.SeealsoExodus28:17–21.

38ArchbishopDavidMatthew,Ethiopia,London,1947,p.12.39ProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElements’,op.cit.,p.235.40Ibid.,pp.235–6.41ThisalsowastheviewoftheScottishtravellerJamesBruce,whoarguedthatFrumentiusandotherChristianmissionarieswhocametoEthiopiainthefourthcenturyAD,‘findingJewishtraditionsconfirmedinthecountry,chosetorespectthemratherthanrefutethem.Circumcision,thedoctrineofcleananduncleanmeats,andmanyotherJewishritesandceremoniesarethereforepartofthereligionoftheAbyssiniansatthisday.’JamesBruce,TravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNileintheYears1768,1769,1770,1771,1772,and1773,3rdedn,Edinburgh,1813,vol.III,p.13.42ProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElements’,op.cit.,p.227(emphasisadded).43Ibid.,p.251.44Leviticus16:2–13.45Leviticus16:13.46ProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElements’,op.cit.,p.238,quotingIsenberg’sDictionaryoftheAmharicLanguage,London,1841,p.112.47Thebegegnaisahand-held,ten-stringedwoodenharp,todayfoundonlyinEthiopiaandsaidtobedescendedfromthebiblicalHarpofDavid.SeeTesfayeLemma,EthiopianMusicalInstruments,AddisAbaba,1975,p.10.482Samuel6:5–16.49WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980,p.121.50AndthroughoutthePharaonicperiod.SeeAdolfErman,LifeinAncientEgypt,DoverPublications,NewYork,1971,pp.279,296,390.51IIChronicles5:12–13.Seealso1Kings8:11.52IIChronicles6:41(JerusalemBibletranslation,Eyre&Spottiswoode,London,1968,p.464).53SirGawainandtheGreenKnight,translatedbyJ.R.R.TolkienandeditedbyChristopherTolkien,UnwinPaperbacks,London,1988,pp.26and21.

Chapter12Magic…orMethod?

1DatefromTheJerusalemBible,Eyre&Spottiswoode,London,1968,‘ChronologicalTable’,p.343.2Thesedimensionsinfeetandinchesareextrapolatedfromtheancientcubitwhichmeasuredapproximatelyeighteeninches.SeeDrJ.H.Hertz(ed.),ThePentateuchandtheHaftorahs,SoncinoPress,London,1978,p.327.TheJerusalemBible,footnote(b),p.87,concurs.3ThetranslationgivenhereisfromtheJerusalemBible.TheKingJamesAuthorizedVersionstates‘corners’insteadof‘supports’inExodus25:12.4Exodus25:10–22.5Exodus31:2–4.6Exodus37:1–9.7‘IcamedownfromthemountainandputthetabletsintheArk’,Deuteronomy10:5,supposedlyquotingMoses’sownwords.SeealsoExodus40:20,‘He[Moses]tooktheTestimonyandplaceditinsidetheArk.HesettheshaftstotheArkandplacedthethroneofmercyonit.’8Exodus40:21:‘He[Moses]broughttheArkintotheTabernacleandputthescreeningveilinplace;thushescreenedtheArkofYahweh,asYahwehhaddirectedMoses.’9Leviticus10:1.10Ibid.11Leviticus10:2.Thefullpassagereads:‘AndtherewentoutfirefromtheLordanddevouredthemandtheydiedtherebeforetheLord’(KingJamesAuthorizedVersion).TheJerusalemBibletranslationofthesame,whichmakesuseof‘Yahweh’(YHWH),themysticalnameofGod,readsasfollows:‘ThenfromYahweh’spresenceaflameleapedoutandconsumedthemandtheyperishedinthepresenceofYahweh.’ItisimportanttostressthatinthisandmanyothersimilarcontextstheBibleisactuallyandquiteexplicitlyreferringtotheArkwhenitspeaksof‘theLord’and/or‘beforetheLord’,orof‘Yahweh’and/or‘inthepresenceofYahweh’.ThisisbestillustratedbythefollowingpassagefromNumbers10:35:‘Anditcametopass,whentheArksetforward,thatMosessaid,Riseup,Lord,andletthineenemiesbescatteredandletthemthathatetheefallbeforethee’(KingJamesAuthorizedVersion).TheJerusalemBibletranslationofthesameversereads:‘AndastheArksetout,Moseswouldsay,Arise,Yahweh,mayyourenemiesbescatteredandthosewhohateyourunfortheirlivesbeforeyou.’TheInterpreter’sDictionaryoftheBiblecomments:‘TheArkisnotonlyseenastheleaderofIsrael’shost,butisdirectlyaddressedasYahweh.ThereisvirtuallyanidentificationofYahwehandtheArk…thereisnodoubtthattheArkwasinterpretedastheextensionorembodimentofthepresenceofYahweh.’TheInterpreter’sDictionaryoftheBible:AnIllustratedEncyclopaedia,AbingdonPress,Nashville,1962,pp.222–3.12Leviticus16:1–2,amalgamofKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandJerusalemBibletranslations.

13LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,JewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,Philadelphia,1911,vol.III,p.210.

14Ibid.CompareExodus40:35.15TheArkwasinstalledintheTabernacleonthefirstdayofthefirstmonthofthesecondyearaftertheIsraeliteshadfledEgypt(Exodus40:17).ItwasontheeighthdayofthesamemonththatthepriestswereinvestedandthedeathsofNadabandAbihuoccurred(Leviticus9:1etseq.).TheentryofMosesintotheHolyofHoliestowhichIamreferringheretookplacesoonafter,andindeedinthesamemonth,sincethisentryisdescribedinChapter7ofthebookofNumbersandsinceChapter9ofthesamebookisstillset‘inthefirstmonthofthesecondyear’–clearlyaneventfulperiod(Numbers9:1).

16Numbers7:89.17LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,p.210.18Ibid.,vol.III,p.157.SeealsoTheJewishEncyclopaedia,Funk&Wagnells,NewYork,1925,vol.II,p.105.

19Numbers10:33,35–6,JerusalemBibletranslation.20LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,p.228.21JulianMorgenstern,‘TheBookoftheCovenant’,inHebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,vol.V,1928,reprintedbyKTAVPublishingHouse,NewYork,1968,p.20,footnote25.SeealsoTheJewishEncyclopaedia,op.cit.,vol.II,p.105.

22E.g.duringthecrossingoftheJordan.SeeTheJewishEncyclopaedia,op.cit.,vol.II,p.105.

23Ibid.AndseealsoLouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,p.194.24LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,p.395.Anotherlegend,supportedbyMidrashiccommentaries,saysthatduringthewildernesswanderings:‘TheArkgavethesignalforbreakingcampbysoaringhighandthenswiftlymovingbeforethecampatadistanceofthreedays’march’(Ibid.,vol.III,p.243).

25JulianMorgenstern,‘TheBookoftheCovenant’,op.cit.,pp.27–8:‘TheoldestBiblicalreferencestotheArkagreeabsolutelyinrepresentingitasdischargingtwospecificfunctions,thatofchoosingthewayitwishedtogo,andthatofgoingintobattlewiththearmyofIsraelandgivingitvictoryoveritsenemies…ThesetwoimportantfunctionstheArkwasabletodischarge,alltheevidenceindicates,becauseofapositivedivinepowerresidentinit.AndalltheseearliestsourcesagreeinidentifyingthisdivinepowerwithYahweh’(emphasisadded).ForfurthercorroborationofthefrequencywithwhichtheArkwastakenintobattleseeLouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,pp.284and409;vol.IV,p.143.

26TheJewishEncyclopaedia,op.cit.,vol.II,p.106.27Numbers14:44–5(amalgamofKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandJerusalemBibletranslations).

28Exodus16:35.TherehasbeenagreatdealofscholarlydebateaboutwhethertheIsraelitesreallydidspendfortyyearsinthedesert(makingMosesapproximately120

yearsoldwhenthewanderingsended)orwhethertheperiodwasshorterthanthis.LikewisethevastnumbersoftheIsraelitesgivenintheBible(600,000menonfoot,plustheirfamilies)havebeenhotlydisputedonecologicalgrounds–sinceSinaicouldneverhavesustainedsuchapopulation.Boththesepointsareirrelevanttomyargument.Fortherecord,however,IsuspectthattheIsraelitesspentagooddeallessthanfortyyearsinthewilderness:fouryearssoundsfarmorelikely.AndIsuspectthattheirnumbersweresmall–afewhundredsorthousandsatthemost.

29Numbers31:2–11.30Numbers22:1.31Numbers20:28.32Numbers20:24–8.33Numbers27:12–23.34Deuteronomy34:4–6,10–12.35Deuteronomy31:14–15.36Joshua3:3–4(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).Emphasisadded.37Joshua3:6,14–17;Joshua4:18,21,23.38Joshua6:11,13–16,20–1.39E.g.Joshua7:3ff.whichtellsofbattlebeingstartedwithouttheArkandoftheresultingdefeat;Joshua7:6whichinsertstheArkbackintothenarrative;andJoshua8:1ff.whichtellsoftheultimateIsraelitevictory.SeealsoJoshua10:10ff.,whichalmostcertainlyrecountstheparticipationoftheArkinanothersignificantvictory.SimilarlyJoshua10:29–30ff.,especiallyverse42.

40See,forexample,Joshua18:1–10;19:51;21:2;22:9;Judges18:31;21:19;and1Samuel1:3–9and24;3:21.

41SeeJulianMorgenstern,‘TheArk,theEphodandtheTentofMeeting’,HebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,vol.XVII,1942–3,reprintedbyKTAVPublishingHouse,NewYork,1968,pp.235–6:‘It[theArk]wasnotcarriedintoordinarybattles.’

421Samuel4:1–2(amalgamofKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandJerusalemBibletranslations).

431Samuel4:3(JerusalemBibletranslation).441Samuel4:4–5(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).451Samuel4:6–9(JerusalemBibletranslation).461Samuel4:10–11.471Samuel4:13,15–17(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation);and1Samuel4:18–19(JerusalemBibletranslation).

48EncyclopaediaBritannica,15thedn,1991,vol.XIV,p.786.491Samuel4:22.501Samuel5,completetext.511Samuel6:1.

521Samuel6:2(JerusalemBibletranslation).531Samuel6:7(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).541Samuel6:12(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).551Samuel6:13–14,19(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).56Seeforexample1Samuel6:19,JerusalemBibletranslation.SeealsothesameverseintheNewEnglishBible,OxfordandCambridgeUniversityPresses,1970,p.308,andintheHolyBible:NewInternationalVersion,TheBibleSocieties/Hodder&Stoughton,UK,1988.Thislatterstates:‘ButGodstruckdownsomeofthemenofBethshemesh,puttingseventyofthemtodeathbecausetheyhadlookedintotheArkoftheLord.’SeealsoHandbooktotheBible,LionPublishing,London,1988,p.234.

57Twoofthebiblicaltranslations(JerusalemBibleandNewEnglishBible)implythatthemenwerekilledbecausetheyhadnotrejoicedwhentheysawtheArkofYahweh;theKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandtheNewInternationalVersion,ontheotherhand,specificallysaythattheywerekilledbecausetheylookedintotheArk.ThislatterinterpretationissupportedintheHandbooktotheBible,op.cit.,p.234andbyJulianMorgensternin‘TheArk,theEphodandtheTentofMeeting’,op.cit.,p.241.

581Samuel6:20(NewEnglishBibletranslation).591Samuel6:15.601Samuel7:1.AChristianchurchdedicatedto‘theVirginMaryArkoftheCovenant’nowstandsatKiriath-Jearim.SeeChapter3above.

611Samuel7:1.TheJerusalemBiblestatesthatacertainEleazarwasappointed‘toguardtheArkofYahweh’.TheNewEnglishBiblestatesthathewasits‘custodian’.

62JulianMorgenstern,‘TheArk,theEphodandtheTentofMeeting’,op.cit.,p.241,footnote143.

63SetJerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.343.642Samuel6:3–4;6–7.652Samuel6:9–10(NewEnglishBibletranslation).662Samuel6:10(NewEnglishBibletranslation).672Samuel6:11(JerusalemBibletranslation).68LouisGinzberg,TheLegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.VI,p.275.692Samuel6:12(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).70E.g.1Chronicles15:15.712Samuel6:15.722Samuel6:5.731Chronicles16:1.Seealso1Chronicles17:45.741Chronicles28:2.75JerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.344.761Kings6:38statesthattheTempletookelevenyearstobuild.

771Kings8:1,3,4,5,6(amalgamofKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandJerusalemBibletranslations).

78SomedetailsofwhatisknownaboutthismysteriousdisappearancearegiveninChapter1above.Thephrase‘thickdarkness’isfrom1Kings8:12.

79SeeforexampleProfessorRichardElliottFriedman,WhoWrotetheBible?,JohnathanCape,London,1988,p.156.

80AsinthecaseofMoses’sinsubordinatesisterMiriam.SeeNumbers12.ThisincidentisdiscussedfurtherinChapter13below.

81Exodus12:40.82ThedateoftheExodus,whichMosesledinhisoldage,isgenerallyputatbetween1250and1230BC(see,forexample,JerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.343).ForadiscussionofthedatesofTutankhamen’sshortruleseeChristianeDesroches-Noblecourt,Tutankhamen:LifeandDeathofaPharaoh,Penguin,London,1989,p.105.

83ChristianeDesroches-Noblecourt,Tutankhamen,op.cit.,pp.15and20.84Exodus25:11.85ChristianeDesroches-Noblecourt,Tutenkhamen,op.cit.,p.131.SeealsoNicholasReeves,TheCompleteTutankhamun,Thames&Hudson,London,1990,pp.102and104.Itisinterestingtonotethatthesarcophagusitselfalsoboreimagesofthesetutelarydeitiesinhighrelief–seepage105.

86Exodus25:18.87ForadiscussionseeGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,JerusalemPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1989,pp.157–8.

88ChristianeDesroches-Noblecourt,Tutankhamen,op.cit.,p.185.89Ibid.,p.185.SeealsoJohnAnthonyWest,AncientEgypt,HarrapColumbus,London,1989,p.268,andJillKamil,Luxor,Longman,LondonandNewYork,1989,p.28.

90AlanMoorehead,TheBlueNile,Penguin,London,1984,p.17.91IChronicles15:15,JerusalemBibletranslation.TheKingJamesAuthorizedVersionreads:‘AndthechildrenoftheLevitesbaretheArkofGodupontheirshoulderswiththestavesthereon,asMosescommanded.’

92See,forexample,EdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElementsinAbyssinian(Monophysite)Christianity’,JournalofSemiticStudies,vol.I,no.3,1956,p.223,footnote6.Ullendorffsaysthattabotis‘derivedfromtheJewishPal.Aramaictebuta(tebota)whichinturnisaderivationfromtheHebrewtebah.’

93E.A.WallisBudge,TheQueenofShebaandherOnlySonMenelik:beingthe‘BookoftheGloryofKings’(KebraNagast),OxfordUniversityPress,1932,pp.14–15.

94Ibid.,p.14.95IamgratefultoDrKitchenforhishelpandadviceatvariousstagesofthisproject.Ifirstcameintocontactwithhimafterhemetandwasinterviewedon12June1989byCarolineLasko(afreelanceresearcherthenworkingwithme).Hesubsequentlywas

kindenoughtobeavailableforfurthermeetingsandtowritetomeonvarioussalientpoints.ForhisauthoritativeviewsontheancientEgyptianoriginsofmanyaspectsofearlyJudaismthereaderisreferredtohispaper‘SomeEgyptianBackgroundtotheOldTestament’,TyndaleHouseBulletin,no.5–6,Cambridge,April1960.AsregardstheArkoftheCovenantanditsrelationshiptothearksfromTutankhamen’stomb,seeinparticularpp.10–11.

96E.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGodinAncientEgypt,OxfordUniversityPress,1934,p.40.

97A.H.Sayce,FreshLightfromtheAncientMonuments,ReligiousTractSociety,London,1884,p.67.Seealsop.68.

98ChristianeDesroches-Noblecourt,Tutankhamen,op.cit.,p.186.SeealsoShalomM.PaulandWilliamG.Dever(eds),BiblicalArchaeology,KeterPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1973,partIII,p.252:‘SomescholarshavecomparedtheArktothechests(thelowerpartofwhichwasgenerallyboat-shaped)whichwerebroughtoutofthetemplebytheEgyptianpriestsatfestivals,andonwhichstatuesofthegodswereplaced.’Emphasisadded.

99JulianMorgenstern,‘TheBookoftheCovenant’,op.cit.,p.121.100J.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,p.236.101Ibid.102Ibid.103LadyFlaviaAnderson,TheAncientSecret:FirefromtheSun,RILKOBooks,London,1987,pp.113–14.

104Imadethefollowingentryinmynotebook:‘ThearkscarriedintheApetceremonies–thoughlatertransformedintochests–initiallytooktheformofboats.ItisthereforenotdifficulttoseehowthewordtebahcametobeusedinbiblicalHebrewforthearkofNoahandforMoses’sarkofbullrushes.Thatadifferentname(’Aron)wassubsequentlyusedfortheArkoftheCovenantcouldsimplybeafunctionofthefactthattheArkitselfhaddisappearedfromJerusalembythetimethatthebooksoftheOldTestamentcametobeofficiallycodified–andthatthebiblicalscribes,settingdowntheoralhistoryoftheJewishpeople,hadbeenconfusedoruncertainaboutsomeofthekeydetailsofthereligioustraditionfromwhichthelostrelichadhailed.Ifmytheoryiscorrect,ofcourse,itwasnot“lost”atall,butinsteadhadbeentakentoEthiopia–whereitsoriginalname(TapetorTabot)hascontinuedtobeusedrightuptothepresentday.’IlaterdiscoveredthattheScottishexplorerJamesBrucehadconsideredsimilarissuesinvol.IofhisTravels.HepassedthroughLuxor(thenknowntoEuropeansasThebes)onhiswaytoEthiopiaandspeculatedthatthename‘Thebes’musthavebeenderivedfrom‘Theba,whichwastheHebrewnamefortheArkwhenNoahwasorderedtobuildit–Thoushalt“maketheeanArk(Theba)ofgopher-wood”.ThefigureofthetemplesinThebesdonotseemtobefarremovedfromtheideagivenusoftheArk.’Thoughhedidnotproceed,asIhaddone,tolinkTapet(theancientEgyptiannameforThebes)toTabot,Iwasintriguedthathefollowedthisparticularlinguistictrail.ItfurtherconvincedmethathisprincipalaimingoingtoEthiopiahad

beentosearchfortheArkoftheCovenantandnot,ashepretended,todiscoverthesourceoftheNile.SeeJamesBruce,TravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNileintheYears1768,1769,1770,1771,1772and1773,Edinburgh,1790,vol.I.pp.394–5.

105GeoffreyWigoder(ed.),EncyclopaediaofJudaism,op.cit.,p.504.106JerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.343.107Josephus,JewishAntiquities,translatedbyH.StJ.Thackeray,Heinemann,London,1930,vol.IV,booksI–IV,p.253.

108Ibid.,pp.257–9.109Acts7:22.110PhiloJudaeus,DeVitaMosis,translatedbyF.H.Colson,Heinemann,London,1935,vol.VI,pp.287–9.

111ThisisattestedtoatsomelengthinbothPhiloandJosephus,op.cit.112WhatweknowaboutthelifeofMosesconfirmsthat‘hehadstudiedthevariousbranchesofEgyptianmagic’,E.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,p.8.

113‘Allthepharaohsweremagiciansaspartoftheiroffice’,C.Jacq,EgyptianMagic,Bolchazy-CarducciPublishers,Chicago,1985,p.12.Andseeingeneralpp.9–13.

114Acts7:22.115Luke24:19.116Thatknowledgeofwordsofpowerisindeedreferredtointhephrase‘mightyinwords’–rather,say,thanoratory–becomesclearwhenwerememberthatMoseslatertoldYahweh,‘neverinmylifehaveIbeenamanofeloquence.’Thedeityrepliedthattheprophetshouldusehishalf-brotherAaronashismouthpiece:‘Iknowthatheisagoodspeaker.’Exodus4:10–17.

117E.A.WallisBudge,EgyptianMagic,KeganPaul,Trench,Trübner,London,1901,p.5.118Josephus,op.cit.,footnotec,pp.276–7.SeealsoJerusalemBible,op.cit.,footnote3a,p.63.

119Exodus3:2.120Exodus3:7–10.121Exodus3:13.122J.G.Frazer,TheGoldenBough:AStudyinMagicandReligion,Macmillan,London,1987edn,p.261.

123Exodus3:14andExodus3:6.124SeeIrvingM.Zeitlin,AncientJudaism,PolityPress,Cambridge,1984,pp.58–9.SeealsoHandbooktotheBible,LionPublishing,London,1988,p.157.ThemeaningoftheHebrewverb‘tobe’goesbeyond‘toexist’andconveysthenotion‘tobeactivelypresent’.ForafullerdiscussionseeF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.1354.SeealsoGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,op.cit.,pp.289–90.

125E.g.Exodus4:20;Exodus17:9.

126Exodus4:2.127Exodus4:3–4.128E.A.WallisBudge,EgyptianMagic,op.cit.,p.5,andFromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,pp.119and129.129Exodus7:11–12.130Exodus7:20–2.131Exodus8:1–7.132Exodus8:16–19.133Exodus8:21–32.134Exodus9:1–7.135Exodus9:8–11.136Exodus10:1–20;Exodus10:21–3.137Exodus12:23–30.138Exodus12:31–3.139Exodus14:21–2.140Exodus14:23.141Exodus14:7–9.142Budge,EgyptianMagic,op.cit.,p.10.143Budge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,p.8.144Ibid.,p.43:‘Itisimpossibletothinkthatthehighestorderofthepriestsdidnotpossessesotericknowledgewhichtheyguardedwiththegreatestcare.’145See,forexample,LucieLamy,EgyptianMysteries,Thames&Hudson,London,1981,p.86.146LucianoCanfora,TheVanishedLibrary:AWonderoftheAncientWorld,Hutchinson,London,1989,p.21.147Herodotus,TheHistory,DavidGreen(trans.),UniversityofChicagoPress,ChicagoandLondon,1988,p.132.148W.B.Emery,ArchaicEgypt,Penguin,London,1961,p.206.149Seethepaper‘MathematicsandAstronomy’inJ.R.Harris(ed.),TheLegacyofEgypt,OxfordUniversityPress,1971.150ThismaybededucedfrommeasurementofavarietyofancientEgyptianstructures.SirWilliamFlindersPetrie,thenineteenth-centuryarchaeologist(whowashighlyscepticalingeneraloftheoriessuggestingadvancedknowledgeinancientEgypt)wassatisfiedthattheproportionsoftheGreatPyramidatGiza(c.2550BC)‘expressedthetranscendentalnumberpiwithveryconsiderableprecision’.SeeA.J.West,TheTraveller’sKeytoAncientEgypt:AGuidetotheSacredPlacesofAncientEgypt,Harrap,London,1987,p.90.151ReportedinMysticPlaces,Time-LifeBooks,Amsterdam,1987,p.65.

152SeeR.El-Nadoury,‘TheLegacyofPharaonicEgypt’,inGeneralHistoryofAfricaII,UNESCO,Paris,1981.153Seethepaperon‘Medicine’inJ.R.Harris(ed.),TheLegacyofEgypt,op.cit.154SeeChapter5above.155QuotedinRobertLawlor,SacredGeometry:PhilosophyandPractice,Thames&Hudson,London,1982.156SeeWilliamAnderson,TheRiseoftheGothic,Hutchinson,London,1985,p.65.157DatesfromJ.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,pp.249–50.158Ibid.,pp.249–50.159Ibid.,p.252.160Ibid.,p.424.161J.R.Harris,‘TechnologyandMaterials’,inTheLegacyofEgypt,op.cit.,p.103.162J.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,p.251.163Ibid.,p.109.164Quotedinibid.,p.40.165Ibid.,pp.112–23,forallmeasurementsandweights.SeealsoA.J.Spencer,TheGreatPyramid,P.J.Publications,London,1989.166A.AbuBakr,‘PharaonicEgypt’,intheUNESCOGeneralHistoryofAfricaII,op.cit.167MysticPlaces,op.cit.,pp.49–50.168Ibid.,p.62.169Ibid.,p.62.Forafullandup-to-datepresentationofthepyramidologists’pointofviewseePeterLemesurier,TheGreatPyramidDecoded,ElementBooks,Dorset,UK,1989.170PeterLemesurier,TheGreatPyramidDecoded,op.cit.,p.7.171MysticPlaces,op.cit.,p.59,andLemesurier,op.cit.,p.3.Infact,asLemesurierpointsout,thealignmentisfractionallyofftrue–bynearlyfiveminutesofarc,orone-twelfthofadegree.Butthiswouldbetoignoretheastronomicalevidencethatthecauseevenofthisminuteerroristobefoundinthegradualmovementoftheearth’sownaxisratherthaninanyinaccuracyonthepartofthebuilding’soriginalsurveyors.172SetMysticPlaces,op.cit.,p.47;J.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,p.123;andA.J.Spencer,TheGreatPyramid,op.cit.173Herodotus,op.cit.,2.125,p.186.174QuotedinJ.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,p.107.175Ibid.,Introduction,p.xi.AswellasthesheermagnitudeofthetaskinvolvedinbuildingtheGreatPyramid,otherfactorsalsocontributedtomydeepeningsuspicionthattheancientEgyptiansmusthaveknownsomethingthatmoderncivilizationdidnot.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,forexample,SirWilliamFlindersPetrie,certainlythemosteminentarchaeologistofhisgeneration,spentmonthsatGizacarefullymeasuringtheedifice–principallywithaviewtodemolishingsomeofthewilder

speculationsofthepyramidologists.Thishelargelysucceededindoing(heclaimedsubsequentlythathehadprovided‘theuglylittlefactwhichkilledthebeautifultheory’).However,evenhewasforcedtoadmitonseveraloccasionsthatsomeoftheachievementsofthepyramid’sbuilderswerequitebaffling.Commentingontheprecisionwithwhichthe115,000ten-toncasingblockswerelaidaroundthecoremasonry,hewrote:‘Merelytoplacesuchstonesinexactcontactwouldbecarefulwork,buttodosowithcementinthejointseemsalmostimpossible;itistobecomparedtothefinestopticians’workonascaleofacres.’Petrie’sremarkisquotedinJ.A.West’sAncientEgypt,op.cit.,p.90.

Chapter13TreasuresofDarkness

1GarthFowden,TheEgyptianHermes:AHistoricalApproachtotheLatePaganMind,CambridgeUniversityPress,1987,pp.22–3.

2SeeNewLarousseEncyclopaediaofMythology,Hamlyn,London,1989,p.28.3Ibid.,p.27.SeealsoE.A.WallisBudge,EgyptianMagic,KeganPaul,Trench,Trübner,London,1901,p.xi:‘theworlditselfcameintoexistencethroughtheutteranceofawordbyThoth.’SoonafterIhadlearnedthisitoccurredtomethatthewholeconceptwaseerilyanalogoustothewellknownbiblicalpassagewhichstated:‘Inthebeginningwastheword,andthewordwaswithGod,andthewordwasGod.HewaswithGodinthebeginning.Throughhimallthingscametobe,notonethinghaditsbeingbutthroughhim’(John1:1–3).IntriguedbythiscoincidenceIlookedfurtheranddiscovered,tomyconsiderablesurprise,thattheJudaeo-ChristianScripturesallowedanumberofothercloseparallelstobedrawnbetweenThoth,thepaganmoon-godoftheEgyptians,andYahweh,theGodofMoses.OneofthemoststrikingoftheseconcernedtheTenCommandmentsgiventoMosesonMountSinaiandsupposedlyinscribedonthetabletsofstonethatwerecontainedwithintheArkoftheCovenant:‘Thoushalthavenoothergodsbeforeme.Thoushaltnotmakeuntotheeanygravenimage…ThoushaltnottakethenameoftheLordthyGodinvain…Rememberthesabbathdayandkeepitholy…Honourthyfatherandthymother…Thoushaltnotkill…Thoushaltnotcommitadultery…Thoushaltnotsteal…Thoushaltnotbearfalsewitness…Thoushaltnotcovetthyneighbour’swife.’(Exodus20:3–17).IhadalwaysthoughtthatthisexactinglegalcodewasuniquetoearlyJudaicculture.Thisassumption,however,wasoverturnedwhenIfoundthefollowingremarkablysimilarformulaeinChapterCXXVoftheancientEgyptianBookoftheDead–achapterwhichconsistedofaseriesofnegativeconfessionsthatthesoulofthedeceasedwasobligedtomakebeforeThothinhiscapacityasdivinejudgeandscribe:‘NothaveIdespisedgod…NothaveIkilled…NothaveIfornicated…NothaveIdespoiledthethingsofthegod…nothaveIdefiledthewifeofaman…NothaveIcursedgod…NothaveIbornefalsewitness’(seeE.A.WallisBudge,TheEgyptianBookoftheDead:ThePapyrusofAni,BritishMuseumPublications,London,1895,pp.195–204).Perhapsthemoststrikingparallelofall,however,occurredinarubrictoonepartoftheBookoftheDeadwhichstated:‘Thischapterwasfoundonanalabasterbrick,underthefeetoftheMajestyofthisvenerableplace,theGodThoth,anditwaswrittenbytheGodhimself.’Ialreadyknew,ofcourse,thattheArkoftheCovenanthadfrequentlybeenreferredtointheBibleasthe‘footstoolofGod’(e.g.1Chronicles28:2)andthatithadcontainedthestoneTabletsoftheLawwrittenbyYahweh’sownfinger.IcouldthereforeonlyconcludethatthematchbetweenthethinkingandbehaviourofYahwehandThoth–andalsobetweenthebeliefsthatpeoplehadheldaboutthetwodeities–wasmuchtooclosetobeentirelyfortuitous.Neither,Ireasoned,wasitpossiblethatthebiblicalpassageshadinfluencedthewritersoftheBookoftheDeadsince,ofthetwodocuments,thelatterwasbyfarthemostancient(someofitscontents,Iknew,wentbackasfarasthefourthmillenniumBC;themostarchaicsectionsoftheBible,by

contrast,wereatleast2,000yearsyounger).4GarthFowden,TheEgyptianHermes,op.cit.,p.33.5Ibid.,p.23.SeealsoE.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGodinAncientEgypt,OxfordUniversityPress,1934,pp.121–2,andtheNewLarousseEncyclopaediaofMythology,op.cit.,p.27.

6NewLarousseEncyclopaediaofMythology,op.cit.,p.27.7JohnAnthonyWest,TheTraveller’sKeytoAncientEgypt:aGuidetotheSacredPlacesofAncientEgypt,HarrapColumbus,London,1987,pp.74–5.

8E.A.WallisBudge(trans.),TheEgyptianBookoftheDead,op.cit.,Introduction,p.cxviii.

9E.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,p.157.SeealsoM.V.Seton-Williams,EgyptianLegendsandStories,RubiconPress,London,1990,p.16.

10ThisstoryistobefoundinitsfullestforminPlutarch,DeIsideetOsiride.SeeM.V.Seton-Williams,op.cit.,pp.24–9.SeealsoE.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,pp.177ff.

11W.B.Emery,ArchaicEgypt,Penguin,London,1987,p.192.12E.A.WallisBudge(trans.),TheEgyptianBookoftheDead,op.cit.,Introduction,pp.xiiandxiii.

13W.B.Emery,ArchaicEgypt,op.cit.,p.38.Emphasisadded.14Ibid.,p.175–91.15Ibid.,pp.177and31.16Ibid.,p.26.17InstructionsgiventoSinonthedayofcreationbyMarduk,chieffigureintheMesopotamianpantheon.QuotedintheNewLarousseEncyclopaediaofMythology,op.cit.,p.57.

18Ibid.19E.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,p.15520W.B.Emery,ArchaicEgypt,op.cit.,p.31.21ThisisEmery’sviewalso.Seeibid.,p.122–3.22Plato,TimaeusandCritias,PenguinClassics,London,1977,p.39.23Ibid.,pp.35–8and137–8.24Ibid.,p.38.25Ibid.See‘AppendixonAtlantis’bySirDesmondLee,p.158.26Ibid.,p.158.27Ibid.,p.40.28SeeEdmondSollberger,TheBabylonianLegendoftheFlood,BritishMuseumPublications,London,1962.SeealsoTheEpicofGilgamesh,PenguinClassics,London,1960.

29PeterMarshall,JourneyThroughtheMaldives,CamerapixPublishersInternational,London,1991,p.191.

30SetEncyclopaediaBritannica,15thedn,1991,Micropaedia,vol.IV,pp.441–2.31SeeChapterCLXXVoftheBookoftheDeadwhereThoth(inhiscapacityasuniversaldemiurge)resolvestosendafloodtopunishsinfulhumanity:‘Theyhavefoughtfights,theyhaveupheldstrifes,theyhavedoneevil,theyhavecreatedhostilities,theyhavemadeslaughter,theyhavecausedtroubleandoppression…[Therefore]IamgoingtoblotouteverythingwhichIhavemade.Thisearthshallenterintothewateryabyssbymeansofaragingflood,andwillbecomeevenasitwasinprimevaltime’(fromtheThebanRecensionoftheBookoftheDead,quotedinE.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,p.198).ThiscomparesintriguinglywithChapter6ofGenesis:‘AndGodsawthatthewickednessofmanwasgreatintheearth,andthateveryimaginationofthethoughtsofhisheartwasonlyevilcontinually.AnditrepentedtheLordthathehadmademanontheearth,anditgrievedhimathisheart…AndGodsaid,Theendofallfleshiscomebeforeme;fortheearthisfilledwithviolence…AndbeholdI,evenI,dobringafloodofwatersupontheearthtodestroyallfleshwhereinisthebreathoflifefromunderheaven;andeverythingthatisintheearthshalldie’(Genesis6:5–17).

32E.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,pp.197–8.33GoodsummariesofthePlutarchaccountaregiveninM.V.Seton-Williams,EgyptianLegendsandStories,op.cit.,pp.24–9;andinE.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,pp.178–83.

34SeeinparticularE.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,p.182.ThePlutarchstoryhasthecofferfloatingacrosstheMediterraneanto‘Byblos’nearmodernBeirut.Budgedismissesthisasamistranslation,pointingoutthatbybloswassimplyanameforthepapyrusplant.

35Ibid.,p.180.36Josephus,JewishAntiquities,translatedbyH.StJ.Thackeray,Heinemann,London,1930,vol.IV,booksI-IV,p.263.

37Philo,LifeofMoses,translatedbyF.H.Colson,Heinemann,London,1935,vol.VI,p.285.

38E.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,pp.181–2.39SamuelNoahKramer,TheSumerians:TheirHistory,CultureandCharacter,UniversityofChicagoPress,1963.SeealsoJohnOates,Babylon,Thames&Hudson,London,1979.

40NewLarousseEncyclopaediaofMythology,op.cit.,pp.58–60.41Jonah2:10;3:2.42Genesis6:19.43Genesis6:14.44Genesis9:1.45Luke24:19.46John3:5.

47Mark1:9–11.48SeeE.A.WallisBudge,EgyptianMagic,KeganPaul,Trench,Trübner,London,1901.49J.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,p.8.50ThorHeyerdahl,TheRaExpeditions,BookClubAssociates,London,1972,p.17.Heyerdahladds,withoutmuchfurthercomment,thatthepyramidboathadclearlybeenbuilt‘toapatterncreatedbyshipbuildersfromapeoplewithalong,solidtraditionofsailingontheopensea’(p.16).

51J.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,pp.132–3.SeealsoA.J.Spencer,TheGreatPyramid,P.J.Publications,London,1989.

52ChristianeDesroches-Noblecourt,Tutankhamen,Penguin,London,1989,pp.89,108,113and283.

53A.J.Spencer,TheGreatPyramid,op.cit.54See,forexample,W.B.Emery,ArchaicEgypt,op.cit.,p.68.55GeneralHistoryofAfrica,UNESCO,Paris,1981,p.84–107.56ForfurtherdiscussionseeW.B.Emery,ArchaicEgypt,op.cit.,particularlyChapter4;LucyLamy,EgyptianMysteries,Thames&Hudson,London,1981,p.68;andUNESCOGeneralHistoryofAfrica,op.cit.

57J.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,p.158.TheGreekslaterappropriatedImhotep,undertheHellenizednameAsclepius,asthefounderofthescienceofmedicine.

58E.A.WallisBudge,FromFetishtoGod,op.cit.,p.161.59GarthFowden,TheEgyptianHermes,op.cit.,p.33.60Ibid.,p.23.61J.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,p.12.62Ibid.,p.340.63Ibid.,p.343.64TheJewishEncyclopaedia,Funk&Wagnells,NewYork,1925,vol.II,p.497.65CollinsEnglishDictionary,Collins,London,1982,p.261;emphasisadded.66MalcolmBarber,TheTrialoftheTemplars,CambridgeUniversityPress,1989,p.62.Seealsopp.61,67,69,100,101,147,163–4,167,175,178,182–3,185–8,210,249.

67G.Legman,TheGuiltoftheTemplars,BasicBooks,NewYork,1966,p.85.68SeeH.J.Schonfield,TheEsseneOdyssey,ElementBooks,London,1984,pp.162–5.ThecodeisknownastheAtbashcipher.Seeinparticularp.164.

69Ibid.,p.164.70E.A.WallisBudge,TheGodsoftheEgyptians,Methuen,London,1904,vol.I,p.415.71Ibid.,p.414.72Ibid.,p.414.73DavidStevenson,TheOriginsofFreemasonry,CambridgeUniversityPress,1990,p.85.TheMasonshadveneratedThothinhislaterincarnationasHermes,theGreekgodof

wisdom.AsStevensonexplains:‘TheGreekshadidentifiedtheirgodHermeswiththeEgyptiangodThoth,scribetothegods,andhimselfagodofwisdom’(ibid.,p.83).

74Ibid.,p.85(withThothagaininhisincarnationasHermes).75InDeRevolutionibus.ForadiscussionseeTimothyFerris,ComingofAgeintheMilkyWay,BodleyHead,London,1988,p.65.

76FromTheHarmoniesoftheWorld,quotedinTimothyFerris,ComingofAgeintheMilkyWay,op.cit.,p.79.

77ThequotationisfromNewton’sPrincipia,citedinRichardS.Westfall,NeveratRest:aBiographyofIsaacNewton,CambridgeUniversityPress,1980,p.435.

78Ibid.,p.434.79JohnHarrison,TheLibraryofIsaacNewton,CambridgeUniversityPress,1978.80FrankManuel,TheReligionofIsaacNewton,OxfordUniversityPress,1974,p.86.81GaleE.Christianson,InthePresenceoftheCreator:IsaacNewtonandHisTimes,CollierMacmillan,London,1984,p.262.

82RichardS.Westfall,NeveratRest,op.cit.,p.346.83GaleE.Christianson,op.cit.,pp.256–7.84Ibid.,p.257.85RichardS.Westfall,NeveratRest,op.cit.,p.250.86JohnMaynardKeynes,‘NewtontheMan’,inNewtonTercentenaryCelebrations,CambridgeUniversityPress,1947,pp.27–9.

87GaleE.Christianson,InthePresenceoftheCreator,op.cit.,p.362.88Ibid.89Ibid.,p.22290YahudaManuscriptCollection,JewishNationalandUniversityLibrary,Jerusalem,MS16.2,pp.48,50and74.

91RichardS.Westfall,NeveratRest,op.cit.,p.355.92Ibid.,p.356.SeealsoGaleE.Christianson,InthePresenceoftheCreator,op.cit.,p.255.

93SeeGaleE.Christianson,InthePresenceoftheCreator,p.256.94PiyoRattansi,‘NewtonandtheWisdomoftheAncients’,inJohnFauvel,RaymondFloodetal.(eds),LetNewtonBe!:ANewPerspectiveonhisLifeandWorks,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,pp.188and195.

95QuotedbyJanGolinskiinibid.,pp.159–60.96GaleE.Christianson,InthePresenceoftheCreator,op.cit.,p.222.97Isaiah45:3.98J.A.West,AncientEgypt,op.cit.,p.33.99Joshua6:11–21.1001Samuel6:13–19.

1011Samuel5.102LouisGinzberg,TheLegendsoftheJews,TheJewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,Philadelphia,1911,vol.III,p.194.103Exodus3:8.104Exodus16:35.SeeChapter12,note28above.105Theshortestroutewasthe‘WayoftheSea’(knowntotheEgyptiansasthe‘WayofHorus’andtotheBibleasthe‘WayoftheLandofthePhilistines’).Slightlylonger,butalsoquicklytraversed,wasthemoresoutherly‘WayofShur’.SeeItzhaqBeit-Arieh,‘TheRouteThroughSinai’,BiblicalArchaeologyReview,May/June1988,p.31.106Indeed,thisishintedatintheBible.AccordingtoExodus13:‘WhenPharaohhadletthepeoplego…GodledthemnotthroughthewayofthelandofthePhilistines,althoughthatwasnear;forGodsaid,Lestperadventurethepeoplerepentwhentheyseewar,andtheyreturntoEgypt.ButGodledthepeopleabout,throughthewayofthewilderness’(Exodus13:17–18).107E.g.Exodus14:9–12;Exodus14:31;Exodus15:22–4;Exodus15:25;Exodus16:2–3;Exodus16:4–36;Exodus17:1–4;Exodus17:6–7.108Exodus17:6–7.109Exodus15:25.110Exodus16:4–36.111Numbers12:1–2,andingeneralNumbers12.112Numbers12:10.113Numbers12:10.114Numbers16:2–3.115Numbers16:4.116Numbers16:5–7,17.Seealso16:39(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation)or17:4(JerusalemBibletranslation)forconfirmationthatthecenserswerebrazen/bronze.Therecanbenodoubtthatthephrases‘putfirethereinandputincenseinthembeforetheLord’(KingJamesAuthorizedVersion)and‘fillthemwithfireand…putincenseinthembeforeYahweh’(‘JerusalemBibletranslation)explicitlyandunambiguouslymeanthattheyweretoburnincensebeforetheArk.SeeChapter12,noten,aboveforafullexplanationofwhythisis.Seealsonote121below.117Numbers16:7.118Numbers16:18.119Numbers16:19.120Numbers16:20–1.121Numbers16:22and35(amalgamofKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandJerusalemBibletranslations).Numbers16:35infactstates‘therecameoutafirefromtheLord’(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).TheJerusalemBibletranslationsays‘afirecamedownfromYahweh’.SeeChapter12,note11aboveforafullexplanationof

whytheworkisimplied.ItisworthaddingwithreferencetothispassagethattheIsraelitesdidnotacceptthatithadbeen‘theLord’whohadblastedthehaplessrebels.InsteadtheypinnedtheblamefairlyandsquarelyonthemanwhocontrolledtheArk.Numbers16:41states:‘AllthecongregationofthechildrenofIsraelmurmuredagainstMoses…sayingYouhavebroughtdeathtothepeople’(amalgamofKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandJerusalemBibletranslations).ThelatterisdoublyloggedasNumbers17:6.(Emphasisadded.)122Numbers17:12–13(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).IntheJerusalemBiblethesamepassageisloggedunderNumbers17:27–8.123SeeChapter12aboveforafulldiscussion.124Acts7123–4.125Exodus2:12–15.126Exodus7:7.127Exodus2:15–25128AhmedOsman,Moses:PharaohofEgypt,GraftonBooks,London,1990,p.171.OsmanidentifiedMoseswithPharaohAkhenatenwhobrieflyintroducedaversionofmonotheismintoEgyptbeforebeingoverthrown.129AgoodsummaryaccountofFlindersPetrie’sexpeditiontoSerabit-el-KhademisgiveninWernerKeller,TheBibleasHistory,BantamBooks,NewYork,pp.126–9.SeealsoWilliamM.FlindersPetrie,ResearchesinSinai,Dutton,NewYork,1906.130ItzhaqBeit-Arieh,‘TheRouteThroughSinai’,op.cit.,p.33.SeealsoWilliamF.Albright,TheProto-SinaiticInscriptionsandtheirDecipherment,HarvardUniversityPress,1969;FrankMooreCross,‘TheEvolutionoftheAlphabet’,Eretz-Israel,vol.8,1967,p.12;JosephNaveh,EarlyHistoryoftheAlphabet,HebrewUniversity,Jerusalem,1982.131ItzhaqBeit-Arieh,‘TheRouteThroughSinai’,op.cit.,p.33.132Forfurtherdetailssee,forexample,AviramPerevolotskyandIsraelFinkelstein,‘TheSouthernSinaiRouteinEcologicalPerspective’,BiblicalArchaeologyReview,July/August1985,pp.27and33.SeealsoEgypt:InsightGuide,APAPublications,Singapore,1989,pp.243–6133AgainforfurtherdetailsseePerevolotskyandFinkelstein,‘TheSouthernSinaiRouteinEcologicalPerspective’,op.cit.,p.27.134Ibid.,p.33.135Ibid.,pp.27and33.SeealsoEgypt:InsightGuide,op.cit.,pp.243–6,andItzhaqBeit-Arieh,‘TheRouteThroughSinai’,op.cit.136ItzhaqBeit-AriehincludesahelpfulchartofothercontendersfortheroleofMountSinaiinhispaper‘TheRouteThroughSinai’,op.cit.,p.37.HeconcludesthattheExodusalmostcertainlydidfollowthesouthernroutethroughSinaileadingtoMountSinaiasitispresentlyidentified.ThesameconclusionisdrawninTheTimesAtlasoftheBible,GuildPublishing,London,1987,p.56.137WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980,p.232

138SeeJulianMorgenstern,‘TheBookoftheCovenant’,HebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,vol.V,1928;and‘TheArk,theEphodandtheTentofMeeting’,HebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,vol.XVII,1942–3;bothreprintedbyKTAVPublishingHouse,NewYork,1968.SeealsoChapter3above.

139MenahemHaran,TemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,Oxford,ClarendonPress,1978;reprinted1985byEisenbrauns,WinonaLake,Indiana,USA,p.246.

140Exodus19:3.141Exodus19:12–13(JerusalemBibletranslation).142Exodus19:16,18(amalgamofJerusalemBibleandKingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslations).

143Exodus24:12.144Exodus24:15–18(amalgamofJerusalemBibleandKingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslations).

145SeeLouisGinzberg,TheLegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,pp.118–19.146Exodus31:18;32:15–16.147Exodus32:19.ThewellknowngoldencalfincidentbeginsatExodus32:1.148Exodus32:28.149Exodus34:28.150Exodus34:29.151Exodus34:29(JerusalemBibletranslation).152Exodus33:7,JerusalemBibletranslation:‘MosesusedtotaketheTentandpitchitoutsidethecamp.HecalleditTheTentofMeeting.’

153Exodus33:11.154LouisGinzberg,TheLegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,p.119.155Exodus34:29–35.156Exodus34:30.157Exodus34:33.158Exodus34:34–5.159SeeMosheLevine,TheTabernacle:ItsStructureandUtensils,SoncinoPress,TelAviv,1969,p.88.

160See,forexample,TheOxfordReferenceDictionary,GuildPublishing,London,1988,p.793,whichgivesthemeasureofaspanorhand-breadthasnineinches.SeealsoTheOxfordLibraryofWordsandPhrases,GuildPublishing,London,1988,vol.III,p.451.

161RabbiShelomoYitshakiwasbornatTroyesinAD1040anddiedintheyear1105.HeisgenerallyreferredtoasRashi(anacronymbasedonhisfulltitleandname).SeeGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopediaofJudaism,JerusalemPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1989,p.583.

162Exodus39:1–32.

163See,forexample,Exodus28:43andLeviticus10:6.164Numbers4:5–6and15:‘Whenthecampisbroken,Aaronandhissons[EleazarandIthamar]aretocomeandtakedowntheveilofthescreen.WithittheymustcovertheArk…Ontopofthistheymustputacoveringoffineleather,andspreadoverthewholeaclothallofviolet.ThentheyaretofixthepolestotheArk…[Then]thesonsofKohatharetocomeandtakeuptheburden,butwithouttouchinganyofthesacredthings;otherwisetheywoulddie.’

165Ibid.166LouisGinzberg,TheLegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,p.228:‘ThemostdistinguishedamongtheLeviteswerethesonsofKohath,whosechargeduringthemarchthroughthedesertwastheHolyArk.Thiswasadangeroustrust,foroutofthestavesattachedtoitwouldissuesparksthatconsumedIsrael’senemies,butnowandthenthisfirewroughthavocamongthebearersoftheArk.’

167Seepassagequotedinnote164abovewhichspecifiesthatthe‘veilofthescreen’,alayerofleatherandalayerofclothwereusedtowraptheArk.WhentheTabernaclewaspitchedandatrest,the‘veilofthescreen’hungintheentrancetotheHolyofHolies.Itwasmadeof‘blue,andpurple,andscarlet,andfinetwinedlinenofcunningwork’(Exodus26:31).Unusuallyforsuchanimportantaccessory,itdidnotcontainanygold–andneither,ofcourse,didthe‘coveringoffineleather’orthe‘clothofviolet’.InotherwordsbeforetheArkwasmoveditwasfirstthoroughlywrappedandinsulatedbyseverallayersofnon-conductivematerials.

168TheviewthattheArkwasdangeroustocarryforsomepossiblyelectricalreasonissupportedbytheJewishtraditionquotedinnote166above.ThesametraditionaddsfurthercredibilitytothisnotionwhenitstatesthattheKohathites,ratherthanbehavingasthoughtheywerehonouredbybeinggiventhejobofcarryingtheArk–asonemighthaveexpectedifitwasindeednothingmorethanasymboloftheirGod–infacttriedtoavoidtheduty,‘eachoneplanningcautiouslytoshiftthecarryingoftheArkuponanother.’LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,p.228.

169Leviticus10:2.Thefullpassagereads:‘AndtherewentoutthefirefromtheLordanddevouredthemandtheydiedtherebeforetheLord’(KingJamesAuthorizedVersion).TheJerusalemBibletranslationofthesameversereads:‘ThenfromYahweh’spresenceaflameleapedoutandconsumedthemandtheyperishedinthepresenceofYahweh.’SeeChapter12,note11aboveforanexplanationofwhytheArkisimplied.

170Leviticus10:4–5(JerusalemBibletranslation).1711Samuel5.172E.g.theslayingofUzzahbywhatsoundslikesomekindofelectricaldischarge.See2Samuel6:3–7.

Chapter14TheGloryisdepartedfromIsrael

1SeeChapter5above.2MeccaandMedinaarethefirsttwo.FordetailsastothedateofconstructionoftheDomeoftheRockseeDanBahat,Carta’sHistoricalAtlasofJerusalem,Carta,Jerusalem,1989,p.44–9.3SeeChapter12above.SeealsoZevVilnay,LegendsofJerusalem:TheSacredLand,vol.I,JewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,Philadelphia,1973,pp.11–12.4SeeChapter5above,andlaterpartsofthischapter,forfurtherdetails.5ForfurtherdetailsseeJeromeMurphy-O’connor,TheHolyLand,OxfordUniversityPress,1986,pp.84–6.6SeeChapter5above.71Chronicles28:2.8ForagoodconcisehistoryofthesuccessivestagesofbuildinganddestructionontheTempleMountseeCarta’sHistoricalAtlasofJerusalem,op.cit.AsregardsarchaeologicalconfirmationthattheDomeoftheRockdoesindeedstandoverthesiteoftheoriginalTempleofSolomon,seeKathleenKenyon,Jerusalem:Excavating3,000YearsofHistory,Thames&Hudson,London,1967,p.55:‘FromthepresentstructurebacktoSolomonthereisnorealbreak.OnecanthereforebecertainofthesiteofSolomon’sTemple.’SeealsoKathleenKenyon,DiggingupJerusalem,Benn,London,1974,p.110.9IslamalsoacceptsJesusChristasaprophet.Muhammadisregardedasexceptionalbecausehewasthelastoftheprophets–thelastofthemessengerssentbyGodtoteachandenlightenhumankindandwhosehonouritthereforewastocompletethedivinemessage.TherecanbenoseriousdisputethattheGodworshippedbytheJews,ChristiansandMuslimsis,inessence,thesamedeity.TheonenessofthisGodisacceptedbyallthreefaithsalthoughMuslimsbelievethatChristiansareconfusedbysuchnotionsastheTrinityandthedivinityofChrist.AnArabicinscriptionwithintheDomeoftheRockreadsasfollows:‘OyouPeopleoftheBook,overstepnotboundsinyourreligion,andofGodspeakonlythetruth.TheMessiah,Jesus,sonofMary,isonlyanapostleofGod,andhiswordwhichheconveyedintoMary,andaSpiritproceedingfromhim.BelievethereforeinGodandhisapostles,andsaynotThree.Itwillbebetterforyou.GodisonlyoneGod.Farbeitfromhisglorythatheshouldhaveason.’10SeeZevVilnay,LegendsofJerusalem,op.cit.,pp.123and324,footnote136.SeealsoNeilAsherSilberman,DiggingforGodandCountry:Exploration,ArchaeologyandtheSecretStrugglefortheHolyLand1799–1917,Knopf,NewYork,1982,p.186.11Quotedfrom‘TheSyriacApocalypseofBaruch’inH.F.D.Sparks(ed.),TheApocryphalOldTestament,ClarendonPress,Oxford,1989,pp.843–4.12Ibid.;see‘IntroductiontotheSyriacApocalypseofBaruch’,particularlyp.837.13SeeChapter5above.14SeeChapter12above.151Kings8:1,6,10–11,27.161Kings11:4–5.

171Kings4:30.18Eachwingmeasuredfivecubits(aboutsevenandahalffeet).See2Chronicles3:11and1Kings6:24.AccordingtotheJerusalemBibletranslation,thecherubimweremadeofolivewoodplatedwithgold.191Kings6:19(JerusalemBibletranslation).20Twentycubits,bytwentycubits,bytwentycubits.See1Kings6:20.21Chronicles3:8statesthat600talentsoffinegoldwereusedtooverlaythewalls,floorandceilingoftheHolyofHolies.Anancienttalentweighedapproximately75pounds,therefore600talentswouldhaveweighed45,000pounds–morethantwentytonnes.Forfurtherdetails,andacademicsupportfortheamountsofgoldspecifiedintheBibleashavingbeenusedinKingSolomon’sTemple,seeProfessorAlanR.Millard,‘DoestheBibleExaggerateKingSolomon’sGoldenWealth?’,BiblicalArchaeologyReview,May/June1989,pp.21–34.Seealso1Kings6:20,22and30.222Chronicles3:9.231Kings7:13–14(amalgamofKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandJerusalemBibletranslations).24ChrétiendeTroyes,ArthurianRomances(translatedbyD.D.R.Owen),Dent,London,1987,p.375;emphasisadded.25WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980.Seeinparticularpp.62–7and70–1.26SeeKennethMackenzie,TheRoyalMasonicCyclopaedia,AquarianPress,Wellingborough,1987(firstpublished1877),pp.316–17.SeealsoAlexanderHome,KingSolomon’sTempleintheMasonicTradition,AquarianPress,Wellingborough,1988,pp.262–8and272–9.SeealsoJohnJ.Robinson,BorninBlood,Century,London,1990,pp.217–18.HiramofTyre,thebronzeworkerandskilledcraftsman,isofcoursenottobeconfusedwithKingHiramofTyrewhosuppliedSolomonwithcedarwoodfortheconstructionoftheTemple,andwhoalsosenthimanumberofskilledartisanstoassistwiththework.27JohnJ.Robinson,BorninBlood,op.cit.,p.219.281Kings7:23,26.29SeeShalomM.PaulandWilliamG.Dever(eds),BiblicalArchaeology,KeterPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1973,partIII,p.257.30BruceMetzger,DavidGoldstein,JohnFerguson(eds),GreatEventsofBibleTimes,GuildPublishing,London,1987,p.89.31ShalomM.PaulandWilliamG.Dever,BiblicalArchaeology,op.cit.,p.257.321Kings7:38.33SeeChapter12above.34SeeChapter11above.351Kings7:40,45.361Kings7:15,21–2.

37KennethMackenzie,TheRoyalMasonicCyclopaedia,op.cit.,pp.349–50.SeealsoDavidStevenson,TheOriginsofFreemasonry,CambridgeUniversityPress,1990,pp.143–52.38AlexanderHome,KingSolomon’sTempleinMasonicTradition,op.cit.,p.219.39Ibid.40Joshua15:48;Judges10:1;Judges10:2;Chronicles24:24.41E.g.Deuteronomy27:5:‘AndthereshaltthoubuildanaltaruntotheLordthyGod,analtarofstones:thoushaltnotliftupanyirontooluponthem.’SeealsoJoshua8:31.42MoseswassaidtohaveusedtheShamirinthedeserttoengravewritingonthepreciousstonesworninthebreastplateoftheHighPriest.SeeLouisGinzberg,TheLegendoftheJews,JewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,Philadelphia,1909,vol.I,p.34,andvol.IV,p.166.43Ibid.,vol.I,p.34.44Ibid.,vol.TV,p.166.45Ibid.,vol.I,p.34.OnthevanishingoftheShamirseealsoHerbertDanby(trans.),TheMishnah,OxfordUniversityPress,1989,p.305.46LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.I,p.34.47FromIslamictraditionsabouttheShamir,reportedinAlexanderHorne,KingSolomon’sTempleintheMasonicTradition,op.cit.,p.165.48JerusalemBible,Eyre&Spottiswoode,London,1968,ChronologicalTable,p.344.491Kings14:25–6.50Theonlyobjectsspecificallymentionedarethe‘shieldsofgoldwhichSolomonhadmade’,1Kings14:26.51ForfurtherdetailsseeProfessorKennethA.Kitchen,‘Shishak’sMilitaryCampaigninIsraelConfirmed’,BiblicalArchaeologyReview,May/June1989,pp.32–3.SeealsoBruceMetzger,DavidGoldstein,JohnFerguson(eds),GreatEventsofBibleTimes,op.cit.,pp.94–5.52Ibid.,p.95.53Ibid.,p.94.ThisviewisalsoexpressedwithgreatauthoritybyProfessorMenahemHaranofJerusalem’sHebrewUniversityinhisbookTemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,ClarendonPress,Oxford,1978,reprinted(withcorrections)byEisenbrauns,WinonaLake,Indiana,1985,286:‘ItmaybeconcludedthattheEgyptianarmybypassedJerusaleminthenorth,proceedingfromAijalontoBeth-horonandGibeonandfromtherenorth-eastwardstoZemaraimanddownintotheJordanValleyatSuccoth.Shishak’scampaignseemstohavebeenmainlydirectedagainsttheNorthernKingdom.OnlyonesectionofhisarmyseemstohaveoverruntheNegebasfarasArad,withoutadvancingtowardstheJudeanhills.Itisthusnotimpossiblethatthetempletreasuriesandthoseoftheking’shousewith“alltheshieldsofgoldwhichSolomonhadmade”werehandedovertoShishakbyRehoboamhimself.HetherebysucceededindivertingtheEgyptianarmyfromhisland.Thiswouldbethemeaningof

hiswords“hetookaway”usedwithreferencetoShishak.Thestoryin1Kgs14:25–6onlymentionsoneparticularpartofShishak’sroute,highlightingitasviewedfromJerusalem.’54ProfessorMenahemHaran,TemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,op.cit.,p.284.55Ibid.,pp.284–5.ExamplesintheBibleofJudaeankingswhoemptiedthetreasuriesfortheirownpurposesincludeAhazandHezekiah.See2Chronicles28:24and2Kings18:15–16.56JerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.344.ThereignofJehoash(Joash)isgivenas798–783BC.2Kings14:1statesthattheconflictbetweenJehoashandAmaziahtookplaceinthesecondyearofthereignofJehoash–hencethedate796BC.572Kings14:12–14.TheKingJamesAuthorizedversionstates‘inthetreasuresoftheking’shouse’.However,themoreaccurateandrecenttranslationsoftheJerusalemBibleandtheNewEnglishBiblestate,respectively,‘thetreasuryoftheroyalpalace’and‘thetreasuriesoftheroyalpalace’.Itisclearthatthetranslation‘treasury’or‘treasuries’isthecorrectonehere.58ProfessorMenahemHaran,TemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,op.cit.,pp.277and285,footnote19.59AccordingtotheauthoritativechronologyprovidedintheJerusalemBible,op.cit.SeeChronologicalTable,p.346.SeealsotranslationofthesecondbookofKings,pp.423–4.602Kings24:10–13(amalgamofKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandJerusalemBibletranslations).61ProfessorMenahemHaran,TemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,op.cit.,p.287.TheKingJamesAuthorizedVersionoftheBiblewronglytranslatedthewordhekalwiththegeneralterm‘temple’,thuscausingmuchconfusiontosubsequentgenerationsofscholarswhodidnothaveaccesstotheoriginalHebrew.ThehekalwasaspecificpartoftheTemple–theoutersanctumwhichformedtheante-chambertotheHolyofHolies.62FordetailsseeChapter11above.63SeeProfessorEdwardUllendorff,‘Hebraic-JewishElementsinAbyssinian(Monophysite)Christianity’,inJournalofSemiticStudies,vol.I,no.3,1956,p.235.64Ibid.,pp.235–6:‘TheoutsideambulatoryofthethreeconcentricpartsoftheAbyssinianchurch(whichiseitherround,octagonal,orrectangular)iscalledk’enemahlet,i.e.theplacewherehymnsaresungandwherethedebtaraorcantorsstand.ThisouterpartcorrespondstothehaseroftheTabernacleortheulamofSolomon’sTemple.Thenextchamberisthek’eddestwherecommunionisadministeredtothepeople;andtheinnermostpartisthemak’daswherethetabotrestsandtowhichonlypriestshaveaccess.InsomepartsofAbyssinia,especiallythenorth,thek’eddest(theqodesoftheTabernacleofhekalofSolomon’sTemple)iscalled’endata’amer,“placeofmiracle”,andthemak’dasisnamedk’eddusak’eddusam(theqodeshaqqodasimofthe

TabernacleandthedebiroftheTemple).ThisdivisionintothreechambersappliestoallAbyssinianchurches,eventhesmallestofthem.’

65This,asIsubsequentlyestablished,hadnotbeenquitetheactofsenselessvandalismthattheEnglishversionofthetextimplied:thephrase‘cutinpieces’wasatranslationoftheHebrewway-e-qasses,whichdidsuggestcuttingupbutalsoconnotedthestrippingofmetalplatesfromoverlaidobjects.SuchanuancemadesensebecausetheBiblestatedunambiguouslythatthe‘goldenfurnishings’thathadstoodinthehekalhadincludedthe‘altar’andthe‘tableoftheshowbread’–bothofwhichhadbeenmadeofwoodoverlaidwithgold.ForadiscussionseeProfessorMenahemHaran,TemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,op.cit.,p.287,footnote23.

661Kings7:49–50(JerusalemBibletranslation).67Ifthisisnotalreadypatentlyobvioustothereader,thenitismadeclearintheJerusalemBible’stranslationof1Kings8:6whichreadsasfollows:‘ThepriestsbroughtuptheArkoftheCovenantofYahwehtoitsplace,inthedebiroftheTemple,thatis,intheHolyofHolies,underthecherubs’wings.’

68AsisdemonstratedbytheirtreatmentofKingJehoiachin(2Kings24:11–12),theirdeportationoflargenumbersoftheinhabitantsofJerusalem(2Kings24:14–16),andtheirdespolationoftheTempleofYahweh(2Kings24:13).

69ResearchnotesprovidedtotheauthorbyDavidKeys,ArchaeologyCorrespondentofTheIndependent,London.

702Kings24:17.712Kings25:1.722Kings25:1–3.ForthedatesoftheseeventsIhavereliedontheChronologicalTableintheJerusalemBible,op.cit.,p.346.Thereisasmallmarginoferrorinthedatesallocated.SomearchaeologistsputtheendingofthesiegeandfinaldestructionoftheTempleat586BC–e.g.seeKathleenKenyon,Jerusalem:Excavating3,000YearsofHistory.op.cit.,p.55.

732Kings25:8.Itisimportanttostressthattheacademicsdisagreeastowhethertheseeventstookplacein587or586BC.

742Kings25:8–10,13–16.Aparallelinventory,whichdoesnotcontradictthisoneinanyway,andwhichalsomakesnomentionoftheArk,maybefoundinJeremiah52:17–23.

75TheviewthatthegoldandsilveritemstakenbyNebuzaradanconsistedonlyofrelativelyminorutensilsisgivenadditionalweightbythetextoftheparallellistinJeremiah52:17–23which,inverse19,statesexplicitlythatcommanderoftheguard‘tookthebowls,thecensers,thesprinklingbowls,theashcontainers,thelamp-stands,thegobletsandthesaucers:everythingthatwasmadeofgoldandeverythingofsilver’(JerusalemBibletranslation).SeealsoJeremiah27:18–22whichreferstotheobjectsnottakenbyNebuchadnezzarin598BCandprophesiesthattheywillbetakenafterthesecondconquestofthecity:‘Butiftheybeprophets,andifthewordoftheLordbewiththem,letthemnowmakeintercessiontotheLordofHosts,thatthevesselswhichare

leftinthehouseoftheLord,andinthehouseofthekingofJudah,andatJerusalem,gonottoBabylon.ForthussaiththeLordofhostsconcerningthepillars,andconcerningtheSea,andconcerningthebases,andconcerningtheresidueofvesselsthatremaininthecity,whichNebuchadnezzarkingofBabylontooknotwhenhecarriedawaycaptiveJeconiah…kingofJudahfromJerusalemtoBabylon…Yea,thussaiththeLordofHosts,theGodofIsrael,concerningthevesselsthatremaininthehouseoftheLord,andinthehouseofthekingofJudahandofJerusalem;TheyshallbecarriedtoBabylon,andthereshalltheybeuntilthedaythatIvisitthem,saiththeLord;thenwillIbringthemup,andrestorethemtothisplace.’

76E.g.,KathleenKenyon,RoyalCitiesoftheOldTestament,Barne&Jenkins,London,1971,p.148:‘ProbablytheArkvanishedintheburningoftheTemple,thoughthereisnoactualreferencetoitsubsequenttoitsdepositintheHolyofHoliesinthetimeofSolomon.’

772Kings24:15–16.782Kings25:11,21.79Psalm78:1–6.80JerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.346.81PeterCalvocoressi,Who’sWhointheBible,Penguin,London,1988,p.45.82Ibid.83Ezra1:7–11.84JerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.346.85Ibid.SeealsoEzra3:8;5:16.86TheJerusalemBibleChronologicalTable,op.cit.givesacompletiondateof515BC.TheEncyclopaediaofJudaismproposestheslightlyearlierdatesof520–517BC.SeeGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopediaofJudaism,JerusalemPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1989,p.694.

87Hebrew-EnglishEditionoftheBabylonianTalmud,SoncinoPress,London,Jerusalem,NewYork,1974,TractateYoma,21b.

88SeealsoLouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.VI,p.442:‘ThefollowingfivethingswereintheFirstTempleonly:theheavenlyfire,theholyoilofanointing,theArk,theHolySpirit,andtheUrimandThummim.’BiblicalreferencestotheUrimandThummimcanbefoundinExodus28:30;Leviticus8:8;Ezra2:63;andNehemiah7:65.

89ZevVilnay,LegendsofJerusalem,op.cit.,vol.I,p.123.SeealsoLouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.VI,p.378:‘Solomon,attheerectionoftheTemple,providedasecretplacetobeusedlaterfor“hiding”holyobjects.’

90Hebrew-EnglishEditionoftheBabylonianTalmud,op.cit.,TractateYoma,53b.91DatesfromtheJerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.345.92LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.IV,p.282.SeealsoHebrew-EnglishEditionoftheBabylonianTalmud,op.cit.,TractateYoma,52b.SeealsoC.RothandG.

Wigoder(eds),TheNewStandardEncyclopaediaofJudaism.W.H.Allen,London,1970,p.158.

93LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.III,p.158.94Ibid.95HerbertDanby(trans.),TheMishnah,op.cit.,p.158.SeealsoZevVilnay,LegendsofJerusalem,op.cit.,p.122.

96SeeentryontheBooksofMaccabeesinF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.855.

97Ibid.Inits‘IntroductiontotheBooksofMaccabees’theJerusalemBible,op.cit.,concludesthatMaccabeeswasprobablywrittenaround63BC.

982Maccabees2:1,4–5.99JerusalemBible,op.cit.,p.605,footnote2aand‘IntroductiontotheBooksofMaccabees’,p.569.

100F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,p.855.

101Jeremiahwasbornaround650BC.Theexactdateofhisdeathisnotknown;howeveritisthoughttohaveoccurredwithinadecadeofthedestructionofSolomon’sTemple.SeeF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,pp.730–1.SeealsoPeterCalvocoressi,Who’sWhointheBible,op.cit.,pp.101–2.

1022Maccabees2:1,4.103SeeDeuteronomy34:1.104MountNeboisontheeasternsideoftheDeadSea,inthemodernstateofJordan,overlookingJerusalemandJericho.

105Becauseheforetold–andwelcomed–thedestructionoftheTemplebyNebuchadnezzar,whomhesawasGod’schoseninstrumentforchastisingJudah,‘Hewasfrequentlyinpersonaldangerfromhisownpeople,physicallyassaultedandforseveralyearsinhiding’(PeterCalvocoressi,Who’sWhointheBible,op.cit.,p.101).SeealsoF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,p.730:Jeremiahfaced‘thehostilityoftheofficialrepresentativesoftheJewishreligion’.

106LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.IV,p.320:‘TheHolyArk,thealtarofincense,andtheholytentwerecarriedbyanangeltothemountwhenceMosesbeforehisdeathhadviewedthelanddivinelyassignedtoIsrael.ThereJeremiahfoundaspaciouscaveinwhichheconcealedthesesacredutensils.’

107ForfurtherdetailsontheWailingWallandonthecurrentpolitico-religiousstatusoftheTempleMountthereaderisreferredtotheappropriateentriesinGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopediaofJudaism,op.cit.,pp.696–7and727–9.

108SeeMeirBen-Dov,IntheShadowoftheTemple:theDiscoveryofAncientJerusalem,Harper&Row,NewYork,1985,p.24.

109Ibid.,p.25.110Ibid.,pp.19–20.111SeeGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopediaofJudaism,op.cit.,p.695and481–3.112MeirBen-Dov,IntheShadowoftheTemple,op.cit.SeeinparticularChapter2,‘RemainsfromtheKingdomofJudah’.Therestofthisexcellentbook,fromp.57forward,isdevotedtothefindsrelatingtootherperiods.113Ibid.,pp.16–18.SeealsoNeilAsherSilberman,DiggingforGodandCountry:Exploration,ArchaeologyandtheSecretStrugglefortheHolyLand,1799–1917,Knopf,NewYork,1982,pp.89–99.114NeilAsherSilberman,DiggingforGodandCountry,op.cit.,pp.89–99.115Ibid.,p.93.116Ibid.,pp.94–7.117MeirBen-Dov,IntheShadowoftheTemple,op.cit.,p.18.118KathleenKenyon,DiggingupJerusalem,op.cit.,p.31.119SeeNeilAsherSilberman,DiggingforGodandCountry,op.cit.,pp.180–8.IngeneralIamindebtedtothisusefulandinformativeworkfortheaccountoftheParkerexpeditionthatfollows.120Ibid.121KathleenKenyon,DiggingupJerusalem,op.cit.,p.30.122See‘TomCrotserhasfoundtheArkoftheCovenant–orhashe?’,BiblicalArchaeologyReview,May/June1983,pp.66–7.123Ibid.,pp.66–7.124Ibid.,p.66.125Ibid.,p.67.126Ibid.,p.68,quotingUPIreporterDarrellDay.127Ibid.,p.68.128Ibid.,p.68.129Ibid.,p.68.130Ibid.,pp.68–9.131Ibid.,p.69.132RichardElliottFriedman,WhoWrotetheBible?,JonathanCape,London,1988,p.156.133Ibid.

Chapter15HiddenHistory

1RichardElliottFriedman,WhoWrotetheBible?,JonathanCape,London,1988,p.156.2SirE.A.WallisBudge,TheQueenofShebaandherOnlySonMenelik:beingthe‘BookoftheGloryofKings’(KebraNagast),OxfordUniversityPress,1932,pages99and100.SeeChapter3,n.94above.3Josephus,JewishAntiquities,LoebClassicalLibrary(Heinemann),London,1934,booksV-VIII,p.665.41Kings10:2.5E.A.WallisBudge,AHistoryofEthiopia,NubiaandAbyssinia,London,1928,Preface.6SeeDavidL.Edwards,AKeytotheOldTestament,FountPaperbacks,London,1989,pp.209–11,inparticularp.210.7Ibid.SeealsoRichardElliottFriedman,WhoWrotetheBible?,op.cit.,p.146.81Kings8:6–8(emphasisadded).NewEnglishBibletranslation,OxfordandCambridgeUniversityPresses,1970,p.384.9SeeDavidL.Edwards,AKeytotheOldTestament,op.cit.,p.210.10WilliamShakespeare,Hamlet,ActIII,Scene2,line25.11JulianMorgenstern,‘TheBookoftheCovenant’,inHebrewUnionCollegeAnnual,vol.V,1928,reprintedbyKTAVPublishingHouse,NewYork,1968,p.29,footnote37.12Kings8:9(JerusalemBibletranslation).13Deuteronomy10:5(NewEnglishBibletranslation).TheJerusalemBibletranslationstates:‘andtheretheystayed’;theKingJamesAuthorizedVersionstates:‘andtheretheybe’.14JulianMorgenstern,‘TheBookoftheCovenant’,op.cit.,p.29,footnote37.15Ibid.Emphasisadded.16LouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,JewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,Philadelphia,1909,vol.IV,p.282.17Hebrew-EnglishEditionoftheBabylonianTalmud,SoncinoPress,London,Jerusalem,NewYork,1974,TractateYoma53b.18JohnOates,Babylon,Thames&Hudson,London,1988,p.128.19Ibid.,pp.126–9.202Chronicles34:33(JerusalemBibletranslation);2Chronicles35:2–3(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).212Chronicles35:19(cf.2Chronicles35:1–3).22Thisdateisarrivedatbysimplemathematics,sinceitisknownthatJosiahcametopowerin640BC(seeJerusalemBible,Eyre&Spottiswoode,London,1968,ChronologicalTable,p.345),theeighteenthyearofhisreignmustthereforehavebeen622BC.

23Jeremiahbeganhispropheticministryin626BC–seeGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,JerusalemPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1989,p.380.Iattributethedateof626BCtotheversesquotedbecausetheyarerecognizedbyleadingbiblicalscholarsasbeingamongst‘Jeremiah’searliestprophecies’.SeeMenahemHaran,TemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,ClarendonPress,Oxford,1978,reprintedin1985byEisenbrauns,WinonaLake,Indiana,p.281.24Jeremiah3:16–17(JerusalemBibletranslation).25Jeremiah’sauthorshipofthebookofJeremiahisnotindoubt–althoughheprobablydictatedittoanamanuensis.See,interalia,GeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopaediaofJudaism,op.cit.,pp.380–1;JerusalemBible,op.cit.,IntroductiontothebookofJeremiah,p.1067;F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,pp.730–1.26MenahemHaran,TemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,op.cit.,p.281.27SeeJerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,pp.344–5.ThefifteenkingsbetweenSolomonandJosiahwereRehoboam,Abijah,Asa,Jehosophat,Jehoram,Ahaziah,Athaliah,Joash,Amaziah,Uzziah,Jotham,Ahaz,Hezekiah,ManassehandAmon.28TheHolyBible,KingJamesVersion(ElectronicFirstEdition,KJ21),FranklinComputerCorporation,NewJersey,1989.ThroughoutmyresearchImadeexhaustiveuseofthismarvellousinvestigativeinstrument.29SeeNumbers12:10anddiscussioninChapter13above.30Theoccurrenceswere:Exodus25:22,Numbers7:89;1Samuel4:4;2Samuel6:2;and1Chronicles13:6.312Kings7:3.32JerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.345.332Chronicles26:16.342Chronicles26:19.35SeeLeviticus10:1–2.36SeeChapters12and13aboveforafullerdiscussion.372Chronicles26:21–3.38GeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopediaofJudaism,op.cit.,p.575:‘theprecisedatingofindividualpsalmsisimpossible.’39F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,p.1139.SeealsoGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopediaofJudaism,op.cit.,pp.574–6;andStephenBigger(ed.),CreatingtheOldTestament:TheEmergenceoftheHebrewBible,Blackwell,Oxford,1989,pp.254–8.40Ezekiel10:2;Ezekiel10:6;Ezekiel;10:7.41ForthedatingofEzekielsee‘TheBookoftheProphetEzekiel’,TheCambridgeBibleCommentary,CambridgeUniversityPress,1974,HistoricalTable,p.xi.

42Ezekiel8:1–3:‘thespiritliftedmeupbetweentheearthandtheheaven,andbroughtmeinthevisionsofGodtoJerusalem.’43Ezekiel10:20–2,especially21.44Ezekiel10:1,15,20.45Ezekiel10:19,5.46Isaiah37:16;2Kings19:15.47Isaiah37:14–16.482Kings19:14–15.49Biblicalscholarsareunanimousthatchapters1–39ofthebookofIsaiah,includingthischapterofcourse,werewrittenbyIsaiahhimself.SeeGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopediaofJudaism,op.cit.,p.369.SeealsoJerusalemBible,op.cit.,‘IntroductiontoIsaiah’,p.970.SeealsoPeterCalvocoressi,Who’sWhointheBible,Penguin,London,1988,pp.87–8.SomeofthelaterchaptersinIsaiah,from40onwards,werecertainlywrittenlater.Theantiquityofchapter37,however,theoneinwhichthereferenceto‘betweenthecherubims’cropsup,isnotindoubt.Moreoversincethechapterreferstoaknownhistoricalevent–Sennacherib’sinvasion–itcanbedatedfairlypreciselyto701BC(seeJerusalemBible,ChronologicalTable,p.345;andF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),OxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,p.715.50SeeJerusalemBible,op.cit.,‘IntroductiontotheBookofIsaiah’,p.970.SeealsoF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,p.715.51Isaiah6:1–3,andJerusalemBible,op.cit.,p.970.52JerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.345,fordates.53F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,p.715.SeealsoHandbooktotheBible,LionPublishing,London,1988,p.376.SeealsotheEncyclopediaofJudaism,op.cit.,p.369.‘ModernscholarsmaintainthatthebookofIsaiahisacompositeworkwrittenbymorethanoneprophet,andthatonlychapters1–39arethewordsofIsaiah.’Theversequotedabovefallssafelywithinthisrange,inchapter37ofIsaiah.54Isaiah37:6–7.SeealsoHandbooktotheBible,op.cit.,p.376;TheEncyclopediaofJudaism,op.cit.,p.369.55Isaiah37:14.56Isaiah37:17–20.57Isaiah37:33,35.58Isaiah37:36–7.59See,forexample,PaulJohnson,AHistoryoftheJews,Weidenfeld&Nicolson,London,1988,p.73.60Ibid.61SeeChapters12and13above.

62Isaiah37:14.ThehouseoftheLord’isofcourseasynonymfortheJerusalemTemple(compareJerusalemBibletranslationofthesameverse).63Isaiah37:14.641Kings3:15.652Samuel6:5.66Deuteronomy10:8.67DatesfromJerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.345.682Kings21:2–7.69JerusalemBible,op.cit.,p.419.SeealsoIrvingM.Zeitlin,AncientJudaism,PolityPress,Cambridge,1986,p.173.701Kings6:19(JerusalemBibletranslation).WithspecificreferencetotheArk,Solomonhadasked:‘ButwillGodindeeddwellontheearth?behold,theheavenandheavenofheavenscannotcontainthee:howmuchlessthishousethatIhavebuilded?Yethavethourespectuntotheprayerofthyservant,andtohissupplication,OLordmyGod,tohearkenuntothecryandtotheprayer,whichthyservantprayethbeforetheetoday:thatthineeyesmaybeopentowardsthishousenightandday,eventowardtheplaceofwhichthouhastsaid,“Mynameshallbethere”.’1Kings8:27–9.Seealso2Samuel6:2:‘theArkofGod,whosenameiscalledbythenameoftheLordofHoststhatdwellethbetweenthecherubims.’(Emphasisadded.)71E.g.see1Chronicles28:2.722Kings21:16(JerusalemBibletranslation).732Kings21:20–1,23–4.742Kings22:1.752Chronicles34:3.762Chronicles34:3.772Kings23:6(amalgamofKingJamesAuthorizedVersionandJerusalemBibletranslations).782Chronicles34:7–8.792Kings22:6.80ProfessorMenahemHaran,TemplesandTempleServiceinAncientIsrael,op.cit.,pp.277,278,288,281.

Chapter16DooroftheSouthernCountries

1JillKamil,UpperEgypt,Longman,LondonandNewYork,1989,p.35.2Ibid.,p.36.3BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine:theLifeofanAncientJewishMilitaryColony,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Berkeley,LosAngeles,1968,p.110.‘ThelengthoftheTemplewasatleastsixtycubits.AwidthofapproximatelytwentycubitsmaybeinferredfromthepresenceoftwobuildingslyingnortheastoftheTemple.’Anancientcubitmeasuredeighteeninches–seeDrJ.H.Hertz(ed.),ThePentateuchandtheHaftorahs,SoncinoPress,London,1978,p.327.TheJerusalemBible,footnote(b)p.887,concurs(JerusalemBible,Eyre&Spottiswoode,London,1968).4BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,p.110.51Kings6:2:‘thelengththereofwasthreescorecubits,andthebreadththereoftwentycubits.’6EmilG.Kraeling(ed.),TheBrooklynMuseumAramaicPapyri:NewDocumentsofthefifthcenturyBCfromtheJewishColonyatElephantine,PublishedfortheBrooklynMuseumbytheYaleUniversityPress,NewHavenandLondon,1953,p.101.71Kings6:9.8BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,p.133;EmilG.Kraeling,TheBrooklynMuseumAramaicPapyri,op.cit.,p.100.9BezaleelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,pp.13and133.10Ibid.,pp.109,152.SeealsoEmilG.Kraeling,TheBrooklynMuseumAramaicPapyri,op.cit.,p.85.11E.g.Numbers10:33;35–6.12I.e.afterthepromulgationoftheDeuteronomisticcodeduringthereignofJosiah–seeEmilG.Kraeling,TheBrooklynAramicPapyri,op.cit.,p.85.13Ibid.,p.85.14Ibid.,p.85.151Samuel4:4.16BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,p.299.17SeeChapter15above.18BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,pp.121–2.19Ibid.,p.115.20Ibid.,pp.115–16.211Chronicles28:2.22EmilG.Kraeling,TheBrooklynMuseumAramaicPapyri,op.cit.,p.24.23SeeChapter14above.24In609BC.See2Kings23:29–30.SeealsoBruceMetzger,DavidGoldstein,John

Ferguson(eds),GreatEventsofBibleTimes,GuildPublishing,London,1989,p.105.SeealsoJerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.345.25‘TheoccasionallycanvassedoriginoftheFalashasfromtheJewishgarrisonofElephantineortheconjecturethatJewishinfluencesinAbyssiniahadpenetratedbywayofEgyptaredevoidofanyreliablehistoricalbasis’,EdwardUllendorff,EthiopiaandtheBible,publishedfortheBritishAcademybytheOxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.117.26Inthe1930s,forexample,IgnazioGuidi,anItalianscholar,hadcanvassedexactlythispossibilityinhisStoriadellaletteraturaetiopica(Rome,1932,p.95).Andlater,in1960,aformerPresidentofIsraelhadarguedthatthesolutiontothepuzzleofFalashaoriginsmustlieinElephantine(Y.Ben-Zvi,EretsIsrael,Jerusalem,1960,vol.VI,p.146).Thestrongestandmostpersuasivecase,however,hadbeenputforwardmuchmorerecentlybyDavidKessler,ChairmanoftheFalashaWelfareAssociationofLondonandtheauthorofanexcellentbookentitledTheFalashas:theForgottenJewsofEthiopia(Schocken,NewYork,1985).Seeinparticularpp.41–7.27ThispointisparticularlycogentlyarguedbyDavidKesslerinTheFalashas,op.cit.28SeeChapter6above.29BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,p.201.30SeeChapter6above.31BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,pp.109and154–5.EmilG.Kraeling(ed.),TheBrooklynMuseumAramaicPapyri,op.cit.,p.91.32BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,p.155.33SeeChapter6above.341Kings8:54.35BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,p.19.36Ibid.,p.20.37EmilG.Kraeling(ed.),TheBrooklynMuseumAramiacPapyri,op.cit.,p.102–3.38SeeChapter9above.39JamesBrucereportshisdiscoveryofMeroeinhisTravelstoDiscovertheSourceoftheNileintheYears1768,1769,1770,1771,1772and1773,Edinburgh,1790,vol.IV,pp.538–9.ForindependentconfirmationthattheScottishexplorerwasindeedthediscovererofMeroeseeWilliamY.Adams,Nubia:CorridortoAfrica,AllenLane,PrincetonUniversityPress,1984,p.295.40BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,p.45.41SeeProfessorEdwardUllendorff,TheEthiopians:AnIntroductiontoCountryandPeople,OxfordUniversityPress,1973,pp.1–2.42Forexamplein529BC.SeeBezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,p.15.43Herodotus,TheHistory,translatedbyDavidGreen,theUniversityofChicagoPress,ChicagoandLondon,1988,pp.142–3;emphasisadded.

44HerodotuswasreferringtoPsammetichusII.DatesfromJohnBainesandJaromirMalek,AtlasofAncientEgypt,EquinoxBooks,Oxford,1990,p.37.

45BezalelPorten,ArchivesfromElephantine,op.cit.,p.8,citing‘theletterofAristeas’.46ThattirelessandprolificscholarofancientEgyptandEthiopia,SirE.A.WallisBudge,madehisownanalysisofthereportofHerodotusandlikewiseconcludedthatthe‘landoftheDeserters’‘musthavebeensituatedinsomepartofwesternAbyssinia’.SeeSirE.A.WallisBudge,AHistoryofEthiopia,NubiaandAbyssinia,London,1928,p.62.

47EdwardUllendorff,EthiopiaandtheBible,op.cit.,p.5.48Numbers12:1(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).TheJerusalemBiblereferstoMoses’sEthiopianwifeasa‘Cushitewoman’.So,too,doestheNewEnglishBible.

49See,forexample,Josephus,JewishAntiquities(translatedbyH.StJ.Thackeray),LoebClassicalLibrary(Heinemann),London,1978,vol.IV(booksI-IV),pp.269–75.SeealsoLouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,JewishPublicationSocietyofAmerica,Philadelphia,1909,vol.II,pp.286–9,vol.V,pp.407–10.ForadiscussionseealsoTessaRajak.‘MosesinEthiopia:LegendandLiterature’,JournalofJewishStudies,OxfordCentreforPostgraduateHebrewStudies,vol.29,no.2,Autumn1978.

50Genesis2:13(KingJamesAuthorizedVersiontranslation).51SeePartIIIabove.52SeeMajorR.E.Cheesman,LakeTanaandtheBlueNile:AnAbyssinianQuest,Cass,London,1936,pp.71and75.ForadiscussionseealsoProfessorEdwardUllendorff,EthiopiaandtheBible,op.cit.,p.2.UllendorffstatesoftheEthiopiantraditionsregardingtheBlueNile/Gihon:‘Thereisnovalidreasontodoubttheessentialaccuracyofthisidentification.’

53JonD.Levenson,SinaiandZion:AnEntryintotheJewishBible,Harper&Row,SanFrancisco,1987,p.19.

54Psalm68:1:‘LetGodarise,lethisenemiesbescattered:letthemalsothathatehimfleebeforehim.’Thisisavirtualmirror-imageoftheancientpassageinNumbers10:35whichstates:‘Anditcametopass,whentheArksetforward,thatMosessaid,RiseupLord,andletthineenemiesbescattered;andletthemthathatetheefleebeforethee.’

55Psalm68:31.56SeeJerusalemBible,op.cit.,‘IntroductiontotheMinorProphets’,p.1256.57Ibid.58Isaiah18:1–2.59SeeGeoffreyWigoder(ed.),TheEncyclopediaofJudaism,JerusalemPublishingHouse,Jerusalem,1989:‘modernscholarsmaintainthattheBookofIsaiahisacompositeworkwrittenbymorethanoneprophet,andthatonlychapters1–39arethewordsofIsaiah.’Theversesquoted,fromchapter18ofIsaiah,fallcomfortablywithinthisrange.

60SeeChapter15above.61JerusalemBible,op.cit.,ChronologicalTable,p.345,forkings’dates.ForthedatingofIsaiah’slifetimeseeF.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryofthe

ChristianChurch,OxfordUniversityPress,1988,p.715.62F.L.CrossandE.A.Livingstone(eds),TheOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch,op.cit.,p.715.SeealsoLouisGinzberg,LegendsoftheJews,op.cit.,vol.IV,pp.278–9andvol.VI,pp.371and396.

63SeeChapter9above.64Genesis21:33.65SeeFrederickC.Gamst,TheQemant:APaganHebraicPeasantryofEthiopia,Holt,Reinhart&Winston,NewYork,1969,pp.5–6.

66See,forexample,A.H.M.JonesandElizabethMonroe,AHistoryofEthiopia,ClarendonPress,Oxford,1966,pp.7–8.

67SeeDonaldN.Levine,GreaterEthiopia:TheEvolutionofaMultiethnicSociety,UniversityofChicagoPress,ChicagoandLondon,1974,pp.34and37.TheAgaw,FalashaandQemantallbelongtothe‘CentralCushitic’languagefamilyandethnicgroup.SeealsoFrederickC.Gamst,TheQemant,op.cit.,p.1:‘TheQemant,anethnicgroupwithanestimatedpopulationof20,000to25,000,arearemnantoftheCushitic-speakingAgawpeoples,theoriginalinhabitantsofnorthernandcentralEthiopia.’TheAgawlanguagehastodayallbutdiedoutamongsttheFalashas,althoughsomeeldersinremotecommunitiesstillspeakit.SeeWolfLeslau,FalashaAnthology,YaleUniversityPress,NewHavenandLondon,1979,pp.xx–xxi.IngeneralseealsoEdwardUllendorff,TheEthiopians,op.cit.,pp37–8.

68BalthazarTellez,TheTravelsoftheJesuitsinEthiopia,quotedinSydneyMendelssohn,TheJewsofAfrica,London,1920,p.5.

69JacquelinePirenne,‘DesGrecsàl’auroredelaculturemonumentaleSabéenne’,inT.Fahd(ed.),L’arabepréislamiqueetsonenvironmenthistoriqueetculturels(ActesdecolloquedeStrasbourg,24–27juin1987),publishedbytheUniversitédesscienceshumainesdeStrasbourg,1989.

70Ibid.,p.262.71R.Schneider,‘Documentsépigraphiquesdel’ethiopie’,Annatesd’ethiopie,vol.X,1976,pp.88–9.

72Ibid.,pp.88–9.73JacquelinePirenne,‘DesGrecsàl’auroredelaculturemonumentaleSabéenne’,op.cit.,pp.264–5.

74SirGawainandtheGreenKnight,translatedwithanintroductionbyBrianStone,PenguinClassics,London,1974,p.100.

75Ibid.,p.100.76Ibid.,p.103.

Chapter17SuppingwithDevils

1GrahamHancock,RichardPankhurst,DuncanWilletts,UnderEthiopianSkies,EditionsHL,LondonandNairobi,1983(reprinted1987and1989).2GrahamHancock,Ethiopia:theChallengeofHunger,Gollancz,London,1985,110.

Chapter18ATreasureHardtoAttain

1J.TheodoreBent,TheSacredCityoftheEthiopians:TravelandResearchinAbyssiniain1893,Longmans,Green,London,NewYorkandBombay,1896,p.196.2SeeChapter1above.3SeeChapter5above.4SeeChapter5above.SeealsoB.T.Evetts(trans.anded.),AbuSalih,ChurchesandMonasteriesofEgyptandsomeNeighbouringCountries,Oxford,1895,p.288.5SeeChapter5above.6WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,PenguinClassics,London,1980.Seeforexamplepp.393and397.7WolframvonEschenbach,Parzival,op.cit.,p.232.