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The Situation of Adolescents and Youth in the Middle East and North Africa Region: A Desk Review of Data on Current Trends and Emerging Issues

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Page 1: The Situation of Adolescents and Youth in the Middle East and North Africa Region: A Desk Review of Data on Current Trends and Emerging Issues

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Page 2: The Situation of Adolescents and Youth in the Middle East and North Africa Region: A Desk Review of Data on Current Trends and Emerging Issues

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Page 3: The Situation of Adolescents and Youth in the Middle East and North Africa Region: A Desk Review of Data on Current Trends and Emerging Issues

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Table�of�Contents�Preface�..........................................................................................................................................................�2

Table�of�Figures�.............................................................................................................................................�4

Acronyms�and�Abbreviations�........................................................................................................................�6

Executive�Summary�.......................................................................................................................................�8

1. Introduction�........................................................................................................................................�11

2. Methodological�note�...........................................................................................................................�12

A. Bridging�discrepancies�in�definitions�...................................................................................................�14

3. Demographic�trends�...........................................................................................................................�15

4. Poverty�trends�.....................................................................................................................................�30

5. Health�trends�......................................................................................................................................�37

6. HIV�and�AIDS�trends�............................................................................................................................�55

7. Education�trends�.................................................................................................................................�63

B. Mind�the�gap:�the�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�and�the�informal�economy�...........................................�75

8. Livelihoods�and�economic�participation�trends�..................................................................................�79

9. Migration�trends�.................................................................................................................................�91

10. Political�and�civic�engagement�trends�............................................................................................�98

11. Child�protection�trends�.................................................................................................................�102

12. Conflict�and�emergency�................................................................................................................�113

C. Youth�and�adolescents�in�postͲconflict�situations�.............................................................................�120

13. Conclusions�...................................................................................................................................�121

Annex�I:�Recommendations�for�improving�understanding�of�MENA�youth�.............................................�123

Annex�II:�Introduction�to�Core�and�Extended�Indicator�Lists�....................................................................�126

Annex�III:�Core�Indicator�List�.....................................................................................................................�129

Annex�IV:�Extended�Indicator�List�.............................................................................................................�133

Annex�V:��Major�household�surveys�in�MENA�countries�..........................................................................�152

Annex�VI:�Institutional�definitions�of�MENA�.............................................................................................�153

Annex�VII:�Bibliography�.............................................................................................................................�155

Annex�VIII:�Glossary�..................................................................................................................................�166

� �

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Table�of�Figures��Figure�1�MENA�population�under�25�years�of�age.�.....................................................................................�16 Figure�2�Total�Fertility�Rate,�1989�&�2009.�.................................................................................................�17 Figure�3�Adolescent�Fertility�Rates.�............................................................................................................�18 Figure�4�Youth�Fertility�Rate.�......................................................................................................................�19 Figure�5�Ratio�of�change�in�adolescent�and�youth�fertility�rates.�...............................................................�20 Figure�6�Probability�of�death�as�a�percentage�(ages�10Ͳ24,�1996Ͳ2006).�...................................................�22 Figure�7�Probability�of�death�as�a�percentage�(ages�10Ͳ19,�1996Ͳ2006).�...................................................�23 Figure�8�Probability�of�death�as�a�percentage�(ages�15Ͳ24,�1996Ͳ2006).�...................................................�24 Figure�9�Percentage�of�total�population�living�in�absolute�poverty�(less�than�$1.25�per�day)�...................�31 Figure�10�Percentage�of�the�total�population�living�in�relative�poverty�(less�than�$2�per�day)�.................�32 Figure�11�Per�annum�percentage�change�in�absolute�and�relative�poverty�rates�......................................�32 Figure�12�Youth�working�poverty�rate,�ages�15Ͳ24,�2005.�..........................................................................�35 Figure�13�Minimum�legal�age�of�marriage.�.................................................................................................�41 Figure�14�Percentage�of�women�age�20Ͳ24�married�before�age�18.�..........................................................�42 Figure�15�Percentage�of�students�(age�13Ͳ15)�currently�smoking�cigarettes.�............................................�46 Figure�16�Percentage�of�students�(ages�13Ͳ15)�who�are�obese.�................................................................�48 Figure�17�Proportion�of�population�below�the�minimum�level�of�dietary�energy�consumption�by�sub�region.�.........................................................................................................................................................�49 Figure�18�Percentage�of�students�(ages�13Ͳ15)�experiencing�food�insecurity.�..........................................�50 Figure�19�Primary�causes�of�death�and�disability,�men�ages�15Ͳ29.�...........................................................�51 Figure�20�Primary�causes�of�death�and�disability,�women�ages�15Ͳ29�.�.....................................................�52 Figure�21�Percentage�of�students�aged�13Ͳ15�who�felt�lonely�most�or�all�of�the�time�during�the�preceding�12�months.�..................................................................................................................................................�53 Figure�22�HIV�prevalence�by�gender.�..........................................................................................................�61 Figure�23�Gross�Enrollment�Ratio,�secondary�school.�................................................................................�66 Figure�24�Youth�literacy�rate�by�gender�.....................................................................................................�68 Figure�25�Regional�youth�unemployment�rates�.........................................................................................�82 Figure�26�Youth�labor�force�participation�rates�..........................................................................................�82 Figure�27�CountryͲspecific�labor�force�participation�rates�.........................................................................�86 Figure�28�Youth�unemployment�rates,�by�gender�......................................................................................�89 Figure�29�Net�migration�(thousands).�.........................................................................................................�94 Figure�30�Net�migration�per�1,000�population�...........................................................................................�95 Figure�31�Percentage�of�youth�reporting�"that�they�are�likely�to�move�away�from�the�city�or�area�where�they�currently�live.�......................................................................................................................................�97 Figure�32�Percentage�of�students�(ages�13Ͳ15)�physically�attacked�in�the�past�year.�..............................�105 Figure�33�Percent�of�females�reporting�Female�Genital�Mutilation/Cutting�............................................�108 Figure�34�Total�Population�of�Concern�by�UNHCR�Regions,�2008�............................................................�115 Figure�35�Population�of�Concern�by�MENA�country�of�asylum�................................................................�116 Figure�36�Demographic�data�coverage�for�Population�of�Concern�..........................................................�117 Figure�37�Net�refugee�flow�by�country�of�asylum�....................................................................................�118

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Table�of�Tables�Table�1�Percent�of�regional�populations�living�in�absolute�vs.�relative�poverty………………………………………30��Table�2�Change�in�absolute�poverty�rate�as�a�percentage�of�change�in�relative�poverty�rate…………………33�Table�3:��Regional�fertility�rates�and�maternal�mortality�rates……………………………………………………………….43�Table�4�Reported�HIV�cases……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………57��Table�5�Young�women�with�comprehensive,�correct�HIV�knowledge�in�MENA�countries……………………….58�Table�6�Distribution�of�Migrants�from�Select�MENA�Countries………………………………………………………………93�Table�7�YouthͲspecific�organizations�in�MENA……………………………………………………………………………………..100�Table�8�Birth�registration�rates,�2000Ͳ2007………………………………………………………………………………………….103�Table�9�Child�Discipline�and�Domestic�Violence……………………………………………………………………………………104�Table�10�Prohibition�of�Corporal�Punishment�in�MENA�Countries………………………………………………………..107�Table�11:�Children�in�Detention�in�Available�MENA�Countries……………………………………………………………..110��

Table�of�Diagrams�Diagram�1�Sample�population�pyramid�in�society�experiencing�a�“Youth�Bulge”……………………………………26�Diagram�2�Population�pyramid�of�MENA�region�and�world…………………………………………………………………..27�Diagram�3�2007�adult�HIV�prevalence�estimates.�………………………………………………………………………………….57�Diagram�4�SubͲregional�dependency�ratios,�1950Ͳ2050………………………………………………………………………..85�Diagram�5�Share�of�unemployed�youth�in�total�unemployed�and�age�transition�in�LFPR…………………….87��

Please�note�that�figures�and�tables�in�the�report�were�created�by�the�authors�with�data�from�the�source�cited.� Diagrams� are� figures� from� other� publications� which� are� reproduced� in� the� Review.� Both� the�publication�and� the�original� source�of� the�data�are�cited�whenever�possible.�When�data� for�a�country�were�not�available,�that�country�was�omitted�from�the�figure.�

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Acronyms�and�Abbreviations��CEDAW�� Convention�on�the�Elimination�of�all�Forms�of�Discrimination�against�Women�CSEE�&�CIS� Central�and�SouthͲeastern�Europe�(nonͲEU)�&�Commonwealth�of�Independent�States�

(ILO�region)�CRC� � Convention�of�the�Rights�of�the�Child�DALY� � DisabilityͲadjusted�Life�Year�DevInfo� a�database,�formerly�known�as�ChildInfo,�with�UN�Development�Group�endorsement�EA� East�Asia�(ILO�region)�EAP� � East�Asia�and�the�Pacific�(World�Bank�region)�ECA� � Europe�and�Central�Asia�(World�Bank�region)�EMRO� � Eastern�Mediterranean�Regional�Office,�WHO�ESCWA� � United�Nations�Economic�and�Social�Commission�for�Western�Asia�DEEU� � Developed�economies�and�European�Union�(ILO�region)�GCC� � Gulf�Cooperation�Council:�Bahrain,�Kuwait,�Oman,�Qatar,�Saudi�Arabia,�&�UAE�GER� � Gross�Enrollment�Ratio�HDI� � Human�Development�Index�HIV�and�AIDS� Human�Immunodeficiency�Virus�and�Acquired�Immunodeficiency�Syndrome�ICT� � Information�and�Communication�Technology�IDP�� � Internally�Displaced�Persons�ILO� � International�Labour�Organization�FGM/C� � Female�genital�mutilation/cutting�LABORSTA� an�International�Labour�Office�database�on�labor�statistics�LAC� � Latin�America�&�Caribbean�(World�Bank�region,�ILO�region)�LAS� � League�of�Arab�States�LFPR� � Labor�Force�Participation�Rate�MDG� � Millennium�Development�Goal�MENA� � Middle�East�and�North�Africa�MENARO� Middle�East�and�North�Africa�Regional�Office,�UNICEF�MICS� � Multiple�Indicator�Cluster�Survey�MICS4� � 4th�Round�of�the�Multiple�Indicator�Cluster�Survey�NER� � Net�Enrollment�Ratio�NGO� � NonͲgovernmental�organization�oPt� � occupied�Palestinian�territory�PSER� � Primary�School�Enrollment�Ratio�PAPFAM� PanͲArab�Project�for�Family�Health�SA� � South�Asia�(World�Bank�region,�ILO�region)�SEA&P� � SouthͲeast�Asia�and�the�Pacific�SSA� � SubͲSaharan�Africa�(World�Bank�region,�ILO�region)�SSER� � Secondary�School�Enrollment�Ratio�

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TFR� � Total�Fertility�Rate�TIMMS� � Trends�in�International�Mathematics�and�Science�Study�UAE� � United�Arab�Emirates�UNAIDS�� Joint�United�Nations�Programme�on�HIV/AIDS�UNDESA� United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs�UNDP� � United�Nations�Development�Programme�UNESCO� United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific�and�Cultural�Organization�UNFPA� � United�Nations�Population�Fund�UNHCR�� United�Nations�High�Commissioner�for�Refugees�UNICEF�� United�Nations�Children’s�Fund�UNODC�� United�Nations�Office�on�Drugs�and�Crime�WB� � The�World�Bank�WDI� � World�Development�Indicators,�published�by�the�World�Bank�WHO� � World�Health�Organization�WPAY� � United�Nations�World�Programme�of�Action�for�Youth�to�the�Year�2000�and�Beyond��

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Executive�Summary��

The� Middle� East� and� North� Africa� (MENA)� region� is� experiencing� an� unprecedented� boom� in� the�numbers�of�young�people.�All�countries�in�the�region�have�a�youth�population�(here�defined�as�ages�10Ͳ24)� comprising� 22� to� 36� percent� of� the� total� population;� proportions� unlikely� to� change� in� the� near�future.� The� growing�numbers�of� youth� (projected� at� 121�million� for� the� region� in� 2009)�presents� an�exciting�window�of�opportunity�for�the�countries�of�the�region�to�capitalize�on�this�abundance�of�young�people�and�to�translate�it�into�human,�material�and�economic�gains.�To�convert�this�potential�asset�into�tangible�social�development�gains,�countries�have�to�ensure�that�the�policy�environment�enables�young�people�to�realize�their�full�potential�and�capacities.�To�be�effective,�the�diverse�needs�of�young�people�have�to�be�addressed�by�a�range�of�public�and�private�agencies�and�institutions,�each�with�a�distinctive�contribution� to� make� to� youth� wellͲbeing.� UNICEF� thus� presents� this� Review� of� key� domains� for�assessing�the�quality�of� life� for�young�people�across�the�20�countries� in�the�UNICEF�MENA�region�and�proposes�core�and�extended�youth�indicator�lists�for�the�region.��

The�Review�focuses�primarily�on�a�regional�overview�of�trends�and�issues,�and�is�not�a�detailed�analysis�of�country�data�nor�a�study�of� intraͲregional�comparisons.�For�each�of�ten�key�domains� (demography,�poverty,� health,�HIV� and�AIDS,� education,� economic� participation,�migration,� civic� engagement,� child�protection,�and�conflict�and�emergency),�the�Review�highlights�trends�and�assesses�the�state�of�data�and�indicators�for�each�one.�A�summary�follows.�

Both�relative�and�absolute�poverty�rates�for�the�general�population�in�MENA�compare�favorably�to�other�global� regions,�although�youthͲspecific�poverty�estimates�are�not�generally�available.�Great�disparities�persist�within�the�region.�The�World�Bank�estimates�that�3.6�percent�of�the�MENA�region’s�population�lived� in� absolute�poverty� in�2005,�defined� as� less� than�$1.25�per�day,�whereas�16.9�percent� lived� in�relative� poverty� (<$2� per� day).� ILO� estimates� of� regional� youth�working� poverty� rates� indicate� that�almost�40�percent�of�MENA’s�employed�youth�were�living�on�less�than�$2�a�day�in�2005.�

Regional�estimates�suggest�that�the�primary�causes�of�death�and�disability�for�MENA’s�youth�are�injuries,�especially� roadͲtraffic� accidents,�mental�health� and�maternal�health� conditions.�As� in�other�domains,�data�on�health�are� incomplete.�Data�on�young�peoples’� sexual�and� reproductive�health�are� limited� in�most�cases� to� fertility�data.�Estimates�of�HIV�prevalence� in�MENA�countries� remain� low� compared� to�other�global�regions�and�cases�are�concentrated�in�highͲrisk�groups.�Child�marriage�remains�common�in�many�countries�in�the�region.�Tobacco�use�is�an�emerging�threat�to�young�people’s�health�in�the�region,�while�data�on�use�of�other�substances�are�largely�absent.�Malnutrition�persists�in�some�areas;�obesity�is�a�rising�concern.��

In�recent�decades,�MENA�has�seen�enormous�gains� in�access�to�formal�education.�Many�countries�are�approaching�or�have�achieved�full�enrollment�in�basic�education.�Secondary�and�tertiary�education�rates�are�on�a�par�with�other�countries�at�comparable�levels�of�development.�Nevertheless,�enrollment�rates�for�girls�lag�behind�those�for�boys�in�half�of�the�countries�in�the�region,�while�enrollment�rates�for�both�sexes�are� low� in�several�of�the�region’s�poorer�countries.�Education�quality� is�uneven�and�represents�a�

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continuing�challenge.�An�effective�transition�from�school�to�decent�employment�remains�an�unrealized�goal�for�many�youth.�Although�young�people�in�MENA�comprise�approximately�oneͲthird�of�the�workingͲage� population,� they� account� for� almost� 50� per� cent� of� the� region’s� total� unemployment.� The� ILO�estimated�youth�unemployment� in� the� region�at�22�percent� in�2007.�Many�MENA�youth�and�parents�prefer�public�sector�employment.�As�private�sector�growth�has�not�kept�pace�with�the�rapid�expansion�of� the� labor� force,� informal� jobs�are�often� the�only� choice.�Young�women� face�additional�barriers� to�obtaining�decent�employment.��

Migration�in�MENA�is�generally�of�three�types:�rural�to�urban�(domestic),�intraͲregional�(within�MENA),�and� interͲregional� (outside�MENA).�Due� to� gaps� in� data,� it� is� difficult� to� estimate� the� percentage� of�foreign�workers�who� are� adolescents� or� youths� or� the� flow� of� young�migrants�within� the� region.� In�general� cultural� norms� create� a� barrier� for�women�wanting� to�migrate,� as� do� the� lack� of� economic�opportunities�available�to�women�generally.�In�2008,�there�were�an�estimated�six�million�refugees,�IDPs,�asylumͲseekers�and�stateless�persons�in�the�UNHCR�region.�

Available�data�indicate�that�civic�and�political�participation�among�MENA�youth�remains�limited,�though�the�spread�of� Information�and�Communication�Technologies� (ICT)� is�allowing�youth� to�engage� in� their�communities�in�nonͲtraditional�ways.�

Data�on�child�protection� trends�point� to� important�shortfalls� in�safeguarding�young�people�across� the�region.�Exposure�to�violence�is�widespread.�Female�genital�mutilation/cutting�(FGM/C)�remains�common�in�four�countries.�Legal�systems�are�poorly�adapted�to�the�unique�needs�of�juvenile�offenders.�Nearly�six�million�orphans�live�in�the�region,�while�efforts�to�enumerate�the�number�of�street�children�have�failed�to�produce�an�estimate�of�this�sizable�and�vulnerable�population.�

Several�countries� in�the�MENA�region�currently�experience�precarious�security�conditions.�Adolescents�and� young� people,� in� addition� to� suffering� the� effects� of� conflict� and� emergency,� are� also� potential�agents� for�positive� change.�Engaging� young�people� in� the�dialogue�of�peace�may�help�protect� states�against�instability.�

While�the�population�trends�mentioned�above�have�resulted�in�increased�attention�towards�the�role�of�youth� in�MENA� society,� data� collection� efforts� have� not� kept� pace�with� this� newͲfound� interest.� A�recurring�theme�in�the�Review�is�the�critical�need�for�complete�and�timely�data�for�youth�in�all�countries�of� the� region.� Data� collection� efforts� must� strive� for� complete� inclusion� of� the� youth� population,�including�vulnerable�populations.�Results�disaggregated�by�fiveͲyear�age�group,�sex�and�other�relevant�characteristics,�such�as�socioͲeconomic�status,�highlight�disparities�and�allow�users�to�tailor�measures�to�subͲgroups�of� interest.�A� central,�publicallyͲaccessible�database�of� current� and�historic� youth�data,� if�established�and�supported,�could�expedite�dissemination�and�promote�evidenceͲbased�youth�policy�and�programming.�

Much�of�the�data�currently�available�on�youth�consist�of�objective�measures�and�fail�to�capture�a�holistic�picture� of� contemporary� youth� experiences� in� the� region.� New� indicators� are� needed� to� describe�important� constructs,� such� as� identity� and� job�quality.�Data�producers� also�have� to� advocate� for� the�collection� of� information� in� sensitive� and� illegal� areas,� such� as� substance� abuse� and� extraͲmarital�

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sexuality,� in�order�to�understand�the�situation�of�youth�and�to�create�policies�to�promote�a�successful�transition�to�adulthood.�UNICEF’s�upcoming�round�of�the�household�survey,�MICS4,�presents�an�exciting�opportunity�to�gain�insight�into�the�youth�experience.�

In�the�years�ahead,� it�will�be�critical� for�the�MENA�countries� to�continue� to� improve�their�systems� for�monitoring�all�aspects�of�the�experience�of�adolescents�and�youth� in�the�region,�so�that�countries�can�better�understand�young�peoples'�capabilities�and�needs,�and�in�turn�maximize�the�promise�offered�by�the�next�generation.�UNICEF�is�poised�to�take�a�leadership�role�in�this�effort.��

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1. Introduction��

Young�people�must�be�endowed�with� the� knowledge,� skills�and� capacities�necessary� to�assume� their�roles�as�adults.�Investment�in�the�adolescents�and�youth�of�today�is�the�foundation�of�future�prosperity.�The�Middle�East�and�North�Africa� (MENA)�region�has�the�ability�to�shape�the�future�by� investing� in� its�youth.�Despite�significant�challenges,� the�burgeoning�young�population�has� the�capacity� to�propel� the�region�forward�and�to�deliver�on�the�promise�of�a�greater�tomorrow.�With�more�than�half�of�the�region’s�people� under� the� age� of� 25,�MENA� has� the� opportunity� to� strengthen� its� economies,� empower� its�citizens,�and�guarantee�the�fundamental�rights�of�all�within� its�borders.�Leaders�throughout�the�region�seek�development�that�can�be�facilitated�by�investing�in�the�utility�of�the�region’s�young�people.�The�first�step�on� this�path� is� to� create� an�enabling� and� supportive�environment� for� adolescents� and� youth� to�realize�their�potential.��

Increased� attention� to� the�needs�of� young�people� is� a� common� theme� across�many� countries� in� the�region.� The� renewed� efforts� of�many� countries� to�meaningfully� address� young� people’s� needs� have�revealed�the�paucity�of�data�on�MENA’s�youth�and�adolescents.�DecisionͲmakers�must�be�empowered�to�create�policies�and�programs� that�are�efficient�and�effective�by�drawing�on� reliable� information.�The�situation� of� the� region’s� young� people� lacks� comprehensive� analysis,� and� therefore� requires� novel�approaches�to�assessing�adolescents’�and�youths’�assets�and�vulnerabilities.�

This� Desk� Review,� commissioned� by� the� UNICEF� MENA� Regional� Office,� takes� a� close� look� at� the�situation�of�adolescents�and�youth�age�10� to�24� in� the�MENA� region�with�a�view� to� informing�such�a�comprehensive�approach.� In�assessing� the�status�of�key�aspects�of�young�peoples’� lives� in�MENA,� the�Review� analyzes� what� is� known� about� adolescents� and� youth� in� the� region,� and� also� outlines�fundamental� gaps� in� current� knowledge.� As� such,� it� seeks� to� highlight� both� the� knowns� and� the�unknowns:�the�situation�today,�and�what�planners�will�need�to�know�in�the�future.�By�closing�the�gaps,�decisionͲmakers�in�MENA�can�create�more�effective�and�efficient�policy,�enabling�them�to�deliver�on�the�promise�of�young�people.�

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2. Methodological�note���

The�Review�focuses�primarily�on�a�regional�overview�of�trends�and�issues,�and�is�not�intended�to�analyze�country� data� nor� to�make� intraͲregional� comparisons.� Some� countryͲspecific� information� is� raised� in�order�to�highlight�or� illustrate�a�particular�trend�or� issue.�For�a�detailed� list�of�references�reviewed�for�this�exercise,�please�refer�to�Annex�VII.���

Defining�age�scope�The�Review�uses� the� following�age�definitions:�Children:�0Ͳ17� years;�Adolescents:�10Ͳ19� years;�Young�People:�10Ͳ24�years;�and/or�Youth:�15Ͳ24�years.�

A�major� constraint�of�existing�data� sources� is� incomplete� coverage�across� the� full�age� span�of�young�people,�10Ͳ24�years�old.�Many�excellent�data� sources� include�only� children�or�youth,� for�example,�or�define�youth�as�15Ͳ29�year�olds.� In�order� to� fully�understand� the�situation�of�young�people� in�MENA,�data�must�be�obtained�for�the�entire�population�of�young�people.�Please�see�the�Bridging�Discrepancies�in�Definitions�section�for�more�information.�

Defining�the�MENA�region�The�MENA� region� is� defined� for� this� report� using� the� UNICEF� regional� definition:� Algeria,� Bahrain,�Djibouti,�Egypt,�Iran,�Iraq,�Jordan,�Kuwait,�Lebanon,�Libya,��Morocco,�occupied�Palestinian�territory�(oPt),�Oman,�Qatar,� Saudi�Arabia,� Syria,� Sudan,�Tunisia,�UAE,�and�Yemen.�Other� agencies�define� the�MENA�region�differently�or�use�different�terminology�to�refer�to�the�region�(e.g.,�Eastern�Mediterranean,�Arab�States,�Western�Asia,�or� simply�Middle� East�or�North�Africa� separately).� �Annex�VI�provides� a� list�of�major� international� agencies� and� their� regional� definitions� of�MENA� or� the� closest� equivalent.� � For�consistency,� the�Review�refers� to� the�MENA�region,�using� this� term�exclusively.� �When�citing�a�source�with� a� different� regional� definition,� differences� in� regional� groupings� are� highlighted.� Any� lack� of�regional�convergences�due�to�interagency�differences�in�defining�MENA�is�properly�identified�in�the�text.�

The�lack�of�convergence�among�international�agencies�in�defining�the�geographical�bounds�of�the�MENA�region� contributes� to� the�data� gaps� for� young�people� in� the� region.�When� agencies�provide� regional�averages�for�MENA,�these�figures�may�only�approximate�the�true�value�for�UNICEF’s�MENA�region�when�the�data�collector�has�used�a�different� list�of�countries� in� its�regional�definition.�Furthermore,�regional�data�collection�efforts� led�by�other�agencies�may�result� in�a�partial� list�of�national�figures�for�UNICEF’s�MENA�region�when�an�alternative�list�of�countries�in�the�region�is�used.��

Defining�adolescent�and�youth�indicators�The�Review�examined�the�Youth�Development� Index� (YDI).�Spearheaded�by�UNDESA,� it�represents�the�only� intraͲagency� effort� to�define� common� youth� indicators.� Furthermore,� it� reviewed� the� indicators�used� and� data� available� from� other� sources,� including� the� MDGs,� UNICEF� MENARO’s� 2006� List� of�Indicators�on�Adolescents,�ChildInfo,�the�World�Youth�Report,�World�Development�Indicators,�the�Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�Survey,�Global�Youth�Tobacco�Survey�and�others.��

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Annexes�III�and�IV�list�the�proposed�indicators�and�describe�the�intended�uses�of�each.�These�lists�were�created�through�a�process�of�expert�consultation�with� leaders�at�both�Harvard�School�of�Public�Health�and� the�UNICEF�MENA�Regional�Office.�A� list�of� indicators�drafted� for� an� earlier� version�of� the�desk�review�served�as�an�additional�source.�

Desk�Review�process��The�Review� is�organized�by�domain,� taking� in� turn�each�of� the�major�areas�affecting�youth.�For�each�domain,� the�Review�summarizes� the�status�of�youth� in� the� region,� the�status�of�data�on�youth� in� the�region�and�recommendations�for�improving�current�knowledge.�

The�Review�was� initiated�with�a� study�of� secondary�data� sets�and�analyses�produced�by�UNICEF,�UN�agencies,�World�Bank,�League�of�Arab�States,� international� research� institutions�and�others.�Materials�reviewed� include� regional� and� global� reports� on� young� people,� as�well� as� general� reports� involving�young� people� in� the� region� and� globally� (see�Annex�VII).� Since� the�Review� focuses� on� regional� data�rather� than� countryͲspecific� data,� individual� country� MICS� or� DHS� surveys� were� not� individually�reviewed,�although�data�sources�were� referred� to� throughout� the�process.�Where� regional�data�were�not�available�through� international�databases�because�regional�selection�was� incompatible�(as�was�the�case�with�ILO,�UNESCO),�global�and�regional�reports�generating�regional�comparisons�were�consulted.��

Organization�of�Desk�Review�report���The�Review�contains�an�overview�of�the�current�status�of�data�on�adolescents�and�youth� in�MENA�and�an�assessment�of�current�trends�and�issues�facing�young�people�in�MENA�today.��The�latter�also�includes�recommendations� on� ways� to� close� the� existing� knowledge� gaps� and� improve� data� collection� and�analysis�on�young�people� in�the�region.�The�annexes�provide�supporting�documentation�and�additional�information,�including�a�set�of�core�indicators�that�provide�a�snapshot�of�the�situation�for�youth�in�each�MENA�country.�

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A. Bridging�discrepancies�in�definitions�Disparities� in�age�group�classifications�by�different�organizations�complicate�comparative�analysis,�and�reduce� the� utility� of� data� that� is� available.� For� example,� the� WHO� disaggregates� age� into� three�categories:�0Ͳ14,�15Ͳ29,�or�simply�15Ͳ64,�with�no�disaggregation�for�adolescents,�youth�or�young�people.�UNICEF,�on� the�other�hand,�works�with�children� (below�18�years�of�age),� though�occasionally� further�disaggregates� into� smaller� categories,� including�youth�and�adolescents.�UNDESA,� the�publisher�of� the�recent�World�Youth�Report�2007,�presented�data� conforming� to� the�UN�definition�of� youth�as� those�aged�between�15�and�24,�but�further�disaggregated�this�category�into�two�age�groups:�15Ͳ19�and�20Ͳ24�to�capture�differences�between�younger�and�older�youths.�The�ILO’s�international�database�presents�its�labor�statistics�in�the�same�manner.��UNHCR�defines�youth�as�individuals�aged�5�to�17.�The�World�Bank’s�World�Development�Report�2007�broadened�the�definition�of�youth�to�include�all�ages�between�12�and�24.� � Private� organizations,� such� as� Gallup� Inc.� and� the�World� Values� Survey� each� have� their� own�definition�of�youth.�Additionally,�for�some�topic�areas,�surveys�of�students�are�the�best�current�source�of�data,�and� surveys�poll� students�whose�age� range�does�not�align�with�other�organizations.�The�Global�SchoolͲbased� Student� Health� Survey,� for� example,� polls� primarily� students� who� are� 13� to� 15.�Compounding� these� inconsistencies� are� varying� definitions� between� countries,� some� of�which� have�linked� the� ‘legal�age�of�majority’Ͳ� typically�18�years� Ͳ�with� the�definition�of�youth.1�As�a� result,� some�reports�are�inconsistent�across�countries,�such�as�the�WHO’s�Surveillance�of�Chronic�Disease�Risk�Factor�Report,�which�reports�obesity�data�for�different�age�groups�depending�on�the�country.�

For�data� to�be�most�useful� to�national�and� international�bodies�alike,� it� should�be�disaggregated�and�classified� according� to� the� established� definitions� set� forth� by� the� United� Nations,� and� in� some�circumstances,� in�smaller�component�age�groups.�Not�only�will�this�classification�yield�a�more�detailed�picture�of�the�phenomenon�of� interest,�but�will�allow�for�ease�of�comparison�with�other�organizations�and�situations,�better�informing�the�policy�and�program�development�process.�

See� also� Annex� VI� for� more� information� on� institutional� definitions� of� the� MENA� region.

������������������������������������������������������������1�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund,�Young�People�in�the�East�Asia�and�Pacific�Region:�Indicator�and�Data�Issues,�UNICEF,�East�Asia�and�the�Pacific�Regional�Office,�2007.�

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3. Demographic�trends��

Both�national�and� international�estimates� indicate� that�more� than�half�of� the� total�population� in� the�MENA�region� is�under�the�age�of�25.�While�the�age�distributions�of�the�populations�of�countries� in�the�region� vary� widely,� it� is� estimated� that� the� underͲ25� population� in� MENA� region� constitutes�approximately�53�percent�of�the�total�population;�the�second�highest�proportion�in�the�world�after�subͲSaharan� Africa� (63� percent).2� Adolescents� and� youth� each� constitute� over� 20� percent� of� the� total�population,� comprising�20�percent�and�21�percent�of� the� region’s�396�million�people� respectively,�as�depicted� in� Figure� 1.� The� demographic� shift� currently� underway� has� serious� social� and� economic�implications�for�individual�countries�and�the�region�as�a�whole.�At�present,�it�is�estimated�that�there�are�approximately�121�million�young�people�in�MENA.�That�figure�is�expected�to�grow�to�around�133�million�by�2015;�an�increase�of�12�million�young�people�in�six�years.3�Over�the�same�period,�however,�the�total�MENA�population� is�expected�to� increase�by�approximately�109�million,�as�the�current� large�cohort�of�youth� and� adolescents� passes� age� 25.� As� a� result,� the� youth� and� adolescent� component� of� the�population� will� fall� from� its� current� level� of� 31� percent� to� approximately� 26� percent� of� the� total.�Similarly,� the�proportion�of� the� total� regional�population�comprised�of�young�people�will� fall� from� its�current� level�of�53�percent� to�45�percent�by�2025.�As� today’s�young�people�make� the� transition� from�youth� and� adolescents� to� adulthood,� this� wave� of� new� adults� will� place� new� demands� on� social�resources� and� infrastructure.� The�public� and� private� sectors�of� today’s�MENA� region�have� to� rapidly�evolve�to�fulfill�this�demand�if�they�are�to�fully�harness�the�potential�of�current�and�future�generations.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������2United�States�Census�Bureau�International�Database,�http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/,�accessed�17�September�2009.��3United�Nations�Population�Division,�World�Population�Prospects:�The�2008�Revision�Population�Database,�http://esa.un.org/unpp/,�accessed�17�September�2009.

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Figure�1�MENA�population�under�25�years�of�age.��

Source:�UN�Population�Division�2009�estimates�

Fertility�in�MENA�As� with� estimates� of� the� population� distributions� of� countries� in�MENA,� fertility� rates� vary� widely�throughout�the�region�(Figure�2).�A�country’s�Total�Fertility�Rate�(TFR)�is�the�average�number�of�children�a�woman�would�be�expected�to�bear�throughout�her�lifetime�if�she�experienced�the�currently�observed�ageͲspecific� fertility� rates�until� the�end�of�her� reproductive� life.�Some�countries� in�MENA�exhibit�TFRs�much�lower�than�the�global�average�(2.56),�such�as�Algeria�(1.79),�Iran�(1.71),�Lebanon�(1.85)�and�Tunisia�(1.72).�Others,�however,�exhibit� very�high�TFRs,� such�as�Oman� (5.53),� Sudan� (4.48)�and�Yemen� (5).4,5�When� countries� exhibit� a� TFR� above� replacement� level,� usually� around� 2.1,� their� population� will�increase,�while� if� it� is� below,� the� size� of� the� population�will� decrease� in� size� in� the� longer� term.�As�displayed� in� Figure� 2,� most� countries� in� the� region� exhibit� TFRs� in� excess� of� replacement� level,�contributing� to� the� projected� population� increase� described� above.� As� such,� the� high� proportion� of�young�people� in�MENA�countries’� total�populations� today�are�primarily� the� result�of�high�TFRs� in� the�past.�While�other�considerations�such�as�life�expectancy,�migration�and�the�trend�in�TFR�both�before�and�after�the�birth�of�this�cohort�of�young�people�contribute�to�the�population�distribution,�past�high�TFRs,�in�conjunction�with� TFR� reductions� since� then,�has� resulted� in� today’s�high� young�personͲtoͲpopulation�ratio.� It� is� for� this� reason,� in� addition� to� trends� in�migration� and� life� expectancy� at� birth,� that� the�continued�decline�in�the�TFR�of�many�MENA�countries�will�result�in�a�lower�proportion�of�young�people�in�MENA� in� the� future.� In�2007,� the�Population�Reference�Bureau�estimated� that� the�overall� share�of�������������������������������������������������������������4�United�States�Census�Bureau�International�Database,�http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/,�accessed�17�September�2009.�5�Gaza’s�TFR�is�one�of�the�highest�in�the�region�at�5.03;�however�the�West�Bank’s�is�3.22.�Therefore,�the�weighted�average�TFR�of�the��oPt�is�3.92�based�on�2009�estimates.

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youth� in�MENA�will�drop� to�17�percent�by�2025,� from� its�current� level�of�approximately�21�percent.6�Those�countries�with�a� lower�TFR�are� likely� to� see� this�change� the� soonest,�as� the�current�youth�and�adolescent�bulge�moves�into�adulthood,�while�those�with�a�higher�TFR�may�expect�a�later�transition.�

Figure�2�Total�Fertility�Rate,�1989�&�2009.��

Source:�US�Census�Bureau�International�Database.�

Adolescent�(15Ǧ19)�Fertility�in�MENA�Over� the�past� 30� years,� the� adolescent� fertility� rate�has� fallen� in� all�but� two� countries� in� the�MENA�region;�Egypt,�where� it�has� increased�by�26�births�per�1,000�adolescent�women,�and�oPt,�where� it�has�increased�by�5�births�per�1,000�adolescent�women�(Figure�3).�In�all�other�countries�in�the�MENA�region,�the�adolescent�fertility�rate�has�fallen�by�at�least�90�births�per�1,000�woman;�a�significant�reduction�from�previous� levels.� In�1970Ͳ75,�only�six�countries�with�available�data�exhibited�an�adolescent� fertility�rate�lower� than� the�world� average� of� 71� births� per� 1,000�women� aged� 15Ͳ19,�while� 11� had� adolescent�fertility�rates�higher�than�the�world�average.�For�the�period�2000Ͳ2005,�however,�only�three�countries�had�an�adolescent�fertility�rate�greater�than�the�world�average�of�55�births�per�1,000�women�aged�15Ͳ19:�the�oPt�(60),�Syria�(58),�and�Yemen�(83).�Due�to�the�marked�reduction�in�adolescent�fertility�over�the�past� 30� years� by� all� countries� except� two� of� those�with� data� between� 1970� and� 1975,� the� region’s�average�adolescent�fertility�rate�is�now�significantly�below�the�global�average.�Of�countries�in�the�MENA�region,�Algeria�(6),�Libya�(7)�and�Tunisia�(8)�currently�report�the�lowest�adolescent�fertility�rates.�������������������������������������������������������������6�Population�Reference�Bureau.�Youth�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Demographic�Opportunity�or�Challenge?�PRB,�Washington�DC,�April,�2007.�

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Figure�3�Adolescent�Fertility�Rates.��

Source:�UN�Population�Division,�World�Fertility�Patterns�2007.�

Youth�(20Ǧ24)�fertility�in�MENA�Youth�fertility� in�the�region�has�also�shown�a�marked�decline�(Figure�4).� In�the�period�1970Ͳ1975,�only�Egypt� (157),�Lebanon� (184)�and�Qatar� (169)�were�below� the�global�average�youth� fertility� rate�of�231�births�per�1,000�women�aged�20Ͳ24.�The�remaining�14�countries�for�which�data�are�available�displayed�ageͲspecific�fertility�rates�higher�than�the�global�average,�most�notably�Bahrain�(411)�and�Oman�(409).�Since�the�early�seventies,�the�fertility�rate�for�the�20Ͳ24�age�group�has�fallen�dramatically� in�all�MENA�countries�except�Egypt�(increasing�by�25�births�per�1,000�women�aged�20Ͳ24)�and�the�oPt�(where�it�has�decreased�by�9�births�per�1,000�women�aged�20Ͳ24;�a�relatively�small�decrease).�All�but�three�countries�have�fertility�rates�in�the�20Ͳ24�age�group�lower�than�the�world�average�in�2000Ͳ2006�of�159�births�per�1,000�women:�the�oPt�(233),�Syria�(165),�and�Yemen�(245).�

� �

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Figure�4�Youth�Fertility�Rate.��

Source:�UN�Population�Division,�World�Fertility�Patterns�2007.�

Adolescent�(15Ǧ29)�versus�youth�(20Ǧ24)�fertility�rates�Most�countries� in�the�region�now�have�fertility�rates�for�age�groups�15Ͳ19�and�20Ͳ24�below�the�world�average.�While� the�absolute�ageͲspecific� fertility� rates�may�have�both�decreased,� this�change�has�not�been�proportional.�Figure�5�displays�the�ratio�of�reductions�in�the�ageͲspecific�fertility�rates�of�both�age�groups.�Countries�with�a�value�greater� than�one�have�decreased� their�adolescent� (15Ͳ19)� fertility� rate�faster�than�their�youth� (20Ͳ24)�fertility�rate,�while�those�with�a�value�of� less�than�one�have�decreased�their� youth� fertility� rate� faster� than� their� adolescent� fertility� rate.� In� the� case� of� Egypt,� the� change�represents� the� ratio�of� increasing�ageͲspecific� fertility� rates.� In�Egypt,� the�adolescent� fertility� rate�has�increased�at�only�14�percent�the�rate�of�the�youth�fertility�rate.�Data�from�the�oPt�are�not�displayed,�as�the�adolescent�fertility�rate�has�increased�in�the�Territory,�while�the�youth�rate�has�decreased.�

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Figure�5�Ratio�of�change�in�adolescent�and�youth�fertility�rates.��

Source:�UN�Population�Division,�World�Fertility�Patterns�2007.�

As�presented�in�Figure�5,�the�youth�fertility�rate�has�fallen�faster�than�the�adolescent�fertility�rate�in�all�countries�available�for�comparison�except�for�Lebanon�and�Syria,�where�the�adolescent�rate�has�fallen�faster.�As�such,�the�percentage�reduction�in�ageͲspecific�fertility�has�been�greater�in�the�age�group�20Ͳ24�than�amongst�the�15Ͳ19�year�olds.�While�the�percentage�reduction�has�generally�been�greater�among�those�ages�20Ͳ24,�the�adolescent�fertility�rate�has�been�falling�in�all�countries�in�the�MENA�region�over�time.�In�MENA�today,�the�20Ͳ24�age�group�contribute�more�births�to�the�Total�Fertility�Rate�than�does�the�15Ͳ19�age�group�but�greater�percentage� reductions� since� the�early�1970s�have�been� seen�among�those�aged�20Ͳ24.�

Mortality�in�MENA�Young�people�as�a�group� face�different�health�challenges� to�young�children�and�older�people.�On� the�whole,� young� people� in� the�MENA� region� experience� lower� rates� of� death� from� communicable� and�

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chronic� diseases� than� do� those� of� the� older� generation.7� � Young� people� generally,� and� young�men�specifically,� face�a�higher�burden�of�disease� from�accidents,� injuries�and�mental�health� issues.8�Young�women� in� the� region� face� the�additional� risk�of�maternal�health�complications.�Taken� together,� these�four�realms�contribute�roughly�66�percent�of�women’s�total�burden�of�disease�in�the�MENA�region,�and�approximately�71�percent�of�men’s.�The�burden�of�disease�will�be�discussed�further�in�Section�5�–�Health�trends.�

Young�people�Since�1996,�the�death�rates�for�young�people�have�declined�in�most�countries�(Figure�6).�In�the�decade�1996Ͳ2006,�only�three�countries�experienced�an�increased�probability�of�dying�between�ages�10Ͳ24:�Iraq�(increasing�6�percent),�Qatar�(increasing�0.15�percent),�and�Sudan�(increasing�0.31�percent).�In�Iraq�and�Sudan,�this�increase�may�be�explained�by�new�and�continuing�conflict.�In�2006,�Djibouti�(3�percent),�Iraq�(8�percent),�Sudan�(3�percent)�and�Yemen�(2�percent)�witnessed�the�highest�probability�of�death�in�this�age�group.�In�contrast,�Bahrain�(0.74�percent),�Kuwait�(0.64�percent)�and�the�United�Arab�Emirates�(0.55�percent)�exhibited�the�lowest�probability�of�death,�all�below�0.75�percent.�Of�all�countries�in�the�MENA�region,� Iran�has� seen� the� greatest� reduction� in� the�period�1996Ͳ2006,� falling�1.35�percent� from�2.57�percent� in�1996�to�1.22�percent� in�2006.�While�the�general�trend� in�the�probability�of�death�for�young�people� in� the� region� is� decreasing,� the� three� exceptions� of� Iraq,�Qatar� and� Sudan� require� particular�attention.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������7�World�Health�Organization,�The�Global�Burden�of�Disease,�2004�Update,�WHO,�Geneva,�2008.�World�Bank�MENA�region�(16�countries)�8�Ibid.

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Figure�6�Probability�of�death�as�a�percentage�(ages�10Ͳ24,�1996Ͳ2006).��

Source:�WHOSIS�Database.�Accessed�at:�http://apps.who.int/whosis/database/life_tables/life_tables.cfm.�

Adolescents�Similar� to� young� people� generally,� the� probability� of� dying� between� ages� 10Ͳ19� has� generally� fallen�across�MENA� (Figure�7).� In�2006,� the�probability�of�dying�was�highest� in�Djibouti� (1.58�percent),� Iraq�(2.86�percent),�Sudan�(1.7�percent)�and�Yemen�(1.39�percent).�For�Iraq�and�Sudan,�this�risk�of�death�is�an�increase�of�1.85�percent�and�0.09�percent�from�1996�levels,�respectively.�While�still�one�of�the�highest�in�the�region,�Djibouti’s�probability�of�death�for�adolescents�marks�a�reduction�of�0.39�percent.�However,�

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while�still�around� the�regional�average,� the�probability�of�death� for�adolescents� in�Qatar� increased�by�0.01�percent�from�1996�to�2006,�to�0.59�percent.�

Figure�7�Probability�of�death�as�a�percentage�(ages�10Ͳ19,�1996Ͳ2006).��

Source:�WHOSIS�Database.�Accessed�at:�http://apps.who.int/whosis/database/life_tables/life_tables.cfm.�

In�contrast,�Bahrain� (0.39�percent),�Kuwait� (0.36�percent),�Oman� (0.44�percent),�and� the�United�Arab�Emirates� (0.29�percent)�experienced�the� lowest�probability�of�death�for�adolescents� in�2006;�all�under�0.5�percent.�Bahrain,�Kuwait�and� the�United�Arab�Emirates�also�displayed� the� lowest�regional�rates� in�MENA�in�1996;�however�Qatar�previously�had�a�lower�probability�of�death�than�Oman�(0.58�percent�and�0.77�percent� respectively).� The� greatest� reduction� in� adolescent�probability� of�death�was� again� Iran,�falling�from�1.36�percent�to�0.66�percent,�a�reduction�of�0.7�percent.�

Youth�Four�countries� in�the�region�displayed�an� increase� in�the�probability�of�death�for�youth�between�1996�and�2006,�while�the�remaining�15�countries�for�which�data�were�available�displayed�a�reduction�(Figure�8).�Bahrain�and�Qatar�witnessed�increases�of�0.01�percent�and�0.22�percent,�resulting�in�probabilities�of�death�between�the�ages�of�15Ͳ24�of�0.63�percent�and�0.91�percent�respectively.�The� increase� in�youth�mortality�in�Iraq�may�be�attributable�to�conflict,�resulting�in�an�increase�of�5.33�percent�in�Iraq�to�a�2006�level�of�6.85�percent,�and�an�increase�of�0.02�percent�in�Sudan�to�a�2006�level�of�6.85�percent.�

� �

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Figure�8�Probability�of�death�as�a�percentage�(ages�15Ͳ24,�1996Ͳ2006).��

Source:�WHOSIS�Database.�Accessed�at:�http://apps.who.int/whosis/database/life_tables/life_tables.cfm.�

Four�countries� in�the�region�exhibited�a�probability�of�mortality�between�ages�15Ͳ24�of� less�than�0.75�percent:�Bahrain� (0.63�percent),�Kuwait� (0.49�percent),�Oman� (0.73�percent),�and�UAE� (0.47�percent).�Similar� to� the�adolescent�probability�of�mortality,�Bahrain,�Kuwait�and�UAE�also�had� the� lowest�youth�mortality�probability�in�1996�(0.62�percent,�0.95�percent�and�0.86�percent,�respectively);�however�Qatar�(0.69�percent)�previously�displayed�a�lower�adolescent�mortality�probability�than�Oman�(1.23�percent).�While�Qatar�had�one�of� the� lowest�mortality� risks� in� the� region� for� this�age�group� in�1996,�both� the�adolescent�and�youth�age�groups�experienced�an�increase�in�the�probability�of�death�between�1996�and�2006,�whereas�Oman�experienced�a�decrease�in�both�age�groups.�

MENA’s�demographic�shift�and�the�potential�window�of�opportunity�While� MENA’s� total� population� will� continue� to� grow� in� the� mediumͲterm� future,� the� average�population�growth�rate�peaked�in�the�latter�half�of�the�1980s�at�approximately�3�percent�per�year,�and�has�declined�to�approximately�2�percent�per�year�since.9�In�comparison,�the�global�growth�rate�peaked�in�the�midͲ1960s�at�2�percent�per�year,�and�currently�rests�at�1.2�percent�per�year.�As�noted�earlier� in�

������������������������������������������������������������9�Population�Reference�Bureau.�Youth�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Demographic�Opportunity�or�Challenge?�PRB,�Washington�DC,�April,�2007.�

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this�section,�the�size�of�a�population�depends�on�three�factors:�the�fertility�rate,�the�mortality�rate,�and�net�migration.�Estimates�of�these�three�factors�conclude�that�MENA’s�population�will�continue�to�grow�in�the�medium�term�due�to�birth�rates�above�replacement� level�and� increasing� life�expectancies� in�the�majority�of�countries.�While�there�will�be�a�greater�flow�of�migrants�leaving�MENA�than�entering10,�this�negative�factor�will�not�offset�growth�due�to�fertility�and�delayed�mortality.�Should�fertility�decrease�to�replacement� level�or�below,�the�region�will�still�experience�growth,�as�the� large�cohort�of�children�and�young�people�move�into�their�reproductive�years�and�have�children�of�their�own.�Though�this�cohort�will�be�having�fewer�children�per�person�than�the�current�adult�population,�growth�will�continue�due�to�the�larger�size�of�the�population�of�reproductive�age.��

Declining�fertility� in�the�region�will�result� in�a� ‘youth�bulge’,� in�which�the�proportion�of�the�population�comprised� of� adolescents� and� youth� peaks� and� then� declines.� The� hypothetical� population� pyramid�depicted� in�Diagram�1�displays� this�phenomenon,� as� the�proportion�of� the�population� aged�10Ͳ19� is�larger� than�any�other�10Ͳyear�age�bracket�older�or�younger.�Diagram�2�displays�a�population�pyramid�comparing� the�MENA� region� and� the� global� average� population� distribution.� The� global� population�distribution�displays�this�youth�bulge,�where�the�proportion�of�people�in�the�10Ͳ14�age�bracket�is�larger�than�any�before�or�after� it.�As�MENA’s�fertility�rate�declines,�the�number�of�children�born� in�each�new�cohort� will� decline� as� a� percentage� of� the� total� population.� As� the� ‘youth� bulge’� cohort� reaches�adolescents� and� youth,� countries� in� the� region� have� the� opportunity� to� harness� the� potential� of� a�generation� equipped� with� the� human� and� social� capital� to� propel� the� region� forward,� or�miss� the�opportunity� and� face� substantial� economic,� social� and� political� challenges� as� this� large� generation�reaches�adulthood.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������10�United�States�Census�Bureau�International�Database,�http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/,�accessed�17�September�2009.�

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Diagram�1�Sample�Population�Pyramid�in�Society�Experiencing�a�“Youth�Bulge”.��

Source:�United�Nations�Programme�on�Ageing.�Available�at:�www.un.org/ageing/popageing_demo1.html.��

� �

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Diagram�2�Population�Pyramid�of�MENA�Region�and�World�

The�creation�of�a�large�cohort�of�young�people�marks�the�opportunity�for�countries�and�the�region�as�a�whole�to�transform�the�cohort’s�skills�and�knowledge� into�growth.�As�they�move�through�adolescence�and� into�adulthood,� the� cohort�becomes�part�of� the�workingͲage�population.�The� country�or� region’s�success� in� forming� appropriate� policy� and� planning� for� the� needs� of� adolescents� and� youth� will�determine�whether�the�youth�bulge�will�have�a�positive�or�negative�effect�on�the�society�in�the�future.�The�workingͲage�population�is�comprised�of�all�those�aged�15Ͳ65,�and�represents�the�country�or�region’s�potential� supply�of� labor.�As� the� youth�bulge�moves� into� this� age� category,� there� is� the�potential� to�translate�this�window�of�opportunity�into�a�‘demographic�dividend’.11�This�increase�in�the�proportion�of�the�population�who�are�of�working�age�decreases� the�dependency� rate;� the� ratio�of� the�workingͲage�population�to�the�sum�of�those�aged�less�than�15�and�over�65.�By�utilizing�the�workingͲage�population�in�decent�and�productive�work,�countries�translate�their�human�capital�resources�into�economic�growth.��A�fall� in�the�dependency�ratio,� if�planned�and�managed�effectively,�can� lead�to� increased�productivity,�as�well�as�higher�incomes,�savings�and�investment,�as�seen�in�the�case�of�the�‘East�Asian�Tigers’.�Increasing�productivity�and�incomes�can�be�transformed�into�benefits�for�the�young�and�elderly�also,�either�directly�through� families,� or� indirectly� through� higher� government� revenues� channeled� into� programs.� The�demographic� dividend� has� the� potential� to� significantly� boost� the� sensitive� economies� of� individual�countries,� and� the� region� as� a� whole.� Should� the� youth� bulge� not� be� adequately� planned� for� and�sufficient� investments� made,� countries� face� the� risk� of� higher� generalͲ� and� youthͲspecific�unemployment,� reduced� productivity,� stymied� investment� and� stunted� economic� growth.� As�investments� in� social� infrastructure�must� be� planned� in� advance,� the�MENA� region� now� faces� the�������������������������������������������������������������11�Bloom,�David�E.,�Canning�D�and�Sevilla,�J.,�The�Demographic�Dividend:�A�New�Perspective�on�the�Economic�Consequences�of�Population�Change,�Population�Matters�Monograph�MRͲ1274,�RAND,�Santa�Monica,�2003.�

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opportunity,�or�potential�challenge,�of� investing� in� the�human�and�social�capital�of� its�youth�to�propel�the�region�forward.�

The�2007�Economic�and�Social�Council�for�Western�Asia�(UNESCWA)�and�the�League�of�Arab�States�(LAS)�recently�noted�that�the�demographic�window�of�opportunity�for�economic�growth� is�the�30�to�40�year�period�when�countries�experience�a� low�dependency�rate�due�to�the�youth�bulge�moving�through�the�working�ages.� Following� this�period�of�potentially� significant�economic� growth,� the�dependency� ratio�again� increases,� as� the� large� cohort� moves� out� of� the� working� age� band� and� retires,� once� more�becoming� primarily� dependents.� UN� ESCWA� and� LAS� estimated� that� in� the� MENA� region,� the�demographic�window�of�opportunity�opened�in�1995,�and�is�expected�to�close�around�2045�throughout�the�region.�Never�has�there�been�a�more�important�time�to�invest�in�MENA’s�young�people�to�develop�and�harness�their�knowledge,�talents�and�potential�for�building�the�region’s�future.�

Several�factors�are�fundamental�to�ensuring�that�the�demographic�dividend�is�realized.�Foremost�among�them�is�the�creation�of�an�education�system�that�equips�students�with�the�knowledge�and�skills�they�will�need� in� their� future� careers.� Simply� providing�places� in�primary,� secondary� and� tertiary� education� is�necessary,�but�not�enough.�Countries�must�ensure�that�school�curricula�improve�the�quality�of�education�by�focusing�on�critical�thinking�skills,�and�effectively�linking�education�to�the�needs�of�the�labor�market.�Additionally,�education�systems�must�furnish�their�students�with�the�vision�and�skills�to�become�leaders�themselves,�through�developing�entrepreneurial�ability�and�fostering�opportunity.��

Second,�governments�must�become�employment�enablers�and�not�constrainers.�By�creating�an�enabling�environment� for� the� private� sector,� governments� can� encourage� job� creation� and� opportunities� for�young�people�entering�the�workforce.�By�motivating�industry�to�provide�productive,�decent�work,�policyͲmakers� can� ensure� that� the� rights� of�workers� are� upheld�while� promoting� a� dynamic� economy� that�responds� to� the� needs� of� its� customers� and� community.� Growing� productive� economies� create� job�opportunities,�reducing�both�the�unemployment�rate�and�the�demand�on�resources�it�creates,�allowing�individuals�to�claim�income�with�dignity.�

Third,� countries�must� invest� in� their� social� capital,� particularly� in� the� areas� of� health� and� pension�systems.�Healthcare� should�not�merely� respond� to�disease�and�disability�after� it�has�occurred;�health�policy� should� seek� to� prevent,� as� well� as� cure� the� burden� of� disease.� Primary� prevention� is� an�inexpensive�component�of�a�health�system,�not�only�compared�with�expenditure�required�for�treatment,�but�also� in� terms�of�maintaining�a�healthy�and�productive�workforce� free�of� infirmity.�Health�systems�should� strive� to� be� efficient,� costͲeffective� and� accessible,� providing� the� care� that� is� required�when�treatment�becomes�necessary.�Similarly,� in� the� longer� term,�governments�must�ensure� that�when� the�current� youth� bulge� reaches� retirement,� they� are� able� to� lead� full� and� fruitful� lives� without�compromising� the�opportunities� for� the� rest�of� the�population.�Policies�must� allow� for� individuals� to�contribute� to� their�own� retirement�while�working,� and� also� support� solvent� and� economically� sound�pension�systems�to�ensure�that�burdens�of�aged�care�are�shared�across�the�population.�

Fourth,� countries� must� endeavor� to� equip� the� next� and� current� generations� with� the� civic� skills�necessary�to�become�the�leaders�of�tomorrow.�Policies�encouraging�community�engagement�and�female�

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and�youth�empowerment�advance�the� ideal�of�an� inclusive�society,�promoting�shared� ideals�and�social�bonds.�Efforts�to�deepen�intergenerational�relations�and�community�belonging�enhance�social�cohesion�and�the�development�of�a�just�society,�consolidating�communities’�willingness�to�contribute�to�their�own�development.��

Through�such�measures,�countries�in�the�MENA�region�can�strengthen�their�ability�to�fully�benefit�from�the�valuable�demographic�opportunity�before�them.�By� investing� in�the�social�and�human�capital�of� its�population,�and�especially�its�adolescents�and�youth,�the�MENA�region�stands�to�reap�the�demographic�dividend.� Should� the� region’s� countries� fail� to� adequately� plan� and� respond� to� this� window� of�opportunity,�they�stand�not�only�to�miss�out�on�the�potential�benefits�of�the�demographic�dividend,�but�also�to�bear�the�burden�of�high�unemployment�and�low�economic�growth,�and�a�future�which�will�leave�them�unequipped�to�provide�for�the�needs�of�their�aging�populations.�

Recommendations�x Collect�data�on�both� internal�and� international�migration�among� youth�and�ensure� that�nonͲ

national�youth�populations�are�included�in�national�surveys.�x Improve�existing�data�on�child�marriage�by�stratifying�between�those�who�were�married�before�

18�and�those�who�were�married�before�15.�x Standardize�age�categories�across�agencies�collecting�data�in�the�region.�

� �

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4. Poverty�trends��

General�poverty�issues�facing�MENA�Poverty�data�are�available�for�eight�of�the�20�countries�in�the�MENA�region.�Both�relative�and�absolute�poverty�rates�in�MENA�compare�favorably�to�other�global�regions.�While�some�countries,�such�as�Djibouti�and�Yemen,�drive�regional�poverty�estimates�upward,�MENA�as�a�whole�fares�better�than�any�other�global�region�(Table�1).��

Table�1�Percent�of�regional�populations�living�in�absolute�vs.�relative�poverty.�

Source:�Ravallion,�M.,�Chen,�S.,�"The�developing�world�is�poorer�than�we�thought,�but�no�less�successful�in�the�fight�against�poverty",�World�Bank�2008.�

According�to�a�2008�World�Bank�report,�3.6�percent�of�the�MENA�region’s�population� lived� in�absolute�poverty�in�2005,�defined�as�less�than�$1.25�per�day�($1�per�day�at�1990�levels).�Since�1990,�the�share�of�the�total�population�subject�to�absolute�poverty�has�fallen�0.7�percent;�a�reduction�of�approximately�16�percent�from�1990�levels�of�4.3�percent.�This�reduction�has�been�larger�than�the�reductions�experienced�in� some�other� regions�over� the� same� time�period;� SubͲSaharan�Africa�experienced�a� reduction�of�11�percent�and�Europe�and�Central�Asia�actually�saw�the�share�of�people�living�in�absolute�poverty�increase�5.1� percent.� The� region,� however,� experienced� slower� progress� than� East� Asia� and� the� Pacific� (68�percent�reduction),�Latin�America�and�the�Caribbean�(21�percent�reduction),�and�South�Asia�(22�percent�reduction).� In�2005,�26�percent�of� the�global�population� lived� in�absolute�poverty,� indicating� that� the�MENA� region� is� far�ahead�of� the�global�absolute�poverty�prevalence,�but� is�unlikely� to�meet� the� first�MDG�of�halving� the�proportion�of�people� living� in�absolute�poverty�by�2015�unless� there� is�a�marked�improvement� in�poverty�reduction�rates.�The�estimates�presented�above�are�based�on�official�country�data�from�a�minority�of�states�in�the�region,�raising�concerns�that�projections�and�estimates�may�not�be�accurate�for�the�region�as�a�whole.��

Although�absolute�poverty�rates� in�the�MENA�region�are�relatively� low,�a�far�greater�proportion�of�the�population�lives�on�less�than�$2�per�day�(adjusted�from�1990�levels).�For�MENA�as�a�whole,�17�percent�of�

Percentage in Absolute Poverty (<$1.25 per day) Percentage in Relative Poverty (<$2 per day)

Region 1990 2005 Change Percentage

change 1990 2005 Change

Percentage change

EAP 56.00% 18.00% -38.00% -67.86% 80.00% 39.60% -40.40% -50.50%

ECA 3.90% 4.10% 0.20% 5.13% 10.60% 9.30% -1.30% -12.30%

LAC 10.00% 7.90% -2.10% -21.00% 20.40% 16.90% -3.50% -17.20%

MENA 4.30% 3.60% -0.70% -16.28% 19.70% 16.90% -2.80% -14.20%

SA 51.70% 40.40% -11.30% -21.86% 82.70% 73.90% -8.80% -10.60%

SSA 57.80% 51.20% -6.60% -11.42% 76.10% 72.90% -3.20% -4.20%

World 42.30% 25.70% -16.60% -39.24% 63.70% 47.30% -16.40% -25.70%

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the�population�lives�below�this�benchmark,�a�reduction�of�14�percent�since�1990.�Comparing�percentage�reduction�figures�for�absolute�and�relative�poverty�reductions�show�that�MENA�states�have�reduced�the�proportion�of�their�population�living�on�less�than�$1.25�per�day�faster�than�the�proportion�living�on�less�than�$2�per�day.�While�decreases� in�both� rates�are�positive,�disparities�between� reduction� rates� raise�the�concern� that�the�absolute�poor�are�merely�shifting� from�one�state�of�poverty�to�another,�and�not�experiencing�meaningful�increases�in�incomes.�While�this�is�less�of�a�concern�in�MENA�than�in�any�other�global� region,� individual� countries� in�MENA� should�be�aware�of� the� total� income�distribution�of� their�population�to�ensure�that�economic�gains�are�spread�throughout�society.�

Available�poverty�data�for�eight�countries�in�the�region�display�heterogeneity�in�both�levels�of�absolute�and�relative�poverty�rates�themselves,�and�states’�success�in�assisting�their�poor�out�of�poverty�(Figures�9�and�10).�While�some�countries�in�the�region�report�relatively�low�absolute�and�relative�poverty�rates,�such� as� Iran� (absolute� poverty:� 1.45� percent,� relative� poverty:� 3.45� percent)� and� Jordan� (absolute�poverty:�0.38�percent,�relative�poverty:�8.02�percent),�others�such�as�Djibouti�(absolute�poverty:�18.84�percent,�relative�poverty:�41.17�percent)�and�Yemen�(absolute�poverty:�17.53�percent,�relative�poverty:�46.56�percent)�display�very�high�rates,�driving�up�the�regional�average.�Similarly,�per�annum�changes�in�absolute� and� relative�poverty� rates�have�been�mixed� in�MENA� (Figure�11),�with�Djibouti� and� Yemen�displaying� large� increases� in� both� absolute� and� relative� poverty� rates� (Yemen:� 0.66� percent�&� 1.46�percent,�Djibouti:�1.97�percent�&�3.49�percent� increases�per�annum,�respectively),�while�Morocco�and�Tunisia� have� experienced� significant� decreases� (Morocco:� 0.53� percent�&� 1.31� percent,� Tunisia:� 0.79�percent�&�1.51�percent�decreases�per�annum,�respectively.��

Figure�9�Percentage�of�total�population�living�in�absolute�poverty�(less�than�$1.25�per�day)�

Source:�Ravallion,�M.,�Chen,�S.,�"The�developing�world�is�poorer�than�we�thought,�but�no�less�successful�in�the�fight�against�poverty",�World�Bank�2008.�

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

18%

20%

1995-1998

2000-2006

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32��

Figure�10�Percentage�of�the�total�population�living�in�relative�poverty�(less�than�$2�per�day)�

Source:�Ravallion,�M.,�Chen,�S.,�"The�developing�world�is�poorer�than�we�thought,�but�no�less�successful�in�the�fight�against�poverty",�World�Bank�2008.�

Figure�11�Per�annum�percentage�change�in�absolute�and�relative�poverty�rates�

Source:�Calculated�from�statistics�presented�in�Ravallion,�M.,�Chen,�S.,�"The�developing�world�is�poorer�than�we�thought,�but�no�less�successful�in�the�fight�against�poverty",�World�Bank�2008.�

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

25.00%

30.00%

35.00%

40.00%

45.00%

50.00%

1995-1998

2000-2005

-2%

-1%

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

Alg

eri

a

Djibouti

Egypt

Iran

Jord

an

Morocco

Tunis

ia

Yem

en

Less than $1.25 per day

Less than $2 per day

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Table�2�presents�the�change� in�absolute�poverty�as�a�percentage�of�the�change� in�relative�poverty�for�countries�where� data�were� available.� The� distribution� of� poverty� rate� change� has� differed� between�countries� in� the� region,�with�only� Jordan� reducing� absolute�poverty� at� a� faster�per�annum� rate� than�relative�poverty,�though�the�absolute�difference�is�small�due�to�Jordan’s�low�baseline�rate�for�the�period�of�analysis.�Change� in�absolute�poverty� rates� in� the� four�other� countries� for�which�data�are�available�occurred�at�approximately�half�the�rate�of�relative�poverty.�In�Morocco�and�Tunisia,�these�changes�were�a�decrease;� in�Djibouti� and� Yemen,� the� relative�poverty� rate� increased� at� twice� the� rate�of� absolute�poverty.� In� Egypt,� absolute� poverty� fell� at� only� 6� percent� the� rate� of� relative� poverty.� Proportional�comparisons�were�not�possible� for�Algeria� and� Iran,�because� absolute�poverty� rates� increased,�while�relative�poverty�rates�decreased.��

Table�2�Change�in�absolute�poverty�rate�as�a�percentage�of�change�in�relative�poverty�rate�1990�Ͳ2005�

Source:�Calculated�from�statistics�presented�in�Ravallion,�M.,�Chen,�S.,�"The�developing�world�is�poorer�than�we�thought,�but�no�less�successful�in�the�fight�against�poverty",�World�Bank�2008.�

Significant� barriers� exist� to� accessing� reliable,� recent� data� on� poverty� levels� and� trends� in�MENA.� In�many�cases,�poverty� information� is�not�collected�regularly,�while� in�other�cases,�data�are�collected�but�either�not�shared,�or�made�available�to�only�a�limited�audience.�As�such,�poverty�data�analysis�in�MENA�is� stifled�by�a� lack�of�both�data�collection�and�data�dissemination.12� �Reliable�populationͲwide�data� is�available�only�for�eight�countries�in�the�region,�and�is�not�available�for�any�of�the�GCC�states.�

YouthǦspecific�poverty�in�MENA�Internationally,�adolescents�and�youth�are� typically�overlooked� in�poverty�data�collection�and�poverty�reduction�strategies.13�Even�in�cases�where�national�data�are�collected,�findings�are�not�disaggregated�by�age�to�allow�for�reliable�adolescentͲ�and�youthͲspecific�estimates.�In�comparison�to�adults,�young�people�often� experience� a� “dynamic”,� acute� form� of� poverty,� while� adults� face� more� chronic,� longͲterm�economic�difficulties.�As�young�people� complete� their�education�and�move� to� the� labor�market,� they�

������������������������������������������������������������12�The�World�Bank.�Sustaining�Gains�in�Poverty�Reduction�and�Human�Development�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2006.�

13�International�Labor�Office,�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth,�ILO,�Geneva,�2006.

Djibouti� 56.4%�

Egypt� 6.0%�

Jordan� 418.5%�

Morocco� 40.8%�

Tunisia� 51.9%�

Yemen� 45.4%�

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find�employment�that�generally�helps�lift�them�from�the�poverty�cycle.�Extrapolation�of�adolescent�and�youth�poverty�rates�from�national�poverty�figures� is�therefore�an� imprecise�measure,�as�young�people�make�the�transition�from�the�economic�circumstance�of�their�families�to�their�own.�Data�collection�and�analysis�strategies�that�overlook�this�factor�risk�presenting�an�unrealistic�and� inaccurate�picture�of�the�poverty�situation�of�young�people�in�MENA.�

In� addition� to� the� paucity� of� populationͲwide� poverty� data� for� the� vast�majority� of� countries� in� the�MENA� region,� there� is� a� particular� dearth� of� adolescentͲ� and� youthͲspecific� poverty� information,�rendering� regional� aggregation� and� comparison� problematic.� Although� limited� data� from� the� 2007�World�Youth�Report�reveals�estimated�youth�poverty�rates�for�seven�countries�in�the�region,�these�data�suffer� two� shortcomings.�First,�youth�poverty�estimates�are�presented� in� terms�of�absolute�numbers,�rather�than�proportions.�These�numbers�are�not�the�result�of�poverty�survey�data,�but�are�the�national�percentage�of�the�population�living�in�poverty�multiplied�by�the�number�of�youths�in�the�population�at�that� time.� These� estimates� therefore� assume� that� the� youthͲspecific� poverty� rate� is� identical� to� the�populationͲwide�poverty�rate.�As�such,�the�data�do�not�lend�themselves�to�calculation�of�a�youthͲspecific�poverty� rate,� but� indicate� the� number� of� youth� living� in� poverty� if� they� experience� poverty� rates�identical�to�the�population�average.�

Second,�estimates� are�not�presented� for� adolescent�poverty� rates�or� levels.�This�may�be�due� to� two�factors:�1)�poverty�data�are�not�disaggregated�at�the�time�of�collection�to�allow�for�adolescentͲspecific�calculations,� due� to� methodological� restrictions;� and� 2)� while� a� number� of� agencies� work� with�adolescents,�there� is�no�dedicated�global�or�regional�publication�dedicated�to�adolescents,�such�as�the�World�Youth�Report.�Estimates�and�analysis�of�adolescent� issues� therefore�do�not�have� a� “reference�publication”,�where�adolescentͲspecific�data�would�be�presented.��

Both�of�these�considerations�limit�the�validity�and�reliability�of�adolescent�and�youth�poverty�estimates�in�MENA.�The�prima� facie� lack�of�available�poverty�data,�and� the� scarcity�of�national�adolescentͲ�and�youthͲspecific�poverty�estimates�complicate�calculation�of�accurate� regional� levels�and� trends.�Where�household�surveys�are�conducted,�it�is�still�difficult�to�disaggregate�the�data�collected�at�the�household�level.�Household�members�are�not�questioned�individually�about�their�income,�making�any�form�of�data�disaggregation�virtually� impossible.14�To�arrive�at�accurate�estimates�of�adolescentͲ�and�youthͲspecific�poverty�rates,�novel�methods�must�be�designed�and�implemented�to�ensure�reliability�and�validity.�

Three� conclusions� can� be� drawn� from� the� available� poverty� data� for� eight� countries� in� the� region�(Figures�9�&�10):�1)�national�poverty� rates�differ�markedly�across�MENA,� reflective�of� the�diversity�of�development� between� states� in� the� region.� While� a� large� percentage� of� Djibouti� and� Yemen’s�populations�live�on�less�than�$2�per�day,�the�other�five�countries�with�available�data�display�much�lower�rates�of�poverty;�2)�the�percentage�of�people� in�absolute�poverty�(living�on� less�than�$1.25�per�day)� is�notably�low�in�five�of�the�eight�countries,�ranging�from�less�than�half�of�a�percentage�point�to�two�and�a�half� percent.�Absolute� poverty� in�Djibouti� and� Yemen,� however,� rest� at� 19� percent� and� 18� percent,�respectively;� and� 3)� the� share� of� the� population� surviving� on� $1.25� to� $2� per� day� far� exceeds� the�

������������������������������������������������������������14�International�Labor�Office,�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth,�ILO,�Geneva,�2006.�

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35��

percentage� in�absolute�poverty.�This�contrast� indicates�that�while�absolute�poverty�rates� in�MENA�are�relatively� low,� a� far� higher� proportion� of� national� populations� are� still� subject� to� very� low� incomes�throughout�the�region.�

It� is� important� to� note� that� key� international� institutions� providing� poverty� reduction� support� have�launched�initiatives�to�make�poverty�reduction�policy�in�lowͲincome�countries�more�effective.�The�World�Bank� and� the� International� Monetary� Fund� have� launched� the� Poverty� Reduction� Strategy� (PRS)�Initiative,� in�which�countries�seeking�debt�relief�must�demonstrate�through�Poverty�Reduction�Strategy�Papers� (PRSPs)�how� savings�will�contribute� to�poverty� reduction.�However,�a�2006� review�of�55�PSRP�found�that�“young�people�are�underͲrepresented,�despite�their� large�share�of�the�populations�of�poor�countries.”15� As� one� of� the� largest� segments� of� MENA’s� population,� with� distinct� needs� and�expectations,�national�poverty�reduction�strategies�must�take�into�account�the�unique�circumstances�of�youth�and�adolescents�in�order�to�design�effective�poverty�reduction�initiatives.�

Youth�working�in�poverty��Of�related�concern�to�poverty�rates�themselves,�the�ILO�has�recently�calculated�the�regional�share�of�the�working�youth�population�who�do�not�earn�enough�to�lift�themselves�out�of�poverty�(Figure�12).�Such�a�situation�is�concerning,�as�it�suggests�that�many�young�people�who�find�work�still�do�not�earn�enough�to�meet�their�basic�needs.�Youth�working�poor�are�therefore�all�of�those�aged�15�to�24�who�work�but�who�do� not� receive� enough� to� surpass� the� $1.25� or� $2� a� day� poverty� thresholds� through� decent� and�productive�work.� The� youth�working�poor� are�more� likely� to�be� employed� in� the� informal� economy,�earning�low�wages�with�little�job�security�or�benefits.16���

Figure�12�Youth�working�poverty�rate,�ages�15Ͳ24,�2005.�

Source:�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth.�ILO,�2006.�

������������������������������������������������������������15�UNFPA.�Putting�Young�People�into�National�Poverty�Reduction�Strategies:�A�guide�to�statistics�on�young�people�in�poverty.�UNFPA,�New�York,�2008.�16�International�Labor�Office,�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth,�ILO,�Geneva,�2006.

0 20 40 60 80 100

MENA

World

Cent/East�Europe�and�CIS

LAC

East�Asia

South�East�Asia�and�Pacific

SSA

South�Asia

Percentage

Youth�US$2�per�day�working�poverty�rate

Youth�US$1�per�day�working�poverty�rate

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36��

ILO� estimates� of� regional� youth� working� poverty� rates� indicate� that� almost� 40� percent� of�MENA’s�employed�youth�were� living�on� less�than�$2�a�day� in�2005.�While�this� is�a�high�percentage,�the�region�fares�better�than�four�of�the�six�other�ILO�regions.�Latin�America�and�the�Caribbean�has�a�slightly�lower�proportion�of�working�youth� living�on� less�than�$2�per�day�(35�percent),�but�a�higher�proportion�of� its�working�youth�live�in�absolute�poverty�(13�percent,�compared�to�3�percent�in�MENA).��

As�MENA�approaches�2015,�the�region’s�progress�towards�achieving�MDG�1�has�been�greater�than�many�others.�However,� to�narrow� the� gap� further,� and� to�meet� states’� commitments�made� in�2000,� these�efforts�must�be�sustained�and�intensified�for�adolescents�and�youth�in�MENA.�

Recommendations:�x AdolescentͲ�and�youthͲspecific�poverty�data�must�be�collected,�both� in�order� to�review�young�

personͲspecific� levels� and� trends� and� also� to� allow� comparison� between� young� peoples’�experience�of�poverty�with�those�of�other�age�groups.�

x Data�collection�methodologies�should�expand�to�include�measures�of�deprivation,�in�areas�such�as�shelter,�food�and�nutrition,�sanitation,�water,�and�other�key�areas.�These�nonͲincome�poverty�indicators�exist�in�other�areas,�but�have�not�been�collected�within�the�MENA�region.�

x Future�surveys�of�young�people�should�also� include�subjective� indicators�exploring�motivations�for� delayed�marriage� and� family� formation,� as� no� data� currently� exist� on� this� phenomenon,�limiting�policyͲmakers�ability�to�reduce�barriers�to�these�rites�of�passage�to�adulthood.�

� �

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5. Health�trends�Promoting�health�is�an�essential�component�of�strengthening�populations’�human�security.�The�right�to�health�is�a�fundamental�human�right,�and�MENA�states’�commitment�to�fulfilling�the�promise�of�health�provides�a� standard�against�which� they�may�be�held�accountable.�While�adolescents�and�youth�are�a�relatively�healthy�population,�their�wellͲbeing� is�subject�to�vulnerability�that� is�different�to�most�other�age�groups.�Challenges�to�young�peoples’�health� in�MENA�are�primarily�the�result�of�exposure�to�risky�health�behavior.�Many�young�people�underestimate�their�risk�of�disease,�injury�and�vulnerability�to�risk�factors� such� as� smoking� and� obesity.� Behavioral� patterns� expose� young� people� to� greater� risk� from�nutritional,� lifestyle,�and� sexual� choices,�among�others,� that�amplify� their� risk�of�adverse�outcomes.17�The� lack�of� resonant�and�accessible�preventive�and� restorative�health� information�available� to�young�people� limits�their�ability�to�make� informed�decisions,� leading�to�excess�mortality�and�morbidity� in�the�MENA� region.18�Compounding� these� challenges� is� the�dearth�of�youthͲ�and�adolescentͲspecific�health�data,�denying�decisionͲmakers�the�evidence�to�guide�effective�and�efficient�health�policy.�

To�date,�global�health�data� collection�and�analysis�has�primarily� focused�on� child� survival� (0Ͳ5�or�0Ͳ9�years),� maternal� health� (15Ͳ49� years)� and� general� adult� health� (15Ͳ49� years).� Recognition� of� the�importance�of�adolescents�and�youth,�as�well�as�the�distinctive�challenges�confronting�young�peoples’�health,�has�spurred�efforts� to�gather�data�on� these� traditionally�overlooked�populations.�Collection�of�ageͲspecific�data�empowers�policyͲmakers�to�identify�needs�and�formulate�policies�that�positively�affect�the� health� status� of� young� people� in� MENA.� At� present,� these� data� are� minimal,� outdated,�unrepresentative,� or� entirely� unavailable.�One� exception� is� a� recently� published� study� that� analyzed�worldwide�rates�and�patterns�of�mortality�between�early�adolescent�and�young�adulthood.�Findings�for�the�MENA�region�are�discussed�later�in�this�section.19�

This�section�will�examine� the�available�data�and� identify�gaps� in� information�on�adolescent�and�youth�health� trends� in�MENA.� � This� analysis�will� include:� 1)� young�people’s� sexual� and� reproductive�health�(SRH),� including� sexually� transmitted� infections� (STIs),� early� marriage,� adolescent� fertility,� and�adolescent�maternal�mortality;�2)�substance�use�and�abuse;�3)�nutrition;�4)�injury�and�mortality;�and�5)�mental�and�psychosocial�health.�For�purposes�of�highlighting�the�multiͲsectoral�nature�of�HIV�AND�AIDS,�it�will�be�discussed�independently�in�Section�6�–�HIV�AND�AIDS�trends,�despite�several�references�to�it�in�this�section.�Adolescent�and�youth�fertility�and�mortality�rates�are�discussed�in�Section�3�–�Demographic�trends� though� their� causes� and� risk� factors� are� addressed� here.�While� not� addressed� in� this� report,�occupational�health�among�MENA�youth� is�an�area�worthy�of� increased�attention� in� the� future.� � It� is�important�to�note�that�youth�who�earn�their�living�in�the�informal�economy�may�be�at�increased�risk�of�occupational�safety�hazards�due�to�the�absence�of�any�regulatory�authority�promoting�safe�workplace�behavior�and�policies.�

������������������������������������������������������������17�RoudiͲFahimi,�F.�and�Ashford,�L.�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Guide�for�Reporters.�Population�Reference�Bureau,�2008.�

18�UN�ESCWA�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�The�Millennium�Development�Goals�in�the�Arab�Region�2007:�A�Youth�Lens.�2007.

19�Patton�G�et�al.,�'Global�patterns�of�mortality�in�young�people:�a�systematic�analysis�of�population�health�data',�The�Lancet,�vol�374,�12�September�2009,�p881Ͳ92.�

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Young�people’s�sexual�and�reproductive�health�(SRH)�Adolescence� is� a� time� of� physical,� physiological,� and� social� transition� into� adulthood.� Sexual�development� is�a�natural�part�of� this�process,�but�not�all�adolescents�are�exposed� to� the�appropriate�information� and� services� to� help� them� further� understand� this� transition� in� their� lives.20� Social� and�demographic�shifts�occurring� in� the�MENA�region,�such�as�delayed�marriage�and�prolonged�schooling,�necessitate�the�provision�of�accessible�sexual�and�reproductive�health�information,�as�young�people�face�a� transition� very� different� from� that� of� their� parents.�Delayed� completion� of� key� rites� of� passage� to�adulthood,�such�as�marriage�and�employment,�create�a�gap�between�adolescence�and�adulthood.�More�than�any�other�time,� it� is� in�this�period�that�young�people�face� increased�risk�of�unintended�pregnancy�and� sexually� transmitted� infections� (STIs).21� Reducing� these� risks� and� vulnerabilities� requires� the�formulation�and�implementation�of�evidenceͲbased�policy�and�programs�at�the�national�level.��

At�the�policy� level,�all�MENA�countries�have�ratified�the�CRC,�and�most�have�ratified�the� International�Covenant�on�Economic,�Social,�and�Cultural�Rights�(ICESCR),�as�well�as�participated�in�the�Convention�on�the�Elimination�of�all�Forms�of�Discrimination�against�Women�(CEDAW)�and�Beijing�Conferences�(original�and� the� Beijing� +5).� Participation� in� these� treaties� indicates� governments’� willingness� to�meet� the�commitments� necessary� to� fulfill� young� peoples’� right� to� access� SRH� information,� education� and�services.�A� key� study� in� the� field� of� young� people’s� SRH� in�MENA,� “Breaking� the� Silence� and� Saving�Lives”,�emphasizes�the�failure�of�many�states�to�meet�their�commitments�due�to�community�taboos�and�disapproval�of�behaviors� such� as�premarital� sexual� activity�or� substance� abuse.�By�not� fulfilling� their�responsibilities,� states� tacitly� contribute� to� the� further� marginalization� and� vulnerability� of� young�people.22���

Little�data�have�been�generated�on�adolescent�and�youth�sexual�and�reproductive�health�in�MENA.�The�few�groundbreaking�studies�that�have�been�conducted�are�necessarily�limited,�due�to�challenges�in�data�collection�on�sensitive�topics.�Taboos�against�discussion�and�analysis�of�the�reproductive�health�of�young�people�pose�a�major�obstacle�to�further�research�on�the�topic.�The�lack�of�services�for�unmarried�young�people�also� contributes� to� the� shortage�of�data�generation,�as� the�majority�of�data�are�derived� from�operational� research.� As� such,� social� taboos� and� cultural� sensitivities� have� been� the� primary� factor�contributing� to� the� current� paucity� of� data� on� young� people’s� sexual� and� reproductive� health.23� A�number�of�other�factors�have�exacerbated�these�shortcomings:�

x In� addition� to� a� lack� of� information� available� to� young� people,� adolescents’� and� youths’�reproductive� health� needs� are� not� being� fully�met� nor� addressed� as� a� consequence� of�conservative�societal�mores�and�taboos;��

x Health� services�and� informational�campaigns�generally� fail� to�address� the�needs�of�young�people�and�target�only�married�young�people;�

������������������������������������������������������������20�DeJong,�J.�and�ElͲKhoury,�G.�‘Reproductive�Health�of�Arab�Young�People’,�British�Medical�Journal,�333,�October�2006,�849Ͳ851.�21�Population�Reference�Bureau.�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.,�PRB,�Washington�DC,�2007.�22�Shepard,�B.�and�DeJong,�J.�Breaking�the�Silence�and�Saving�Lives:�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Arab�States�and�Iran.�Harvard�School�of�Public�Health,�Boston,�2005.�

23�Ibid.

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39��

x Schools�do�not�provide�information�on�young�people’s�sexual�and�reproductive�health;�x Young�people�have�not�had�opportunities�to�provide�feedback�on�their�SRH�education�and�

services�needs;�and���x Ongoing�conflicts�in�the�region�increase�the�vulnerabilities�of�young�people.24�

As� a� result� of� shortages� of� data� collection,� analysis� and� dissemination� of� accessible� information� and�services,� young� people� are� unprepared� to�make� informed� sexual� and� reproductive� health� decisions,�increasing� their� risk� of� unintended� pregnancies� and� STIs,� including� HIV� AND� AIDS.25� � Contrary� to�misconceptions�of�opponents�of�sexual�and�reproductive�health�education�for�young�people,�reviews�of�sexual�education�programs�show�that�sexual�education�does�not�promote�early�sexual�activity,�but�can�rather�delay�initiation�and�promote�safer�practices.26����

Within�MENA,� sexually� transmitted� disease� surveillance� capabilities� remain� weak;� cases� are� underͲreported,�with� relatively� few� countryͲspecific� studies� on� STI� incidence� among� young� people.�Of� the�limited�data�available�on�STIs,�which�are� seldom�disaggregated�by�age,� findings� indicate� that�STIs�are�more� common� among� younger� adults� (15Ͳ29)� than� those� in� older� age� groups.� Few� studies� have�examined� young� people’s� knowledge� of� STIs,� however� available� research� suggests� that� correct�knowledge�about�STIs�and�their�transmission�is�low.27���

Surveys�in�a�limited�number�of�MENA�countries�have�aimed�to�collect�information�on�STIs,�including�HIV�AND�AIDS.�Results� indicate�that�although�many�young�people�had�heard�of�HIV�AND�AIDS,�most�knew�little�about� its� transmission�or�about�other�STIs.� �The� results�also�demonstrated� that�young�Tunisians�were�better� informed� than� those� in�Syria�and�Algeria,� indicating� the� success�of�different�government�policies.28�

Given�the� lack�of�data�directly�addressing�young�people’s�sexual�and�reproductive�health�knowledge� in�MENA,� this� review�will�use� the�proxy�measures�of�early�marriage,�adolescent� fertility�and�adolescent�maternal� mortality� to� indicate� the� extent� of� health� risk� and� protective� factors.� Additionally,� these�aspects� constitute� key� outcomes� of� sexual� and� reproductive� knowledge� and� behaviors,� allowing� a�rudimentary�evaluation�of�state�performance.��

Early�marriage�Early�marriage� is� closely� associated� with� adolescent� fertility,� which� carries� significant�maternal� and�infant�health�risks.��Early�marriage�can�also�lead�to�other�non�healthͲrelated�consequences.�Women�who�marry�early�are�more�likely�to:�1)�become�school�dropͲouts�and�be�sociallyͲisolated;�2)�receive�pressure�from�their�family�and�social�circle�to�have�children�quickly;�3)�have�less�knowledge�about�family�planning�������������������������������������������������������������24�DeJong,�J.�and�ElͲKhoury,�G.�‘Reproductive�Health�of�Arab�Young�People’,�British�Medical�Journal,�333,�October�2006,�849Ͳ851.�

25�Shepard,�B.�and�DeJong,�J.�Breaking�the�Silence�and�Saving�Lives:�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Arab�States�and�Iran.�Harvard�School�of�Public�Health,�Boston,�2005.�

26�Population�Reference�Bureau.�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.,�PRB,�Washington�DC,�2007.�

27�Ibid.�28�Ibid.

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40��

and�SRH�in�general�than�their�older�counterparts;�4)�lack�decisionͲmaking�power�over�their�own�health.�All�factors�combined�have�greater�probability�of�serious�health�risks�for�themselves�and�their�infants.29�

Although�the�CRC�states�that�the� legal�and�actual�minimum�ages�of�marriage,�particularly�for�girls,�are�still� very� low� in� several� participating� countries,� “marriage� is� not� considered� directly� in� the�CRC…[Nevertheless,]� it� is�clear� that� the�Committee�places�a�great�deal�of� importance� in�ensuring� that�marriage�should�not�be�concluded�too�early�and�that�the�minimum�age�for�marriage�should�be�equal�for�boys� and� girls.”30�Within� the� CRC’s� Guidelines� for� Periodic� Reports,� participating� CRC� countries� are�required� to�“provide�relevant� information�with�respect� to�article�1�of� the�Convention,� including�on:�…�the�minimum� legal�age�defined�by� the�national� legislation� for�…�marriage.”31�TwentyͲsix�participating�world�countries�provide�unclear�or�no� information�about�minimum�age� for�marriage�–�seven�of�which�are�in�MENA�(Bahrain,�Djibouti,�Iran,�Iraq,�Qatar,�Syria�and�UAE).�Moreover,�Lebanon,�Saudi�Arabia�and�Sudan�do�not�currently�have�legal�minimum�ages�of�marriage�(Figure�13).32�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������29�RoudiͲFahimi,�F.�and�Ashford,�L.�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Guide�for�Reporters.�Population�Reference�Bureau,�Washington,�2008.�

30�Melchiorre�A.�At�What�Age�Are�School�Children�Employed,�Married�and�Taken�to�Court?�Second�Edition,�Right�to�Education�Project,�2005.�

31�Committee�on�the�Rights�of�the�Child.�General�Comment�No.�4�(2003):�Adolescent�Health�and�Development�in�the�Context�of�the�Convention�on�the�Rights�of�the�Child.�ThirtyͲthird�Session,�July�2003.�

32�Melchiorre�A.�At�What�Age�Are�School�Children�Employed,�Married�and�Taken�to�Court?�Second�Edition,�Right�to�Education�Project,�2005

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41��

Figure�13�Minimum�legal�age�of�marriage.��

Source:�Right�to�Education�Project.�Available�at:�http://www.rightͲtoͲeducation.org/node/279.�

While� the� region� has� experienced� an� overall� trend� toward� delayed�marriage,� there� are� nonetheless�population�groups�where�child�marriage�and�early�childbearing� remains�common� (Figure�14).�Cultural�and�traditional�values�in�some�countries�encourage�families�to�betroth�their�daughters�before�age�18.33�According�to�UNICEF�data,�the�region’s�highest�rates�of�early�marriage�occur�in�Yemen�(32�percent)�and�Sudan�(34�percent),�while�Algeria�(2�percent)�and�Djibouti�(5�percent)�show�the� lowest�rates�for�MENA�countries�with�available�data.34�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������33�RoudiͲFahimi,�F.�and�Ashford,�L.�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Guide�for�Reporters.�Population�Reference�Bureau,�Washington,�2008.�

34�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund,�State�of�the�World’s�Children�2008.�UNICEF,�New�York,�December�2007.

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Min

imum

age a

t m

arria

ge

Male

Female

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42��

Figure�14�Percentage�of�women�age�20Ͳ24�married�before�age�18.��

Source:�most�recent�MICS�or�DHS.�

Adolescent�fertility�While� adolescent� and� youth� fertility� rates� are� discussed� in� Section� 3� –� Demographic� trends� of� this�Review,�broad�conclusions�on�fertility�are�repeated�here�for�ease�of�use.�Estimates�of�adolescent�fertility�rates�are�consistently�collected�throughout�the�world,�simplifying�country�and�regional�comparisons.�

Overall�fertility�rates�have�declined�throughout�the�world�and,� in�the�past�decade,�16�MENA�countries�have�seen�a�decline� in�their�total�fertility�rate.�The�MENA�region�as�a�whole�saw�the�greatest�absolute�reduction� in�TFR� (1.3),�and� the� second�highest�percentage� change�over� the� time�period� (26�percent),�after�the�CEE/CIS�and�Baltic�States�region�(30�percent)�(Table�3).�Nonetheless,�MENA’s�total�fertility�rate�was� the� second� highest� in� the�world� in� 2000,� at� 3.7,� after� SubͲSaharan� Africa� (5.7).� The� adolescent�fertility�rate�for�MENA,�however,�is�the�third�lowest�in�the�world�(39),�after�East�Asia�and�Pacific�(18)�and�the�CEE/CIS�and�Baltic�States� regions� (35).�MENA� is�now�below� the�global�average�adolescent� fertility�rate� of� 50� births� per� year� to� every� 1,000� girls� aged� 15Ͳ19� but� there� are� subͲ� and� intraͲregional�disparities.35�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������35�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund,�ChildInfo�statistics�by�area,�http://www.childinfo.org/statsbyarea.html,�accessed�17�September�2009.�

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

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43��

Table�3:��Regional�Fertility�Rates�and�Maternal�Mortality�Rates�

Region�

Total�Fertility�Rate�

(lifetime�births�per�woman�at�current�fertility�rates)�

Adolescent�Fertility�Rate�

(Annual�births�per�1,000�girls)�

Maternal�Mortality�Rate�

(maternal�deaths�per�100�000�live�births)�

� 1990� 2000� 2000Ͳ2005� 1990� 2005�

MENA� 5.0� 3.7� 39� 270� 210�

World� 3.2� 2.7� 50� 430� 400�

South�Asia� 4.2� 3.5� 56� 650� 500�

East�Asia�and�Pacific� 2.5� 2.0� 18� 220� 150�

LAC� 3.2� 2.6� 71� 180� 130�

SSA� 6.3� 5.7� 127� 940� 920�

CEE/CIS� 2.3� 1.6� 35� 63� 46�

Developing�Countries� 3.6� 3.0� ͲͲ� 480� 450�

Industrialized�Countries� 1.7� 1.6� 24� 8� 8�

�Source:�UNICEF�Statistics�By�Area�Database�(data�from�2000Ͳ2005),�and�Maternal�Mortality�in�2005:�Estimates�Developed�by�WHO,�UNICEF,�UNFPA�and�World�Bank.�World�Health�Organization,�2007.��

Specific� to�MENA,� adolescent� fertility� is� only� reported� for� births�within�wedlock,� and� little� data� are�available�on�nonͲmarriage�births�and� young�people’s� reproductive�health� in�general.�High� adolescent�fertility� rates,�which� are� directly� associated�with� early�marriage� in� the� region,� are� accompanied� by�greater�risks�of�pregnancy�and�childbirth�complications.�In�poorer�countries,�such�complications�are�the�leading�cause�of�death�for�adolescent�girls�between�the�ages�of�15�and�19,�and�adolescent�girls�are�twice�as� likely�as� their�older� female�counterparts� to�die�of�pregnancy�or�childbirthͲrelated�complications.� In�addition�to�the�risks�of�early�childbirth�on�adolescent�mothers,�children�born�to�adolescents�also�have�compromised� survival� rates,�with� greater� risk� of:� 1)� premature� birth;� 2)� low� birth�weights;� 3)� dying�within� the� first�month� of� life;� 4)� having� less� access� to� adequate� nutrition� or� health� and� education�services�when�older;�and�in�general,�5)�are�more�likely�to�continue�the�cycle�of�poverty.36��

������������������������������������������������������������36�Save�the�Children,�Children�Having�Children:�State�of�the�World’s�Mothers�2004,�Save�the�Children,�2004.�

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44��

In�MENA,�poorer�countries�have�higher�adolescent� fertility� rates;�Yemen� (83),� the�oPt� (60),�Syria� (58),�and� Sudan� (51)� have� higher� rates� than� countries�with� higher� average� incomes� (Figure� 3).� Save� the�Children’s�Early�Motherhood�Ranking,�which�categorizes� the� fifty�most�perilous�countries�where�early�motherhood�has�the�most�adverse�effects,�includes�several�MENA�countries:�Morocco�and�Egypt�(tying�at� #48� along�with� Indonesia);� Sudan� (#41);� Iraq� (#28);� and� Yemen� (#20).37� This� ranking� reflects� the�probability�of�mortality�and�morbidity�as�a� result�of�adolescent�childbirth,� reflecting� lack�of�access� to�services�that�are�not�available�to�many�women�in�the�MENA�region.�

While� family�planning� services�have�expanded� throughout� several�MENA� countries� and� in� some� subͲregions� in�particular,�young�married�women�generally�do�not�use� family�planning�methods�until�after�their�first�child.�Age�is�also�a�determinant�of�family�planning�use�Ͳ�younger�married�women�aged�15�to�19�are�less�likely�to�use�modern�contraception�than�the�cohort�aged�20�to�24�who�are�also�married.�Equally,�young�married�women�from�these�two�groups�are� less� likely�than�other�older�women�to�access�health�services�that�supply�modern�contraceptives,38�reflective�of�the�lack�of�access�felt�by�many�young�women�in�the�MENA�region.�Establishment�of�families�is�also�changing�in�many�parts�of�the�MENA�region,�given�the�overall�delay�of�marriage�as�youth�stay�in�school�longer.�Contraceptive�prevalence�rates�are�greater�than� 50� percent� in�Algeria� (61� percent),�Bahrain� (62� percent),� Egypt� (59� percent),� Iran� (74� percent),�Jordan� (56�percent),�Lebanon� (58�percent),�Morocco� (63�percent),�Syria� (58�percent),�and�Tunisia� (66�percent),�but�remain�significantly�lower�in�Djibouti�(9�percent)�and�Sudan�(7�percent.)39�Prevalence�rates�for�young�people�are�not�available.��

Adolescent�maternal�mortality�Despite� being� monitored� under� the� MDG� framework,� adolescent� maternal� mortality� data� are� not�available�for�the�MENA�region.�Therefore,� inferences�must�be�drawn�from�comparisons�of�populationͲwide�maternal�mortality�estimates.��

As�previously�mentioned,� teen�mothers� face�greater� risks�of�disability�and�mortality�due� to�childbirth�and�labor�than�their�older�counterparts.�For�the�most�part,�young�women�who�marry�early�and�become�pregnant�quickly�tend�to�be�poor�and�have�less�access�to�health�services.��In�Morocco,�for�example,�the�poorest�adolescent�females�are�three�times�more�likely�than�richest�adolescent�population�quartile�to�be�pregnant�or�already�have�had�a�child.40�

As� can�be� seen� in�Table�3,�maternal�mortality� rates� throughout� the�world�have� improved�across� the�board�between�1990�and�2005.�The�maternal�mortality�rate�(MMR)�for�MENA�has�fallen�from�270�to�210�over� the� past� 15� years,� and� remains� lower� than� the�world� average� (400).41� IntraͲregional� disparities�

������������������������������������������������������������37�Ibid.�38�Population�Reference�Bureau.�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.,�PRB,�Washington�DC,�2007.�

39�UN�ESCWA�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�The�Millennium�Development�Goals�in�the�Arab�Region�2007:�A�Youth�Lens.�2007.

40�Population�Reference�Bureau.�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.,�PRB,�Washington�DC,�2007.�

41�World�Health�Organization,�Maternal�Mortality�in�2005:�Estimates�Developed�by�WHO,�UNICEF,�UNFPA�and�World�Bank,�WHO,�Geneva,�2007.�

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45��

persist,� whereby� Algeria� (180),� Djibouti� (650),� Sudan� (450),� Yemen� (430),� and�Morocco� (240)� have�noticeably�higher�rates�than�the�rest�of�the�region.�Adolescent�maternal�mortality�data�collection�should�be�prioritized�in�these�countries,�given�their�poor�total�maternal�mortality�rates.��Conversely,�Egypt�has�reduced� its�MMR� from�174� in�1992� to�130�maternal�deaths�per�100,000� live�births� in�2005,� through�adoption�of�a�national�safe�motherhood�strategy�that�helped�decrease�home�deliveries�while�increasing�the�percentage�of�medically�assisted�deliveries�and�the�utilization�of�maternal�health�care�and�antenatal�care�services.42�This�initiative�should�be�adapted�and�replicated�in�other�high�maternal�mortality�MENA�states�to�spread�the�potential�benefits�of�the�intervention�across�the�region.��

According�to�a�recent�joint�report�issued�by�UN�ESCWA�and�the�League�of�Arab�States,43�the�reduction�in�maternal�mortality� in�most�of�MENA� is�partially�attributable� to�a�decline� in�adolescent� fertility� rates,�which�are�due�in�part�to�social�shifts�throughout�many�parts�of�the�region�caused�by�delayed�marriage.�These�gains�should�be�complemented�by�education�campaigns�and�increased�access�to�services�to�spur�continued�reduction�in�maternal�mortality�rates�in�many�MENA�countries.�

Substance�use�and�abuse�The� issue� of� substance� use� and� abuse� is� an� emerging� public� health� concern� in� the�MENA� region.�Geographically,�MENA� is� a� key� transit� area� for� the� drug� trade.� Socially,� it� is� a� region� replete� with�vulnerabilities�due�to�rapid�social�change,�economic�challenges�and�conflict�situations;�all�risk�factors�for�drug�use� and� abuse,� especially� among� young�people.�Despite� little� available� research,� regional� trend�analyses� indicate�that�use�among�youth�and�women� is�rising,�with�the�most�common�substances�used�being� tobacco,�cannabis,� sedatives,�opiates�and� stimulants.� Injecting�drug�use,�primarily�of�opiates,� is�considered� a� new� phenomenon� in� MENA.� � According� to� the� WHO,� there� has� been� a� rise� in� the�prevalence�of�HIV�among�injecting�drug�users�–�from�0.16�per�cent�in�1999�to�3.26�per�cent�in�2003.�Over�the�same�time�period,�HIV�transmission�rates�via�injecting�drug�use�increased�from�2�percent�in�1999�to�13�percent�in�2003.44�

Tobacco�use�The�use�of� tobacco�products� in�MENA� is�highly�prevalent,�and� is�now�considered�one�of� the�greatest�health� risk� factors� facing� young�people� in� the� region.�Concordant�with� global� trends,� the�majority�of�smokers� in�MENA� start� smoking� before� the� age� of� 25,� and� the� resurgent� popularity� of� the� shisha�(hookah�or�water�pipe)�as�a�medium�for�tobacco�use�should�be�of�concern�for�the�region,�due�to�widely�perceived�beliefs�that� it� is� less�harmful�than�cigarette�smoke.�Studies�have�shown�that�frequent�use�of�

������������������������������������������������������������42�The�World�Bank.�The�Status�and�Progress�of�Women�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2007.�

43�UN�ESCWA�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�The�Millennium�Development�Goals�in�the�Arab�Region�2007:�A�Youth�Lens,�2007.�44�WHO/EMRO.�The�Work�of�WHO�in�the�Eastern�Mediterranean�Region:�Annual�Report�of�the�Regional�Director.�Dec/Jan�2005.�http://www.emro.who.int/rd/AnnualReports/2005/chapter4_print.htm,�accessed�17�September�17,�2009.

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46��

shisha� is�as�equally�harmful�as�cigarettes,�and�“may�have�a�disproportionate�effect�on�young�women�who�are�otherwise�culturally�dissuaded�from�cigarettes.”45���

Findings� from� the� Global� Tobacco� School� Survey� (2002Ͳ2008)� demonstrate� that� tobacco� prevalence�among�students�(ages�13Ͳ15)�ranged�from�less�than�1�percent�(Libya,�Iran)�to�7�percent�(Jordan)�for�girls�and� from�3�percent� (Iraq)� to�19�percent� (Syria)� for�boys.� Earlier�data� collected�by� the�WHO's�Global�Youth�Tobacco�Survey�in�2001Ͳ2002�suggested�that�rates�were�much�higher,�up�to�47�percent�for�males�in�Djibouti.�Based�on� these� results,� it�would� appear� that� tobaccoͲcontrol�messages� are�not� targeting�and/or�are�not�having�the�necessary� impact�of� limiting�young�people’s�smoking�behavior.46� �See�Figure�15�for�a�comparison�of�current�smoking�rates�among�students.��

Figure�15�Percentage�of�students�(age�13Ͳ15)�currently�smoking�cigarettes.��

Source:�Global�Tobacco�School�Survey�2002Ͳ2008.�

������������������������������������������������������������45�The�World�Bank.�Youth�–�An�Undervalued�Asset:�Towards�a�New�Agenda�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�September�2007.�

46�WHO/EMRO.�Trends�in�Tobacco�Use�among�School�Students�in�the�Eastern�Mediterranean�Region,�World�Health�Organization.�Regional�Office�for�the�Eastern�Mediterranean,�Cairo,�2007.

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Bahra

in

Djibouti

Egypt

Iran

Iraq

Jord

an

Kuw

ait

Lebanon

Lib

ya

Morocco

Om

an

Qata

r

Saudi A

rabia

Sudan

Syri

a

Tunis

ia

UA

E

Yem

en

Boys

Girls

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Drug�use�Significantly� less�data�are�available�on�drug�and�alcohol�use� in�the�region,�as�drug�use�and,�to�a� lesser�extent,�alcohol�use�are� considered� taboo� topics.�Given� the�vulnerabilities�of�MENA’s�adolescents�and�youth,�the�transition�from�adolescence�to�young�adulthood� is�a�critical�point�at�which�experimentation�with�drugs�could�begin.�There� is�mounting�evidence�that�drug�use� in� the�region� is�becoming�a�serious�matter� that�merits� further� attention� and� research.� UNODC� has� been� spearheading� the� few� country�studies�that�have�been�conducted�to�date� in�MENA,�but�there�are�no�formal� initiatives�at�the�regional�level.�National� surveys� have� been� conducted� in� a� few� countries,� including� Egypt,� Iran� and� Lebanon,�however� the� lack� of� representative� data� prohibit� broad� countryͲ� and� regionͲwide� generalization� and�drawing�of�inferences.��

Nutrition�On�a�global�level,�adolescents�and�youth�face�nutritional�challenges�that�are�distinct�to�those�of�younger�children.� As� in� other� areas,� adolescents� and� youth� are� often� overlooked� in� nutritional� analyses.�On�average,� 20� percent� of� total� height� and� 50� percent� of� adult�weight� are� gained� during� adolescence,�highlighting� the� necessity� of� healthy� nutrition� in� these� ages� for� future� wellͲbeing.47� Three� general�nutritional�characteristics�are�common�in�MENA’s�adolescent�and�youth�population:��

x Undernutrition;��x Micronutrient�deficiencies:�Iron,�Vitamin�A,�iodine,�calcium�deficiencies;�and��x Overweight�and�obesity;�an�emerging�trend�in�the�region.48���

�The�presence�of�both�underͲ�and�overͲnutrition�reflects�the�dual�burden�of�disease�in�the�region.�While�some�segments�of� the�population�have�very�high�access� to� food,�others�still�suffer�deprivation�due� to�economic�circumstance�and�lack�of�accessibility.�Dual�disease�burdens�are�most�prominent�in�countries�with� large� income�disparities.�As�a�result,�those� in�the�highest� income�groups�typically�assume�a�more�Western� nutritional� lifestyle,�with� its� associated� risks� of� overweight� and� obesity,� and� propensity� for�other�higher�risk�behaviors�such�as� inactivity.�Conversely,�those� in�the� lowest� income�groups� lack�both�the�financial�means�and�in�some�cases,�the�physical�access,�to�sufficient�high�quality�foods�to�meet�their�daily� needs,� resulting� in� undernutrition� and�micronutrient� deficiencies,� and� greater� susceptibility� to�illness.��

For�the�region�as�a�whole,�young�people’s�nutritional�status�broadly�fits�the�pattern�of�the�dual�burden�of�disease.�According�to�the�WHO,�there�are�“high�levels�of�overweight�and�obesity�along�with�pockets�of� underͲnutrition� and� micronutrient� deficiencies,� high� consumption� of� energyͲdense� foods� and�aggressive�marketing�of�‘processed’�and�‘fast’�foods�and�carbonated�drinks�prevail�in�some�countries.�In�others,�moderate�to� low� levels�of�overweight/obesity�coͲexist�with�moderate� levels�of�underͲnutrition�and�widespread�micronutrient�deficiencies.�LongͲlasting�complex�emergencies�and�humanitarian�crises�

������������������������������������������������������������47�WPRO/WHO.�Value�Adolescents,�Invest�in�the�Future.�Adolescent�Health�and�Development:�A�WHO�Regional�Framework,�2001Ͳ2004.�World�Health�Organization,�Regional�Office�for�the�Western�Pacific,�2001.�48�Deslisle,�H.�et�al.�Should�Adolescents�be�Specifically�Targeted�for�Nutrition�in�Developing�Countries?�To�Address�which�Problems�and�How?�WHO,�Geneva,�2001.

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affect� a� number� of� countries,�where� overall� poor� health� and� environmental� conditions� coͲexist�with�inadequate�institutional�capacity�and�insufficient�trained�human�resources”.49��

Seven�countries� in�MENA�have�presented�data�on�obesity� rates�among�children�and�young�people�as�part� of� the�WHOͲCDC�Global� SchoolͲBased� Student�Health� Survey� (Figure� 16).� Countries�with� higher�incomes� typically�have�higher� rates�of�obesity.�The�United�Arab�Emirates�displays� the�highest�obesity�rate� among� school� students� aged� 13Ͳ15� of� any�MENA� country.� However,� Lebanon� exhibits� a� lower�obesity� rate� than�would� be� expected� of� a� country�with� similar� income� levels.� Lebanon’s� estimated�adolescent�obesity�rate�is�the�lowest�of�all�countries�for�which�data�are�available�(2.7�percent),�followed�by�Yemen�(3.3�percent)�and�Djibouti�(3.5�percent),�respectively.��

Figure�16�Percentage�of�students�(ages�13Ͳ15)�who�are�obese.��

Source:�Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�Study.�

While�data� for�Kuwait�was�not� collected�during� the�Global� SchoolͲBased� Student�Health� Survey,�one�study� found� an� obesity� rate� of� 37� percent� in�males� and� 36� percent� in� females� aged� 10Ͳ13� years.�Comparing�these�estimates�with�those�of�the�UAE�suggests�that�the�studies�used�different�methods�to�indicate�obesity.�The�Global�SchoolͲBased�Student�Health�Survey�defined�obesity�as�weight�above� the�95th�global�weight�percentile,�while�the�Kuwait�study�used�a�Body�Mass�Index�of�30�or�more�((weight�in�kilograms)/(height� in�meters,� squared))� to�classify�children�as�obese.�Disparate�definitions�may�create�confusion�in�interpreting�obesity�prevalence�statistics,�and�complicate�data�comparison�and�verification.�

������������������������������������������������������������49�WHO/EMRO.�The�Work�of�WHO�in�the�Eastern�Mediterranean�Region:�Annual�Report�of�the�Regional�Director.�Dec/Jan�2005.�http://www.emro.who.int/rd/AnnualReports/2005/chapter4_print.htm,�accessed�17�September�17,�2009.�

0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

Djibouti Egypt Jordan Lebanon Libya UAE Yemen

Total

Men

Women

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Food�insecurity�and�underͲnutrition�rates�vary�across�the�region,�with�inadequate�dietary�energy�intake�in�the�Least�Developed�Arab�Countries�(Djibouti,�Sudan�and�Yemen)�affecting�more�than�25�percent�of�the�total�population�(Figure�17).�However,�this�high�rate�skews�the�regional�average�upwards,�with�the�Mashreq� (3.2� percent),� Maghreb� (4.7� percent)� and� GCC� (3.4� percent)� subͲregions� all� displaying�significantly� lower�proportions� surviving�on� less� than�1800� calories�per�day.�At� the� country� level,� the�Global�SchoolͲBased�Student�Health�Survey�asked�participants� if�they�had�gone�hungry�“most�or�all�of�the�time�during�the�past�30�days”.�Results� indicate�a�diversity�of�experiences�across�the�region�(Figure�18),�ranging�from�2.7�percent�of�Lebanese�students�reporting�food�insecurity,�to�18.7�percent�of�children�in�Djibouti.�The�survey�also�noted�gender�disparities�in�adolescent�food�insecurity,�with�adolescent�boys�experiencing�slightly�higher�rates�of� food� insecurity�than�girls� in�all�surveyed�countries�except�Djibouti�and�Yemen.�

Figure�17�Proportion�of�population�below�the�minimum�level�of�dietary�energy�consumption�by�sub�region.�

Source:�MDGs�in�the�Arab�Region,�A�youth�lens,�2007.�

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Mashreq��countries

Maghreb�countries

GCC�countries

Arab�LDCs Arab�region Developing�regions

Prop

ortion

�of�p

opulation�un

dernou

rished

1991

1996

2002

*Data for developing regions refer to the time periods 1990-1992 and

2001-2003.

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50��

Figure�18�Percentage�of�students�(ages�13Ͳ15)�experiencing�food�insecurity.��

Source:�Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�Survey.�

Injury�and�mortality�A�2000�WHOͲEMRO�regional�study�on�injury�and�mortality�identified�the�leading�causes�of�death�for�15Ͳ29�year�olds� for�Eastern�Mediterranean�Region� (EMR)�mediumͲ�and� lowͲincome�countries�as:�1)� road�traffic�injuries;�2)�tuberculosis;�3)�HIV�AND�AIDS;�4)�interpersonal�violence;�5)�selfͲinflicted�injuries;�and�6)�war� injuries.� �EMR�highͲincome� countries’�15Ͳ29� year�olds�are�more�prone� to�dying� from:�1)� road�traffic�injuries;�2)�interpersonal�violence;�3)�selfͲinflicted�injuries;�4)�poisonings;�5)�drowning;�and�6)�war�injuries.50�Consistent�with�the�general�world�mortality�profile,�deaths�and�disabilities�due�to�road�traffic�injuries� pose� a� great� burden� to� young� people� across� the� region,� accounting� for� 13� percent� of� all�DisabilityͲAdjusted�Life�Years�(DALYs)�for�men�aged�15Ͳ29�in�the�World�Bank’s�MENA�region�(Figure�19).�By�contrast,�road�traffic�injuries�account�for�only�4�percent�of�young�women’s�DALYs�(Figure�20).�Lower�income�countries�have�a�pronounced�element�of�communicable�disease�in�the�mortality�profile�of�young�people,� whereas� higher� income� countries� are�more� prone� to�mortality� due� to� injury� and� accident�followed�by�nonͲcommunicable�diseases.��Of�note�is�that�mortality�for�this�age�group�due�to�war�injuries�or�conflict�is�equally�prevalent�and�is�a�reflection�of�the�precarious�security�situation�of�some�countries�in�the�MENA�region.��

������������������������������������������������������������50World�Health�Organization,�The�Global�Burden�of�Disease,�2004�Update,�WHO,�Geneva,�2008.�The�World�Bank�MENA�region�(16�countries).�

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Total

Male

Female

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51��

Figure�19�Primary�causes�of�death�and�disability,�men�ages�15Ͳ29.���

��

Source:�Global�Burden�of�Disease�2004.�World�Bank�Eastern�Mediterranean�Region.�

Neuropsychiatric�conditions

25%

Intentional�injuries17%

Other�causes28%

Road�traffic�accidents

13%

Poisonings1%

Falls3%

Fires1% Drownings

2%

Other�Unintentional�

Injuries10%

Unintentional�Injuries29%

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52��

Figure�20�Primary�causes�of�death�and�disability,�women�ages�15Ͳ29�.��

Source:�Global�Burden�of�Disease�2004.�World�Bank�Eastern�Mediterranean�Region.�

While�believed�to�account�for�a�significant�proportion�of�young�people’s�deaths�in�MENA,�very�little�data�are�available�on�deaths�from�suicide.��Throughout�the�world,�suicide�is�among�the�three�leading�causes�of�death�among�adolescents�and�youth,�while�existing�WHOͲEMRO�data�indicate�that�the�phenomenon�is� rare� in� the�MENA� region.51�However,� several� factors� limit� the� reliability� of� this� data.�Many� death�registration�entries�do�not�detail�a�cause�of�death.�Combined�with�cultural�resistance�to�suicide�due�to�family�honor,� there� is� reason� to�believe� that� the� actual� suicide� rate� is�higher� than� current�estimates�suggest.52�Further� research�and�analysis� that�adequately�addresses� issues�of�cultural� sensitivity� in� the�data� collection� process� are� required� to� conclude� reliable� suicide� estimates� for� countries� across� the�region.��

Mental�health�Mental�and�psychosocial�health�has�only�recently�become�a�global�priority,�with�the�majority�of�previous�health�data�relating�only� to�physical�conditions.�The�underͲmeasured�phenomenon�of�youth�suicide� is�indicative�of�the�need�for�more�data�collection�in�this�area,�as�both�governmental�and�nonͲgovernmental�������������������������������������������������������������51�World�Health�Organization,�The�Global�Burden�of�Disease,�2004�Update,�WHO,�Geneva,�2008.�World�Bank�MENA�region�(16�countries).�52�Mediterranean�Initiative�for�Child�Rights,�Towards�a�New�Agenda�for�Children�in�the�Southern�Mediterranean�Countries:�A�RightsͲBased�Analysis.�UNICEF,�Innocenti�Research�Centre.

Maternal�conditions

19%

Unintentional�injuries13%

Other�causes35%

Unipolar�depressive�disorders

9%

Bipolar�disorder6%

Panic�disorder2%

Schizophrenia6%

Other10%

Neuropsychiatric�conditions

34%

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53��

planners�do�not�have�sufficient�information�to�assess�the�scale�of�mental�and�psychosocial�health�issues,�let�alone�design�policies�and�programs� to�reduce� their�burden.�Despite� the�high�prevalence�of�several�risk� factors� for� suicide� in�many� parts� of� the�MENA� region,� such� as� conflict� and� violence,� economic�insecurity,� the� transition� to�modernity,�and�generalized�vulnerability,� the�need� for�prevention�has�not�translated� into�monitoring�and�evaluation�efforts�by�dataͲgathering�organizations,�especially�on�young�people.�

Few�surveys�in�the�MENA�region�have�included�indicators�of�mental�and�psychosocial�health�and�access�to�support.�The�Global�SchoolͲBased�Student�Health�Survey,�discussed�previously� in�this�section,�asked�respondents� questions� on� a� limited� number� of� psychosocial� and�mental� health� symptoms,� such� as�whether� the� respondent� felt� lonely�most� or� all� of� the� time� during� the� past� year� (Figure� 21).� Young�people�in�participating�countries�reported�relatively�high�rates�of�loneliness,�indicative�of�social�isolation�and� a� lack� of� strong,� relevant� protective� networks.� While� not� a� valid� and� reliable� measure� of�psychosocial�and�mental�health�on� its�own,�the�results�of�the�survey� indicate�an�untapped�and�underͲresearched�area�of�global�priority.�Related�questions�on�the�number�of�close�friends�reported�by�young�people�further�confirm�the�need�for�greater�research�in�these�areas,�as�they�are�currently�unaddressed�in�data�gathering�tools,�and�not�a�focus�of�policyͲmakers.�

Figure�21�Percentage�of�students�aged�13Ͳ15�who�felt�lonely�most�or�all�of�the�time�during�the�preceding�12�months.��

Source:�Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�Survey,�2005Ͳ2008.�

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Djibouti Egypt Jordan Lebanon Morocco Tunisia UAE

Total

Male

Female

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54��

Mental�and�psychosocial�health�are� inherently�difficult� concepts� to�measure.�While�physical� infirmity�displays�obvious�symptoms,�mental�and�psychosocial�issues�are�more�often�undiagnosed,�and�therefore�underͲreported.�For�this�reason,�existing� indicators�have�typically�assumed�the�approach�of�measuring�either� risk� factors�or� low� correlation� symptoms,� such� as� loneliness,�or� assessed� theoretical� access� to�support�services,�such�as�social�workers�per�100,000�people.�These�approaches�each�have�their�flaws,�as�many�risk�factors�will�not�develop�into�cases,�and�the�provision�of�support�structures�is�usually�the�result�of�government�planning.�If�governments�do�not�have�reliable�data�from�which�to�develop�policy,�services�provided�may�underestimate�the�problem.�Indicators�for�the�populationͲwide�assessment�of�mental�and�psychosocial� health� either� do� not� exist,� or� are� still� in� developmental� form.�Mental� and� psychosocial�indicators� and� data� collection� should� become� a� priority� for� governments� and� other� organizations�working�with�young�people,�to�redress�the�current�paucity�of�valid�and�reliable�data.�

Recommendations��x Culturally�sensitive�data�collection�methodologies�must�be�developed�and�applied�to�gather�data�

on� the� range� of� sensitive� health� topics� discussed� above,� including� sexual� and� reproductive�health,�substance�use�and�abuse,�and�death�rates�from�causes�subject�to�social�taboo.�

x Data� producers� should� utilize� standardized� definitions� for� “overweight”,� “obesity”� and�“underweight”� to� simplify� comparison� and� allow� for� complementarity�between�data� sources,�reducing�the�need�for�duplicate�evaluations.�

x Youth� and� adolescent� health� data�must� become� a� priority� area� for� data� users� and� decisionͲmakers,� spurring� the� collection� of� disaggregated� statistics� on� health� risk� factors,� disease�prevalence,�and�causes�of�mortality.�

x Mental� and� psychosocial� health� indicators� should� be� developed� and� implemented� for�populationͲwide�estimation.�

x DataͲproducing�organizations� should� incorporate�mental�and�psychosocial�health�questions� in�country� and� regional� surveys,� to� provide� baseline� estimates� to� be� refined� with� the� further�development�of�indicators.�

� �

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6. HIV�and�AIDS�trends��

Current�estimates�of�HIV�prevalence� in�MENA�countries�remain� low�compared�to�other�global�regions.�While�the�proportion�of�the�population�living�with�HIV�in�most�countries�remains�relatively�low,�national�prevalence� rates� are� rising.� At� present,� low� awareness� of� HIV� and� sexual� health,� coupled�with� low�prevalence� in�most�countries�except�Djibouti�and�Sudan,�contribute�to�a�state�of�complacency�towards�prevention,� management� and� treatment� of� the� disease.53� At� an� institutional� level,� this� has� meant�minimal�investment�in�disease�surveillance,�decreasing�the�region’s�ability�to�detect�changes�in�incidence�rates�and� stop� the�disease’s�unchecked� spread.� Low�prevalence� today�does�not�mean� that�people� in�MENA�have�low�risk�and�vulnerability�to�infection.54�Indeed,�low�awareness�and�riskͲmitigating�behavior�intensify�the�region’s�vulnerability,�heightening�the�potential�for�a�generalized,�widespread�epidemic.�

The�World�Bank�has�placed�states�in�the�MENA�region�into�three�categories,�reflecting�the�distinct�types�of�epidemics�currently�witnessed:�

Type�1:�Repeated�testing,�low�prevalence,�and�few�“highͲrisk”�groups�(Egypt,�Jordan,�Saudi�Arabia�and�Iraq);��

Type�2:�Localized�epidemic�with�greater�prevalence�and� incidence� in�“highͲrisk”�groups�(Algeria;�Bahrain,�Iran,�Kuwait,�Lebanon,�Libya,�Morocco,�Oman,�Yemen,�Tunisia,�Qatar�and�UAE).��

Type�3:�Generalized�epidemic.�The�epidemic� is�not�confined� to�“highͲrisk”�groups,�and� spreads�throughout�the�general�population�(Djibouti�and�Sudan).55���

According�to�UNAIDS,�the�HIV�and�AIDS�epidemic� in�the�region� is�driven�by�heterosexual�transmission,�often� through�paid�sex�work,�and� injecting�drug�use,�with� these� transmission�methods�accounting� for�the�majority�of�new� incident�cases.�PreͲexisting�cases�are�concentrated� in�highͲrisk�groups,�such�as�sex�workers,�menͲwhoͲhaveͲsexͲwithͲmen�and� injecting�drug�users,�who�then�channel�the� infection�to�the�larger�population�through�unprotected�sex.�UNDP�has�estimated�that�more�than�5�percent�of�male�drug�users� in� the�MENA� region�are�HIVͲpositive,� contributing� to� the�epidemic’s� spread.56�Among� the�most�vulnerable�groups� today�are�married�women�and�young�people,�due� to� low�knowledge�and� the� false�assumptions�that�husbands�remain�faithful�and�young�people�abstain�from�premarital�sex.57���

������������������������������������������������������������53�Joint�United�Nations�Programme�on�HIV/AIDS�(UNAIDS)�and�World�Health�Organization,�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�AIDS�Epidemic�Update,�Regional�Summary.�UNAIDS�and�WHO,�2007.�

54�The�World�Bank.�Preventing�HIV/AIDS�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Window�of�Opportunity�to�Act.�A�World�Bank�Regional�Strategy,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2005.�

55�Jenkins,�C.�and�Robalino,�D.�HIV/AIDS�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�The�Costs�of�Inaction.�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2003.�

56Cheemeh,�PE,�Montoya,�ID,�Essien,�EJ�&�Ogungbade,�GO.�‘HIV/AIDS�in�the�Middle�East:�a�Guide�to�a�Proactive�Response’,�The�Journal�of�the�Royal�Society�for�the�Promotion�of�Health,�126(4),�2006,�pp.�165Ͳ171. 57�RoudiͲFahimi,�F.�and�Ashford,�L.�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Guide�for�Reporters.�Population�Reference�Bureau,�2008.�

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From�a�global�perspective,�almost�half�of�new�infections�in�2007�occurred�among�young�people�aged�15Ͳ24,� the�period�during�which� sexual� initiation� typically�begins.�5.4�million� young�men�and�women�are�living�with�HIV� today.58�The�number�of�people� living�with�HIV�and�AIDS� in�MENA� is�still�relatively� low;�however� prevalence� rates� in� the� region� are� rising� over� time.� Transmission� of� HIV� in� MENA� is�predominantly�through�sexual�contact,�placing�young�people�at�higher�risk�due�to�higher�rates�of�nonͲmonogamous� sexual� relations�and�higherͲrisk�behaviors� than� their�older� counterparts.� �Young�people�are�the�largest�population�group�at�risk�of�contracting�the�disease,59�currently�accounting�for�31�percent�of� the� regional�population.60�Therefore,�young�people�constitute�an� increasing�proportion�of�new�HIV�cases� in�MENA,�due� to�higher� risk� behaviors,� greater� vulnerability� to� risk� factors,� and� the� increasing�share�of�the�population�in�the�10Ͳ24�age�bracket.�Despite�an�overall�lack�of�disease�surveillance�in�MENA�countries,�available�data� indicate�that�a�greater�proportion�of�HIV� infections�are�now�occurring�among�younger� age� groups,� with� the� vast� majority� of� cases� reported� among� the� youth� and� young� adult�population�aged�20Ͳ29.� �For�example,� in�Djibouti,�3.8�percent�of�recorded�HIV�cases�are� found�among�those�15Ͳ�to�19ͲyearsͲold,�while�43.6�percent�of�infections�are�recorded�among�those�aged�20Ͳ29Ͳ�years�of�age.61�Please�see�Table�4�and�Diagram�3�for�2007�youth�prevalence�rate�estimates�in�MENA.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������58�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund,�Joint�United�Nations�Program�on�HIV/AIDS,�World�Health�Organization,.�Children�and�AIDS:�Second�Stock�Taking�Report.,�UNAIDS,�2008.�

59�RoudiͲFahimi,�F.�and�Ashford,�L.�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Guide�for�Reporters.�Population�Reference�Bureau,�2008.�60�United�States�Census�Bureau�International�Database,�http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/,�accessed�17�September�2009.�61Shepard,�B.�and�DeJong,�J.�Breaking�the�Silence�and�Saving�Lives:�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Arab�States�and�Iran.�Harvard�School�of�Public�Health,�Boston,�2005.

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Table�4�Reported�HIV�cases.��

Country�Total,�2007�

Total,�2001�

Adults�(15+),�2007�

Adults�(15+),�2001�

Adult�Women�(15+),�2007�

Adult�Women�(15+),�2001�

Young�Women�(15Ͳ24)�

prevalence,�2007�

Young�Men(15Ͳ24)�

prevalence,2007�

MENA� 380,000� 300,000� 350,000� 280,000 190,000 150,000 0.3% 0.1%�Algeria� 21,000� 12,000� 21,000� 12,000 6,000 3,000 0.1% 0.1%�Bahrain� <1,000� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�Djibouti� 16,000� 13,000� 15,000� 12,000 8,700 7,200 2.1% 0.7%�Egypt� 9200� 5,700� 9,000� 5,600 2,600 1,500 <0.1% <0.1%�Iran� 86,000� 46,000� 85,000� 45,000 24,000 12,000 0.1% 0.2%�Iraq� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�Jordan� <1,000� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�Kuwait� <1,000� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�Lebanon� 3,000� 2,200� 3,000� 2,200 <1,000 <1,000 0.1% 0.1%�Libya� � � Ͳ Ͳ�Morocco� 21,000� 13,000� 21,000� 12,000 5,900 3,300 0.1% 0.1%�Oman� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�Qatar� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�Saudi�Arabia� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ�Sudan� 320,000� 270,000� 290,000� 250,000 170,000 140,000 1.0% 0.3%�Syria� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�Tunisia� 3,700� 2,200� 3,600� 2,200 1,000 Ͳ <0.1% 0.1%�Turkey� <2,000� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�UAE� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�Yemen� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ�Source:�UNAIDS�2008�report.�

Diagram�3�2007�adult�HIV�prevalence�estimates.��

Source:�UNAIDS�2008�report.�

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According� to� UNAIDS,� young� people� in� MENA� are� undergoing� substantial� socioͲeconomic� changes,�including�delayed�marriage�and�increased�preͲmarital�sex.62�Despite�the�assertion�that�traditional�values�protect�the�MENA�population� from�the�epidemic,�there� is� increasing�evidence�that�the�region’s�young�people�are�engaging�in�higher�rates�of�premarital�and�unprotected�sex,�increasing�the�risk�of�infection.63��Despite�this� increase�of�premarital�sexuality� in�the�region�and�the�vulnerability�of�young�people�to�the�HIV�epidemic,� there� is�very� little� research�and�data�available�on�HIV�and�AIDSͲrelated�knowledge�and�behaviors� of� 10Ͳ24� yearͲolds� across� the� region.� Risks� associated� with� low� levels� of� knowledge� and�awareness�of�HIV�are�compounded�by�very� limited�access�to�“voluntary�counseling�and�testing�for�HIV�AND�AIDS,�or�for�any�other�STIs,�and�to�antiretroviral�therapies”�for�those�found�to�have�the�disease.64�

While�all�available�research�points�to�an�overwhelming�lack�of�preventative�knowledge�and�riskͲreducing�behavior� among� young�people� in�MENA� (Table�5� –�Young�women�with� comprehensive,� correct�HIV�knowledge),� little� largeͲscale� data� collection� is� available� to� substantiate� this� hypothesis� at� the�population� level.�Knowledge,� attitude,�belief,� and�practice� surveys�have�been� conducted� in� a� limited�number�of�countries�in�the�region,�however�questions�regarding�sexuality�and�behaviors�were�ultimately�not�asked�due�to�cultural�resistance.� In�other�cases,�such�as� Iran,�while�data�collection�was�permitted,�publication�and�dissemination�of�study�findings�was�prohibited.�Social�stigma�towards�those�practicing�highͲrisk�behaviors,�such�as�drug�use�and�maleͲtoͲmale�sexual�conduct,�severely�restrict�both�efforts�to�estimate�HIV�prevalence,�especially�among�population�subͲgroups,�and�the�necessary�policy�dialogue�to�inform�programming.�As�such,�it�is�difficult�to�obtain�specific�estimates�of�levels�of�infection�and�trends�in�the�region�due�to�inadequate�surveillance�and�the�limitations�of�surveying�youth�on�behaviors.65���

Table�5�Young�women�with�comprehensive,�correct�HIV�knowledge�in�MENA�countries�

Country� Prevalence�

Algeria� 13Ͳ16%�

Djibouti� 18%�

Egypt� 4%�

Iraq� 3%�

Jordan� 3%�

Morocco� 12%�

Syria� 7%�

Tunisia� 29%�Source:�Kassak,�K.,�Soubra,�R.�&�Barbir,�F.�Children,�Young�People,�and�HIV/AIDS�in�the�Countries�of�the�MENA�Region,�UNICEF�MENARO,�2009.�

������������������������������������������������������������62�Joint�United�Nations�Programme�on�HIV/AIDS�(UNAIDS)�and�World�Health�Organization,�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�AIDS�Epidemic�Update,�Regional�Summary.�UNAIDS�and�WHO,�2007.�63�The�World�Bank.�Preventing�HIV/AIDS�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Window�of�Opportunity�to�Act.�A�World�Bank�Regional�Strategy,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2005.�

64�Shepard,�B.�and�DeJong,�J.�Breaking�the�Silence�and�Saving�Lives:�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Arab�States�and�Iran.�Harvard�School�of�Public�Health,�Boston,�2005. 65�Ibid.�

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Data� on�HIV� prevalence,� knowledge� and� behavior� among� adolescents� and� youth� are� absent� for� the�majority�of�states� in�MENA�and�therefore�for�the�region�as�a�whole.66� �More�research�and�data�on�the�determinants�of�behavior�change�among�adolescents�and�young�people,�especially� those�most�at�risk,�are�urgently�needed�in�order�to�better�target�HIV�prevention�efforts.�In�addition�to�the�unmet�need�for�adolescent�and�youth�data�collection,�there� is�a�general�need�throughout�the�region�for� improved�HIV�surveillance�systems�and�more� informed�prevention�programming� that�can�reach� the�most�vulnerable�groups.� Such� surveillance� systems� should� not� only� disaggregate� results� by� age� and� sex,� but� also� by�marital�status,�to�provide�a�more�comprehensive�and�accurate�perspective�of�epidemic�patterns.�

As�stated�by�several�reports�on�HIV�and�AIDS� in� the�region,�MENA�countries�now�have�an�exceptional�window�of�opportunity�to�curtail�the�spread�of�HIV�and�AIDS�in�the�region�while�prevalence�remains�low�(see�Table�4).�By� informing�young�people�about�preventative�measures,� strengthening�and� scaling�up�surveillance�mechanisms,� and� creating� an� enabling� environment� for� those� infected� to� access�disease�management�and� treatment�opportunities,�the�region�may�potentially�avoid� the� further�spread�of� the�epidemic.67,68��

Adolescent�and�youth�vulnerabilities�and�risk�factors�in�MENA�Several�socioeconomic�factors�in�the�MENA�region�today�increase�young�people’s�vulnerability�to�an�HIV�epidemic.69,70,�71�

Demography:�Despite� the�potential� for�a�“demographic�dividend”� for� the� region,� the�growing�proportion�of�young�people� in�MENA’s�total�population�could�give�rise�to�social�and�economic�challenges� such�as�unemployment,� social�unrest�and�negative�health�effects� if� the�dividend� is�not�adequately�planned�for.�These�factors�would�reduce�young�people’s�potential�resilience�to�an�HIV�epidemic,�by�decreasing�access� to�education,�prevention,�management�and� treatment�opportunities.�

Conflict�and�Civil�Unrest:��Extended�periods�of�civil�unrest�and/or�conflicts�in�Iraq,�the�occupied�Palestinian�territory�and�Sudan�have�a�negative�impact�on�the�population�in�general,�and�young�people� in� particular.� � Such� effects� include� the� disintegration� of� families� and� communities,�increasing�individual�riskͲtaking�behavior,�an�increased�number�of�orphans,�and�the�breakdown�

������������������������������������������������������������66�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund,�Joint�United�Nations�Program�on�HIV/AIDS,�World�Health�Organization,�Children�and�AIDS:�Second�Stock�Taking�Report.,�UNAIDS,�2008.�67�The�World�Bank.�Preventing�HIV/AIDS�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Window�of�Opportunity�to�Act.�A�World�Bank�Regional�Strategy,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2005.�

68�Shepard,�B.�and�DeJong,�J.�Breaking�the�Silence�and�Saving�Lives:�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Arab�States�and�Iran.�Harvard�School�of�Public�Health,�Boston,�2005.�

69�The�World�Bank,�Preventing�HIV/AIDS�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Window�of�Opportunity�to�Act.�A�World�Bank�Regional�Strategy,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2005.�

70�The�Joint�United�Nations�Program�on�HIV/AIDS,�Notes�on�HIV�and�AIDS�Epidemic�in�The�Middle�East�And�North�Africa.�UNAIDS�Regional�Support�Team�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�February�2007.�

71�Kassak,�K.,�Soubra,�R.�&�Barbir,�F.�Children,�Young�People,�and�HIV/AIDS�in�the�Countries�of�the�MENA�Region,�UNICEF�MENARO,�2009.

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of�health,�educational�and�other�services.�Reductions�in�social�support�mechanisms�increase�the�risk�of�adopting�healthͲaverse�behaviors,�and�decrease�access� to� traditional� resilience� factors�such�as�strong�personal,�familial�and�social�relationships.�

Refugees�and�Internally�Displaced�Persons:�MENA�has�some�of�the�highest�numbers�of�refugees�and� internally� displaced� persons� (IDPs)� in� the�world.� �At� the� end� of� 2007,� the�MENA� region�included�approximately�3.5�million�IDPs.��Additionally,�the�region�housed�almost�twice�as�many�refugees,�exceeding�seven�million,�when�over�one�million�people�fled�from� Iraq�to�neighboring�countries.72� In�Sudan,� it� is�estimated�that�there�are�6.7�million� IDPs�and�refugees.�This�refugee�population� in� the� subͲregion� comprises� over� 60� per� cent� of� registered�migrants,� of� whom�approximately�one�quarter�are�hosted�throughout�MENA.�LargeͲscale�population�displacement�interrupts�many�social�structures�and�bonds�that�are�preventative�factors�for�HIV�incidence.�

Migration:� International�and� intraͲregional�migration� in�MENA� is�occurring� for�various�reasons�and�consists�of�diverse� segments�of� the�population.�Migration�does�not�only� involve� refugees�and� internally� displaced� populations,� but� also� legal� migrants� and� their� families,� and�undocumented�and�temporary�migrants.� Influxes�of�migrants�from�countries�experiencing�high�HIV�prevalence�rates�increase�the�potential�for�the�spread�of�the�disease,�as�a�higher�proportion�of�the�national�population�may�carry�the�virus.�

Youth�unemployment�and� inactivity:�Figures� for�both�youth�unemployment�and� inactivity�are�the�highest�in�the�world.�While�the�majority�will�not,�some�inactive�youth�will�engage�in�deviant�behavior,�such�as�drug�use,�increasing�the�risk�of�HIV�transmission.��

Gender:�Women�in�general�may�also�face�increased�vulnerability�due�to:�1)�changing�patterns�of�marriage;�2)�high�female�illiteracy�rates�in�certain�countries;�3)�limited�access�to�services;�and�4)�socioͲcultural� practices� and� unfavorable� socioͲeconomic� conditions,� particularly� in� Djibouti,�Sudan,�and�Yemen.�A�higher�percentage�of�young�women� in�MENA�are� infected�with�HIV�than�young�men.��See�Figure�22�for�HIV�prevalence�by�gender.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������72��Internal�Displacement�Monitoring�Centre,�Internal�Displacement�in�the�Middle�East,�2007.�http://www.internalͲdisplacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpRegionPages)/F4C363E496AB88D1802570A6005599C7?OpenDocument)�Accessed�17�September�2009.�

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Figure�22�HIV�prevalence�by�gender.��

Source:�UNAIDS�2008�report.�

Recommendations�A� study�previously�discussed� in� this� section�proposes� key� researchͲdriven� recommendations� that� can�further�guide�the�planning�of�collection�and�analysis�of�adolescent�and�youth�data.�In�order�to�achieve�the�aforementioned�data�collection,�the�study�proposed�that�the�agencies� that�work�with�adolescents�and�youth�ensure�that:�

x Donors�collaborating�with�national�governments�and�regional�bodies�expand�the�range�of�issues�addressed� in� nationally� representative� health� and� development� surveys� on� adolescents� and�youth;��

x InterͲdisciplinary� research� on� adolescents� and� youth� be� expanded,� and� include� � both�quantitative�and�qualitative�methods,�particularly�on� social�protective�and� risk� factors,�and� in�particular,�HIVͲrelated�knowledge,�social�norms�and�behavior;�

x Data� are� disaggregated� by� age,� sex� and,�where� appropriate,�marital� status,� both� in� primary�research� on�HIV� and�AIDS� as�well� as� in� secondary� analysis� of� existing� dataͲsets� that� include�young�people;�

0.0%

0.5%

1.0%

1.5%

2.0%

2.5%

3.0%

3.5%

Adult Prevalence (15-

49), 2007

Young Women Prevalence (15-

24), 2007

Young Men Prevalence (15-

24), 2007

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x PreͲexisting� data� sets� are�made� publically� available� for� policyͲmakers,� programmers� and� the�general�public;�and�

x InterͲdisciplinary�research� is�supported�to�fill�specific�knowledge�gaps�that�could� include�young�people’s� perceptions� of� service� needs� and� quality,� as� well� as� issues� related� to� correct� and�comprehensive�knowledge�about�HIV�and�AIDS,�and�STI�prevention.73���� �

������������������������������������������������������������73Shepard,�B.�and�DeJong,�J.�Breaking�the�Silence�and�Saving�Lives:�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Arab�States�and�Iran.�Harvard�School�of�Public�Health,�Boston,�2005.�

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7. Education�trends��

Education�was�first�recognized�as�a�human�right�in�the�Universal�Declaration�of�Human�Rights�adopted�in�1948,� and� has� since� been� affirmed� in� several� global� human� rights� treaties,� including� the� UNESCO�Convention�against�Discrimination� in�Education�(1960),�the�International�Covenant�on�Economic,�Social�and� Cultural� Rights� (1966)� and� the� CEDAW� (1981).� These� treaties� establish� an� entitlement� to� “free,�compulsory�primary�education�for�all�children;�an�obligation�to�develop�secondary�education,�supported�by� measures� to� render� it� accessible� to� all� children;� equitable� access� to� higher� education;� and� a�responsibility�to�provide�basic�education�for�individuals�who�have�not�completed�primary�education.”74���

Additionally,�these�treaties�assert�that,�apart�from�didactic� learning,�the�objectives�of�education�are�to�“promote�personal�development,�strengthen�respect�for�human�rights�and�freedoms,�enable�individuals�to� participate� effectively� in� a� free� society,� and� promote� understanding,� friendship� and� tolerance.”75�According� to� the�1989�United�Nations�Convention�on� the�Rights�of� the�Child� (CRC),� the� concept�of�a�human�rightsͲbased�approach�to�education�is�widened�to�also�include�the�CRC’s�four�core�principles�of:�1)�nonͲdiscrimination;�2)�the�best�interests�of�the�child;�3)�the�right�to�life,�survival�and�development�of�the� child� to� the�maximum� extent� possible;� and� 4)� the� right� of� children� to� express� their� views� in� all�matters�affecting� them�and� for� their� views� to�be�given�due�weight� in�accordance�with� their�age�and�maturity.76��

According� to� the� 2006� FollowͲup� to� the�World� Programme� of� Action� for� Youth,� education� is� a� basic�human� right� that� should� also� provide� the� necessary� knowledge� and� skills� to� boost� young� people’s�involvement� in� the�global�economy�and� further� improve� their� livelihoods�and�wellͲbeing.�MENA�must�address�the�educational�needs�of�its�young�people�now�in�order�to�safeguard�their�future�livelihoods�and�potential�contributions�to�the�region’s�economic�growth,�national�development�and�stability.�

Information� in� this� section� that�draws�on�data� from� the�Education� for�All�Global�Monitoring�Reports�refers� to� the�UNESCO�Arab�States�regional�definition.�For�a� list�of�countries� in� this�regional�definition,�please�see�Annex�VI.�

General�education�issues�facing�MENA�Since�the�1970s,�MENA�has� invested�more� in� its�public�education�systems�as�a�share�of�total�GDP�than�any�other�region,�and�this� investment�has� led�to�enormous�gains� in�access�to� formal�education.�Many�MENA�countries�currently� report� full�or�close� to� full�enrollment� in�basic�education�and�secondary�and�tertiary� education� rates� are� on� par� with� countries� in� other� regions� at� comparable� levels� of�

������������������������������������������������������������74�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund�and�United�Nations�Education,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization.�A�Human�

RightsͲBased�Approach�to�Education�for�All,�UNICEF�and�UNESCO,�New�York�and�Paris,�2007.�75�Ibid.�76�Santos�Pais,�M,�‘The�Convention�on�the�Rights�of�the�Child’,�Office�of�the�High�Commissioner�for�Human�Rights,�

United�Nations�Institute�for�Training�and�Research,�and�United�Nations�Staff�College�Project,�Manual�on�Human�Rights�Reporting�under�Six�Major�International�Human�Rights�Instruments,�United�Nations,�Geneva,�1997.

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development.77��Gender�disparities�in�secondary�and�tertiary�education�have�been�dramatically�reduced.�These�advances�have�contributed�to�the�declines� in�fertility�and� infant�mortality�experienced� in�MENA�over�the�past�decades�as�well�as�the�rapid�increases�in�life�expectancy.�

However,�much�work�remains�to�be�done� in�the�education�sector.�Despite�these�high� investments,�the�average� level�of�educational�attainment�remains� lower� in�MENA�than� in�other�regions78.�High�dropout�rates,� low�average� literacy�rates,�and� low�percentages�of�graduates� in�the�sciences�and�other�technical�fields� persist.79� Moreover,� international� testing� assessments� in� some� of� the� MENA� countries�demonstrate� limited� literacy� and� quantitative� skills,� particularly� among� poorer� children.� In� 2003,� the�Trends� in� International�Mathematics�and�Science�Study�(TIMMS�2003)�was�conducted�and� included�26�countries,� three� of�which�were� from�MENA.� The� three�MENA� countries� ranked� in� the� lowest� three�positions�of�the�TIMMS�Ͳ�Yemen�ranked�26,�Tunisia�25�and�Morocco�24.80��

These� indicators� shed� light� on� some� of� the�major� problems� facing� education� systems� in� the� region.��Increased� levels� of� education� have� not� translated� into� longͲterm� economic� growth.� Transitioning�effectively�from�school�to�decent�employment�remains�a�tremendous�obstacle�for�many�MENA�youth.�At�the�root�of�both�of�these�problems�lies�the�reality�that�quality�of�education�is�sorely�lacking�in�many�of�the�region’s�schools.��This�problem�will�become�particularly�acute�in�the�years�ahead�as�the�youth�boom�puts�unprecedented�demands�on� the�education� system,�both�because�of� the� cohort’s� large� size,�and�because�it�will�require�new�sets�of�skills�and�demand�better�results.�The�global�marketplace�calls�for�new�competencies� that� the� current�education� system� is�not� fully�prepared� to� teach.�And� to�adjust� to� the�realities�of�globalization,�schools�must�be�prepared�to�transform�their�curricula�even�while�they�diversify�their� funding� sources.�Given� that�MENA�countries�already� spend�a� large� share�of�public� resources�on�education,� funding� for� reform� is� limited;� and�will� therefore� require� new� efficiency.� These� challenges�facing�the�education�sector�mean�that�despite�important�advances,�MENA�has�yet�to�close�the�education�gap�with�other�regions.��

Primary�and�secondary�school�enrollment�Primary� education� has� a� major� impact� on� MENA� youth’s� lifelong� ability� to� learn� and� is� a� crucial�foundation�for�future�secure�livelihoods.�Over�the�past�few�decades,�school�enrollment�rates�have�risen�considerably�throughout�MENA,�and�the�region�is�making�steady�progress�towards�the�goal�of�universal�primary�education�by�2015�laid�out�at�2000’s�World�Education�Forum.�Some�nations�are�close;�Bahrain,�Egypt�and�Tunisia� register�near�universal�primary�enrollment.� �However�while�others�have� farther� to�travel,�(Djibouti’s�net�enrollment�ratio�is�below�40�percent)�they�are�making�progress.�Between�1999�and�2006�there�was�a�14�percent�increase�in�the�number�of�children�entering�primary�school,�and�these�gains�

������������������������������������������������������������77�The�World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�

Washington�DC,�2008.�78�The�World�Bank.�Youth�–�An�Undervalued�Asset:�Towards�a�New�Agenda�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�The�

World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�September�2007.�79�The�World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�

Washington�DC,�2008.�80�Zaalouk,�M.�Quality�Education�and�Youth�Participation:�The�Case�of�Social�Protection�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�Working�Paper,�2007.�

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were�driven�by�some�of�the�region’s�poorest�countries.81��Djibouti�increased�the�number�of�entrants�by�81�percent�while�Yemen�raised� its�gross� intake�rate�by�more�than�35�percent.82�To�achieve�the�goal�of�education�for�all,�however,�MENA�countries�must�accelerate�access�while�retaining�students�so�that�they�complete� a� full�primary� cycle.� � In�many� countries,� students� face�mutually� reinforcing� cycles�of� grade�repetition�and�drop�out,�which�makes� it� impossible� to�complete�primary�school�and�mean� that�only�a�small�proportion�of�children�attend� the�appropriate�class� for�their�age,�therefore�negatively� impacting�education�quality.�Breaking� the�cycle�of� repetition�and�drop�out�will�be�particularly�challenging� in� the�face�of�the�growing�number�of�primary�schoolͲage�children�in�the�region;�the�cohort�is�expected�to�grow�by�4�million�between�2008�and�2015.83�

Enrollment� rates�have�also� risen�at� the�secondary� level.� In�2006,�28�million�students�were�enrolled� in�secondary�education� in�the�region�representing�a�24�percent� increase�since�1999.84�While�participation�in� secondary� school� improved� in� most� countries� with� data� available,� significant� differences� exist�between�countries.��For�example,�Djibouti’s�2006�secondary�net�enrollment�ratio�was�under�20�percent,�while�Bahrain,�oPt�and�Qatar�registered�ratios�close�to�90�percent.85�The�same�phenomenon�holds�true�for� the� transition� rate� from� primary� to� secondary� school.� For� the� school� year� ending� in� 2005,� the�regional�median� rate�was�92%.�Rates� reached� close� to�100�percent,�however,� in�Kuwait,�Oman,�oPt,�Qatar,� and� the� UAE� while� Algeria,� Iran,� Iraq,� Morocco,� Tunisia,� and� Yemen� reported� much� lower�figures.86� �Another� important�transition� is�the�one�between� lower�and�upper�secondary�school.� �While�lower� secondary� education� is� often� part� of� compulsory� basic� education,� upper� secondary� frequently�consists�of�more�specialized� instruction.� � In�2006,�the�average�gross�enrollment�ratio�was�much�higher�for�lower�secondary�education�(81�percent)�than�for�upper�(54�percent.)87�Algeria,�Libya,�Morocco,�Syria,�and�Tunisia� register�particularly� large�gaps.� � It� is�also� important� to�note� that� technical�and�vocational�education�and� training�play�a� large� role� in�secondary�education.�12�percent�of� the� region’s�secondary�school�students�were�enrolled�in�these�programs�in�2006.88�

One�study�found�that�the�low�secondary�enrollment�rates�that�followed�significant�increases�in�primary�enrollment� levels� in� MENA’s� lessͲdeveloped� countries� were� mainly� attributable� to� povertyͲrelated�barriers.� Enrollment� rates� for� girls� lag�behind� their�male� counterparts� in�half� of� the� countries� in� the�

������������������������������������������������������������81�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008. 82�Ibid.�83�Ibid.�84�Ibid.�85�United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs,�World�Youth�Report,�2007,�United�Nations,�New�York,�2007.�86�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�World�Bank�EdStats�Query�http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/EXTDATASTATISTICS/EXTEDSTATS/0,,contentMDK:21528247~menuPK:3409442~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:3232764,00.html,�accessed�17�September�17,�2009.�87,�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�88�Ibid.�

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region.89�In�general,�the�higher�the�overall�secondary�enrollment�rate,�the�more�likely�more�girls�will�be�enrolled�than�boy.�See�Figure�23.�One�cause�of� low� female�enrollment�rates�may�be�the�fulfillment�of�stereotypes�of�women’s�roles� in�MENA,�which�tend�to�“include�early�marriage�and�early�pregnancy,�as�well� as� conservative�mindsets� prohibiting� women� from� attending� schools� that� are� not� nearby� and�excluding�them�first�in�case�of�financial�limitations.”90��

Overall�MENA� is�now� in�a�position�similar�to�that�of�East�Asia� in�the�early�1980s,�with�a�broad�base�of�primary�and�secondary�graduates.�Looking�to�other�regions�suggests�that�MENA�countries�must�carefully�manage�their� investment� in�education�beyond�the�secondary� level.�A�2004�World�Bank�report�explains�outcomes� resulting� from� neglecting� secondary� education:� “East�Asia� raised�mean� schooling� levels�by�investing� in� secondary�education,� reducing�dropout� rates,�and� sequencing� later� investments� in�higher�education.�In�contrast,�many�Latin�American�countries�in�the�same�time�period�invested�heavily�in�higher�education�without� ensuring� a� solid� base� of� secondary� school� students.� The� result� has� been� greater�educational�and�income�inequality�in�Latin�America.”91�

Figure�23�Gross�Enrollment�Ratio,�secondary�school.��

Source:�State�of�the�World’s�Children,�2008.�Data�for�Saudi�Arabia�from�World�Youth�Report�2007.

������������������������������������������������������������89�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund.�The�State�of�the�World’s�Children,�2009,�UNICEF,�New�York,�2009. 90UN�ESCWA�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�The�Millennium�Development�Goals�in�the�Arab�Region�2007:�A�Youth�Lens.�2007.�91�The�World�Bank.�Unlocking�the�employment�potential�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Toward�a�new�social�contract,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2004.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Percent

youth

Male

Female

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Tertiary�education�Since�1995,� there�has�been�a� significant� increase�of�31�percent� in� tertiary�enrollment� throughout� the�region.�Nevertheless,�overall�participation� in� tertiary�education� remained� relatively� low� Ͳ� the� region’s�average�tertiary�gross�enrollment�rate�was�only�22�percent� in�2006.92�Compared�to�tertiary�enrollment�rates�in�other�regions,�MENA�falls�in�the�middle,�though�well�short�of�Europe�and�Central�Asia’s�rate�of�51� percent.� This� overall�MENA� average� again�masks� the� variance� in� gross� enrollment� rates� among�countries.� For� example,� Lebanon� and� Libya� each� had� rates� over� 50� percent� in� 2005,�while� rates� in�Djibouti�and�Yemen�were�below�10�percent.93� It� is� interesting� to�note� that� tertiary�enrollment� in� the�MENA� region� is� actually� higher� among� females,� particularly� in� the� GCC� countries� (see� Gender� and�Education�heading).�

There�have�been�some�encouraging�trends�recently� in�higher�education� in�MENA.� �Some�countries�are�granting�universities�greater�autonomy,�allowing� them� to�vary� their� curricula�and�develop�alternative�programs� for� different� populations.94� Jordan� and� Iran� are� on� the� vanguard� of� this� effort.� � Six�MENA�countries�have�also� introduced�national�quality� insurance�systems� in� the� last�six�years,�evaluating�and�accrediting�both�public�and�private�universities,�depending�on�the�country.95�While�the�effectiveness�of�these�systems�has�not�yet�been�assessed,�they�are� important�steps�towards�raising�overall�quality�and�accountability�at�the�tertiary�level.�

Youth�literacy�Throughout� the�world,� literacy� rates� among�15� to�24� yearͲolds� tend� to�be�higher� than� adult� literacy�rates,�a�reflection�of�global�trends�of�increased�schooling�access�and�participation.�While�MENA�is�almost�on�par�with�the�global�youth�literacy�average�for�males�and�females,�it�lags�behind�Central�and�Eastern�Europe,�East�Asia,�and�Latin�America�and�the�Caribbean.��In�fact,�though�differences�have�declined�since�the�1950s,�overall�illiteracy�in�MENA�remains�twice�as�high�as�in�East�Asia�and�Latin�America.�Results�on�international� tests�demonstrate�outcomes�are�close� to�what�would�be�predicted�considering�GDP�per�capita�and�enrollment� rates,�however� these� results� fall�below� those� found� in� fast�developing�middleͲincome�countries,�such�as�the�Republic�of�Korea�and�Malaysia.96�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������92�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�93�Ibid.���94�The�World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2008.�95�Ibid.�96�Ibid.

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Figure�24�Youth�literacy�rate�by�gender�

Source:�The�State�of�the�World's�Children�2009,�UNICEF.�

Looking�at�youth� literacy�data�by�country,�significant�progress�was�achieved� in�Algeria,�Egypt,�Kuwait,�Morocco�and�Yemen,�where� rates� increased�by�12� to�22�percent�between�1985Ͳ1994�and�1995Ͳ2004.�Better�still,�youth�literacy�rates�in�Algeria,�Kuwait�and�Saudi�Arabia�reached�over�90�percent�during�the�1995Ͳ2004�period.97�However,�great�differences� remain�between� countries�and�within� certain� regions�within� countries.� Literacy� rates� for�males� are� substantially� higher� than� rates� for� females� in� Yemen�whereas� in� countries� such� as� Kuwait,� the�UAE,�Bahrain,� and�Qatar�demonstrate�much� greater�parity�(Figure�24).� � In�addition� to�differences�between�countries,� the�urbanͲrural�disparity� in� female� literacy�persists,�particularly� in� countries�where�overall� rates� are� comparatively� low.98�Disparities�exist�within�areas�as�well;�for�example�nomadic�populations�tend�to�be�less�literate�than�the�overall�rural�population.�Youth�without� access� to� formal� education� and� literacy� programs,� such� as�migrants� and� people�with�disabilities,�are�at�a�particular�disadvantage.�For�example,�studies�from�Egypt�show�that�in�urban�areas,�migrants�from�the�countryside�report�lower�literacy�rates�than�workers�born�in�cities.99��

������������������������������������������������������������97�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�98�The�World�Bank.�MENA�Regional�Gender�Brief,�http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/EXTMNAREGTOPGENDER/0,,contentMDK:20516633~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:493333,00.html,�accessed�17�September�2009. 99�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2006.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2006.�

0 20 40 60 80 100

DjiboutiMoroccoYemenSudanIraq

EgyptLebanonAlgeriaSyria

TunisiaSaudi�Arabia

IranUAELibyaOmanQatarJordan

oPtBahrainKuwait

Percent�of�literate�youth

Females

Males

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OutǦofǦschool�adolescents�and�youth�UNESCO�defines�outͲofͲschoolͲchildren�as�“children�in�the�official�primary�school�age�range�who�are�not�enrolled� in� either� primary� or� secondary� school.”100� The�World� Bank� has� widened� this� definition� to�include�a�subgroup�of�youth�and�is�defined�as�individuals�between�the�ages�of�6�to�20�who�should�be�in�compulsory�schooling,�but,�for�one�reason�or�another,�are�not.101�Children�are�more� likely�to�be�out�of�school� if� they�are� from�poor�households,� live� in� rural�areas�and/or�have�a�mother�with�no� schooling.�Being� a� girl� increases� the� likelihood� of� exclusion� from� school:� three� out� of� five� primary� schoolͲage�children�not�enrolled�in�the�region�in�2005�were�girls.102�53�percent�of�outͲofͲschool�girls�had�never�been�enrolled� compared�with� 39%� of� outͲofͲschool� boys.103� It� is� estimated� that� anywhere� from� 15� to� 20�percent� of� schoolͲaged� children� and� adolescents� are� currently� out� of� school� because� they:� 1)� never�attended� school� in� the� first� place;� 2)� did� not� complete� primary� school;� and/or� 3)� did� not� attend� or�complete� compulsory� secondary� school.104� � Moreover,� as� children� drop� out,� they� become� more�vulnerable� to:�1)�continuing� the�cycle�of�poverty;�2)�being� involved� in�child� labor�and�exploitation;�3)�being�unemployed;�4)�engaging�in�civic�misconduct;�and�5)�marginalization�or�isolation�by�society.105�

Despite�major�investments�in�education,�more�than�6�million�children�in�the�region�were�out�of�school�in�2005.� .106� � These� children� fell� into� several� categories.� Based� on� analysis� of� enrollment� data� by� age,�around�half�had�never�enrolled�and�might�never�do�so�without�new�policies�and�incentives.�More�than�a�third�might�eventually�enroll�as� late�entrants,�and�about�18�percent�had�enrolled�but�dropped�out.107.�Despite� a� recent� decline� of� over� two�million� outͲofͲschool� children� between� 1999� and� 2006� due� to�increases� in�primary� school�participation108,�projections� for�2015� show� a� twoͲfold� increase� in�outͲofͲschoolͲchildren�to�more�than�13�million.109���It�is�estimated�that�almost�half�of�outͲofͲschool�children�in�the�region�are�concentrated�in�Iraq,�Morocco,�Saudi�Arabia�and�Yemen.110��

������������������������������������������������������������100�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�101�The�World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2008.�102�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�103�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2009.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2009.�104�The�World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2008.�105�Zaalouk,�M.�Quality�Education�and�Youth�Participation:�The�Case�of�Social�Protection�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�Working�Paper,�2007.�106�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�107�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2009.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2009. 108�Ibid.�109�The�World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2008.�110�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.

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Gender�and�education�Overall,�MENA�has�made�significant�advances� in�addressing�gender�disparities� in�education� in�the�past�few�decades.�Female�enrollment�at�all� levels�of�education�has� increased�significantly,�and� the� ratio�of�girls�to�boys�in�primary�and�secondary�education�was�92�percent�in�2004,�close�to�the�world�average.111��However�the�region�as�a�whole�was�unable�to�reach�gender�parity�in�gross�enrollment�ratios�for�primary�and�secondary�education�by�2005;�only� Jordan,�Qatar,�and�UAE�were�at�parity�at�both� levels.�Gender�disparities�are�more�widespread�at� levels�of�education�beyond�primary.� In�2006,� there�were�nearly�as�many�countries�with�gender�disparities�in�secondary�education�enrollment�at�the�expense�of�boys�as�at�the�expense�of�girls.112�Enrollment�rates� in�tertiary�education�have�been� found� to� favor�women� in�ten�MENA� countries,113� “in� part� resulting� from� the� lack� of� job� opportunities� or� the� negative� attitudes�towards�women�working�outside� the�home,�which�drives�women� to�engage� in� tertiary�education�as�a�second� choice;� and� in� part� from� the� higher� grades� achieved� by� female� students� in� the� university�admission� exams”.114� However,� despite� progress,�women� continue� to� enroll� in� “traditional� fields� of�study”�which�are�considered�appropriate�for�girls.��In�MENA,�the�median�share�of�females�in�engineering,�manufacturing�and�construction�was�31%�in�2006.�Women�were�much�better�represented�in�fields�such�as�education� (70�percent)� and�humanities� and� the� arts� (74�percent).115� Furthermore,� the�problem�of�gender� stereotyping� persists� –� albeit� increasingly� in�more� subtle� forms� ͲͲ� often� supported� by� school�curricula.116�To�combat�this,�the�presence�of�female�teachers�may�help�increase�girls’�access�to�schools�in�countries�where� high� gender� disparities� prevail.� Teachers� of� either� sex�may� discriminate� by� gender,�however,�and�therefore�gender�training�for�teachers�is�an�important�tool�for�diminishing�disparities.�

Female�literacy�has�increased�in�all�MENA�countries,�some�more�so�than�others.�Of�significant�note�is�the�stark�contrast�between�female�youth�literacy�rates�and�female�adult�literacy�rates,�where�in�a�few�cases�female� youth� rates� are� almost�30�percent�higher� than� their� adult� counterparts.� For�example,� female�youth�literacy�in�Tunisia�in�2004�was�92�percent,�whereas�the�female�adult�literacy�rate�was�65�percent;�in� Saudi�Arabia,� the� rates�were� 94� percent� and� 69� percent.117�Despite� this� progress,� illiteracy� levels,�particularly� in�North�Africa,� continue� to�be�one�of� the�most�glaring�examples�of�gender�disparities� in�education�in�the�MENA�region.�In�North�Africa,�rates�among�young�females�can�be�twice�as�high�as�their�

������������������������������������������������������������111�The�World�Bank.�The�Status�and�Progress�of�Women�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2007.�112�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2009.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2009.�113�Ibid.�114�UN�ESCWA�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�The�Millennium�Development�Goals�in�the�Arab�Region�2007:�A�Youth�Lens.�2007.���115�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�116�The�World�Bank.�MENA�Regional�Gender�Brief,�http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/MENAEXT/EXTMNAREGTOPGENDER/0,,contentMDK:20516633~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:493333,00.html,�accessed�17�September�2009.�117�The�World�Bank.�The�Status�and�Progress�of�Women�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2007.

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male�counterparts.�Given�current�efforts�to� increase�universal�primary�education� for�girls,�there� is� the�potential�for�female�illiteracy�rates�to�fall�dramatically�in�the�years�ahead.118��

It� is� important�to�remember�that�narrowing�the�gender�gap� in�education�does�not�mean�that�equality�between�men�and�women�will�automatically�follow.�Enrollment�is�not�the�whole�story.��Sexual�violence,�insecure�school�environments,�and�inadequate�sanitation�take�a�toll�on�girls’�self�esteem,�participation,�and�attendance�in�the�MENA�region.119�

Minimum�age�for�completion�of�compulsory�education��According�to�Article�28�of�the�CRC,�participating�countries�are�required�to�ensure�that�primary�education�is� free� and� compulsory,� although� a� minimum� age� for� completion� of� compulsory� education� is� not�mandated.�However,�countries�are�now�moving�away� from�the�assumption�that�compulsory�schooling�should�only�include�primary�school,�and�are�extending�compulsory�education�past�primary�schooling.120��

Despite�this�move�towards�extending�minimum�schoolͲleaving�ages,�there�are�still�many�countries�that�have�not�made�education� compulsory�at�all�or�who� report�unclear� information�on� the�matter.� In� the�MENA� region� specifically,� three� countries�have�not�made� education� compulsory� (Bahrain,� Sudan� and�Yemen)�whereas�five�have�not�clearly�specified� information�on�the�matter�(Djibouti,�Iraq,�Oman,�Qatar�and�Saudi�Arabia).121�

Education�Quality�While�most�of�MENA’s� countries�have� exhibited� a� strong� commitment� to� investing� in� education� and�increasing� gender� parity,� their� education� systems� have� yet� to� demonstrate� the� quality� that� other�developing�regions�have�achieved.�Median� instruction�time� is�one� indicator�of�the� inadequate� learning�environment;�MENA�countries�median�required�hours�for�the�first�six�years�of�schooling�fall�well�below�the� 850� to� 1000� per� year� recommended� by� several� international� agencies� and� reports.122� Lack� of�textbooks,�blackboards,�and�other�resources�remains�a�concern�in�some�of�the�poorer�MENA�countries.�And�old,�overcrowded�school�buildings�are�also�a�problem� in�many�areas,�particularly� those�ridden�by�conflict�and�natural�disaster.��For�example,�more�than�2700�schools�in�Iraq�required�rehabilitation�after�being�looted,�damaged,�or�burned�in�2003.123��These�problems�are�but�a�few�examples�of�the�education�challenges�that�combine�to�prevent�MENA�youth�from�achieving�their�full�potential.�

������������������������������������������������������������118�The�World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2008.�119�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�120�Melchiorre�A.�At�What�Age�Are�School�Children�Employed,�Married�and�Taken�to�Court?�Second�Edition,�Right�to�

Education�Project,�2005.�121�Ibid.�122�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�123�Ibid.

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Education�and�economic�and�social�development�Per� capita� economic� growth� in�MENA�over� the� last�20� two�decades�has�been� relatively� low,�despite�improvements�in�educational�attainment�highlighted�above.��The�World�Bank�finds�that�education�gains�did� not� significantly� contribute� to� economic� growth� or� productivity� in� the� region� in� the� 1980s� and�1990s.124�Possible�reasons�include�1.)�quality�of�instruction�that�is�too�low�for�education�to�contribute�to�productivity,� 2.)� the� fact� that� despite� education� advancements� in� the� region,� other� regions� have�outperformed�MENA,�drawing� innovation�and� investment,�3.)� the�unequal�distribution�of�educational�attainment�in�MENA,�which�is�negatively�correlated�with�higher�economic�growth,�and�4.)�the�high�levels�of� unemployment� and� low� numbers� of� internationally� competitive� economic� sectors.� 125� Income�distribution� in� MENA� is� relatively� even,� despite� widening� education� distribution,� suggesting� that�increased�education�does�not�translate�into�higher�earnings�in�the�region.��Low�rates�of�return�to�higher�education�may�account�for�this�problem,�which�is�in�turn�due�to�low�economic�growth.��

Improving�quality�through�reform�Now�that�many�countries�in�MENA�have�achieved�the�goal�of�basic�instruction�for�all,�they�are�faced�with�the�task�of� improving� instruction�across�all� levels�of�their�systems.� �Education�reform�must�respond�to�the� need� to� prepare� students� to� compete� in� the� globalized� knowledge� economy.� An� index� which�measures� the�degree� to�which� countries� successfully�engage� in� the� knowledge�economy� finds�MENA�countries�mostly�below� the�middle�range�of�distribution.126� �Countries� that�perform�well�on� this� index�tend� to� emphasize� foreign� language,� science,� problemͲsolving� and� communication� skills.�While�most�MENA�countries�rely�on�a�traditional�form�of�pedagogy�where�teachers�do�not�interact�extensively�with�students�and�copying�from�the�blackboard�is�a�common�practice,�stateͲofͲtheͲart�practices�make�use�of�inquiryͲbased� learning�and�adapt�teaching�methods�to�respond�to�the�needs�of� individual�students.�127�Education�systems�that�are�succeeding� in�the�knowledge�economy�are�also� flexible,�particularly�at�the�postͲcompulsory� level.� In�MENA,�once�a� student� selects�a� field�of� study,� there� is� little�opportunity� to�change�fields.��It�is�difficult�to�return�to�schooling�after�spending�time�in�the�labor�market,�and�vocational�training�programs�rarely�permit�students�to�continue�their�education�at�a�higher�level.�Examinations�are�for�selection�purposes�rather�than�accreditation.� �Tunisia�and�Jordan�are�examples�of�MENA�countries�starting� to� address� these� challenges� through�quality� assurance� systems,�more� school� autonomy,� and�lifelong�learning�initiatives,�however�much�work�remains�to�be�done�in�the�region.128��

As� the� youth� boom� enters� the� school� systems,� schools� must� undertake� reform� while� dramatically�increasing�capacity;�over�the�next�30�years,�the�secondary�education�population�will�increase�by�a�third�while�the�tertiary�population�will�more�than�double.129��The�resources�necessary�to�scale�up�services�will�require�novel�approaches�to�reform.�Currently,�private�funding�of�education�is�low�in�MENA�due�in�part�to� countries’� commitment� to� free� education.� � MENA� countries� also� spend� substantially� more� on�

������������������������������������������������������������124�The�World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2008.�125�Ibid.�126�Ibid.�127�Ibid.�128�Ibid.�129�Ibid.

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secondary� and� tertiary� education� as� a� percentage� of� GDP� per� capita� than� their� middleͲincome�counterparts�in�other�regions.�And�in�the�years�ahead,�MENA�countries�will�have�to�resist�the�temptation�to�channel�funds�from�primary�school�to�fuel�the�expansion�of�higher�levels�of�education.�

Monitoring�learning�To�monitor�quality�standards,�some�MENA�countries�are�beginning�to�make�use�of�learning�assessments�to� identify�problems�and� inform�education�policy,�although�these�systems�are�still� in�their� infancy.�Ten�MENA�countries�had�conducted�at� least�one�national� learning�assessment�between�2000�and�2006.130�These� assessments� tend� to� focus� on� grades� 4� through� 6� and� are� oriented� towards� specific� subjects,�rather� than� assessing� crossͲcurricular� knowledge,� skills�or� competencies.131�As�mentioned� above,� the�findings� of� international� assessments� suggest� overall� low� levels� of� achievement� in�MENA.� National�evaluations�confirm�these�findings;�an�assessment�of�grade�6�students� in�Morocco�found�that�mastery�rates�were�quite� low�–�7�percent� in�Arabic,�1�percent� in� French,�11�percent� in�mathematics,� and�20�percent�in�science.�Not�all�countries�have�carried�out�periodic�assessments,�making�it�difficult�to�assess�changes�over�time.�

The�role�of�teachers�To� improve� standards�of�quality� and� equity,�MENA� school� systems�will�have� to� improve� systems� for�teacher� recruitment,� deployment,� motivation,� assessment,� and� supervision.� � As� the� EFA� Global�Monitoring�Report�2005�pointed�out,� teachingͲrelated� issues� such�as�poor�mastery�of� the�curriculum,�rigid� teaching� practices,� lack� of� textbooks� and� other� teaching� materials,� as� well� as� insufficient�instructional� time� are� all� causes� for� concern� in� MENA.132� In� addition,� teacher� shortages� result� in�overcrowded� classrooms� and� high� student� to� pupil� ratios,� undermining� learning� outcomes.� Between�1999�and�2005,�the�number�of�primary�education�teachers� in�MENA�grew�by�16�percent�–�the�second�largest�increase�globally�–�and�by�over�23�percent�in�secondary�education.133�In�some�countries�such�as�Oman�and�Tunisia,�expansion�of� teachers� took�place�even�while�enrollments�were�declining.�However�some�countries�still�face�shortages�of�trained�teachers.�Only�14�percent�of�primary�teachers�in�Lebanon�were� trained� in� 2005;� the� figure� rose� to� 60� percent� in� Sudan� and� UAE.134� Other� problems� persist.�Teacher�salaries�are�near�or�even�below�the�poverty�line�in�some�MENA�countries,�which�detracts�from�teacher� motivation� and� standards.� Hiring� contract� teachers� is� one� approach� to� addressing� teacher�shortages� at� low� cost,�however� longͲterm� reliance�on� this� approach� can� lead� to� lower� standards� for�teaching�staff�overall,�so�must�be�used�with�caution.���

������������������������������������������������������������130�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2008.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2008.�131�Ibid.�132�United�Nations�Educational,�Scientific,�and�Cultural�Organization,�EFA�Global�Monitoring�Report�2006.�Arab�States:�An�Overview,�UNESCO,�2006.�133�Ibid.�134�Ibid.

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Recommendations�Data�on�education� is�widely�collected�and�has�been� the� subject�of�much�analysis�both� regionally�and�globally.�Data�for�regional�comparisons�were�collected�from�regional�and�global�reports,�as�well�as�from�international�databases�and�regional�studies.���

x While�UNESCO’s�Education�for�All�series�provides�a�host�of�global�and�regional�trends�and�data,�as� does� the�World� Youth� Report,� its� database� is� likely� to� benefit� from� further� revisions� to�enhance�its�practicality,�including�more�flexibility�in�selecting�variables�and�regions.��

x Better�data�are�needed�on�outͲofͲschool�adolescents�and�youth.�Currently,�UNESCO�collects�only�data�on�the�rate�of�outͲofͲschoolͲchildren�of�primary�school�age.�This�makes�it�difficult�to�get�a�true�sense�of�dropͲout�activity�among�youth�in�the�region.�Additional�planning�will�be�necessary�to� take� into�account�outͲofͲschool�youth�when� trying� to�prepare� them� for� the�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�and�decent� livelihoods.�Please�see�Mind�the�gap:�the�school�to�work�transition�and�the�informal�economy�for�more�information�on�the�school�to�work�transition.�

x Many�of�the�proposed�adolescent�and�youth� indicators�were�available�on�a�regional�basis�and�are,� for� the� most� part,� available� for� each� of� the� MENA� countries.� These� data� tend� to� be�disaggregated�by�sex�more�than�by�age,�as�most�education�indicators�do�not�necessarily�require�the� further�breakdown�of�age.�However,� there�are�several� topic�areas� in� the�education�sector�where�data�collection�can�be� improved.�There�are�no�data�available�for�adolescent� literacy,�as�this� is� not� a� traditionally� collected� indicator,� nor�were� data� identified� on� the� proportion� of�children�and�adolescents�with�disabilities�enrolled�in�school.�Additionally,�no�data�were�available�on�enrolled�students�who�study�and�work�or�outͲofͲschool�youth.�There�is�also�a�paucity�of�data�related� to� education� reform� efforts.� For� example,� gathering� information� on� the� number� of�employer� associations�participating� in� curricula� reform� could� shed� light�on� progress� to�make�students’�educational�experience�more�relevant�to�the�needs�of�the�working�world.�Please�refer�to�Annex�IV�for�an�extended�list�of�important�indicators�in�the�domain�of�education.�

x Nations�should�be�encouraged�to�conduct�regular�assessments�at�several�different�grade� levels�to�monitor�progress�on�school�quality�over�time.�

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B. Mind�the�gap:�the�schoolǦtoǦwork�transition�and�the�informal�economy��

Youth� entering� the� labor� force� in� the�Middle� East� and�North�Africa� face� a� series�of� challenges.�High�fertility�and�low�infant�mortality�created�a�‘youth�bulge’�which�has�dramatically�expanded�the�size�of�the�labor�force� in�the� last�decade.�However,�despite�economic�expansion�and�an�overall� increase� in�jobs� in�the� region� in� recent� years,�older,�more� seasoned�workers,�and� in� some� cases�migrant� laborers,�have�benefited�from�the�drop�in�unemployment�rates�more�than�MENA’s�young�workers,�even�though�today’s�youth�represent�the�most�highly�educated�generation�the�region�has�ever�produced.135�Labor�markets�in�the� region�are� characterized�by�high� shares�of�public� sector�employment,�which� cannot�grow� in� step�with� the� increase� in�young�workers.�Formal�private� sector� job�growth�has� failed� to�keep�up�with� the�number�of�new�job�seekers,�resulting�in�high�numbers�of�unemployed�youth.�Aggregate�unemployment�for� 15Ͳ24� year� olds� in� the�Middle� East� is� nearly� 25� percent,� compared� to� a� world� average� of� 14�percent.136�Many�young�workers�see�no�alternative�but�to�seek�jobs�in�the�informal�sector,�resulting�in�a�cascade�of�personal�and�societal�consequences.�Though�the�size�of�the� informal�economy� is�difficult�to�measure,�it�is�clearly�a�large�share�of�the�total�economy�in�most�MENA�countries.�One�analysis�suggests�that�the�informal�economy�was�36�percent�of�the�official�GDP�in�Algeria�and�37�percent�of�official�GDP�in�Egypt.137�

Many�MENA�youth�and�parents�prefer�public�sector�employment.�Government� jobs�are�perceived�as�a�route�to�economic�stability,�providing�good�salaries�and�benefits,�including�pensions�and�job�protection.�Indeed,�one�analysis�found�that�public�sector�wages�were�30�percent�higher�than�private�sector�wages�in�MENA,� unlike� other� regions�where� private� sector� compensation� typically� exceeds� that� of� the� public�sector.138�The�extraordinary�demographic�shift�underway�in�MENA�means�that�there�is�not�a�civil�service�position�available�to�all�young�jobͲseekers.�MiddleͲ�and�upperͲclass�youth�may�be�able�to�afford�to�wait�for� the� ‘right’� job� upon� leaving� school,� depending� on� their� family� to� provide� support,� while�disadvantaged�youth�may�be�forced�into�the�informal�sector�or�unpaid�family�work�if�they�are�unable�to�afford�a�prolonged�period�of�unemployment.�Because�private�sector�growth�has�not�kept�pace�with�the�rapid�expansion�of�the�labor�force,�informal�jobs�are�often�the�only�choice.�

Jobs� in� the� informal� economy� are� characterized�by� low�wages,� reduced� job� security,� and�diminished�access�to�social�safety�nets.�Indeed,�informal�sector�jobs�are�less�likely�to�meet�ILO�criteria�for�a�‘decent�job’.139� Yet� this� sector� has� become� a� refuge� for� young�workers� entering� the� job�market� during� the�

������������������������������������������������������������135�Dhillon�N,�SalehiͲIsfahani�D,�Dyer�P,�Yousef�T,�Fahmy�A,�Kraetsch�M.�Missed�by�the�Boom,�Hurt�by�the�Bust.�13�May�2009.�<http://www.shababinclusion.org/content/document/detail/1352/>�accessed�16�July�2009.�136�Ibid.�137�Schneider,�Friedrich.�“Shadow�Economies�of�145�Countries�all�over�the�World:�What�do�we�really�know?”�Presented�at,�“Hidden�in�plain�sight:�MicroͲeconomic�measurements�of�the�informal�economy:�Challenges�and�opportunities”,�September�4Ͳ5,�2006,�London,�UK.�138�United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs,�World�Youth�Report,�2007,�United�Nations,�New�York,�2007. 139Dhillon�N,�SalehiͲIsfahani�D,�Dyer�P,�Yousef�T,�Fahmy�A,�Kraetsch�M.�Missed�by�the�Boom,�Hurt�by�the�Bust.�13�May�2009.�<http://www.shababinclusion.org/content/document/detail/1352/>�accessed�16�July�2009.�

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current�global�economic�downturn.�Almost�threeͲquarters�of�firstͲtime�workers�in�Egypt�were�employed�in�the�informal�economy�in�2006.140�

While�many�families�in�the�region�connect�high�quality�jobs�with�university�degrees,�education�provides�no�guarantee�against�unemployment.� In� fact,� in�some�countries� in� the�region,�such�as�Egypt�and� Iran,�unemployment� rates� increase� with� increasing� educational� attainment.� This� trend� is� particularly�pronounced�for�women.141�One�factor�is�the�mismatch�between�what�is�taught�in�school�and�what�skills�the� region’s� employers� require.� � For� years,� the� region’s� educational� systems� have� been� tasked�with�preparing� students� to� serve� in� the� public� sector.� It� is� no� longer,� however,� the� primary� employer� of�educated� graduates.142� With� growing� market� economies,� new� technologies,� and� a� shrinking� public�sector,�youth�are�increasingly�required�to�look�to�emerging�industries�in�the�private�sector.�Meanwhile,�their�education�systems�have�not�necessarily�ensured�that�strong�links�exist�between�what�students�are�learning�and�the�needs�of�the�global� labor�market.� �Furthermore,�many�schools’�emphasis�on�rote�and�nonͲparticipatory� learning� rather� than� problem� solving� and� critical� thinking� leaves� graduates� underͲ�prepared� to� contribute� to� new� enterprises,� particularly� in� science� and� technology.� A� number� of�countries� have� introduced� efforts� to� expose� students� to� modern� business� practices� in� hopes� of�improving� their� ability� to� compete� in� the� global�marketplace,� however� these� programs� are� underͲscaled.143����

Save�the�Children’s�panͲregional� INJAZ�program� is�an�example�of�a�program�that�has�shown�success� in�introducing� students� to� the�world� of� entrepreneurship� and� business.� � The� program� offers� students�training�in�the�following�areas�to�better�prepare�them�for�livelihood�opportunities:�1)�entrepreneurship,�2)� economics,�3)�business� skills,�4)� financial� literacy,�5)�business� ethics,� and�6)�work,� career,� and� life�skills.� INJAZ�currently�operates� in�12�MENA�countries�(Jordan,�oPt,�Lebanon,� Iraq,�Oman,�Kuwait,�UAE,�Saudi�Arabia,�Qatar,�Bahrain,�Morocco�and�Egypt),�with�plans�to�expand�to�Algeria,�Tunisia,�Libya,�Syria�and� Yemen.144� � Further� operational� research� on� this� type� of� programming� will� provide� valuable�information�and�data�with�which�to�further�address�schoolͲtoͲwork�transitions�of�youth�in�the�region.�

Very�little�data�exist�on�the�transition�from�schoolͲtoͲwork.��In�2006,�the�ILO�conducted�a�global�schoolͲtoͲwork� transition� survey� to�measure� some� aspects� of� young� people’s� transition� into� the�workforce.�Within�MENA,�data�were�collected�from�young�people� in�Egypt,� Iran,�Jordan�and�Syria,�and�constitutes�the�only� largeͲscale�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�study� in�the�region.�Four�key�findings�were�presented:�1)�young�women� are� largely� economically� inactive;� 2)�most� of� the� youth� covered� in� the� study�were� in�temporary�or�nonͲcareer� jobs;�3)�a�higher�education� level�does�not�guarantee�an�easier� transition�or�

�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������140Ibid.�141�Ibid.�142�Population�Reference�Bureau.�Youth�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Demographic�Opportunity�or�Challenge?�PRB,�Washington�DC,�April,�2007.�143�United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs,�World�Youth�Report,�2007,�United�Nations,�New�York,�2007.�144�INJAZ�AlͲArab.��www.injazͲarabia.org,�accessed�17�September�2009.

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guarantee�work;�and�4)�education�levels�are�important�for�skilled�jobs,�whereas�work�experience�is�more�important�for�employers�of�manual�laborers.145��

Many� young� people� turn� to� the� informal� economy� after� schooling� is� complete.� Though� these� young�workers�view� informal� jobs�as�a�temporary�measure,� it� is�often�difficult�for�these�workers�to�transition�into�the�formal�sector.�A�study� in�Egypt�found�that�only�11�percent�of�those�whose�first�job�was� in�the�informal� sector�were� able� to�move� into� the� formal� sector.�By� contrast,�only�7�percent�of� those�with�formal�first�jobs�later�moved�to�informal�employment.146�

Informal� employment� has� social� as�well� as� economic� consequences,� such� as� forcing� youth� to� delay�marriage� and� family� formation.�Not� just� a� temporary� issue,� informal� sector� employment�has� lifelong�consequences�for�youth�–�lower�lifetime�earnings,�lost�opportunities�to�develop�skills�necessary�to�move�into�better�positions,� and� reduced� access� to�benefits� tied� to� employment,� such� as�pensions.� From� a�macroͲeconomic� standpoint,� informal� sector� employment� represents� a� missed� opportunity� for� the�region� to� capture� the� full� potential� of� this� historically� unprecedented� youth� cohort� to� provide� an�economic�boost.147�

Certain�groups�of�youth�are�particularly�vulnerable�to�informal�employment:�those�in�conflict�situations,�disabled� youth� and�women.� Youth� in� conflict� and� postͲconflict� situations� are� particularly� atͲrisk� for�informal�sector�employment,�as�they�negotiate�unstable�formal�economies�or�migrate�in�search�of�safety�and�stability.�Conflict� is�correlated�with�physical�and�psychological� injury�and�youth�are�no�exception.��Thus�youth�in�conflict�are�at�increased�risk�for�injury,�which�could�further�hamper�their�ability�to�secure�formal�employment.�The�presence�of�a�disability,�whether�congenital�blindness�or�postͲtraumatic�stress�disorder,�creates�further�challenges�for�young� job�seekers.�The�World�Youth�Report�asserts�that�fewer�than�10�percent�of�secondary�school�students�with�disabilities�receive�vocational�or�technical�training,�an�essential�link�between�school�and�employment�for�this�doublyͲchallenged�group.148�

Young� women� seeking� employment� are� disadvantaged� by� both� age� and� gender.� Labor� force�participation� rates� for�women� in� the� region�have� long�been�among� the� lowest� in� the�world,�but�have�recently�been� increasing� in�many�MENA�countries.149�The�combination�of�current�demographic� trends�and� growing� labor� force� participation� among� women�may� increase� the� competitiveness� of� the� job�market�for�occupations�traditionally�dominated�by�women,�such�as�clerical�and�serviceͲoriented�jobs.��

Job� creation�efforts�often� favor�older�workers�or�economic�migrants,�excluding�youth� from�obtaining�formal�sector�jobs�and�reinforcing�the�trend�of�informal�sector�employment�for�young�workers.�

Migration�is�an�option�for�some�youth,�though�cultural�norms�typically�exclude�young�female�jobͲseekers�from�moving� to�obtain�work.�Furthermore,� the�departure�of�young� job�seekers�creates�a� ‘brain�drain’�

������������������������������������������������������������145�International�Labor�Office,�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth,�ILO,�Geneva,�2006.�146�Ibid.�147United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs,�World�Youth�Report,�2007,�United�Nations,�New�York,�2007.�148�Ibid.�149�Ibid.

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with�significant�economic�and�social�consequences.�When�firms�downsize,�youth,�who�are� less� likely�to�be�covered�by�job�protection�policies,�are�more�likely�to�lose�their�jobs.�For�economic�migrants,�job�loss�may� precipitate� a� return� home,� putting� additional� strain� on� the� labor� markets� of� laborͲexporting�countries,�such�as�Morocco�and�Yemen,�and�labor�exporting�regions,�such�as�rural�areas.�

MENA’s� governments� have� an� opportunity� to� intervene� at� this� key� juncture� for� the� ‘youth� bulge’,�replacing� the� uncertainty� of� informal� employment� with� the� opportunity� for� economic� and� social�advancement�offered�by� formal�employment.� Increased� access� to� capital� is� an� important�part�of� the�solution.� Youth�may� engage� in� entrepreneurial�projects,� generating� job� growth,�or� reduce�unwanted�delays� in�marriage�and�family�formation�during�a�period�of�unͲ�or�underͲemployment.�Countries� in�the�region�should�also�invest�in�skills�development�to�raise�the�value�of�informal�jobs.�By�keeping�pace�with�the�skills�development�of�their�formallyͲemployed�peers,�youth� in�the� informal�economy�will�be�better�able� to� transition� into� the� formal� sector.� Social� protection� for� all�workers,�both�male� and� female,� is�imperative.� While� changes� in� job� protection� schemes� are� politically� unpalatable,� enhanced� social�insurance�policies�for�all�workers,�such�as�unemployment�insurance,�could�provide�a�safety�net�for�young�workers� as� they� struggle� to� establish� themselves.� The� region� also� needs� to� document,� evaluate� and�disseminate� results� of� programs� for� building� entrepreneurship� among� youth.� As� economies� become�more� competitive,� young� people� need� access� to� loans� and� credit� programs� in� order� to� become�economically�active�entrepreneurs.� �A�multiͲsectoral�response�is�urgently�required,�with�active�linkages�between�the�Ministries�of�Education,�Labor,�Family�and�Youth�to�ensure�that�young�people,�especially�those�with�special�vulnerabilities,�are�prepared�for�the�jobs�of�the�future,�and�that�these�jobs�provide�a�foundation�for�a�secure�transition�to�adulthood.�

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8. Livelihoods�and�economic�participation�trends��

Young� people� play� a� key� role� in� the� labor� market� and� the� economy,� both� as� direct� and� indirect�beneficiaries�of�labor�policies,�and�as�contributors�to�the�changing�composition�of�the�labor�market.�The�extent� and� type�of� their� employment� are� key�determinants�of� young�peoples’�wellͲbeing.� �However,�these�are�not�the�only� important�characteristics�of�young�people’s�economic�engagement.�Assessment�of� young� people’s� involvement� in� the� economic� sector�must�move� beyond� the� narrow� confines� of�employment�and�income�generation�and�ensure�that�the�effects�of�these�activities�on�adolescents’�and�youths’�livelihoods�form�the�basis�of�analysis.��

Several� studies� and� trend� analyses� conclude� that� given� rapid� youth�population� growth� in�MENA,� the�region�requires�80�million�new� jobs�by�2020�to�accommodate� future� job�entrants�who�are�part�of�the�“youth�bulge”.�To�redress�current�high�unemployment�rates,�the�region�must�generate�100�million�new�jobs�by�2020�to�reduce�the�regional�unemployment�rate�to�15�percent;�a�doubling�of�the�current�number�of�jobs�in�the�region.150�

Livelihoods�Livelihoods� analysis� extends� beyond� employment� and� takes� into� account� a� sustainable� approach� for�building� adolescent� and� youth� capabilities,� resources,� and� opportunities� to� enable� young� people� to�pursue�individual�and�household�economic�goals.151,152�Livelihoods�approaches�to�development�promote�decent� and� productive� employment,� equipping� young� people� with� the� skills� and� empowerment�necessary�for�making� informed� life�decisions.153�Its�goal� is�for�young�people�to�acquire�skills�to�become�economically�productive,�have�economic�literacy,�engage�in�social�development,�have�access�to�savings,�credit,� entrepreneurship� and� formalͲ� and� informalͲsector� employment”.154� Livelihoods� become�sustainable�when� these� economic� goals� can�endure,� as�well� as� recover� from�economic� stressors� and�provide� opportunities� for� future� generations.155� � It� is� a� rightsͲbased� perspective� derived� from� the�provisions� of� the� Convention� of� the� Rights� of� the� Child� and� other� relevant� Conventions,� providing� a�human�security�and�capital�approach�to�economic�analysis.156��In�contrast,�a�narrow�employment�focus�

������������������������������������������������������������150�The�World�Bank.�Unlocking�the�employment�potential�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Toward�a�new�social�contract,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2004.�151�UNICEF�and�Population�Council.�The�Role�of�Social�Support�and�Economic�Skill�Building�Programs�in�Mitigating�

Adolescents’�Vulnerabilities:�Perspectives�and�UNICEF’s�Experience�to�Date.�Year�not�specified.�152�Chambers,�Robert�and�Gordon�R.�Conway.�Sustainable�rural�livelihoods:�Practical�concepts�for�the�21st�Century.�

Discussion�paper�no.�296.�Sussex:�United�Kingdom:�Institute�of�Development�Studies,�1992.��As�cited�in�Adolescent�Girls’�Livelihoods:�Essential�Questions,�Essential�Tools.�A�Report�on�a�Workshop.�Population�Council�and�the�ICRW.�2000.��

153�Brown,�N.�Promoting�Adolescent�Livelihoods:�A�discussion�paper�prepared�for�the�Commonwealth�Youth�Programme�and�UNICEF.��Commonwealth�Youth�Programme�and�UNICEF,�2001.�

154�UNICEF�and�Population�Council.�The�Role�of�Social�Support�and�Economic�Skill�Building�Programs�in�Mitigating�Adolescents’�Vulnerabilities:�Perspectives�and�UNICEF’s�Experience�to�Date.�Year�not�specified.

155�Brown,�N.�Promoting�Adolescent�Livelihoods:�A�discussion�paper�prepared�for�the�Commonwealth�Youth�Programme�and�UNICEF.��Commonwealth�Youth�Programme�and�UNICEF,�2001.�

156�Ibid.�

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limits�performance�to�job�growth�and� incomes,�neglecting�an�analysis�of�the� impact�on�young�peoples’�lived�economic�experiences.�Livelihoods�analysis�is�a�holistic�approach.��

Livelihoods� represent� the� link�between� education,� the� schoolͲtoͲwork� transition,� and� young�people’s�ultimate�economic�participation.�Gainful,�decent�and�productive�employment�allows�a�young�person�not�only�to�generate�income,�but�also�develop�skills,�increase�his/her�knowledge�base,�build�selfͲesteem�and�foster�an�optimistic�view�of�the�future.157��

While� livelihoods�approaches�are�gaining� increased�recognition�as�a�contextualized� tool� for�evaluating�economic� circumstance,� there� are� currently�no� indicators� that�holistically�measure� the�phenomenon.�Existing� indicators�use�a� silo�approach,�whereby� specific�aspects�of�economic�wellͲbeing� (such�as� the�number� of� hours� worked,� average� wages,� etc.)� are� assessed� separately.� This� piecemeal� approach�neglects� the�mutual� complementarity� of� different� aspects� of� economic� livelihoods,� reducing� young�people’s� lived� experiences� to� categorical� estimates.� A� comprehensive� understanding� necessitates� an�integrated�systems�approach,�reflecting� the�relationships�between� its�components�and�other�systems.�As� livelihood�system� indicators�do�not�currently�exist,�this�section�of�the�Review�examines�some�of�the�components�that�comprise�livelihoods�for�which�data�are�available.�

Transition�from�schoolǦtoǦwork��The�transition�from�school�to�work�among�youth�in�MENA�is�a�crucial�time�for�optimally�translating�high�educational� attainment� into� ‘decent’� and� productive� jobs� for� a� stronger� economy.� Currently,� young�people’s�prospects�of�finding�work�after�school�are�hampered�by�discordance�between�their�preparation�in�school�and�the�needs�of�the�employment�market.�For�further�exploration�of�this�topic,�please�see�the�preceding�case�study,�Mind�the�gap:�the�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�and�the�informal�economy.�

Unemployment�Although�young�people�in�MENA�comprise�approximately�oneͲthird�of�the�workingͲage�population,�they�account� for� almost� 50�per� cent�of� the� region’s� total�unemployment� (Figure� 24).� This�proportion�has�decreased�only� slightly� since�1997;�a� reduction�of�3.3�percent�over� the�10Ͳyear�period.�While� such�a�reduction�is�positive�given�the�large�cohort�of�youth�entering�the�labor�market,�the�pace�of�reduction�has�been� lower� than�many� other� regions.� However,� analysis� of� the� proportion� of� total� unemployment�contributed�by�youth�obscures�absolute�levels.�If�both�total�and�youthͲspecific�unemployment�increased�at�the�same�rate,�this�would�not�be�shown�by�proportional�analysis.�It�is�therefore�necessary�to�observe�youthͲspecific�unemployment� rates� in� isolation� to� reveal� the�employment�experience�of�youth� in� the�region.�� �

������������������������������������������������������������157�UNICEF�and�Population�Council.�The�Role�of�Social�Support�and�Economic�Skill�Building�Programs�in�Mitigating�

Adolescents’�Vulnerabilities:�Perspectives�and�UNICEF’s�Experience�to�Date.�Year�not�specified.

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Figure�24�Youth�share�of�total�unemployment���

Source:�UNDESA�World�Youth�Report�2007�

As�shown� in�Figure�25,�unemployment�among�youth� in�MENA� is�the�highest� for�any� ILO�global�region,�averaging� over� 22� percent� in� 2007.� Compounding� this� concern,� youth� Labor� Force� Participate� Rates�(LFPR)� in�MENA�are�the� lowest� in�the�world,�currently�standing�at�40�percent�(Figure�26).� �Simply�put,�this�indicates�that�youth�in�the�MENA�region�are�the�least�likely�to�be�seeking�work,�and�that�those�that�are� seeking� work� have� the� lowest� chance� of� obtaining� it.� These� statistics� underscore� the� level� of�economic�vulnerability�experienced�by�youth� in� the� region.�The� region�also�holds� the� second�highest�average�gap� in� female� to�male� youth� labor�participation� in� the�world� (only�preceded�by� South�Asia).�Female�youth�in�MENA�have�a�LFPR�29�percent�lower�than�their�male�counterparts,�highlighting�gender�discrepancies�in�economic�opportunity�in�many�countries�in�the�region.��

� �

42

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World MENA DEEU CSEE &

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82��

Figure�25�Regional�youth�unemployment�rates�

Source:�ILO,�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth�2008�

Figure�26�Youth�labor�force�participation�rates�

Source:�ILO,�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth�2008�

11%

24%

15%

21%

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10%

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14%

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World MENA DEEU CSEE &

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55%

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83��

Between� 1995� and� 2005,� the� youth� labor� force� increased� by� a� staggering� 30� percent.158� However,�despite�increases�in�the�youth�labor�force,�the�regional�economy�has�not�expanded�to�accommodate�the�growing�numbers�of�new�job�entrants�and�seekers,�increasing�youth�unemployment�and�in�many�cases�creating�discouragement�and�dropͲouts�among�young�job�seekers159.�

In�MENA,� unemployment� rates� tend� to� be� lower:� 1)� among� those�who� have�not� completed� primary�education�and/or�come�from�lowͲincome�households�who�cannot�afford�unemployment;�and�2)�among�university�graduates�in�the�GCC�countries�and�Iran,�where�the�public�sector�is�the�largest�employer.160��

Employment� and� LFPR� vary� across� the�MENA� region.� All�MENA� countries� experienced� demographic�change� that� contributed� to� high� shares� of� youth� in� the� workingͲage� population� since� the� 1990s.�However,�the�economic�impact�of�this�change�has�differed�across�MENA�subͲregions.�GCC�countries�are�net�importers�of�labor,�while�nonͲGCC�countries�are�generally�net�labor�exporters.�As�a�result,�states�in�the�region�display�different�economic�profiles�and�challenges:�“for�nonͲGCC�countries,�the�main�issue�is�creating�enough� jobs�to�accommodate�entering�cohorts.�For�GCC�countries,�the�main� issue� is�ensuring�that�entering�cohorts�of�young�nationals�are�able�to�find�appropriate�jobs�that�match�their�skills�and�pay�acceptable�wages”.161�

Available�figures�for�the�GCC�countries162� illustrate� lower�unemployment�rates�for�youth�than�nonͲGCC�countries.� According� to� a�World� Bank� study� on� employment� in� the� region,� Kuwait,�Qatar� and� UAE,�countries�with�high�proportions�of�guest�workers,�had� lower�youth�unemployment�rates� than�all�nonͲGCC�countries.163�On�the�other�hand,�Saudi�Arabia�and�Bahrain�had�relatively�high�youth�unemployment�rates�–�28�and�20�per�cent,�respectively� Ͳ�because�expatriate�workers�represent�a�smaller�share�of�the�youth�labor�force�in�these�countries.�The�presence�of�young�expatriate�workers�masks�the�magnitude�of�youth�unemployment�in�the�GCC,�as�these�workers�are�considered�part�of�the�labor�force,�and�typically�assume�positions�that�local�GCC�residents�largely�avoid,�thus�keeping�them�out�of�the�labor�market.��

In�many�MENA�countries,�high�unemployment�rates�are�the�result�of�the� large�proportion�of�the�total�population�who�are�youths�entering�the� labor�market.� In�most�countries� in�the�region,�the�majority�of�unemployed�youth�are� firstͲtime� job�seekers,�as� in� the�cases�of�Egypt,�Qatar,� Iran,�Syria,�and�Bahrain,�where� firstͲtime� job� seekers,� particularly� youth,� account� for� more� than� two� thirds� of� total�unemployment.164���

Employment�prospects�for�youth�in�MENA�remain�precarious.�Significant�investments�in�education�have�yielded�few�increases�in�worker�productivity�and�employability.�This�discrepancy�suggests�that�education�������������������������������������������������������������158United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs,�World�Youth�Report,�2007,�United�Nations,�New�York,�2007.�

159�Ibid.�160�Ibid.�161�The�World�Bank.�Youth�Employment�in�the�MENA�Region:�A�Situational�Assessment,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2005.�162�GCC�countries�include�Bahrain,�Kuwait,�Oman,�Qatar,�Saudi�Arabia,�and�the�UAE.�163The�World�Bank.�Youth�Employment�in�the�MENA�Region:�A�Situational�Assessment,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2005. 164�Ibid.�

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systems� in�MENA:� 1)� are�of�uneven�quality� and� relevance;� 2)� do�not� consistently�prepare� and� guide�students� to�suitable�and�desirable�careers;�3)� lack� feedback� loops�between� the�education�system�and�the�needs�of� the� labor�market;�and�4)�do�not� inform�graduates�of�how� to�apply� learned� skills� to� the�workplace.165�These�themes�are�also�explored�in�Section�7�–�Education�Trends.�

It� is� important� to� note� that� youth� unemployment� rates� themselves� do� not� completely� capture� the�livelihood� challenges� faced�by� youth.�Although� youth�may�be� categorized� as�employed,� there� are�no�data�available�assessing�whether�and�to�what�extent�young�people’s� livelihoods�and� jobs�are� ‘decent’.�The� issue� of� decent�work� has� recently� received� attention�within� the� ILO;� however� the� body� is� still�devising�mechanisms�for�its�measurement�and�evaluation.�Without�data�on�livelihoods�aspects�of�youth�economic�participation,�such�as�unreasonable�work�hours,� insufficient�remuneration,�and� job�security,�the� effect� of� existing� economic� opportunities� on� youth� livelihoods� and� poverty� reduction� remains�unmeasured.�Throughout�the�developing�world,�new�jobs�and�employment�opportunities�have�typically�arisen� from� the� informal� sector,� raising� concerns� of� indecent� and� insecure� work� for� youth� and�adolescents�in�the�MENA�region.166�Please�see�the�Mind�the�gap:�the�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�and�the�informal�economy�for�a�more�detailed�analysis�of�this�situation.�

Youth�labor�force�participation�Demographic� shifts� in�MENA’s�population� contributing� to� the� “youth�bulge”�have� led� to� a� significant�growth� (32� percent)� in� the� youth� labor� force� throughout� the� region.� Recent� estimates� project� a� 40�percent� increase� in� the� size� of� the� regional� labor� force� between� 2000� and� 2010,� and� an� 80� percent�increase�between�2000�and�2020.167�By�2020,�43�million�new�entrants�will�join�the�labor�force;�almost�as�many�as�the�total� labor�force�from�1950�to�1990.168�Countries�can�potentially�benefit�from�such�youth�labor� force� growth� as� younger� age� groups� reach�working� age� and� become� productive�workers.� It� is�therefore�incumbent�on�governments�in�the�region�to�create�an�enabling�environment�to�accommodate�and� foster� this� economic� growth,� and� reap� the� demographic� dividend� of� high�workerͲtoͲdependant�ratios�(Diagram�4).�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������165�United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs,�World�Youth�Report,�2007,�United�Nations,�New�

York,�2007.�166�United�Nations.�FollowͲup�to�the�World�Programme�of�Action�for�Youth�to�the�Year�2000�and�Beyond:�Report�of�

the�Secretary�General.�General�Assembly�Economic�and�Social�Council,�November�2006.�167�The�World�Bank.�Unlocking�the�employment�potential�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Toward�a�new�social�

contract,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2004.�168�The�World�Bank.�Youth�Employment�in�the�MENA�Region:�A�Situational�Assessment,�The�World�Bank,�

Washington�DC,�2005.

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Diagram�4�SubͲregional�Dependency�Ratios,�1950Ͳ2050�

Labor� Force� Participation� Rates� are� a� key� indicator� for� the� vitality� of� a� population’s� economic�engagement.�The� labor�force� is�the�total�population�either�employed,�or�unemployed�who�are�actively�seeking�work,�within�the�national�working�ages� (usually�15Ͳ64).�The�youth� labor� force� is�therefore�the�population�aged�15Ͳ24�either�employed�or�seeking�work.�The�youth�Labor�Force�Participation�Rate�is�the�proportion�of�youth�who�are�currently�part�of� the� labor� force.� In�MENA,� the�populationͲwide�LFPR� is�broadly�in�line�with�global�trends;�however�the�youthͲspecific�LFPR�is�lower�than�any�other�global�region.�As�seen�in�Figure�27,�the�youth�LFPRs�for�the�two�GCC�countries�for�which�data�are�available�are�higher�than�all�other�MENA�countries,�likely�due�to�the�presence�of�guest�workers,�except�Morocco,�which�also�displays�a�high�youth�LFPR.��

� �

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Figure�27�CountryͲspecific�labor�force�participation�rates�

ILO,� Global� Employment� Trends� for� Youth� 2008,� International� Labour� Organization.� Available� at:�http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/ampro/cinterfor/temas/youth/gety/gety_08.htm.��

Throughout�MENA,�women’s�participation�in�the�labor�force�remains�low.169�For�female�youth�aged�15Ͳ24,�labor�force�participation�is�consistently�lower�than�that�of�male�counterparts.�However,�Syria,�Sudan,�Djibouti,�Morocco,�Tunisia,�Iran,�Algeria�and�Libya�have�higher�labor�force�participation�among�females�aged�15Ͳ19�than�among�males�of�the�same�age.170�

Of� particular� note� is� the� low� labor� force� participation� rate� for� females� aged� 15Ͳ19� in� the� oPt� (1.2�percent)�and� the� relatively�high�age� transition� rate�of�9.8� (Diagram�5),� for�an� increase� in� labor� force�participation� for� the�20Ͳ24�year�old�cohorts� to�nearly�12�percent.�These� increases�are�consistent�with�those�of�the�GCC�countries,� indicating� increases� in�young�female�participation�as�they�either�enter�the�workforce�after� completing� their� studies�or�bypass� social�and� cultural�barriers�preventing� them� from�entering�the�workforce�earlier.�However,�the�overall�labor�force�participation�of�young�women�aged�20Ͳ24�in�the�oPt�is�relatively�low�compared�to�almost�all�other�nonͲGCC�countries�in�MENA.�The�World�Bank�attributes�this�low�rate�to�the�presence�of�multiple�Israeli�checkpoints�and�other�movement�and�access�restrictions�in�the�occupied�Palestinian�territory.�Also�worthy�of�note�is�the�high�labor�force�participation�rate�among�young�Iranian�women�relative�to�their�young�female�counterparts� in�the�region.�Almost�50�

������������������������������������������������������������169�The�World�Bank.�Youth�–�An�Undervalued�Asset:�Towards�a�New�Agenda�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�September�2007.�170�Ibid.

Ͳ0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Bahrain

Egypt

Iran

Kuwait

Oman

Syria

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oPt

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Youth�Labor�Force�Participation�Rate

Per�annum�change�in�Youth�LFPR,�where�available

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percent�of�women�aged�20Ͳ24�are� involved� in� the�youth� labor� force,�significantly�higher� than� rates� in�other�GCC�and�nonͲGCC�states.���

Diagram�5�Share�of�Unemployed�Youth�in�Total�Unemployed�and�Age�Transition�in�LFPR.��

Source:�UNDESA,�World�Youth�Report�2007.��

A� low�youth� labor� force�participation� rate�does�not�always� imply�a�dearth�of�economic�opportunities�available� to� youth.� Low� rates�may� reflect� high� retention� rates� for� secondary� and� tertiary� education.�Furthermore,�low�rates�may�reflect�family�structures�that�permit�young�people�more�time�to�find�more�appropriate�and� ‘decent’� jobs,�particularly� in�wealthier�countries� in�the�region,�where�families�are� less�dependent�on�young�people’s�income�and�can�act�as�a�‘safety�net’.171�

Youth�inactivity�Youth�who�are�not�unemployed�and�who�are�not�seeking�employment�are�not�considered�unemployed,�but�inactive.�MENA�continues�to�have�the�highest�rate�of�youth�inactivity.�Globally,�high�youth�inactivity�rates�are�the�result�of�low�levels�of�female�youth�labor�participation�due�to�cultural�barriers.�As�such,�the�female� share�of�global�youth� inactivity� rates� tends� to�be�higher� than� that�of� their�male�counterparts.��However,�a�recent�ILO�study�on�global�youth�employment�concluded�that�unique�country�circumstances�preclude� the� adoption� of� blanket� explanations� of� youth� economic� inactivity.172� � For� instance,� youth�inactivity�is�not�a�viable�option�in�poor�MENA�countries�due�to�the�necessity�of�work�for�some�families�to�meet� their�basic�needs.� �Thus,� inactivity� rates� in� some� states�can�be�explained�by� increases� in� school�enrollment�at� the� secondary�and� tertiary� levels,�given� the�ability�of� cohorts� in�wealthier� countries� to�substitute� education� for� labor.� Both� subͲregional� and� stateͲspecific� investigation� is� required� to�determine� factors�contributing� to�youth� inactivity� in� the�MENA� region,� information� that�has�not�been�widely�collected�until�the�advent�of�the�Silatech�Knowledge�Consortium.��

������������������������������������������������������������171�The�World�Bank.�Youth�–�An�Undervalued�Asset:�Towards�a�New�Agenda�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�

The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�September�2007.�172�International�Labor�Office,�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth,�ILO,�Geneva,�2006.

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In�2007,�the� ILO�conducted�a�global�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�survey�that� included�questions�on�youth�inactivity� in�a�sample�of�countries� including�Syria,�Jordan,� Iran�and�Egypt.�Preliminary�results� indicated�that�60�percent�and�58�percent�of�young�women�in�Egypt�and�Syria,�respectively,�stayed�at�home�rather�than�work�or�attend�school,�citing�cultural�barriers�to�economic�engagement.� � In�Jordan�and�Syria,�the�majority�of� surveyed� youth�held� temporary�employment�while� awaiting�more�permanent� jobs,�while�those� in� Egypt� and� Iran� preferred� to�wait� for� better� employment� opportunities� before� entering� the�workforce.�Most�youth�in�Jordan�and�Egypt�identified�a�general�lack�of�available�jobs�or�insufficient�level�of� education� as� their� biggest� obstacle� to� finding� preferred�work.173�More� surveys� of� this� nature� are�needed�to�better�understand�the�complex�phenomenon�on�youth�inactivity.�

Education�and�employment�In�most�MENA� countries,�workers�with� little� or� no� education,� as�well� as� those�with� postͲsecondary�education,�constitute�a�smaller�proportion�of�the�total�unemployed�relative�to�their�size� in�the�overall�regional� population.� Most� unemployed� workers� are� either� semiͲskilled� or� have� intermediate� or�secondary� education;� a� sign� of� the� undervaluation� of� their� training� in� the� economy.174,175� In�many�competitive�MENA� labor�markets,� such� as� Jordan� and� Tunisia,� youth�with� high� education� levels�may�compete� with� less� educated� candidates� for� the� same� work� opportunity.176� Youth� with� basic� or�intermediate� education� experience�may� struggle� to� enter� the� labor�market,� as� they� lack� both� the�education�of�some�of�their�peers,�and�the�experience�of�those�who�did�not�complete�school.�As�a�result,�youth�with� intermediateͲlevel�education� lack�the�economic�opportunities�of�those�with�both�more�and�less�formal�education,�while�those�with�higher�qualifications�find�their�tertiary�education�superfluous�to�the�needs�of�the�labor�market.�For�further�discussion�of�this�topic,�see�also�Mind�the�gap:�the�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�and�the�informal�economy��

Gender�and�employment�in�MENA�Most� countries� in� the� MENA� region� have� succeeded� in� narrowing� the� gender� gap� in� educational�achievement;�however�this�has�so�far�failed�to�translate�into�an�improvement�in�labor�market�prospects�for� the� region’s�young�women.�The�MENA� region�has� the� largest�gender�gap� in�unemployment� rates�among�youth� in�the�world.� �Among�some�of�the�reasons�cited�for�this�significant�disparity�are:�“1)�the�failure�of�private� firms� in�MENA� to� substitute� for�governments� in�employing�young�women,� including�highly�segregated�labor�markets�along�gender�lines;�2)�employers�unwilling�to�assume�the�added�cost�of�

������������������������������������������������������������173�International�Labour�Organization,�School�to�Work�Transition�Survey,��http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/yett/swts.htm�,�accessed�17�September�2009.�174�The�World�Bank.�Unlocking�the�employment�potential�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Toward�a�new�social�contract,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2004.�175�Population�Reference�Bureau.�Youth�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Demographic�Opportunity�or�Challenge?�PRB,�Washington�DC,�April,�2007.�176�The�World�Bank.�Youth�–�An�Undervalued�Asset:�Towards�a�New�Agenda�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�September�2007.

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maternity� leave�and�child�care;�and�3)�women’s� limited�geographic�mobility;�and�the� limited�growth�of�laborͲintensive,�exportͲoriented�industries�that�might�otherwise�employ�women.”177�

Generally,�female�youth�suffer�a�greater�burden�of�unemployment�than�adult�women.�The�data�are�less�consistent,�however,�when�comparing�female�and�male�youth�unemployment�rates�for�the�seven�MENA�countries� for�which�disaggregated�data�are�available� (Figure�28).� In�Egypt,� for�example,�51�percent�of�female�youth�were�unemployed� in�2001,�compared�to�19�percent�of�their�male�counterparts.�A�similar�situation�is�found�in�Syria,�where�male�youth�unemployment�was�17.5�percent�lower�than�female�youth�unemployment.� Interestingly,� the� opposite� is� observed� in�Morocco� and� Tunisia,� where�male� youth�unemployment�is�higher�than�that�of�female�youth.178�

Figure�28�Youth�unemployment�rates,�by�gender�

Source:�World�Bank:�The�Status�and�Progress�of�Women�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�2007.�

Young�women�in�MENA�face�a�series�of�interrelated�issues:�they�are�becoming�more�educated,�marrying�later,� and� confronting� resistance� from� the� private� sector,� with� many� companies� maintaining�discriminatory�practices�that�prevent�women�from�accessing�economic�opportunity.�As�a�result,�women�are�predominantly�hired�by�the�public�sector,�where�they�do�not�face�the�same� level�of�discrimination,�

������������������������������������������������������������177�Population�Reference�Bureau.�Youth�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Demographic�Opportunity�or�Challenge?�PRB,�Washington�DC,�April,�2007.�178The�World�Bank.�The�Status�and�Progress�of�Women�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�2007.

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or�opt�not�to�enter�the�work�force�entirely.�In�some�cases,�women�are�restricted�by�law�to�work�only�in�certain�capacities�and�at�only�certain�times�of�the�day.179���

Minimum�age�of�employment�The� employment� of� young� people� is� not� automatically� negative� as� long� as� employment� is� not�detrimental� to� the� individual’s� health� or� educational� opportunities.� While� adolescent� and� youth�employment� is�potentially�beneficial� for�all�parties,� there� is�a�need� to�establish�clear�and�enforceable�regulations�prohibiting�child�labor�and�exploitative�work,�as�well�as�to�establish�legal�minimum�ages�for�employment�that�take�into�account�young�people’s�vulnerabilities.��The�Convention�of�the�Rights�of�the�Child� (CRC)�does�not�establish�a� specific�minimum�age� to�be�uniformly� set� throughout� the�world,�but�rather�requires�that�participating�countries�"provide�for�a�minimum�age�or�minimum�ages�for�admission�to�employment".��The�ILO�stipulates�that�the�minimum�legal�working�age�should�be�no�less�than�the�age�of�completion�of�compulsory�schooling,�and�not�less�than�15.���

Throughout� the�world,�many� countries�have�established� legislation� that�prohibits� the�employment�of�children�below�a�certain�age.�However,�in�the�MENA�region,�many�countries�continue�to�have�minimum�employment�ages�below�the�compulsory�schooling�age�(Bahrain�and�Jordan),�while�others�do�not�have�any�clearly�defined�minimum�employment�age�(Djibouti,�Iraq,�Lebanon,�Qatar�and�Yemen)180.�

Conclusions�Youth�employment�experiences�must�be�understood�from�a�holistic,�‘livelihoods’�perspective,�to�capture�the� range�of�ways� that� economic�participation� affects� individuals,� families� and� communities.�Current�data� sources� largely� fail� to� capture� the� links� between� economic� activity� and� other� aspects� of� young�peoples’�lives.�In�general,�youth�are�underemployed�across�the�region,�especially�young�women,�and�it�is�difficult� to�discern�how�many�youth�are�voluntarily�vs.� involuntarily� inactive.�Dissemination�of� reports�from�programs�promoting�entrepreneurship�and�the�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�could�increase�the�spread�of�best�practices.�Labor�importingͲ�and�exportingͲcountries�have�diverse�needs,�but�the�overarching�goal�for�all�youth�in�the�region�is�decent�work�which�permits�completion�of�the�transition�from�childhood�to�adulthood.��

Recommendations�x Carefully� track� youth� inactivity� to� monitor� the� relationship� between� school� completion,�

employment�and�family�formation.�x Improve�measurement�of�youth�engaged�in�the�informal�sector.�x Develop�indicators�on�decent�and�productive�work.�� �

������������������������������������������������������������179�Ibid.�180�Melchiorre�A.�At�What�Age�Are�School�Children�Employed,�Married�and�Taken�to�Court?�Second�Edition,�Right�to�Education�Project,�2005.

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9. Migration�trends��

Migration� is� the� third� demographic� factor� determining� the� size� and� structure� of� a� population� with�respect�to�its�size�and�sex�ratio.�While�the�other�two�factors,�fertility�and�mortality,�have�been�discussed�in� Section� 3� –� Demographic� trends,� migration� is� a� factor� which� must� be� examined� in� terms� of�international�trends�and�flows,�necessitating�a�more�complex�analysis.�An�analysis�of�migration�requires�examining�both�the�origin�of�the�migrant�population�as�well�as�its�final�destination.�

Migration�is�a�topic�severely�lacking�quality�data�and�indicators.�While�individual�governments�maintain�databases�of�the�flow�of�migrants�both�into�and�out�of�their�borders,�there�are�few�reliable�international�or� regional� databases� reporting� these� statistics�with� accuracy.� Institutions� such� as� the� International�Organization�for�Migration,�UNHABITAT�and�the�UN�Statistical�Division�all�provide�information�regarding�migration�rates�and�trends,�however�in�some�cases�estimates�vary�markedly�between�them,�sometimes�within� the� same� database.� This� phenomenon� may� point� to� the� inherent� complexity� of� measuring�migration.� Different� countries� may� use� different� definitions� for� migration,� complicating� the� one�emigrant�=�one�immigrant�equation.�Countries�have�different�capacities�for�enumerating�migration,�with�different� coverage� rates� and� level� of� detail.� Calculating�migration� rates,� such� as�migrants� per� 1,000�population,�requires�an�accurate�knowledge�of�the�size�of�the�total�population,�which�may�not�exist� in�countries� that� have� not� recently� undertaken� a� census� with� 100� percent� coverage.� Additionally,�administrative�data� collection,� such� as� country� reporting,� inescapably� includes�only� legal�or�detected�migration,�missing�potentially� large�numbers�of�migrants�not�using�official�channels.�These�challenges�reduce�the�reliability�of�reported�migration�data,�complicating�data�analysis.�As�a�result,�caution�should�be�exercised�when�reviewing�the�statistics�quoted� in�the�present�report.�While�the�UN�data�presented�here�is�useful�for�examining�trends�and�drawing�broad�conclusions,�it�may�suffer�from�the�setbacks�listed�above.�While�those�migration�estimates�presented� in�this�Review�reflect�the�best�knowledge�available,�individual�data�points�may�not�reveal�the�full�extent�of�migration�in�MENA.�

Types�of�migration�Migration�in�MENA�is�generally�of�three�types:�rural�to�urban�(domestic),�intraͲregional�(within�MENA),�and� interͲregional� (outside�MENA).�Migration� in� the� region� is�usually�oneͲway:�while� immigrants�may�return�to�their�community�or�state�of�origin,�they�seldom�do�so�permanently.�

RuralǦUrban�migration�Not�only�is�the�MENA�population�growing,�especially�due�to�the�maturation�of�the�adolescent�and�youth�population,�it�is�also�becoming�more�urban.�In�2007,�the�UN�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs�estimated� that� 59� percent� of� the� MENA� population� lived� in� urban� areas� in� 2003.181� The� region’s�transition�preceded�that�of�the�global�average;�the�UN�Population�Fund�declared�in�its�2008�report�that�for� the� first� time� in�human�history,�50�percent�of� the�world�population� resided� in�urban�areas.182�The�

������������������������������������������������������������181�United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs,�World�Youth�Report,�2007,�United�Nations,�New�York,�2007.�182�United�Nations�Population�Fund,�State�of�World�Population�2008,�UNFPA,�2008.

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MENA�region�continues�to�urbanize,�with�UN�DESA�estimating�that�by�2030,�approximately�70�percent�of�the�region’s�population�will�live�in�urban�areas.183�This�transition�will�have�a�fundamental�impact�on�the�region’s�ability�to�provide�a�policy�environment�conducive�to�harnessing�the�potential�of� its�youth.�Not�only�will� young� people� require� housing� and�water� infrastructure,� but� also� education� and� economic�opportunity�to�assist�them�to�reach�their�potential.�It�is�necessary�for�decisionͲmakers�to�understand�the�size,� composition,�and� future� location�of� the�youth�population� in�MENA� to� inform�planning�decisions�that�create�an�enabling�and�supportive�environment.�

IntraǦregional�migration�IntraͲregional�migration�provides�populations�in�the�region�an�opportunity�to�fulfill�their�needs�without�abandoning�many�aspects�of� their� identity.�Due� to� the� similarity�of� language,�communication,�culture�and�tradition�across�the�region,�migration�within�MENA�typically�does�not�present�as�many�obstacles�as�moving� outside� the� region.� Nationals� of�many�MENA� countries� do� not� need� visas� to� enter� others,�reducing� the� administrative� burden� of� migration.� Furthermore,� income� disparities� between� MENA�countries�means�that�economic�opportunity�can�be�found�without�leaving�the�region.�Many�in�the�region�have�seized�this�opportunity,�and�send�remittances�to�their�families�and�communities�in�their�countries�of�origin.�

The�increase�in�the�price�of�oil�since�1970�significantly�increased�national�revenues,�especially�in�the�Gulf�countries.�This� increase� in�revenue,�spurred�by� increasing�global�demand,�fuelled�the�need�for�a� larger�labor� force� in�oilͲproducing� states.�These�countries� lacked�a� ready� supply�of� labor�with� the�necessary�skills�and�desires�to�meet�demand.�As�a�result,�migration�to�oilͲproducing�states�provided�an�opportunity�for�many�in�the�region�to�fulfill�their�economic�needs.�It�has�been�estimated�that�by�1990,�approximately�two�million�Egyptian�nationals�were�working� in� Iraq.�Between�1970�and�1990,� the�number�of� foreign�workers� in� the�Gulf� states� rose� from� 1.1�million� to� 5.2�million.�While� the�majority� of� these� foreign�workers�were� from� Bangladesh,� India,� Indonesia,� Pakistan� and� the� Philippines,�MENA� nationals� also�migrated.�One� regional� examination� observed� that� the�majority� of� intraͲregional�migration� occurred�from�nonͲoil�producing�countries�to�those�with�oil�resources�and�others�with�high�income�potentials.184�The� study� also� showed� that�while�most�migrants� in� the�Maghreb� subͲregion� (Algeria,�Morocco� and�Tunisia)�seek�economic�opportunities�in�Europe,�many�others�sought�work�in�the�GCC�and�other�MENA�states,�as�do�those�from�Yemen�and�Egypt.�As�a�result,�foreigners�now�outnumber�nationals�in�many�oilͲproducing�countries.�One�UN�ESCWA�study�reported�that�more�than�90�percent�of�private�sector�jobs�in�Kuwait�and�Bahrain�are�held�by�foreign�workers.185�This�situation,�in�which�nationals�are�or�are�becoming�a�minority� in� their� country,� has� led� to� efforts� in�many�GCC� countries� to� curtail� the� hiring� of� foreign�workers.�While�these�efforts�are�designed�to�address�unemployment�among�nationals�and�to�maintain�political� advantage,� they� have� also� resulted� in� the� severing� of� an� economic� lifeline� for� economic�migrants�within�MENA.� Unfortunately,� comprehensive� data� on� the� proportion� and� origin� of� foreign�workers� is�not�available�for�the�majority�of�states� in�the�region.�It� is�therefore�not�possible�to�examine�������������������������������������������������������������183�UN�United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs,�World�Youth�Report,�2007,�United�Nations,�New�York,�2007.�184�UN�ESCWA�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�The�Millennium�Development�Goals�in�the�Arab�Region�2007:�A�Youth�Lens.�2007.���185�Ibid.

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the�percentage�of�foreign�workers�who�are�adolescents�or�youths,�nor�the�flow�of�young�migrants�within�the� region.� Table� 6,� however,� shows� the� percentage� of�migrants� as� a� share� of� economically� active�population�for�select�countries.�

Table�6�Distribution�of�Migrants�from�Select�MENA�Countries.��

Country�of�Birth�

Migrants�to�European�countries�

Migrants�to�GCC�and�other�Arab�countries�

Other�countries� Total�

Migrants�as�a�share�of�total�economically�

active�population�(percentage)�

Algeria� 991,796� 66,398� 14,052� 1072,246� 13.2�Morocco� 2,616,871� 282,772� 189,447� 3089,090� 29.1�Tunisia� 695,765� 116,926� 30,513� 843,204,� 25.9�Egypt� 436,000� 1,912,729� 388,000� 2,736,729� 14.2�Lebanon� 157,030� 123,966� 325,604� 606,600� 44.5�Palestine� 295,075� 4,180,673� 231,723� 4,707,471� 687.5��

Source:�UN�ESCWA�and�League�of�Arab�States.�The�Millennium�Development�Goals�in�the�Arab�Region�2007:�A�Youth�Lens,�2007.�

International�(interǦregional)�migration�Official� statistics� indicate� that� the�MENA� region� is�currently�experiencing�net� immigration.�About�half�(10)�of� the�countries�are�experiencing�more�people� leaving�and�half� (9)�are�experiencing�more�people�arriving.�(Djibouti�officially�reports�0�net�migration)�(Figure�29).�However,�based�on�UN�estimates�for�the�period�2005Ͳ2010,�approximately�52,000�more�people�enter�the�region�than�leave�every�year.�Six�of�the�10� countries�experiencing�net� immigration�are�Gulf� states,� together�accounting� for�50�percent�of�net�regional� immigration.� In�addition,�Syria�alone�accounts�for�33�percent�of�the�region’s�net� immigration,�potentially�the�result�of�immigration�from�Iraq�due�to�the�ongoing�conflict.�Of�all�countries�in�the�MENA�region,�Iraq�experienced�the�highest�rate�of�net�emigration�(115,000�people�per�year,�or�3.9�percent�of�the�total�population�per�annum)�(Figure�30).�It� is� important�to�note�that�these�estimates�are�based�on�individual�country�migration.�As�such,�movement�of�populations�between�MENA�countries�are�therefore�counted�as�both�emigration�from�the�country�of�origin,�and�immigration�to�the�destination�country.�The�high� number� of� immigrants� in� countries� such� as� Syria� may� therefore� be� the� result� of� significant�emigration�from�other�states�in�the�region,�such�as�Iraq.�However,�based�on�the�regional�data�available,�MENA�as�a�whole�has�experienced�net� immigration.�Barring�discrepancies� in�reporting,�at� least�55,000�nonͲMENA�nationals�have�migrated�to�the�region.��

� �

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Figure�29�Net�migration�(thousands).��

Source:�UN�Data.�Accessed�at:�http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=PopDiv&f=variableID%3a85.�

� �

-150

-100

-50

0

50

100

150

200

Alg

eri

a

Bahra

in

Djibouti

Egypt

Iran

Iraq

Jord

an

Kuw

ait

Lebanon

Lib

ya

Morocco

oPt

Om

an

Qata

r

Saudi A

rabia

Sudan

Syri

a

Tunis

ia

UA

E

Yem

en

Worl

d

Thousands

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Figure�30�Net�migration�per�1,000�population�

Source:�UN�Data.�Accessed�at:�http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=PopDiv&f=variableID%3a85.�

Young�women�and�migration�in�MENA�While�little�demographic�data�are�available,�young�women�in�MENA�do�not�enjoy�the�same�freedom�to�migrate�as�men.�Local�cultural�norms�and�traditions�create�a�barrier�for�women�wanting�to�migrate,�as�does� the� lack�of�economic�opportunities�available� to�women�generally� in� the� region.�This� limitation� is�particularly�pronounced�in�the�oil�economies�of�the�Gulf�states.�While�the�region�offers�the�prospect�of�employment� for� young�men,� the� jobs� available� in� the� oil� industry� are� not� considered� suitable� for�women.�While�men�may�seek�foreign�employment,�women�are�therefore�denied�these�opportunities.186�By�extrapolation,� it�can�be� inferred�that�this�situation�also� limits�young�women’s�domestic�opportunity�for�migration.�Because�young�women’s�options�for�economic�participation�and�empowerment�are�more�restricted�than�men’s,�their�work�is�often�relegated�to�the�informal�sector.�

Underlying�motivations�Although�there�are�many�reasons�driving�migration�in�the�region,�insecurity�and�the�search�for�economic�opportunity�are�the�two�primary�factors�motivating�migration�from�and�within�the�MENA�region.187�High�youth�unemployment� rates,�coupled�with�difficult� living�conditions� in�many�major�cities� in� the� region,�

������������������������������������������������������������186�The�World�Bank.�Youth�–�An�Undervalued�Asset:�Towards�a�New�Agenda�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�September�2007.�187�United�Nations�Department�of�Economic�and�Social�Affairs,�World�Youth�Report,�2007,�United�Nations,�New�York,�2007.

Ͳ20

0

20

40

60

80

100

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induce�young�people�to�search�for� livelihoods�outside�their�country�of�origin.�From�the�data�available,�migration� is�typically�a�masculine�activity,�with�a�higher�proportion�of�men�willing�and�able�to�migrate�than�women.� �There� is�a�paucity�of�data�on�numbers�of�youth�who�are�trafficked�or�forced�to�migrate�due�to�conflict,�and�this�involuntary�migration�is�worthy�of�further�study.�

In�2006,�a�very� limited�survey�was�undertaken�by�UNDP�and�the�League�of�Arab�States� (LAS).188�While�originally� intended� to� survey� only� 24� young� people� aged� 15Ͳ20,� the� poll� eventually� gathered� the�perspectives�of�240�young�people.�While�the�sample�size�surveyed�was�not�large�enough�to�draw�strong�statistical� inferences,� the� results� strongly� suggest� underlying� discontent� among� young� people.� 51�percent�of� those�surveyed�expressed�a�desire� to�migrate� to�another�country.�Among� those�wishing� to�migrate,�46�percent�wanted�to�move�to�Europe,�while�36�percent�wanted�to�move�to�the�United�States,�and� 13�percent� to�other�Arab� countries.� Further� research�on�why� youth�would� select� countries� that�present�significant�cultural�differences�ahead�of�regional�destinations�would�be�useful�for�understanding�youth�perspectives�on�the�region.�The�survey�results�also�indicated�that�young�women�had�less�desire�to�migrate�than�young�men.���

UNICEF�country�office�reports�indicate�that�Morocco,�Libya�and�Tunisia�are�significant�corridors�of�illegal�migration�to�Europe.�Migrants�from�these�countries� include�people�from�subͲSaharan�Africa,�as�well�as�significant�numbers�of�Maghreb�nationals.� In�2006,�the�Public�Health� Institute�of�Tunisia�reported�that�60�percent�of�young�people�were�willing�to�leave,�with�the�majority�citing�that�they�“don’t�have�a�future�in� (their)� country”.� The� study� also� found� that� 28.7�percent�of� young�males� surveyed�were�willing� to�migrate�illegally,�despite�it�being�a�criminal�offence�in�Tunisia.189�

A�regionͲwide�study�of�attitudes�to�migration�was�undertaken�as�part�of�the�Gallup�World�Poll.190�The�survey�asked�youths�whether�they�were� likely�to�move�away�from�the�city�or�area�where�they� lived� in�the�next�year.�While� information�on� the�motivation� for�migration� is�not�available,�the�results�signify�a�high�regionͲwide�desire�to�migrate,�whether�domestically�or�internationally�(Figure�31).�The�survey�may�underestimate� the�proportion�of�young�people�wanting� to�migrate,�as� the�question�asked�whether� it�would�be�“likely”�in�the�next�year.�In�some�situations,�such�as�the�oPt,�young�people�who�may�want�to�migrate,�may�not�be�able�to.�As�such,�the�high�proportion�of�young�people�reporting�that�they�are�likely�to�migrate� is� indicative� of� the� pervasiveness� of� this� desire.�Migration� offers� the� hope� of� safety� and�economic�opportunity.�The�hope�of�prosperity�is�not�unfounded.�Remittances�form�a�large�part�of�many�countries’�GDPs� in�MENA:�Moroccan�emigrants�alone�sent�back�$4.2�billion� in�2004,�accounting�for�8.5�percent�of�Morocco’s�GDP.�As�long�as�countries�in�the�MENA�region�fail�to�provide�economic�and�social�opportunity�for�their�adolescents�and�youth,�the�desire�to�migrate,�either�legally�or�illegally,�will�remain�an�attractive�option�for�many�in�the�region.�While�investments�in�human�capital�are�necessary�to�propel�the�region�into�the�future,�countries�must�also�ensure�that�their�investments�are�realized�by�retaining�an�

������������������������������������������������������������188�United�Nations�Development�Program�and�Regional�Bureau�for�Arab�States.�Arab�Human�Development�Report�2002:�Creating�Opportunities�for�Future�Generations,�UNDP,�New�York,�2008.�189�UNICEF�MENA�Regional�Office.�A�Framework�for�Rights�Based�Programming�with�Adolescents:�Promoting�Development,�Protection�and�Participation:�UNICEF�MENA�Region.�The�Adolescent�Unit,�2006�190�Gallup�WorldView,�https://worldview.gallup.com,�accessed�17�September�2009.

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educated�and�productive�population.�Should�these�populations�migrate�internationally,�countries�face�a�“brain�drain”,�where� the�most�productive�members�of� their�society� leave�due� to�better�opportunities�elsewhere,�limiting�the�potential�for�domestic�growth.�

Figure�31�Percentage�of�youth�reporting�"that�they�are�likely�to�move�away�from�the�city�or�area�where�they�currently�live.�

Source:�Gallup�WorldView�survey.�Data�2005Ͳ2009.�

Recommendations:�x Data�collected�should�be�disaggregated�by�age�and�by�sex.�Though�difficult,�an�effort�should�be�

made�to�estimate�both�legal�and�illegal�migrant�populations.�

x Surveys�should�inquire�about�motivations�for�migration.�

x Household�surveys�in�the�region�should�include�both�permanent�residents�and�migrants,�given�the�relative�size�of�these�populations�in�many�countries.�

� �

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Algeria

Bahrain

Djibouti

Egypt

Iran

Iraq

Jordan

Kuwait

Lebanon

Morocco

oPt

Qatar

Saudi Arabia

Sudan

Syria

Tunisia

United Arab Emirates

Yemen

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10. Political�and�civic�engagement�trends��

Political�participation�and� civic�engagement� is�a�necessary� component�of�a� rightsͲbased�development�framework,�and�an�important�tool�for�developing�policy�and�programs�that�seek�to�improve�the�situation�of�adolescents�and�youth.� In�few�contexts� is�the�need�for�engagement�and�empowerment�more�acute�than�in�the�MENA�region.�DecisionͲmaking�structures�and�chains�of�authority�in�the�region�are�typically�vertical,�where�decisions�are�made�at�an�executive� level�and�passed�down� to� those� the�decisions�are�attempting�to�serve.�It�has�been�noted�that�this�vertical�chain� is�pervasive�throughout�many�aspects�of�society.� Reverence� for� higher� authority� extends� through� political,� social,� educational,� religious� and�familial�structures,�often�disenfranchising�adolescents�and�young�people� from�making�decisions�about�their� lives.� From�birth� through� adulthood,� individuals� in� the� region�pass� through� the�domains�of� the�family,�the�education�system,�the�economy,�religion�and�politics,�experiencing�life�transitions�that�rarely�lead�to�an�increase�in�selfͲdetermined�authority.�

In�the�region,�opportunities�to�exercise�decisionͲmaking�power�typically�expand�for�male�youths�as�they�enter�adulthood�in�the�economic�sphere.�After�completing�their�education,�young�men�typically�gain�the�capacity� to�decide�on� their� future� employment.�However,� their�personal� economic� circumstances,� in�addition� to� limited� job�opportunities� in�most�countries,�often� force�young�men� into�whatever�work� is�available,� rather� than� that� of� their� own� free� choosing.� In� some� countries� in� the� region,� university�graduates� face� higher� rates� of� unemployment� than� nonͲuniversity� graduates� (see� Section� 8� –�Livelihoods�and�economic�participation�trends�for�more� information).� In�the�economic�sphere,�where�autonomy�typically�increases�for�young�men,�lack�of�employment�opportunities,�themselves�the�result�of�vertical� decisionͲmaking� structures� in� the� government� and� private� sector,� prohibit� young�men� from�exercising�greater�control�over�their�own�lives.�

For�young�women�in�MENA,�the�same�challenges�exist�as�for�young�men,�however�in�greater�magnitude.�Young�women�do�not�participate� in�the�economic�sphere�to�the�same�degree�as�young�men,�a�finding�further� discussed� in� Section� 8.�Not� only� do� young�women� face� the� challenge� of� finding� productive,�decent�employment,�but� in�the�absence�of�work�must�also�rely�on�men�to�provide�economic�security,�further� limiting�their�autonomy.�This�factor,� in�conjunction�with�cultural�traditions�of�patriarchy,� limits�young�women’s�decisionͲmaking�ability.�Young�women�pass�from�the�control�of�their�father�to�that�of�their�husband�and�have�few�opportunities�to�exercise�decisionͲmaking�skills.�While�the�level�of�women’s�political� and� civic� participation� varies� between�MENA� countries,� generally� young�women� face�more�restrictions�than�young�men.�After�marriage,�household�authority�typically�resides�with�the�man.�Young�women’s�ability� to�participate� in� the�political�and�civic� life�of�society� therefore�becomes�more� limited�than�men’s,�reinforcing�the�traditional�masculinity�of�authority�in�the�region.�

A�vivid� civil� society� is�a�key� component� in� facilitating� civil�and�political�participation.�Some� countries,�such�as�Lebanon,�have�an�active�and�growing�civil�society,�while�others�suffer� from�a�dearth�of�entryͲpoints� for�young�people�wishing� to�contribute.�The� importance�of�order� in�MENA�society�has� led� to�a�social� consciousness� that� does� not� promote� organizations� seeking� to� change� the� status� quo.� The�exception�may�be�youth�organizations�and� the�youth� component�of�political�parties�operating�within�

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preͲexisting�power�structures;�however�data�are�not�available�to�confirm�or�deny�this�hypothesis.�While�two�hallmarks�of�youth�are�openness�to�new�ideas�and�a�desire�to�question�and�improve�the�status�quo,�the�MENA�region�generally�suffers�from�a�lack�of�civic�engagement.�Possible�reasons�include�the�lack�of�entryͲpoints�for�young�people�wishing�to�become�involved,�a�generally�apathy�towards�political�and�civic�engagement,�or�the�lack�of�an�enabling�environment�where�young�people�feel�that�their�concerns�will�be�addressed.�

Available�data�indicate�that�civic�and�political�participation�among�MENA�youth�remains�weak,�yet�there�are�two�indications�that�this�may�be�changing.�The�first�is�an�increased�focus�on�adolescents�and�youth�at� the� national� level� and� an� associated� increase� in� young� peopleͲspecific� NGOs� and� programs.� The�second�is�the�spread�of�Information�and�Communication�Technologies�(ICT)�which�allow�youth�to�engage�in�their�communities�in�nonͲtraditional�ways.�

In� 2004,� the� InfoYouth�Middle� East� Youth� Directory� gathered� information� from� 10� countries� in� the�region� to� enumerate� the� number� of� youthͲspecific�NGOs,� governmental� organizations� and� programs�operating� in� each.� Within� the� 10� countries� selected,� there� were� 221� domestic� and� regional�organizations,�ministries�and/or�programs,�displayed� in�Table�7.�While�not� inclusive�of�all�countries� in�the�MENA� region,� the� findings� indicate� the� range�of�youth�engagement�and�government�attention� to�youth� issues.� Lebanon� (89)�displayed� the�highest�number�of�organizations�and�programs,�while�Saudi�Arabia�(1)�displayed�the�fewest.�Although�this�is�not�a�complete�listing�of�all�organizations,�ministries�or�programs� addressing� young� people� in�MENA,� it� does� show� the� spectrum� of� institutions� in� various�countries.�191�Without�comparative�data�available�for�the�time�period�before�or�after�2004,�it�is�difficult�to� determine� the� trajectory� of� these� figures.� However,�with� the� situation� of� adolescents� and� youth�emerging� as� a� key� factor� in� the�wellbeing� of� societies� in� the� region,� it� is� expected� that� this� level� of�participation�would�increase,�subject�to�an�enabling�political�and�social�environment.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������191�The�World�Bank.�Youth�–�An�Undervalued�Asset:�Towards�a�New�Agenda�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�

The�World�Bank,�Washington�DC,�September�2007.�

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Table�7�YouthͲspecific�organizations�in�MENA�

Country�Total�Number�of�GOs�and�NGOs�with�

Youth�Programs�

Regional� 13

Lebanon�� 89

Jordan� 38

oPt� 34

Syria� 14

Kuwait� 12

Bahrain� 8

Qatar� 5

UAE� 5

Oman� 2

Saudi�Arabia 1Source:��Middle�East�Youth�Directory.��Available�at:�http://www.infoyouth.org/cd_rmed/mains/overviewme.htm.�

Similarly,� the� spread� of� Information� and� Communication� Technologies� in� the� region,� especially� the�internet,�opens�another�avenue�for�adolescents�and�youth�to�engage�in�political�and�civic�affairs.�A�June�2009�publication� from� the�Berkman�Center� for� Internet�and�Society�at�Harvard�University�studied� the�Arabic� blogosphere,� identifying� 35,000� active� web� logs� (blogs,� total� collective� term:� blogosphere),�mapping�content�and�links�among�the�blogs192.�The�report�presents�a�number�of�findings�of�relevance�to�young� people’s� political� and� civic� engagement� through� the� internet.� First,� “Arabic� bloggers� are�predominately� young� and�male”,� with� the� highest� proportion� of� female� bloggers� residing� in� Egypt.�Second,�“Those�that�write�about�politics�tend�to�focus�on�issues�within�their�own�country�and�are�more�often� than� not� critical� of� domestic� political� leaders.”� Third,� “(d)omestic� news� is�more� popular� than�international�news�among�general�politics�and�public�life�topics,�especially�within�large�national�clusters�writing�entirely�in�Arabic.”�Fourth,�“(r)eligion�is�a�very�popular�topic�in�the�blogosphere,�and�appears�to�be� discussed�more� in� terms� of� personal� religious� thoughts� and� experiences� than� in� its� political� or�theological� aspects.”� Fifth,� “Arabic� bloggers� tend� to� prefer� politicallyͲoriented� YouTube� videos� to�cultural�ones.”�Finally,�“Arabic�bloggers�are�more� likely� than�not� to�use� their�name�when�blogging,�as�opposed�to�writing�anonymously�or�using�an�obvious�pseudonym.”�While�the�study�found�35,000�active�Arabic�language�blogs,�the�Persian�blogosphere�is�estimated�to�be�twice�as�large.�These�findings�suggest�that�youth�in�the�MENA�region�are�seeking�ways�to�engage�and�participate�in�the�political�and�civic�life�of�their� societies,� sharing� their� thoughts� and� experiences�on� a� variety�of� topics� that�may� challenge� the�dominant�social�beliefs.�In�this�regard,�youth�in�MENA�typify�youth�in�other�regions:�while�their�capacity�to� change� their� communities� is� limited�by� a� restrictive� social� and�political� structure� resistant� to� free�expression�and� change,�youth�actively� seek�ways� to�have� their� thoughts�and�beliefs�heard.�The�everͲ

������������������������������������������������������������192�Etling�B�et�al.�Mapping�the�Arabic�Blogosphere:�Politics,�Culture�and�Dissent.�http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.edu/files/Mapping_the_Arabic_Blogosphere_0.pdf,�accessed�17�September�2009.�

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increasing� spread� of� the� internet� throughout� the�MENA� region�will� swell� this� trend,� as�more� young�people�have�access�to�a�medium�to�share�their�perspectives.��

Anecdotal�evidence�suggests�that�the�internet�allows�young�men�and�women�to�interact�in�a�setting�free�of� the� social� taboos�prevalent�across�most�of� the� region.� InterͲgender� relations� formed�on�Facebook,�MySpace� and� other� social� networking� sites� provide� a� way� for� the� sexes� to� interact� and� develop�friendships�not� limited�by�social�mores.�This�potential�avenue� for�women’s�empowerment,�along�with�attitudes� and� behaviors� regarding� political� and� civic� engagement� generally,� are� topics� demanding�extensive�further�research.�By�developing� indicators�and�gathering�data�on�these� important�aspects�of�the�situation�of�adolescents�and�youth�in�MENA,�a�more�holistic�picture�may�be�developed�and�allow�for�comparisons�over�time.�

Recommendations:�x Data�on�political�engagement�would�improve�measurement�of�this�important�phenomenon�over�

the�current�indicator�on�the�Core�List,�which�is�voting�age.�x Engagement� in�political,� religious,� civic,� social� and� athletic� groups� is� a�defining� aspect�of� the�

youth�experience�for�many�young�people.�Data�should�be�collected�on�this�topic.�� �

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11. Child�protection�trends��

Child�protection�strategies�aim�to�prevent�and�respond�to�violence,�exploitation�and�abuse, to ensure

children’s� rights� to� survival,�development�and�wellͲbeing.193 By�promoting�child�protection� strategies,�communities�can�break� the�negative�cycle� in�which�children�victimized�by�violence,�neglect�and�abuse�risk�perpetuating�these�practices� in� later� life.�Promoting�a�culture�of�rights�protection�towards�children�advances�the�future�establishment�of�a�more� just�society,�as�these�children�become� leaders�and� instill�respect�for�human�rights�in�future�generations.

Seven� key� aspects�of� child�protection� are� addressed� in� this� section�of� the�Review:�birth� registration,�violence�against�children,�child�marriage,�female�genital�mutilation/cutting,�children�in�contact�with�the�law,�young�people�without�parental�care,�and�street�children.�Other�risk�factors,�including�poverty,�child�labor,�armed�conflict,�disability�and�migration,�are� found� in�other�sections�of� this� report.�For�many�of�these�topics,�data�are�scarce�and�difficult�to�collect.�Countries�that�have�gone�to�great�lengths�to�report�on� aspects� of� child� protection� should� be� commended� for� doing� so.� As� reporting�methods� improve,�prevalence�of�some�problems�may�rise,�not�due�to�an�increase�in�incidence,�but�through�more�accurate�measurement�techniques.�This�may�be�discouraging�to�authorities,�but�should�not�dissuade�them�from�collection�efforts.�While�there�may�be�stigma�associated�with�data�on�some�of�these� issues,�gathering�information�on� the�extent�of�child�protection�problems� is� the� first�crucial�step� towards�understanding�what�the�region’s�youth�are�facing�and�designing�responses�to�safeguard�their�future.��

Birth�registration�Figures� for� population� projections,� which� inform� policy� and� planning� initiatives� of� fundamental�significance� to�adolescence�and� youth,� rely�on�accurate�birth� registration�and�other� vital� statistics� to�enumerate� the� size� of� the� population� under� observation.� Governments� and� organizations� use�population� projections� in� the� budgetary� and� planning� process,� for� infrastructure� such� as� schools,�hospitals� and� programs� affecting� young� people’s� lives.� While� censuses� provide� one� method� for�estimating� the� size� and� composition� of� a� state’s� population,� vital� registration� (registration� of� births,�deaths,�marriages�and�other�significant�events)�is�a�sentinel�surveillance�mechanism�designed�to�provide�upͲtoͲdate�estimates�of�population�levels�and�trends.�Policy�and�programs�for�young�people,�including�in�the�realms�of�education,�health�and�poverty�alleviation,�require�high�vital�registration�coverage�rates�to�inform�policyͲmakers�of�current�and�emerging�needs,�allowing�them�to�plan�accordingly.�

States�within� the�MENA� region� can�be� characterized�as�either�highͲ�or� lowͲcoverage� countries.�Many�states� in�the�region�have�birth�registration�rates�over�85�percent,�such�as�Algeria,�Djibouti,�Egypt,�Iraq,�Morocco,� the�oPt� and� Syria� (Table� 8).�However,� Sudan� (33�percent)� and� Yemen� (22�percent)� exhibit�much� lower� rates.�This�distribution� indicates� that�birth� registration� rates�are�not�only�affected�by� the�economic�status�of�a�country,�as�Djibouti�and�the�oPt�display�high�coverage�rates,�but�may�primarily�be�the�result�of�political�will�to�collect�vital�registration�data.��

������������������������������������������������������������193�UN�Economic�and�Social�Council,�UNICEF�Child�Protection�Strategy,�UNESA,�New�York,�2008.�

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Table�8�Birth�registration�rates,�2000Ͳ2007.��

� Total� Urban� Rural�Algeria� 99� 99 99�Bahrain� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�Djibouti� 89� 90 82�Egypt� 99� 99 99�Iran�� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�Iraq� 95� 95 96�

Jordan� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�Kuwait� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�Lebanon� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�Libya� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�

Morocco� 85� 92 80�oPt� 96� 97 96�

Oman� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�Qatar� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�

Saudi�Arabia� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�Sudan� 33� 53 22�Syria� 95� 96 95�Tunisia� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�UAE� Ͳ� Ͳ Ͳ�

Yemen� 22� 38 16�

MENA� 75� 86 67�Source:�UNICEF.�Available�at:�www.childinfo.org/birth_registration_tables.php.�

Data�collection�rates�also�differ�between�urban�and�rural�births.�As�displayed�in�Table�8,�all�countries�for�which�data�are�available,�except�Iraq,�show�similar�or�lower�coverage�rates�in�rural�areas�than�in�urban�areas.� This� disparity� is� especially� pronounced� in� the� two� countries�with� the� lowest� birth� registration�rates:�in�Sudan,�53�percent�of�urban�births�are�registered,�compared�to�22�percent�of�rural�births,�while�in�Yemen,�38�percent�or�urban�births�are� registered,� compared� to�16�percent� in� rural�areas.�Even� in�those�countries�with�relatively�high�coverage,�such�as�Morocco�(85�percent)�and�Djibouti�(89�percent),�show�higher�coverage�rates�in�urban�areas�than�rural�areas.�

Low�birth�registration�rates,�from�a�population�policy�and�planning�perspective,�would�not�be�a�problem�if�the�coverage�rate�was�known,�and�the�groups�not�covered�were�representative�of�the�population�as�a�whole.� However,� groups� that� are� not� registered� typically� differ� in� important� ways� from� registered.�Vulnerable�groups,� such�as� refugees,�displaced�people,� street� children,� children�born�out�of�wedlock,�and�others�do�not�usually�experience� the� same� coverage� rates�as� less�vulnerable�groups.�As�a� result,�decisionͲmakers� risk�making�policy�and�programming�decisions� that�are� inadequately� informed�of� the�situation�of�vulnerable�segments�of�the�population.�Low�birth�registration�of�these�groups�complicates�the�planning�process,�and�may� result� in� inappropriate�policy� for� segments�of� society�most� in�need�of�assistance.�Birth� registration� is� therefore� fundamental� for� knowing� the� true�population�denominator,�and�assists�decisionͲmakers�in�designing�effective�policies�that�better�reflect�the�real�extent�of�the�issue�of�interest.��

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Violence�against�young�people�Violence�against�children�is�pervasive�in�the�MENA�region,�with�an�overwhelming�percentage�of�children�experiencing� either� physical� or� psychological� punishment.� In� the� seven� countries� for�which� data� are�available,� an� average� of� 89� percent� of� children� aged� 2Ͳ14� years� experience� one� or�more� forms� of�physical�or�psychological�punishment�every�year�(Table�9).�Of�these�countries,�violence�against�children�is�most�prevalent� in�Egypt� (92�percent),� the�oPt� (95�percent)�and�Yemen� (94�percent),�while�Djibouti�reports�the� lowest�rate�at�70�percent.�It� is� likely�that�these�rates�underestimate�the�true�prevalence�of�violence�against� children,�as� cultural� sensitivities�may�preclude�young�people� from� reporting�violence�from� those� in�positions�of�authority,�such�as�parents.�While�data�are�not�available� for�any�of� the�GCC�states,�regional�analysis�suggests�that�violence�against�children�is�widely�practiced�and�accepted�across�the�MENA�region.�

Table�9�Child�Discipline�and�Domestic�Violence.��

Country� Child�discipline194�2005–2007�Attitudes�towards�domestic�

violence195�2001–2007�Algeria� 86 68�Bahrain� Ͳ ͲDjibouti� 70 ͲEgypt� 92 50�Iran�� ͲIraq� 84 59�

Jordan� Ͳ 90�Kuwait� Ͳ ͲLebanon� Ͳ ͲLibya� Ͳ Ͳ

Morocco� Ͳ ͲoPt� 95 Ͳ

Oman� Ͳ ͲQatar� Ͳ Ͳ

Saudi�Arabia� Ͳ ͲSudan� Ͳ ͲSyria� 87 ͲTunisia� Ͳ ͲUAE� Ͳ Ͳ

Yemen� 94 Ͳ

Middle�East�&�North�Africa� 89 Ͳ�

Source:�State�of�the�World’s�Children�2009.�UNICEF�at�http://data.un.org/Browse.aspx?d=POP�

������������������������������������������������������������194 Percentage of children 2–14 years old who experience any psychological or physical punishment 195�Percentage of women 15–49 years old who consider a husband to be justified in hitting or beating his wife for at least one of the specified reasons: if his wife burns the food, argues with him, goes out without telling him, neglects the children or refuses sexual relations

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The�Global�SchoolͲBased�Student�Health�Survey,�jointly�administered�by�the�World�Health�Organization�and� the� US� Center� for� Disease� Control� and� Prevention,� collected� information� on� the� percentage� of�students�aged�13Ͳ15�who�had�been�physically�attacked� in� the�past�year�across�10�MENA�countries.196�The� results� of� the� survey�were�much� lower� than� the� data� contained� in� the�UN� ChildInfo� Database,�however� this� discrepancy� may� be� due� to� the� omission� of� psychological� violence� from� the� survey�question.�Additionally,�definitions�of�violence�may�have�varied�across�questionnaires.�For�the�10�MENA�countries� surveyed,�43�percent�of� children�aged�13Ͳ15� reported�being�physically�attacked� in� the�past�year� (Figure� 32).197� A� higher� proportion� of� boys� reported� being� the� victims� of� violence:� 53� percent�compared�with�31�percent�of� girls.�Unfortunately,�data�disaggregated�by� the�perpetrator�of� violence�(parents,�teachers,�etc.)�were�not�available.�

Figure�32�Percentage�of�students�(ages�13Ͳ15)�physically�attacked�in�the�past�year.��

Source:�Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�Survey,�2005Ͳ2008.�

Violence�against�children�perpetuates�the�cycle�of�violence�within�society.�When�children�are�exposed�to�violence,�they�reach�adulthood�having�internalized�the�belief�that�violence�is�an�acceptable�way�to�solve�disputes.� Additionally,� violence� against� children� further� exacerbates� their� social� marginalization,�deleteriously�affecting�their�health�and�educational�opportunities.�

������������������������������������������������������������196�Centers�for�Disease�Control,�Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�Survey,�http://www.cdc.gov/gshs/countries/eastmediter/index.htm,�available�17�September�2009.�197�This�average�has�not�been�weighted�for�population;�it�is�the�statistical�average�of�country�percentages.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Total

Male

Female

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The�trend�of�violence�against�girls�appears�to�continue� into�adulthood,�reinforced�by�permissive�social�norms.� The�MENA� region�displays�high� rates�of� acceptance�of�domestic� violence� (Table� 5).198�Within�Algeria,�Egypt,�Iraq�and�Jordan,�68�percent,�50�percent,�59�percent�and�90�percent�of�women�aged�15Ͳ49�believed� husband’s� violence� against� a�wife� is� justified� under� some� circumstances.� These� high� levels�signify�a�pervasive�culture�of�violence�in�the�MENA�region.�This�perspective�has�negative�effects�both�on�society�as�a�whole,�and�young�people�specifically.�An�accepting�culture�of�violence�undermines�the�goal�of�a� stable,� secure,� rightsͲbased�community,�where� individuals�are�able� to� live� in�dignity�and�without�fear.�For�young�people,�social�tolerance�and�acceptance�of�violence,�especially�when�employed�by�those�in� positions� of� authority� such� as� parents� and� teachers,� leads� to� negative� health� and� educational�outcomes,�and� increase�the� likelihood�that�these�young�people�will�adopt�unhealthy�attitudes�towards�violence�once�reaching�adulthood.�

Some� countries� in� the� MENA� region� have� implemented� laws� and� policies� to� ban� violence� against�children.�Of�the�20�MENA�states,�violence�against�children�in�schools�is�prohibited�in�12�MENA�countries,�while�it�is�still�legal�in�the�home�in�all�20�(Table�10).�The�use�of�corporal�punishment�as�a�sentence�for�a�crime�has�been�banned�in�11�MENA�states,�however�it�is�still�legal�as�a�disciplinary�measure�in�15.�Only�Jordan� has� banned� corporal� punishment� in� alternative� care� facilities.� Table� 10� illustrates� that� the�prohibition�of�corporal�punishment�is�uneven�across�states�and�settings�in�the�MENA�region.�Jordan�has�come�closest�to�full� legal�abolition,�having� illegalized�corporal�punishment� in�four�of�the�five�domains.�While�prohibition�of�violence�against�children�is�a�positive�development�towards�the�protection�of�young�people,� it� is�only� the� first� step� in� changing� social� culture,�and�ensuring� that�adolescents’�and�youths’�rights�are�protected.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������198�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund,�ChildInfo,�http://www.childinfo.org/attitudes_data.php,�accessed�17�September�2009.�

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Table�10�Prohibition�of�Corporal�Punishment�in�MENA�Countries�

Prohibited in home

Prohibited in school Prohibited in penal system

Prohibited in alternative care

As Sentence As Disciplinary Measure Algeria No Yes Yes No No

Bahrain No Yes Yes - No Djibouti No Yes Yes No No

Egypt No Yes Yes Yes No Iran No Yes No No No Iraq No Yes Yes Some No

Jordan No Yes Yes Yes Yes Kuwait No Yes Yes No -

Lebanon No No Yes Yes No Libya No Yes No - -

Morocco No No Yes Yes No Oman No Yes - No No

oPt No Some No No No Qatar No No No No No Saudi

Arabia No No No No No

Sudan No Some No Some Some Syria No No Yes - No

Tunisia No No Yes Yes No UAE No Yes No No No

Yemen No Yes No No No Total: 0 12 11 5 1

Source:�Global�Initiative�to�End�All�Corporal�Punishment�of�Children.�http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/frame.html�

Child�marriage�Child� marriage� has� a� range� of� detrimental� effects� spanning� the� breadth� of� young� people’s� lived�experience,� especially� for� women.� Married� young� women� do� not� enjoy� the� same� educational�opportunities�as�unmarried�women,�and�married�and�unmarried�young�men.�In�some�MENA�countries,�education� is�seen�as�an�asset�that� increases�a�woman’s�value�as�a�partner.�However,�women�often�do�not�continue�their�studies�after�marriage,�limiting�their�economic�opportunity�and�personal�growth�later�in�life.�Young�married�women�bear�increased�risks�of�mortality�due�to�adolescent�pregnancy,�as�well�as�lower�survival�rates�for�their�infants.�Child�marriage�is�both�a�symptom�and�cause�of�low�gender�equity�and�female�empowerment,�as�young�girls�often�marry�older�men�and�relinquish�decisionͲmaking�power�to� their� new� husbands.� Women� married� at� younger� ages� may� lack� the� ability� to� consent,� further�marginalizing�their�empowerment�within�the�personal�sphere.�

Data�on�child�marriage�remains�incomplete�across�the�MENA�region.�Some�countries,�such�as�Bahrain�(0�percent)�Algeria� (2� percent),� experience� little�or�no� child�marriage,�whereas� Sudan� (34�percent)� and�Yemen�(32�percent)�have�the�highest�recorded�rates� in�the�region�(Figure�13).�Child�marriage�rates�are�typically�higher� in� rural� areas� than� in�urban� areas,� indicating� that�both� tradition� and� socioͲeconomic�

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factors�may� increase�the� likelihood�of�child�marriage.�However,�disaggregated�data�by�socioͲeconomic�status�and�other�potentially�contributing� factors�do�not�exist.�Similarly,�percentages�are�not�currently�disaggregated� for�women�aged�15�or�younger�and�16Ͳ18.�Data�collection�must�be�expanded� to�more�countries�in�the�region,�as�well�as�allow�for�disaggregation�by�other�potentially�relevant�factors�such�as�the�age�gap�between�spouses.�

Female�genital�mutilation/cutting�Female�Genital�Mutilation/Cutting� (FGM/C)� is�a�phenomenon� largely�confined� to� four�countries� in� the�MENA�region:�Djibouti,�Egypt,�Sudan�and�Yemen.�In�Djibouti,�Egypt�and�Sudan,�more�than�85�percent�of�all�women�aged�15Ͳ49�had�experienced�FGM/C,�while�23�percent�of�women� in�Yemen�were�affected�(Figure� 33).� In� many� cases,� FGM/C� is� considered� an� investment� in� young� women’s� value� in� their�adolescent�and�youth�years,�as� it� is�within� these�ages� that�marriage,�and� therefore� the� importance�of�sexual�“purity”,�is�consummated.��

Figure�33�Percent�of�females�reporting�Female�Genital�Mutilation/Cutting�

Source:�UNICEF.��http://www.childinfo.org/fgmc_tables.php�

Prevalence� of� FGM/C� is� not� homogenous� across� all� population� subͲgroups� in� these� four� countries.�Unfortunately,� disaggregated� data� for�Djibouti� are� not� available.�However,� prevalence� rates� vary� by�geographic�and�socioͲeconomic�characteristics�in�Egypt,�Sudan�and�Yemen.�

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Algeria

Bahrain

Djibou

tiEgypt

Iran

Iraq

Jordan

Kuwait

Lebano

nLibya

Morocco

Oman oPt

Qatar

Saud

i�Arabia

Sudan

Syria

Tunisia

UAE

Yemen

Percent

Female�Genital�Mutilation/Cutting�Women�(15Ͳ49�years)�Percentage�1997Ͳ2006

Sample consisted�of�everͲmarried�women�only�for�Egypt,�Sudan,�and�Yemen.

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In�Egypt,�prevalence�varies�by�education�status�of�the�mother,�economic�status,�and�whether�the�family�lived� in� urban� or� rural� areas.� 92� percent� of� young�women�with� secondary� education� or� higher� have�suffered�FGM/C,�while�98�percent�of�those�with�no�or�primaryͲlevel�education�had�received�the�practice.�98�percent�of�young�women�in�the�poorest�20�percent�of�households�live�with�FGM/C,�10�percent�higher�than�the�rate�for�those� in�the�top�20�percent� income�bracket.�Similarly,�98�percent�of�women� living� in�rural�areas�had�received�the�practice,�compared�to�92�percent�of�their�urban�peers.199�

In� Sudan,� prevalence� rates� sharply� vary� by� region� and� ethnicity.�While� 87� percent� of�women� in� the�Eastern�region�have�undergone�FGM,�only�65�percent�of�women�in�Darfur�have�suffered�FGM.�It�is�worth�noting�that�data�on�the�prevalence�of�FGM/C�in�Sudan�is�only�available�for�north�Sudan�(approximately�80%�of�the�total�population),�with�no�data�available�for�the�remaining�southern�regions.200�

Similar�to�Sudan,�FGM/C�prevalence�rates�differ�markedly�between�regions�in�Yemen.�While�prevalence�in�the�Costal�region�is�high�(69�percent),�those�in�the�Mountainous�and�the�Plateau�and�Desert�regions�are�significantly�lower,�at�38�percent�and�48�percent,�respectively.�In�addition,�educational�status�is�also�a�determinant� factor.�However,�unlike�Egypt,�young�women� in�Yemen�with�higher�educational� status�(secondary�education�or�above)�display�a�prevalence�of�35�percent,�while�only�22�percent�of� illiterate�women�have�undergone�the�process.201�

Recently,�greater�advocacy�has�sought�to�expose�the�issue�for�public�debate�and�acknowledgement�of�its�harmful�consequences.�While�progress�has�been�achieved,� the� sensitivity�of� the� topic�has� limited� the�potential�for�responsive�monitoring�tools.�As�such,�while�the� issue�may�now�be�more�acknowledged� in�the� public� consciousness,� it� is� difficult� to� determine� the� degree� of� influence� this� has� had� on� social�practices.�

Young�people�in�contact�with�the�law�Despite� the� formality�of� legal� systems� in�most� countries� in�MENA,� little�data� are� available�on� young�people�in�contact�with�the�law.�This�population�includes�both�young�people�in�conflict�with�the�law�(such�as� those� suspected� or� found� to� be� in� breach� of� the� law)� as�well� as� those�who� are� the� victims� and�witnesses�of�crimes.�Young�people�in�contact�with�the�law�can�therefore�be�regarded�as�all�of�those�who�are�directly�affected�by�its�breach,�either�as�perpetrators,�victims�or�witnesses.��

Though�young�people�are�widely�viewed�as�a�destabilizing�force�in�society,�the�lack�of�publically�available�data� supporting� this� assertion�makes� its� validity� difficult� to� assess.� Although� the� police� and� judicial�systems� are� generally� well� organized� in�MENA� countries,� sensitivities� surrounding� data� on� criminal�justice�issues�make�efforts�to�analyze�and�respond�to�pertinent�issues�extremely�difficult.�Data�collection�strategies� at� the� local�police� station,�where�most� young�people� come� into� contact�with� the� law,� are�either�nonͲexistent�or�not�disseminated� in�a� timely�manner.�Where�data�are�collected,� it�may�not�be�shared,� complicating� efforts� to� evaluate� programs� and� policies� seeking� to� improve� security� and�

������������������������������������������������������������199�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund,�ChildInfo,�http://www.childinfo.org/files/Egypt_FGC_profile_English.pdf,�accessed�17�September�2009.��200�Ibid.�201�Ibid.

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strengthen� the� rule�of� law.� Indicators�on� the�number�of�young�people�suspected�of�criminal�acts,� the�numbers� of� victims� and� witnesses� of� offences,� the� number� of� young� people� in� detention,� and� the�proportion� of� young� offenders� benefiting� from� diversion� and� alternatives� to� detention� do� not� exist.�Similarly,�data�of�children� in�contact�with� the� law,�rather� than� in�conflict�with� the� law,�are�also�either�uncollected,�or�remain�unshared.�To�develop�effective,�evidenceͲbased�policy,�decisionͲmakers�must�be�equipped�with� comprehensive� information� on� young� people� in� contact�with� the� law.�Without� such�information,�programmers�and�policyͲmakers�will�be�unable�to�design�bestͲpractice�policy,�nor�monitor�and�evaluate�the�effectiveness�of�policies�against�desired�outcomes.�

In� collaboration�with�UNICEF,� the�United�Nations�Office�on�Drugs�and�Crime�has�devised� a� set�of�15�Juvenile� Justice� Indicators� to�measure� the�extent�of� juveniles’�experience�with� the� law,� in�addition� to�aspects�of�national�policy.202�Unfortunately,�data�collection�for�these�15�indicators�is�in�its�initial�stages,�however� future� governmental� reporting� will� provide� a� valuable� tool� for� examining� young� peoples’�experiences�in�MENA�states.�

Five� countries� in� the�world� have� executed� children� under� the� age� of� 18� since� 2005;� four� of� those�countries�are� in�the�MENA�region.� Iran� (28),�Saudi�Arabia� (2),�Sudan� (2)�and�Yemen� (1)�all�continue�to�allow�the�death�penalty�for�minors,�despite�international�concern.203�While�the�imposition�of�the�death�penalty� is�relatively�uncommon� in�those�four�countries,� its�continued�acceptance� is�of�concern�to�child�protection�advocates.�

The�International�Center�for�Prison�Studies�at�King’s�College,�London,�has�compiled�a�global�database�of�incarceration�statistics.�From�their�analysis,�a� limited�amount�of� information�on� imprisoned�children� is�available,�however�further�disaggregation�by�age,�or�simultaneous�disaggregation�by�age�and�sex,�is�not�available.�According� to� the�database,� children� constitute�between�0.6�percent� (UAE)�and�7.6�percent�(Morocco)�of� the� total�detained�population� in�MENA� (Table�11).�Without�more�detailed� information,�such� disaggregation� by� type� of� crime� or� length� of� sentence,� it� is� difficult� to� compare� the� relative�positions�of�detained�youth�between�countries�in�the�region.�

Table�11:�Children�in�Detention�in�Available�MENA�Countries�

State�Number�of�Children�

Percentage�of�Total�Population�in�Detention�

Algeria� 648� 1.20�%�Egypt� 673� 1.04%�Iran� 2,375� 1.50%�

Morocco� 4,072� 7.60%�Saudi�Arabia� 401� 0.90%�

UAE� 68� 0.60%�Total:� 8237� Ͳ�

Source:�Prison�Briefs,�International�Center�for�Prison�Studies,�King’s�College�London,�www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/rel/icps�

������������������������������������������������������������202�UN�Office�on�Drugs�and�Crime,�Manual�for�the�Measurement�of�Juvenile�Justice�Indicators,�UNODC,�New�York,�2006.��203�UNICEF,�Child�Protection�in�MENA�internal�background�note,�2009.

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Despite� nominal� efforts� by� some� countries� in� the� region� to� adopt� a� juvenile� justice� system,� the�experience�of�many�young�people�remains�troubling.�Minors�are�regularly�tried�without�the�presence�of�a�lawyer�or�guardian,�and�are�sometimes�held�in�detention�centers�mixing�adults�and�children.�Long�preͲtrial� detention� periods� increase� psychosocial� risks,� especially�when� young� people� are� held� alongside�adults�and�those�already�convicted�of�an�offense.�Young�people�are�also�seldom�given�the�opportunity�to�benefit�from�alternatives�to�detention,�such�as�community�service.�As�only�partial�data�are�available,�it�is�difficult�to�present�the�variety�of�experiences�across�countries.�From�a�regional�perspective,�the�juvenile�justice�system�in�MENA�suffers�shortcomings�of�serious�concern,�requiring�a�substantial�commitment�by�governments�in�the�region�to�improve�the�relationship�between�young�people�and�the�law.�

Young�people�without�parental�care�As� a� transitional� life� period,� adolescence� and� youth� require� a� positive� social� environment� to� enable�young� people� to� develop� positive� roles� in� their� communities� as� they� adopt� new� responsibilities.� A�supportive�family�structure�is�a�critical�element�of�this�environment,�however�many�young�people�in�the�region�lack�necessary�levels�of�care�and�support�to�smooth�their�transition.�Estimates�of�the�number�of�orphans� and� other� children� living� without� parental� care� in� MENA� countries� are� scarce,� with� data�available�for�only�three�out�of�the�total�20�states�in�the�region.�Children�living�without�parental�care�are�not� necessarily� orphans,� but�may� also� include� those� living� on� the� street,� and� those� living� outside� a�formal�family�setting.�However,�available�data� indicate�that�children�without�parental�care�constitute�a�significant�proportion�of�all�children�in�the�region.�In�Iran�and�Sudan,�orphans�comprise�7�percent�and�9�percent� of� the� total� underͲ18� population,� while� in� Djibouti,� 11� percent� of� all� children� are� without�parental� care.204� In� these� three� countries� combined,� it� is�estimated� that� there�are�3,248,000� children�living� without� parental� care.205� UNICEF� projections� estimate� that� these� levels� will� remain� relatively�constant�in�the�short�term,�and�will�marginally�decrease�over�the�next�five�years.��

Young�people�living�in�the�streets�Localized� studies� in�MENA� countries� conclude� that� street� children� are� a� significant�proportion�of� the�young�population�in�urban�areas.�No�reliable�countryͲ�or�regionͲwide�data�exist�on�the�number�of�street�children� in�MENA� countries,� as� their� vulnerability� automatically� complicates� enumeration� strategies.�Measurement� of� any� group,� including� young� people� living� in� the� street,�who� contravene� the� law� or�participate� in�hidden�and�clandestine�activities�offer�significant�challenges�for�accurate�data�collection,�As� such,� along� with� trafficked� children,� street� children� are� one� of� the� most� understudied� and�underrepresented�segments�of�MENA�society.� �However,�while�they�are�understudied,�they�are�not�an�insignificant�part�of�the�population.�In�1999,�estimates�of�the�number�of�Egyptian�street�children�ranged�from�93,000�to�2�million.206�In�Morocco,�social�activists�providing�services�in�major�cities�report�between�30,000�and�100,000�street�children.207�An�unpublished�study�by� the�Supreme�Council� for�Motherhood�

������������������������������������������������������������204�Joint�United�Programme�on�HIV/AIDS,�United�Nations�Children’s�Fund,�United�States�Agency�for�International�Development,�Children�on�the�Brink�2004,�UNICEF,�New�York,�July�2004.�205�Ibid.�206�United�Nations�Office�on�Drugs�and�Crime,�Rapid�Situation�Assessment,�http://www.unodc.org/pdf/youthnet/egypt_street_children_report.pdf,�accessed�17�September�2009. 207�Enfants�des�rues.�http://www.bayti.net/,�accessed�17�September�2009.�

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and�Childhood,� funded�by� the�Arab�Council� for�Childhood�and�Development,�estimated� that� there�are�approximately�30,000�street�children� in�Yemen,�the�majority�of�who�are�separated�from�their�families.�Of�the�30,000,�60�percent�worked�and�slept�on�the�streets,�while�the�remaining�40�percent�returned�to�some�kind�of�home�at�night.208��

In�general,�street�children�are�not�orphans,�and�many�are�either�in�contact�with�their�families�or�working�specifically� to� increase� their� household’s� income.� There� are�more�male� street� children� than� female,�potentially�due�to�the�higher�tolerance�of�physical�and�psychological�abuse�experienced�before�fleeing�home.�Once�on� the� street�and�not� in� school,�both�boys�and�girls�are�exposed� to� increased� risks�and�decreased�access� to� supportive� structures.�Street� children�often�come� into� contact�with� the� law,�and�may�experience�discrimination�and�violence�as�a�result�of�their�status.�

Efforts� to�estimate� the�number�of� street� children� in�MENA� countries�have�been� stymied�by�a� lack�of�political�will,� technical�challenges� in�data�collection,�and� information� restrictions�by� states� refusing� to�authorize�the�collection�or�dissemination�of�data.�Until�valid�and�reliable�data�are�available,�it�will�remain�impossible�to�monitor�and�evaluate�programs�already�in�place,�and�improve�policy�and�programming�to�respond�to�the�issue.�

Recommendations:�x Data�collection�methodologies,�such�as�those�employed�by�the�UNICEF�MICS�survey�and�others�

should�strive�to� include�representative�samples�of�vulnerable�young�people�to�document�their�situation.� These� include� street� children,� young� people� without� parental� care,� and� other�marginalized�groups.�

x Prioritize�dataͲgathering�on� young�peoples’�experiences�of� violence� to�better�understand� the�scope�of�the�issue.�Research�should�include�a�number�of�realms,�including�corporal�punishment�at�school�and�at�home,�domestic�violence,�bullying,�the�effects�of�early�marriage,�and�FGM/C.�

x The�development�of� the� set�of� juvenile� justice� indicators�provides� a� valuable�opportunity� for�standardized,� rightsͲbased� assessment� of� children� in� conflict� with� the� law� which� should� be�adopted�by�all�parties�working�on�juvenile�justice�issues.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������208�Supreme�Council�for�Motherhood�and�Childhood�(SCMC),�funded�by�the�Arab�Council�for�Childhood�and�Development,��http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/gems/eeo/law/yemen/dep4.htm,�accessed�17�September�2009.�

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12. Conflict�and�emergency��

Several� countries� in� the�MENA� region� currently� experience� precarious� security� conditions,� including�Algeria,� Iran,� Iraq,� Lebanon,� the� occupied� Palestinian� territory,� Sudan� and� Yemen.� Conflict� and�emergency� leaves� lasting�scars�on�populations� in�excess�of�physical� infirmity.�Enduring�effects� include�psychological� and� social� distress,� economic� loss,� longͲlasting� political� instability,� degradation� of�supportive� social� structures� and� service� delivery,� particularly� at� community� levels,� large� refugee� and�internally� displaced� populations,� and� a� fragmented� sense� of� community.� These� effects�manifest� in� a�myriad� of� ways,� including� large� numbers� of� orphans� and� singleͲparent,� often� femaleͲheaded,�households,�a�reversion�to�exclusionist�social�groups,�insecurity�about�the�future,�and�a�desire�to�migrate�to�escape�a�bleak�future�with� little�or�no�positive�prospects.�The�possibility�of�resurgent�violence� is�all�too� real.� In�his� 2005� report� “In� Larger� Freedom”,� then�UN� SecretaryͲGeneral� Kofi�Annan� noted�with�concern� that�“roughly�half�of�all�countries� that�emerge� from�wars� lapse�back� into�violence�within� five�years”.209�Adolescents�and�young�people,�in�addition�to�suffering�the�effects�of�conflict�and�emergency,�are� also�potential� agents� for�positive� change.� Engaging� young�people� in� the�dialogue�of�peace�helps�protect�states�against�instability.�Ensuring�social�conditions�conducive�to�the�gainful�enjoyment�of�rights�diminishes�the�threat�of�resurgent� insecurity.�Young�people�are�not�only�victims�of�conflict,�but�also�a�potential�catalyst�for�restitution�and�prevention.�

In� conflict� and� emergency� situations,� young�people� are� likely� to� suffer� severe� risks� to� their�personal�safety�and�wellͲbeing.�Their�vulnerability�exacerbates�these�risks.�Threats�of�death,�injury�and�disability,�psychological�and�social�distress,�loss�of�education�and�economic�opportunities,�sexual�exploitation�and�abuse,�and� recruitment�by�armed�groups�affect�adolescents�and�youth� in�many�ways� that�are�distinct�from�very�young�children�and�adults.�Protection�of�all�children�from�involvement�in�any�form�of�conflict�has�been�recognized�by�the�international�community�as�a�fundamental�aspect�of�conflict�mitigation.210�In�addition�to�these�measures,�adolescents�and�youth�must�be�integrated�in�demobilization,�disarmament�and�reintegration�to�reͲestablish�a�culture�and�mindset�of�lasting�peace.�Child�protection�strategies�that�shield�young�people�from�conflict,�and�sow�the�seeds�of�peace�in�the�young�people�of�today�contribute�to�the�creation�and�maintenance�of�stability�for�generations�into�the�future.�

The�2007�World�Youth�Report�asserted�that�the�MENA�region�is�subject�to�several�factors�that�increase�the�risk�of�prolonged�conflict.�The�region’s� large�youth�population,�wealth�of�natural�resources,�history�of�armed�conflict,� large�numbers�of�refugees�and� IDPs,� low�civic�engagement,�political�exclusion,�poor�social�protection,�and�large�informal�economy�are�all�risk�factors�contributing�to�instability.�Uncertainty�about�the�future,�exacerbated�by�poor�economic�prospects,� increases�the� likelihood�that�young�people�will�look�elsewhere�to�provide�for�their�needs.�Reducing�the�risk�of�conflict�requires�states�to�commit�to�addressing� the� root� causes� of� conflict� and� engage� in� preventive�measures� before� tensions� erupt;� a�

������������������������������������������������������������209�The�SecretaryͲGeneral,�In�Larger�Freedom:�Towards�Development,�Security�and�Human�Rights�for�All:�Report�of�the�SecretaryͲGeneral,�U.N.�Doc.�A/59/2005,�par.�114,�2005.�210�The�SecretaryͲGeneral,�Children�and�Armed�Conflict:�Report�of�the�SecretaryͲGeneral,�U.N.�Doc.�A/63/785,�2009.

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principle�asserted�by� the� International�Committee�on� Intervention�and�State�Sovereignty.211�As�one�of�the�most�dynamic�segments�of�the�MENA�population,�young�people�can�be�agents�of�change�for�better�or� for� worse.� It� is� imperative� that� states� engage� and� empower� young� people� to� find� solutions� to�conflict’s�root�causes�and�address�its�risk�factors.�Young�people�in�MENA�can�contribute�to�the�creation�and�maintenance�of�security,�helping�to�avert�the�scourge�of�war�and�forge�a�lasting�peace.�

While�young�people�have�the�capacity�to�be�positive�agents�for�peace,�far�more�research�is�required�to�determine�how�this�goal�can�be�realized.�Young�people�generally,�and�young�men�specifically,�are�often�allegedly�associated�with�deviance,�and�perceived�as�a�destabilizing�force�in�society.�While�this�has�been�true�in�a�number�of�contexts,�what�has�been�less�studied�is�how�young�men�and�women’s�social�assets�can�be�used� to�avert�crises�before� they�begin.�What� is�called� for� is�both�a�new� framework� for�young�people�and�their�impact�on�security,�and�indicators�and�data�to�substantiate�their�potential�capacity�to�build� their� societies� and� states.�Without� a�novel� approach,�MENA’s� risk�of� conflict� remains�elevated.�However,� should� the� unique� position� of� young� people� in� MENA� be� adequately� channeled� into�preventing,�responding� to,�and�rebuilding� from�conflict,�young�people�have� the�potential� to�provide�a�stabilizing�force�for�security�in�the�MENA�region.�

MENA�hosts�the�secondͲlargest�number�of�“populations�of�concern”�of�any�UNHCR�region�(see�Annex�VI�for�a� regional�definition).� In�2008,� there�were�an�estimated� six�million� refugees,� IDPs,�asylumͲseekers�and� stateless� persons� in� the� UNHCR� region,� surpassed� only� by� the� Asia� and� Pacific� region� hosting�approximately� 10�million� (Figure� 34).� Using� the� UNICEF� regional� definition,� this� number� is� greater:�approximately� 7.1� million� refugees,� IDPs,� asylum� seekers� and� stateless� persons.� Within� MENA,� 83�percent�of�the�total�population�of�concern�resides�in�four�countries:�Iran�(12�percent),�Iraq�(37�percent),�Sudan�(18�percent),�and�Syria�(17�percent)�(Figure�35).�Similarly,�refugees�originating�from�Iraq,�the�oPt�and�Sudan�account�for�approximately�6.9�million�of�the�total�7.1�million�refugees�in�MENA;�or�roughly�96�percent.� It� is� worth� noting� that� the� UNHCR� database� includes� only� Palestinian� refugees� who� have�registered�with�UNHCR.�Under�these�guidelines,�67�percent�of�the�region’s�refugees�are�from� Iraq,�4.8�percent�are�from�the�oPt,�and�25�percent�are�from�Sudan.�However,�after�including�Palestinian�refugees�registered�with�the�UN�Relief�and�Works�Agency,�the�total�population�of�concern�reaches�11.8�million,�of�which�41�percent�originated� in�Iraq,�42�percent�from�the�oPt,�and�15�percent�from�Sudan.�In�the�short�term,�these�populations�strain�the�resources�of�host�countries,�placing�demands�on�host�governments�to�provide�services�and�opportunities.�The� influx�of�refugees�raises�prices�due�to�an� increase� in�demand,�while� decreasing� average� wages� due� to� the� ready� supply� of� labor.� Conflict� and� emergencies� thus�exacerbate� other� challenges� facing� their� host� communities,� at� least� in� the� short� term,� further�complicating�efforts�to�provide�for�the�needs�of�the�nonͲrefugee�community.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������211�International�Committee�on�Intervention�and�State�Sovereignty�The�Responsibility�to�Protect,�International�Development�Research�Center,�Ottawa,�2001.�

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Figure�34�Total�Population�of�Concern�by�UNHCR�Regions,�2008�

Source:�UNHCR.�2008�Global�Trends:�Refugees,�AsylumͲseekers,�Returnees,�Internally�Displaced�and�Stateless�Persons.�http://www.unhcr.org/4a375c426.html.�

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Figure�35�Population�of�Concern�by�MENA�country�of�asylum�

Source:�UNHCR.�2008�Global�Trends:�Refugees,�AsylumͲseekers,�Returnees,�Internally�Displaced�and�Stateless�Persons.�http://www.unhcr.org/4a375c426.html.�

Out� of� 20� countries� in� the� region,� 12� have� collected� demographic� data� on� over� 30� percent� of� the�population�of�concern�residing�within�their�borders�(Figure�36).�From�this�level�of�coverage,�it�is�possible�to� extrapolate� the� demographic� distribution� of� these� populations� with� a� high� degree� of� accuracy.�UNHCR�uses�six�age�categories,�with�the�category�aged�12Ͳ17�matching�closest�the�UNICEF�definition�of�adolescents�and�youth.�In�most�of�these�12�countries,�between�10�percent�and�20�percent�of�the�total�population�of�concern� is�aged�12Ͳ17.� In� the�other� three�countries,� the�proportion� is�somewhat� lower:�Bahrain� (2.1�percent),�Oman� (3.7�percent),�and�Tunisia� (2.8�percent).� It� is�worth�noting� that� the�Total�Fertility� Rates� (TFR)� observed� in� Bahrain� and� Tunisia� in� 1989�were� among� the� lowest� in� the� region,�suggesting�that�the�refugee�population�may�have�assumed�the�TFR�of�the� local�population.�As�a�result,�the� population� of� concern� aged� 12Ͳ17� today�may� be� smaller� than�would� have� been� the� case� if� this�population�had�maintained�the�TFRs�of�their�country�of�origin.�However,�this� is�not�the�case� in�Oman,�which�had�one�of�the�highest�TFRs�in�the�region�in�1989.�

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Figure�36�Demographic�data�coverage�for�Population�of�Concern�

Source:�UNHCR.�2008�Global�Trends:�Refugees,�AsylumͲseekers,�Returnees,�Internally�Displaced�and�Stateless�Persons.�United�Nations�High�Commission�for�Refugees.�June�2009.�http://www.unhcr.org/4a375c426.html.�

Since�2003,�five�countries� in�the�MENA�region�have�experienced�a�severe� increase� in�the�population�of�concern� residing� in� their� country:� Iraq� (3,037,758),� Jordan� (493,169),� Sudan� (1,338,889),� Syria�(1,397,985),�and�Yemen�(178,410)�(Figure�37).212�In�the�case�of�Iraq,�Sudan�and�Yemen,�this� increase� is�primarily�due�to�larger�numbers�of�IDPs�as�a�result�of�conflict�within�the�country,�while�increases�in�Syria�and� Jordan� can�be�attributable� to�an� influx�of� refugees� from�neighboring� states.�While� five� countries�have� experienced� a� decrease� since� 2003� (Algeria,� Djibouti,� Iran,� Libya�&�Morocco),� the� others� have�experienced�low�to�moderate�increases.�Three�countries�of�origin�in�the�region�account�for�99.9�percent�of� the� gross� increase� in� the� regional�population�of� concern� since�2003:� Iraq� (78�percent),� Sudan� (20�percent),�and�Yemen� (2�percent).213�These� three� countries�have�all�experienced�ongoing�or� recurrent�conflict�in�the�past�five�years,�leading�to�an�increase�in�the�number�of�both�refugees�and�IDPs.�

� �

������������������������������������������������������������212�United�Nations�High�Commission�for�Refugees,�2008�Global�Trends:�Refugees,�AsylumͲseekers,�Returnees,�Internally�Displaced�and�Stateless�Persons,�UNHCR,�June�2009.�213�Ibid.

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Figure�37�Net�refugee�flow�by�country�of�asylum�

Source:�UNHCR.�2008�Global�Trends:�Refugees,�AsylumͲseekers,�Returnees,�Internally�Displaced�and�Stateless�Persons.�http://www.unhcr.org/4a375c426.html.�

Collection�of�demographic�data�on�refugees�and�IDPs�remains�dichotomous�in�the�region.�Countries�with�significant�demographic�data�collection�coverage�of�age�and�sex�all�exhibit�rates�over�78�percent�of�the�total�population�of�concern�registered�with�UNHCR.�The�remaining�eight�countries,�while�jointly�hosting�36�percent�of� the�regional� total�of�UNHCR’s�population�of�concern,�all�have�sex�and�age�demographic�data�collection�rates�below�23�percent.�While�data�collection�challenges�exist�in�some�of�these�countries,�such�as� Iraq,� the�oPt�and� Sudan,�others� such�as�Kuwait,�Qatar� and� Saudi�Arabia�are� free� from� these�challenges� but� have� not� achieved� significant� coverage� rates.� Without� demographic� information� on�populations�of�concern�within� these�countries,�decisionͲmakers�are�denied�a� fundamental� tool� to� the�realization�of�successful�and�appropriate�policy�and�programs.�Especially�in�countries�with�a�high�ratio�of�refugees,� IDPs,� asylumͲseekers� and� stateless� persons� to� citizens,� knowledge� of� the� demographic�characteristics�of�a�state’s�vulnerable�populations�is�crucial�to�evidenceͲbased�policy�and�programming.�Similarly,� the� lack� of� UNHCR� age� disaggregation� into� UNͲwide� standardized� categories� limits� the�comparability� and� analysis� of� data� concerning� populations� of� concern.� Standardization� is� a� crucial�component� for� enhancing� the� accessibility� and� ease� of� use� of� data� for� both� governments� and� nonͲgovernmental�bodies�alike,�and�must�be�addressed�in�order�to�serve�this�most�vulnerable�of�groups.�

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Recommendations�x Increase�the�coverage�of�demographic�data�for�UNHCR�and�UNRWA’s�Population�of�Concern�in�

countries�throughout�MENA.�x Pursue�research�on�youth�contributions�to�the�peaceͲbuilding�process� in�postͲconflict�settings,�

with� emphasis� on� collecting� ‘bestͲpractices’� for� promoting� youth� involvement� in� community�rebuilding.�

x Continue� to�build�on� the�body�of� knowledge� relating� to� the�mental,�psychological� and� social�effects�of�conflict�on�young�people,�especially�transͲgenerational�effects.�

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C. Youth�and�adolescents�in�postǦconflict�situations�Despite�their�potential�contribution�to�postͲconflict�peaceͲbuilding,�youth�and�adolescents�are�generally�typified�either�as�sources�of� instability�and� insecurity,�or�as�passive�victims.� In�many�cases,�young�men�are�viewed�as�violent�negative�social� influences,�while�young�women�are�perceived�as�helpless�victims,�with�neither�group�effecting�peace�within�the�community.�While�a�large�body�of�research�exists�on�the�exacerbation�of�conflict�by�young�people,�far�less�attention�has�been�paid�to�the�resources�and�capacity�of�youth�and�adolescents�to�positively�contribute�to�peaceͲmaking�and�peaceͲbuilding.�Research�has�not�been�translated�into�policy�and�practice�drawing�on�young�people’s�peace�building�capacity,�and�in�most�cases�has�not�been�operationalized.�The�focus�on�“researchͲtoͲknow”�rather�than�“researchͲtoͲchange”�has� failed� to� shift� the� dominant� perspective� that� young� people� are� a� force� to� be�mitigated� in� postͲconflict� situations,� rather� than�a� force� for� the�advancement�of�peace,� stability�and�human� rights.�The�potential�dividend�of�promoting�young�people�as�peace�builders� is�particularly�pertinent� in� the�MENA�region,� both� due� to� high� demand� (six� countries� are� in� a� state� of� instability�with� recent� histories� of�conflict),�and�the�large�number�of�young�people�(31�percent�of�the�total�MENA�population)�in�the�region.�

Young�people�in�postͲconflict�situations�face�many�of�the�same�challenges�confronting�adults,�as�well�as�special�challenges� related� to� their� transition� from�childhood� to�adulthood.�What�are� the� fundamental�selfͲidentified�rites�of�passage�for�young�people�to�enter�adulthood,�and�what�challenges�exist� in�postͲconflict� settings?�What� assets� do� young� people� have� to�make� this� transition,� and� how� could� their�capacity� be� bolstered?� Additionally,� what� are� the� consequences� of� failure,� both� for� young� people�themselves�and�for�the�community�as�a�whole?�ContextuallyͲspecific�initiatives�to�increase�the�capacity�of�young�people�to�transition�from�adolescence�and�youth�to�adulthood�must�be�incorporated�into�postͲconflict�recovery�programming�and�policy.�

Several� structural� and� institutional� barriers� exist� for� realizing� the� peaceͲbuilding� potential� of� young�people.�Foremost� is� the�pervasive�belief� that�young�people,�especially�young�men,�are�a�destabilizing�influence.�This�perspective�must�be�critically�revised�before�operational�activities�can�succeed.�Second,�the� unique� needs� of� youth� and� adolescents� in� postͲconflict� settings� are� underͲrepresented� in�international� fora,� such� as� the�UN� Peacebuilding� Commission.� PostͲconflict� offers� an� opportunity� to�ensure�that�fragile�or�lapsed�education�and�health�systems,�as�well�as�psychosocial�support�services�for�those�who� live� through� conflict,�are� rebuilt�or�provided� for� the� first� time�with�an�eye� towards�being�youthͲfriendly.� Currently� youth� postͲconflict� programming,� however� does� not� have� an� institutional�champion�to�advocate�its�interests�at�the�international�level.�Third,�collaborative�decisionͲmaking�which�empowers�young�people� in�rebuilding�and�recovery�activities�needs�to�become�the�norm,�and�not�the�exception,� though� in�practice� this�will�be�difficult� to� achieve.�Participatory� analysis�of� the�needs� and�demands� of� youth� and� adolescent� populations� are� an� irreplaceable� component� of� a� successful� and�enduring� postͲconflict� strategy.� Finally,� youth� programs� and� policies� by� both� government� and� NGO�actors�alike�must�be�tailored�and�continually�updated�to�the�dynamic�social�context,�linking�capacity�with�demand�and�opportunity.�Through� the� implementation�of� the� findings�of� rigorous� inquiry,�youth�and�adolescents�may�be�recast�not�as�a�destabilizing�force�to�be�contained,�but�as�agents�of�peacebuilding�to�be�utilized�in�the�quest�for�enduring�peace.�

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13. Conclusions��

The�continuing�rapid�growth�in�MENA’s�population,�leading�to�youth�cohorts�of�unprecedented�absolute�and�proportional� size,�poses� a�novel� set�of� challenges� that� require� a� clear,� evidenceͲbased� approach�from�policyͲmakers� and� regional� leaders.� The� region� is� characterized�by� a� diversity�of� economic� and�political�environments,�yet�a�number�of�themes�emerge�from�the�Review.��

Nearly�one�in�five�MENA�residents�lives�in�poverty.�Despite�advances�in�educational�enrollment�in�recent�decades,�many�youth�struggle�to�secure�decent�employment.�The�policy�environment�fails�to�support�an�effective�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�for�many�youth.�Employment�in�the�informal�sector,�unemployment�and� economic� inactivity� are� common.� Young�women� and� other� vulnerable� subͲpopulations,� such� as�those�with�disabilities,�face�additional�challenges�to�entering�the�labor�market.��

Health�needs�of�the�Region’s�young�people�range�from�malnutrition�to�obesity�and�maternal�health�to�substance�use.�The�heavy�burdens�of�death�and�disability�from�neuropsychiatric�conditions�and�injuries,�especially�road�traffic�accidents,�are�noteworthy.��

Many� young� people�migrate� for� economic� opportunity;� others� are� forced� from� their� homes� due� to�armed�conflict.�Orphans,�street�children,�children� in�contact�with�the� law�and�other�vulnerable�groups�require�special�support�to�achieve�a�successful�transition�to�adulthood,�yet�major�gaps� in�enumerating�and�serving�these�populations�remain.��

Young�women�in�the�region�face�particular�challenges,�framed�by�traditional�views�of�femininity.�While�some�young�women�enjoy�a�modern�education�and�are�able� to�pursue� family� formation,� �a�career�or�both,�others�face�limitations�on�their�education,�health,�employment�and�personal�freedom�because�of�their�gender.��

Despite�numerous�data�collection�activities�in�the�region,�troubling�data�gaps�remain�and�comparability�is� impaired�by� inconsistencies�among�data�producers.�Standardization�of�age�groups,� such�as� ‘youth’,�and�regional�definitions,�such�as�MENA,�would� improve�data�usability�across�organizations.� In�order�to�fully�understand�the�situation�in�the�region,�data�are�needed�from�all�countries.�A�standardized,�regionͲwide� tool� to� collect� key� data� on� youth� is� desperately� needed,� such� as� a�MICS4� youth�module� and�analogous�survey�for�nonͲMICS�countries.�

Recognizing� the�distinctiveness�of� the�adolescent�and�youth�experience,� indicators�are�needed�which�capture� the� most� important� aspects� of� young� people’s� lived� experiences,� including� measures� of� a�successful� and� timely� transition� to� adulthood.� Surveys�of� youth� should� include�both� young�men� and�women,� regardless� of� marital� status,� with� emphasis� placed� on� knowledge,� attitudes,� beliefs� and�behaviors�in�addition�to�traditional,�objective�indicators.�Of�key�importance�is�the�inclusion�of�vulnerable�populations,�including�those�not�residing�in�traditional�households,�such�as�youth�living�on�the�street�and�incarcerated� or� otherwise� institutionalized� youth.� Many� key� youth� topics� are� culturally� sensitive.�

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Nevertheless,� valid� and� reliable� data� on� sensitive� subjects� are� required� in� order� to� promote� youth�development.�

Increased�collaboration�between�data�users,�data�producers�and�implementing�agencies�could�improve�relevance�and�promote�direct�indicators�over�proxies.�Key�to�these�efforts�is�the�creation�of�centralized�databases�where� data� is� available� from� all� relevant� sources,� such� as� Arabstats� and� UNData.� Timely�dissemination� of� data�maximizes� its� value� to� policyͲmakers� and� researchers,� promoting� a� climate� of�evidenceͲbased�youth�policy.��

UNICEF�may�benefit�from�a�continuous�assessment�of�its�unique�role�and�contributions�to�the�collection�and�dissemination�of�youth�data�in�the�region,�given�the�evolving�landscape�of�players,�such�as�Silatech�and� the�Gallup�WorldView� Poll.� � The�MICS� surveys� are� a� defining� contribution� to� international� data�collection�efforts�and�the�addition�of�a�youth�module�would�allow�for�periodic�monitoring�of�key�youth�indicators�across�the�MENA�region.��

� �

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Annex�I:�Recommendations�for�improving�understanding�of�MENA�youth�

Demography�x Collect�data�on�both� internal�and� international�migration�among� youth�and�ensure� that�nonͲ

national�youth�populations�are�included�in�national�surveys.�x Improve�existing�data�on�child�marriage�by�stratifying�between�those�who�were�married�before�

18�and�those�who�were�married�before�15.�x Standardize�age�categories�across�agencies�collecting�data�in�the�region.�

Poverty�x AdolescentͲ�and�youthͲspecific�poverty�data�must�be�collected,�both� in�order� to�review�young�

personͲspecific� levels� and� trends,� and� also� to� allow� comparison� between� young� peoples’�experience�of�poverty�with�those�of�other�age�groups.�

x Data�collection�methodologies�should�expand�to�include�measures�of�deprivation,�in�areas�such�as�shelter,�food�and�nutrition,�sanitation,�water,�and�other�key�areas.�These�nonͲincome�poverty�indicators�exist�in�other�areas,�but�have�not�been�collected�within�the�MENA�region.�

x Future�surveys�of�young�people�should�also� include�subjective� indicators�exploring�motivations�for� delayed�marriage� and� family� formation,� as� no� data� currently� exist� on� this� phenomenon,�limiting�policyͲmakers�ability�to�reduce�barriers�to�these�rites�of�passage�to�adulthood.�

Health�x Culturally�sensitive�data�collection�methodologies�must�be�developed�and�applied�to�gather�data�

on�the�range�of�sensitive�health�topics�discussed�above,�including�sexual�and�reproductive�health,�substance�use�and�abuse,�and�death�rates�from�causes�subject�to�social�taboo.�

x Data�producers�should�utilize�standardized�definitions�for�“overweight”,�“obesity”�and�“underweight”�to�simplify�comparison�and�allow�for�complementarity�between�data�sources,�reducing�the�need�for�duplicate�evaluations.�

x Youth�and�adolescent�health�data�must�become�a�priority�area�for�data�users�and�decisionͲmakers,�spurring�the�collection�of�disaggregated�statistics�on�health�risk�factors,�disease�prevalence,�and�causes�of�mortality.�

x Mental�and�psychosocial�health�indicators�should�be�developed�and�implemented�for�populationͲwide�estimation.�

x DataͲproducing�organizations�should�incorporate�mental�and�psychosocial�health�questions�in�country�and�regional�surveys,�to�provide�baseline�estimates�to�be�refined�with�the�further�development�of�indicators.�

HIV�and�AIDS�x Donors�collaborating�with�national�governments�and�regional�bodies�expand�the�range�of�issues�

addressed� in� nationally� representative� health� and� development� surveys� on� adolescents� and�youth;��

x InterͲdisciplinary� research� on� adolescents� and� youth� be� expanded,� and� include� � both�quantitative�and�qualitative�methods,�particularly�on� social�protective�and� risk� factors,�and� in�particular,�HIVͲrelated�knowledge,�social�norms�and�behavior;�

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x Data� are� disaggregated� by� age,� sex� and,�where� appropriate,�marital� status,� both� in� primary�research�on�HIV�AND�AIDS� as�well� as� in� secondary� analysis�of� existing�dataͲsets� that� include�young�people;�

x PreͲexisting� data� sets� are�made� publically� available� for� policyͲmakers,� programmers� and� the�general�public;�and�

x InterͲdisciplinary�research� is�supported�to�fill�specific�knowledge�gaps�that�could� include�young�people’s� perceptions� of� service� needs� and� quality,� as� well� as� issues� related� to� correct� and�comprehensive�knowledge�about�HIV�AND�AIDS�and�STI�prevention.214���

Education�x While�UNESCO’s�Education�for�All�series�provides�a�host�of�global�and�regional�trends�and�data,�

as� does� the�World� Youth� Report,� its� database� is� likely� to� benefit� from� further� revisions� to�enhance�its�practicality,�including�more�flexibility�in�selecting�variables�and�regions.��

x Better�data�are�needed�on�outͲofͲschool�adolescents�and�youth.�Currently�UNESCO�collects�only�data�on�the�rate�of�outͲofͲschoolͲchildren�of�primary�school�age.�This�makes�it�difficult�to�get�a�true�sense�of�dropͲout�activity�among�youth�in�the�region.�Additional�planning�will�be�necessary�to� take� into�account�outͲofͲschool�youth�when� trying� to�prepare� them� for� the�schoolͲtoͲwork�transition�and�decent�livelihoods.��

x Many�of�the�proposed�adolescent�and�youth� indicators�were�available�on�a�regional�basis�and�are,� for� the� most� part,� available� for� each� of� the� MENA� countries.� These� data� tend� to� be�disaggregated�by�sex�more�than�by�age,�as�most�education�indicators�do�not�necessarily�require�the� further�breakdown�of�age.�However,� there�are�several� topic�areas� in� the�education�sector�where�data�collection�can�be� improved.�There�are�no�data�available�for�adolescent� literacy,�as�this� is� not� a� traditionally� collected� indicator,� nor�were� data� identified� on� the� proportion� of�children�and�adolescents�with�disabilities�enrolled�in�school.�Additionally,�no�data�was�available�on�enrolled�students�who�study�and�work�or�outͲofͲschool�youth.�There�is�also�a�paucity�of�data�related� to� education� reform� efforts.� For� example,� gathering� information� on� the� number� of�employer� associations�participating� in� curricula� reform� could� shed� light�on� progress� to�make�students’�educational�experience�more�relevant�to�the�needs�of�the�working�world.�Please�refer�to�Annex�V�for�an�extended�list�of�important�indicators�in�the�domain�of�education.�

x Nations�should�be�encouraged�to�conduct�regular�assessments�at�several�different�grade� levels�to�monitor�progress�on�school�quality�over�time.��

Livelihoods�and�economic�participation�x Carefully� track� youth� inactivity� to� monitor� the� relationship� between� school� completion,�

employment�and�family�formation.�x Improve�measurement�of�youth�engaged�in�the�informal�sector.�x Develop�indicators�on�decent�and�productive�work.�

������������������������������������������������������������214�Shepard,�B.�and�DeJong,�J.�Breaking�the�Silence�and�Saving�Lives:�Young�People’s�Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health�in�the�Arab�States�and�Iran.��Harvard�School�of�Public�Health,�Boston,�2005.�

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Migration�x Data�collected�should�be�disaggregated�by�age�and�by�sex.�Though�difficult,�an�effort�should�be�

made�to�estimate�both�legal�and�illegal�migrant�populations.�

x Surveys�should�inquire�about�motivations�for�migration.�

x Household�surveys�in�the�region�should�include�both�permanent�residents�and�migrants,�given�the�relative�size�of�these�populations�in�many�countries.�

Political�and�civic�engagement�x Data�on�political�engagement�would�improve�measurement�of�this�important�phenomenon�over�

the�current�indicator�on�the�Core�List,�which�is�voting�age.�x Engagement� in�political,� religious,� civic,� social� and� athletic� groups� is� a�defining� aspect�of� the�

youth�experience�for�many�young�people.�Data�should�be�collected�on�this�topic.��

Child�protection�x Data�collection�methodologies,�such�as�those�employed�by�the�UNICEF�MICS�survey�and�others�

should�strive�to� include�representative�samples�of�vulnerable�young�people�to�document�their�situation.� These� include� street� children,� young� people� without� parental� care,� and� other�marginalized�groups.�

x Prioritize�dataͲgathering�on� young�peoples’�experiences�of� violence� to�better�understand� the�scope�of�the�issue.�Research�should�include�a�number�of�realms,�including�corporal�punishment�at�school�and�at�home,�domestic�violence,�bullying,�the�effects�of�early�marriage,�and�FGM/C.�

x The�development�of� the� set�of� juvenile� justice� indicators�provides� a� valuable�opportunity� for�standardized,� rightsͲbased� assessment� of� children� in� conflict� with� the� law� which� should� be�adopted�by�all�parties�working�on�juvenile�justice�issues.�

Conflict�and�emergency�x Increase� the� coverage� of� demographic� data� on� UNHCR’s� population� of� concern� in� countries�

throughout�MENA.�x Pursue�research�on�youth�contributions�to�the�peaceͲbuilding�process� in�postͲconflict�settings,�

with� emphasis� on� collecting� ‘bestͲpractices’� for� promoting� youth� involvement� in� community�rebuilding.�

x Continue�to�build�on�the�body�of�knowledge�relating�to�the�mental�and�psychosocial�effects�of�conflict�on�young�people.�

�� �

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Annex�II:�Introduction�to�Core�and�Extended�Indicator�Lists��

The� two� indicator� lists� included� in�Annexes� III�and� IV�have�been�developed� to�capture�different�data�needs�for�two�different�audiences�of�stakeholders.�The�first� is�a�core� list�of� indicators,�whose�audience�will�primarily�be�regional�and�global�bodies,�presenting�an�overview�of�the�situation�for�youth�across�key�domains.�The�second�list�of�indicators�is�designed�with�the�interests�and�needs�of�countryͲlevel�actors�in�mind,�and�is�a�more�inͲdepth�set�of�measurement�tools.�These�lists�are�referred�to�as�the�‘Core�List’�and�the�‘Extended�List’�

The�Core�List�The�Core�Indicator�List�provides�an�overview�of�the�status�of�youth�(ages�10Ͳ24)�in�UNICEF’s�Middle�East�and�North�Africa� (MENA)� region.�Making� use� of� the� best� publically� available� data,� the� list� creates� a�‘snapshot’�for�regional�and�national�policyͲmakers�across�key�domains�for�youth�in�the�region,�including�education,�health,�economic�livelihood,�migration,�violence,�civic�participation,�media�and�qualityͲofͲlife.��

The�design�of� the� core� indicator� list�provides� a�broad� view,� rather� than� attempting� to�be�exhaustive�within� any� one� area� of� youth� life.� The� extended� list� offers� a� comprehensive� list� of� youth� indicators,�arranged�by�domain�and�suggested�priority�level,�regardless�of�current�data�availability.�By�contrast,�the�selection�of�indicators�on�the�Core�List�was�limited�to�those�with�available�data�and�balances�coverage,�currency�and�comparability.�The�indicators�represent�a�compromise�between�what�policy�makers�would�like� to� know� about� the� region’s� youth� and�what� is� currently�measured� by� international� surveillance�efforts� with� longstanding� reputations� for� reliability� and� validity,� such� as� MICS,� DHS,� Global� Youth�Tobacco� Survey� and� others.� � Certain� key� areas,� such� as� substance� abuse� and� adolescent� need� for�contraception,�belong�among�the�priority�topics�on�the�Core�List,�but�have�been�excluded�due�to�lack�of�data.�Disaggregation�was�limited�to�gender.�

The�Core� Indicator�List� is�the�centerpiece�of�the�2009�MENA�youth�datasheet�prepared� in�conjunction�with�this�report.��The�datasheet�includes�summary�data�for�the�Core�List,�and�displays�select�graphics�to�illustrate�the�situation�of�youth� in�the�region.� It�has�been�designed� for�distribution�within�UNICEF�and�among�relevant�regional�partners.��

The�Extended�List�The� intended� audience�of� the� extended� list� is� country� level� actors,� including�UNICEF� country�offices,�governments,� NGOs,� scholars� and� other� stakeholders.� Unlike� the� Core� List,� which� seeks� to� present�indicators�representative�of�broader�themes,�the�Extended�List�delves�further� into�the�detail�necessary�for�policyͲmakers�and�project�managers�to�make�informed�decisions�within�the�domains�affecting�youth.�The� indicators� contained� in� the� list� were� drawn� from� a� wide� review� of� UN� sources,� other�intergovernmental�bodies,�reputable�surveys�and�items�in�the�academic�literature.�While�the�list�is�by�no�means�definitive,�it�highlights�the�most�necessary�information�required�by�policyͲmakers.��

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Prioritization�No�government,�UN�agency,�NGO�or�other�body�has�limitless�resources.�Similarly,�not�all�information�is�of�equal�value.�As�such,�this�report�prioritizes�the�list�of�indicators�to�help�countries�and�country�offices�decide�which� areas� are�most�worthy� of� further� inquiry� and� data� collection.� These� prioritizations� are�based�on� the�data�needs�of� countries� in� the� region�on� the�whole,� rather� than� tailored� to�a� countryͲspecific�context.�Therefore,�it�is�expected�that� individual�country�offices�will�review�this�list�and,�where�necessary,� adjust� the� proposed� prioritization� in� accordance�with� their� national� circumstances.�As� an�example,� the� Sudan� Country� Office� may� elevate� the� priority� of� FGM/C� prevalence� to� reflect� its�importance� as� a� countryͲspecific� issue,� while� Lebanon� may� drop� this� indicator� entirely.� The�prioritizations� included� in� this� list� are� intended� as� a� guide,� and� should� be� tailored� to� the� individual�country�context.�

Process�of�prioritization�The�prioritization�process�took� into�account�two�factors:�the�necessity�of�the� information�for�rigorous,�evidenceͲbased� policyͲmaking,� and� the� ease� of� data� collection.� Factors� influencing� the� ease� of� data�collection� include�a�range�of�considerations,�such�as�the� level�of�technical�analysis�required,�and� issues�of� cultural� sensitivity� and/or� resistance.� Therefore,� an� indicator�may� still� be� classified� as� a�priority� 1�indicator� due� to� its� importance� for� evidenceͲbased� policy� or� programming,� even� if� that� indicator� is�difficult�to�collect�for�other�reasons.�Broadly�speaking,�the�priority�areas�can�be�characterized�as�follows:�

Priority�1:�Indicators�that�are�very�important�for�evidenceͲbased�policy�or�programming,�and�have�either�moderate�or�low�barriers�for�collection�of�data�

Priority� 2:� Indicators� that�may�have� less� importance� for� evidenceͲbased�policy�or�programming� than�priority�1�indicators,�but�also�have�low�or�moderate�barriers�for�data�collection.�Alternatively,�priority�2�indicators� may� be� very� important� for� evidenceͲbased� policy� or� programming,� but� pose� relatively�significant�barriers�for�data�collection.�

Priority�3:�Indicators�that�are�not�as�important�for�evidenceͲbased�policy�as�a�whole,�but�are�necessary�for�specific�policy�or�programming�within�a�domain�affecting�youth.�Alternatively,�priority�3� indicators�are�of�sizable�importance,�but�the�difficulty�in�data�collection�mean�that�resources�may�best�be�utilized�elsewhere.�

Disaggregation�Both� versions�of� the� Extended� List� contain� columns�of� suggested�disaggregation.�While�best�practice�would� dictate� a� more� thorough� disaggregation� process,� these� themes� have� been� identified� as� of�particular� relevance,� and� are� suggested� in� cases�where� they� are�most� appropriate.� Data� collection,�analysis�and�management�strategies,�especially�for�survey�data,�should�be�careful�to�disaggregate�along�these� lines.�Data�producers�and�disseminators�should�consider�disaggregation�using�additional�criteria.�However,�the�following�demarcations�were�deemed�especially�important:�

Gender:� In� most� cases,� gender� is� the� most� important� criteria� for� disaggregation.� The� knowledge,�attitudes,�beliefs,�practices�and�needs�of�youth�and�adolescents� in�MENA�often�differ�substantially�by�gender.�

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Stratified� age:� Due� to� the� dynamism� of� youth� and� adolescents,� it� is� often� necessary� to� further�disaggregate�age�into�5Ͳyear,�rather�than�10Ͳyear,�intervals.�As�the�domains�of�‘youth’�and�‘adolescents’�overlap�by�5�years,� further�stratifying�age�allows�us�to�observe� issues� in�more�detail.�For�many�of� the�indicators,�calculations�for�adolescents,�youth�and�young�people�are� important�to�highlight�the�specific�needs�of�each�age�subͲgroup.�

Urban�vs.�Rural:�Stark�differences�between�rural�and�urban�populations�often�exist,�both� in�terms�of�access�to�opportunity�and�outcomes.�

SocioǦEconomic� Status:� Similar� to� the� urbanͲrural� divide,� disparities� in� access� to� opportunity� and�outcomes�frequently�exist�between�those�of�high�and�low�socioͲeconomic�status.�While�it�is�outside�the�scope�of� this� report� to� suggest�how� socioͲeconomic� status� should�be� classified�or�benchmarked,� it� is�important�to�consider�it�when�collecting�or�disseminating�data.�

Ethnicity�and�Religion:�Because�religion�and�ethnic�identity�playing�such�an�active�part�in�societies�in�the�MENA�region,�it�is�important�to�disaggregate�data�by�ethnicity,�religion,�or�both.�The�circumstances�of�each�country�will�vary,�and�so�disaggregation�by�ethnicity�may�provide�the�most�useful�information�in�one�setting,�religion�may�be�more�important�in�another.�Therefore,�disaggregation�should�be�tailored�to�the�situation�of�the�country�in�which�data�are�being�collected.�

Level�of�education:�The�level�of�education�achieved�by�the�youth�or�adolescent�will�in�many�ways�guide�their�future.�Education�assists�in�the�personal�development�process,�and�may�influence�the�perspectives�of�youths�and�adolescents� later� in� life.�For� this� reason,� it� is� important� to�disaggregate�by� the� level�of�education�to�determine�its�effect�on�the�youth�experience.�

� �

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Annex�III:�Core�Indicator�List�Please�see�Annex�II�for�more�information�about�these�indicators.��

Theme� Indicator Definition Source

Demography�

Number�of�Young�People Population�aged�10�to�24�(in�thousands)�(2005).�

United�Nations�Population�Division�

Young�people�as�a�percentage�of�total�

population�

Percent�of�10Ͳ24�yearͲolds�in�total�population.�

United�Nations�Population�Division�

Child�marriage Percentage�of�women�20–24�years�old�married�or�in�

union�before�age�18.�

State�of�the�World’s�Children�2009�

Poverty�

Young�people�living�in�poverty�

Estimated�percent�of�15Ͳ24�yearͲolds�living�in�poverty�(less�than�US$2�per�day).�

World�Bank�Poverty�Assessments�

Young�people�living�in�absolute�poverty�

Estimated�percent�of�15Ͳ24�yearͲolds�living�in�absolute�poverty�(less�than�US$1�per�

day).i�

World�Bank�Poverty�Assessments�

Education�

Youth�literacy�rate Number�of�literate�persons�aged�15–24,�expressed�as�a�percentage�of�the�total�population�in�that�age�

group.�

State�of�the�World’s�Children�2009�

Gross�Enrollment�Ratio�(secondary)�

Ratio��of�young�people�enrolled�in�secondary�

school,�regardless�of�age,�to�the�total�number�of�young�people�of�official�secondary�

school�age.i�ii�

State�of�the�World’s�Children�2009�

Net�Enrollment�Ratio�(secondary)�

Ratio�of�young�people�enrolled�in�secondary�

school�of�official�secondary�school�age,�to�the�total�

number�of�young�people�of�official�secondary�school�

age.�

State�of�the�World’s�Children�2009�

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Gender�Parity�Index Ratio�of�females�of�official�secondary�school�age�enrolled�in�secondary�

school�to�males�of�official�secondary�school�age�enrolled�in�secondary�

school.�

State�of�the�World’s�Children�2009�

Progression�to�Secondary�School�

The�number�of�new�entrants�to�the�first�grade�of�secondary�school�in�a�

given�year�as�a�percentage�of�the�number�of�students�enrolled�in�the�final�grade�of�primary�school�in�the�

previous�year.�

UNESCO�Institute�for�Statistics/World�Bank�

EdStats�Query�

Economic�Livelihood�

Economically�Active�Youth�Participation�

The�number�of�economically�active�youth,�

15Ͳ24�(thousands).�'Economically�active'�refers�to�all�persons�of�either�sex�who�furnish�the�supply�of�labor�for�the�production�of�goods�and�services�during�a�specified�timeͲreference�period.�Definitions�of�

‘Economically�Active’�may�differ�between�countries.�

ILO�LABORSTA�Database�

Youth�Unemployment�Rate All�persons�aged�15Ͳ24�who,�during�the�reference�period�were:�without�work,�currently�available�for�work�

and�seeking�work.�

UNData

Physical�Health�

Life�expectancy�at�age�15 Average�number�of�years�a�person�surviving�to�age�15�

expects�to�live.�

Life�tables�for�WHO�Member�States�for�

2006�

Percentage�of�young�people�experiencing�food�

insecurity�

Percentage�of�students�(age�13Ͳ15)�who�went�hungry�most�of�the�time�or�always�during�the�past�30�days�because�there�was�not�

enough�food�in�their�home.�

Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�

Survey�

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Percentage�of�young�people�who�are�obese�

Percent�of�students (age�13Ͳ15)�who�were�at�or�

above�the�95th�percentile�for�BMI.�

Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�

Survey�

Percentage�of�young�people�who�are�current�

smokers�

Percentage�of�13�to�15�year�olds�in�school�who�are�

current�smokers.�

Global�Youth�Tobacco�Survey�

Reproductive�Health�

Adolescent�fertility�rate Births�per�1,000�women�age�15Ͳ19.�

UN�Population�Division�

Comprehensive�knowledge�of�HIV�among�youth�

Percentage�of�young�women�(aged�15Ͳ24)�who�correctly�identify�the�two�major�ways�of�preventing�the�sexual�transmission�of�HIV�(using�condoms�and�

limiting�sex�to�one�faithful,�uninfected�partner),�who�

reject�the�two�most�common�local�

misconceptions�about�HIV�transmission�and�who�know�

that�a�healthyͲlooking�person�can�be�HIVͲinfected.�

MICS�2006

Violence�

Estimated�number�of�internally�displaced�and�refugee�young�people�

Number�of�youth�(ages�5Ͳ17)�counted�among�

UNHCR's�population�of�concern.�Number�shown�may�underreport�due�to�absence�of�complete�demographic�data.�

UNHCR�Country�Data�Sheets�2007�

Is�corporal�punishment�legally�permitted�in�

schools?�

Intentional�application�of�physical�pain�as�a�method�of�changing�behavior.�

Global�Initiative�to�End�All�Corporal�Punishment�for�

Students�

Percentage�of�young�people�who�have�been�physically�attacked�

Percentage�of�students�age�13�to�15�who�were�

physically�attacked�one�or�more�times�in�the�past�12�

months.�

Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�

Survey�

Mental�Health� Percentage�of�young�people�who�felt�lonely�

Percentage�of�students�age�13�to�15�who�felt�lonely�

Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�

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always�or�most�of�the�time�during�the�past�12�months.�

always�or�most�of�the�time�in�the�last���12�months.�

Survey

Number�of�government�social�workers�per�100,000�

population�

The�number�of�government�social�workers,�per�100,000�

population�

UNICEF�Country�Office�Annual�

Reports�

Civics�Voting�Age Legal�voting�age�in�national�

elections�ACE�Electoral�

Knowledge�Network�

ICT�

Internet�access�in�schools Score�on�a�1Ͳ7�scale�of�a�large�sample�group�in�a�

particular�country�responding�to�the�question�of�whether�internet�access�in�schools�in�their�country�is�

(1=�very�limited,�7=�pervasiveͲmost�children�have�frequent�access).�

Arab�Statistics,�UNDPͲPOGAR�

Attitudes/Outlook�

Young�people's�perceived�ability�to�pursue�goals�

Percentage�youth�(age�15�to�24)�who�report�

satisfaction�with�their�freedom�to�choose�what�to�

do�with�their�life.�

Gallup�Worldview

Value�young�people�place�on�peer�relationships�

Percentage�of�15�to�29�year�olds�who�rate�friends�as�'very�important'�or�'rather�

important'.�

World�Values�Survey

Value�young�people�place�on�interͲgenerational�

relationships�

Percentage�of�15�to�29�year�olds�who�rate�family�as�

'very�important'�or�'rather�important'.�

World�Values�Survey

Likelihood�of�migrating Percentage�of�youth�(15Ͳ24)�who�report�being�likely�to�move�away�from�the�city�or�area�where�they�live�in�

next�year.�

Gallup�Worldview

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Annex�IV:�Extended�Indicator�List�Please�see�Annex�II�for�more�information�about�this�list.�

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

�� Demography� 1� Number�of�young�people� X X X X 1� Young�people�as�a�percentage�of�the�total�population� X X 1� Percentage�of�young�people�who�are�married� X X X X 2� Age�dependency�ratio�(<15�years�to�workingͲage�population)� X 2� Percentage�child�marriage� X X X 2� Minimum�legal�age�for�marriage�with�parental�consent� X 2� Minimum�legal�age�for�marriage�without�parental�consent� X 2� National�average�age�of�first�marriage� X X X X X 3� Percentage�of�marriages�that�were�'arranged'� X X X

3�Proportion�of�married�young�women�who�are�not�the�first�concurrent�wife�of�their�husband� X

�� Poverty�� 1� Percentage�of�young�people�living�in�poverty� X X X X 1� Percentage�of�national�population�living�in�poverty�� X X 1� Percentage�of�young�people�living�in�absolute�poverty� X X X X 1� Percentage�of�national�population�living�in�absolute�poverty� X X 2� Percentage�of�malnourished�young�people�(measured�by�BMI)� X X X X X 2� Percentage�of�young�people�deprived�of�water�� X X X 2� Percentage�of�young�people�deprived�of�shelter� X X X

2�Youth�needs�specifically�addressed�in�national�poverty�reduction�strategy�papers�and�policy�documents,�especially�in�employment�and�education�

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134��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

2� Average�number�of�household�years�wages�to�afford�the�average�house�price� 2� Percentage�of�young�people�deprived�of�sanitation� X X X

�� Education�� 1� Adolescent�literacy�rate� X X X X 1� Youth�literacy�rate� X X X X 1� Gross�enrollment�ratio,�primary� X X X X 1� Gross�enrolment�ratio,�secondary/vocational� X X X X 1� Completion�proportion,�basic�education� X X X X 1� Gender�parity�index�for�primary�education� X X X 1� Gender�parity�index�for�secondary/vocational�education� X X X

1�Difference�between�national�average�of�TIMMS�test�results�compared�to�global�average� X X X X

by�thematic�area

1�Percentage�of�population�scoring�'acceptably'�on�core�skill�areas�in�PISA�standardized�test� X X X X

by�skill�area

2� Ratio�of�male�to�female�literacy�rates�for�adolescents� X 2� Ratio�of�male�to�female�literacy�rates�for�youth� X X 2� Net�enrollment�ratio,�primary� X 2� Net�enrollment�ratio,�secondary/vocational� X 2� Completion�proportion,�primary�education� X X X X 2� Completion�proportion,�secondary/vocational�education� X X X X 2� Progression�proportion�to�secondary�education� X X X 2� Progression�proportion�to�tertiary/professional�education� X X X 2� Gender�parity�index�for�tertiary/professional�education� X X X 2� Student�per�class�ratio�for�primary�education� X 2� Student�per�class�ratio�for�secondary�education� X 2� Proportion�of�secondary�school�students�in�vocational�versus�academic�track,� X X X X

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135��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

where�applicable�2� Proportion�of�students�who�both�study�and�work� X X X X

2�Percentage�of�schoolͲaged�disabled�young�people�enrolled�in�any�type�of�education�or�training�institution� X

2�Existence�of�formalized�process�for�employer�associations'�participation�in�education�reform�process�

2� Percentage�of�students�who�repeated�a�school�level�this�year� X X X X 2� Percentage�of�students�who�feel�safe�at�school� X X X X

2�Percentage�of�students�who�remain�in�school�because�of�poor�employment�prospects� X X X X X

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�left�school�sooner�than�desired�in�order�to�contribute�financially�to�their�family� X X X X X X

2� Perceptions�of�young�people�regarding�the�relevance�of�curricula�to�their�career� X X X X X X 2� Government�education�spending�as�a�percentage�of�GDP� X 2� Government�education�spending�as�a�percent�of�total�government�spending� X 3� Ending�age�of�compulsory�education� X 3� Gross�enrollment�ratio,�tertiary/professional� X X X X 3� Net�enrollment�ratio,�tertiary/professional� X 3� Completion�proportion,�tertiary/professional�education� X X X X 3� Total�costs,�including�ancillary�costs,�of�1�year�of�public�primary�education� X X 3� Total�costs,�including�ancillary�costs,�of�1�year�of�public�secondary�education� X X 3� Total�costs,�including�ancillary�costs,�of�1�year�of�public�tertiary�education� X 3� Total�costs,�including�ancillary�costs,�of�1�year�of�public�vocational�education� 3� Student�teacher�ratio�for�primary�education� X 3� Student�teacher�ratio�for�secondary�education� X 3� Student�teacher�ratio�for�tertiary�education� X

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136��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

3� Student�teacher�ratio�for�vocational�education� X 3� Student�per�class�ratio�for�tertiary�education� X 3� Student�per�class�ratio�for�vocational�education� X 3� Proportion�of�tertiary�enrollees�with�a�general/academic�secondary�qualification� X X X

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�felt�they�participated�more�in�school/work�than�last�year� X ��

3� Percentage�school�attendance�(from�school�records)� X X X X ��3� Total�number�of�formal�academic�years�of�primary�and�secondary�education�

3�Recognition�of�and�proposed�plan�of�action�in�official�education�policy�and�plans�to�address�gender�disparities��

3�Recognition�of�and�proposed�plan�of�action�in�official�education�policy�and�plans�to�address�urbanͲrural�disparities��

3� Years�since�last�major�education�curriculum�reform�

3�Reason�for�studying�at�university�(youth�interested�in�topic,�parental�pressure,�perception�that�tertiary�education�necessary�for�'good�job',�etc.)� X

3� Percentage�of�students�with�a�private�tutor� X X X X

�� Livelihoods�and�Economic�Participation�� 1� Percentage�of�working�age�population�who�are�youth� X 1� Economically�Active�Population�Rate� X X X X 1� Ratio�of�youth�to�adult�unemployment�rate� X 1� Young�person�unemployment�rate� X X X X X X 2� Economically�Young�Person�Population�Rate� X X X X X 2� Adolescent�Labor�Force�Participation�Rate� X X X X X 2� Youth�Labor�Force�Participation�Rate�(YLFPR)� X X X X X X 2� Female/male�YLFP�ratio� X 2� Share�of�youth�in�total�unemployed�

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137��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

2� Proportion�of�youth�employment�by�sector:�public,�formal�private,�informal� X X X X 2� Percentage�of�youth�financially�dependent�on�their�family� X X X X 2� Average�time�between�completing�vocational�education�and�finding�a�job� X X X 2� Average�time�between�completing�tertiary�education�and�finding�a�job� X X X 2� Average�time�between�completing�secondary�education�and�finding�a�job� X X X 2� Average�monthly�wage�for�young�people� X X X X X work�sector

2� Average�number�of�hours�worked�per�week�by�young�people� X X X X X

whether�concurrently�studying�

2� Average�age�of�first�paid�employment� X X X X 3� Age�transition�in�LFPR�� X 3� Ratio�of�female/male�youth�unemployment� X 3� Proportion�of�youth�not�working�and�not�in�school� X X X X X X 3� Optimism�about�employment�prospects� X X 3� Proportion�of�young�people�whose�first�job�was�in�the�informal�sector� X X X X 3� National�Gini�coefficient� 3� Number/proportion�of�'child�labor',�according�to�ILO�definition� X X X

3�Proportion�of�youth�hired�by�process:�public�advertisement,�personal�application,�recommendation/referral/networks,�etc.� X X

3� Existence�of�career�guidance�centers�with�a�feedback�loop�to�the�education�sector� 3� Percentage�of�new�jobs�filled�by�nonͲnationals� work�sector3� Percentage�of�total�jobs�filled�by�nonͲnationals� work�sector3� Percentage�of�youth�who�have�started�their�own�business� X X 3� Percentage�of�new�businesses�started�by�youth� 3� Percentage�of�working�young�people�employed�in�temporary�work� X X X X X X

3�Percentage�of�youth�reporting�that�a�lack�of�credit�affects�their�entrepreneurial�potential� X X X X X

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138��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

3�Percentage�of�youth�reporting�that�a�lack�of�credit�affects�their�expected�age�of�marriage� X X X X X

3� National�legal�age�of�employment� 3� Percentage�of�youth�who�plan�to�start�a�business�in�the�next�year� X X X X X

�� Physical�Health� 1� Life�expectancy�at�age�15� X X X X 1� Top�3�reported�deaths�by�cause�for�young�people� X X X X X 1� Young�person�obesity�rate� X X X 1� Percentage�of�young�people�with�access�to�affordable�health�care� X X

1�Percentage�of�the�population�with�access�to�affordable�psychosocial�support�(social�workers,�psychologists/counselors,�psychiatrists,�etc.)� X X

2� Gender�gap�in�life�expectancy�at�age�15� X X

2�Proportion�of�total�adolescent�deaths�attributable�to�leading�causes�of�death�among�adolescents� X

2�Proportion�of�total�adolescent�deaths�attributable�to�second�leading�causes�of�death�among�adolescents� X

2�Proportion�of�total�adolescent�deaths�attributable�to�third�leading�causes�of�death�among�adolescents� X

2�Proportion�of�total�youth�deaths�attributable�to�leading�causes�of�death�among�youth� X

2�Proportion�of�total�youth�deaths�attributable�to�second�leading�causes�of�death�among�youth� X

2�Proportion�of�total�youth�deaths�attributable�to�third�leading�causes�of�death�among�youth� X

2� Number�of�young�person�deaths�attributable�to�honor�killings� X X X

2�Proportion�of�young�people�reporting�violence�in�the�past�month�from:�family�(parents,�siblings,�grandparents,�aunts�and�uncles),�partners,�teachers,� X X

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139��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

police/authority,�peers,�strangers

2�Percentage�of�youths�in�a�household�that�has�faced�catastrophic�health�expenditure�(40%�of�nonͲsubsistence�income�paid�to�the�health�system)�in�the�past�year� X X

2�Percentage�of�the�youth�and�adolescent�population�covered by�health�insurance�of�any�kind� X X X X

3� Probability�at�15�years�of�age�of�surviving�to�25� X X X X 3� Number/Percentage�of�total�deaths�among�young�people� X

3�Percentage�of�total�young�person deaths�attributable�to�injuries�from�armed�conflict� X X

3� Percentage�of�total�young�person�deaths�attributable�to�occupational�injuries� X X 3� Percentage�of�total�young�person�deaths�attributable�to�violence� X X 3� Percentage�of�total�young�person�deaths�attributable�to�genderͲbased�violence� X X 3� Percentage�of�total�young�person�deaths�attributable�to�substance�abuse� X X 3� Percentage�of�total�young�person�deaths�attributable�to�HIV�AND�AIDS� X X 3� Percentage�of�total�young�person�deaths�attributable�to�accidents� X X 3� Percentage�of�total�young�person�deaths�attributable�to�roadͲtraffic�accidents� X X 3� 3�main�causes�for�young�person�hospitalization� X X 3� Ordered�list�of�types�of�healthcare�most�utilized�by�young�people� X X 3� Proportion�of�young�people�with�a�disability� X X X X X

3�Percent�of�young�people�who�did�not�go�out�(to�school,�work,�etc.)�one�or�more�times�in�the�past�30�days�because�they�were�afraid�for�their�safety� X X

3�Percentage�of�household�income�spent�on�young�peoples'�health�care�in�the�past�year� X

3�Proportion�of�young�people�who�have�been�so�sick�that�they�have�had�to�miss�at�least�2�days�of�normal�activity�(school,�work,�etc.)�in�the�past�30�days� X X X

3� Age�at�which�a�person�may�go�to�a�health�clinic�without�parental�consent� X 3� Age�at�which�a�woman�may�go�to�a�health�clinic�without�her�partner's�consent�

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140��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

3�From�what�source�do�young�people�get�their�general�health�information�(doctor,�family,�friends,�internet,�TV,�posters,�etc.� X X X X X

�� Sexual�and�Reproductive�Health� 1� Young�person�fertility�rate�(births�per�1,000�young�women)� X X X X X

1�Percentage�of�young�women�who�received�prenatal�care�at�least�once�during�their�last�or�current�pregnancy� X X X X X

1� Young�person�maternal�mortality�rate� X X X X 1� National�maternal�mortality�rate� 1� Knowledge�of�safe�sex�practices�among�young�people� X X X X 2� Young�person�fertility�as�a�percentage�of�total�fertility� 2� Percentage�of�female�youth�who�have�given�birth�before�age�18� X X X X 2� Age�at�first�pregnancy�of�young�women� X X X

2�Percentage�of�young�people�with�affordable�access�to�reproductive�health�services�(prenatal�care,�etc.)� X

2� Percentage�of�births�attended�by�skilled�personnel� X X X X 2� Number/proportion�of�young�person�births�out�of�wedlock� X X 2� Percentage�of�married�or�inͲunion�young�women�using�modern�contraception� X 2� Percentage�of�young�people�with�access�to�family�planning�services�if�desired� X X 2� Maternal�mortality�ratio�for�15�–�19;�20�Ͳ24�year�olds� 2� Young�person�abortion�rate� X X 2� Prevalence�of�STIs�among�young�people� X X 2� HIV�incidence�among�young�people� X ��2� Percentage�of�anemia�among�young�women� X 3� Perceived�social�pressure�for�women�to�have�a�child�within�5�years�of�marriage� X X

3� Average�age�of�sexual�debut� X X marital�status�at�sexual�debut�

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141��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

3� Percentage�of�young�people�having�sex�before�marriage� X X X 3� Percentage�of�sexually�active�young�people�using�a�condom�at�first�sex�� X X X X 3� Percentage�of�sexually�active�young�people�using�a�condom�at�last�sex� X X X X 3� Percentage�of�young�person�obstetrical�admissions�due�to�abortion�complication� X 3� HIV�prevalence�among�young�people� X X X X 3� Presence�of�HIV�education�in�schools� 3� Percentage�of�diagnosed�HIV+�children�receiving�antiretroviral�therapy�� X

3�

Percentage�of�youth�who�have�correct�knowledge�of�HIV�(can�identify�2�ways�to�avoid�contraction,�reject�common�myths,�know�that�a�healthyͲlooking�person�can�be�HIVͲinfected)� X X X

3� Presence�of�schoolͲbased�health�and�reproductive�health�education� 3� Health�and�reproductive�health�programs�for�outͲofͲschool�young�people�

3�From�what�source�do�young�people�get�their�reproductive�health�information�(doctor,�family,�friends,�internet,�TV,�posters,�etc.� X X X X X

�� Mental�and�Psychosocial�WellͲbeing� ��

1�Percentage�of�young�people�with�diagnosed�mental�health�conditions,�disaggregated�by�condition� X X X X ��

1� Top�three�mental�health�conditions�for�young�people X X X 1� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�safe�in�public� X X X X ��1� Young�people’s�perceived�access�to�mentalͲhealth�care� X X X X X X �1� Number�of�government�social�workers�per�100,000�population� �1� Number�of�pediatric�mental�health�professionals�per�100,000�population� By�designation�

1�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�they�can�trust�most�people�in�their�community� X X X X X X ��

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�were�depressed�most�or�all�of�the�time�during�the�past�month� X X X ��

2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�report�having�one�or�no�close�friends� X X X ��

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142��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�that�if�they�had�an�important�emotional�issue,�they�could�talk�to�their�family�about�it� X X X X ��

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�that�if�they�had�an�important�emotional�issue,�they�could�talk�to�their�friends�about�it� X X X X ��

2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�safe�at�work� X X X X ��2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�they�can�trust�their�friends� X X ��2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�they�can�trust�their�neighbors� X X X X X ��2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�they�can�trust�the�government� X X X X X X ��2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�they�can�trust�the�media� X X X X X ��2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�their�country�is�on�the�right�track� X X X X X X ��

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�the�economic�situation�will�improve�in�the�next�year� X X X ��

2�Percentage�of�unemployed�young�people�who�feel�that�they�will�be�able�to�find�a�decent�job�in�the�next�year� X X X X ��

2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�they�have�valuable�skills�and�knowledge� X X X X X ��

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�that�they�can�make a�positive�contribution�to�society� X X X X X X ��

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�they�have�a�positive�influence�on�those�around�them� X X X ��

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�if�they�had�an�important�issue�or�needed�to�talk�to�their�feelings,�they�have�someone�they�could�talk�to�about�it� X X ��

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�could�not�sleep�because�of�stress�or�anxiety�at�least�once�in�the�past�week� X X X X ��

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�are�happy�with�the�level�of�care�provided�by�their�family� X X X ��

3� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�safe�in�their�family� X X X ��3� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�they�can�trust�members�of�their�extended� X X ��

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143��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

family�3� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�they�can�trust�their�coworkers� X X X ��3� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�they�can�trust�their�teachers� X X X ��3� Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�they�can�trust�their�boss� X X X X X ��

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�community�morality�(trust,�interpersonal�relationships,�etc.)�is�going�in�the�right�direction� X X X X ��

3� Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�they�make�friends�easily� X X ��3� Percentage�of�young�people�whose�closest�friends�were�made�2�or�more�years�ago� X X X X X ��

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�are�quite�sure�or�certain�of�what�they�will�be�doing�in�a�year� X X X X ��

�� Substance�Use/Abuse�

1�Percentage�of�young�people�who�smoked�at�least�one�cigarette�or�other�tobacco�product�during�the�past�30�days� X X X X X X

1�Percentage�of�young�people�who�drank�at�least�one�drink�containing�alcohol�in�the�past�30�days� X X X X X X

1� Lifetime�prevalence�rate�of�drug�abuse�among�young�people� X X X X X X drug�type

2�Percentage�of�those�young�people�who�drank�alcohol�who�drank�so�much�they�were�drunk�at�least�once�during�the�past�year� X X X X X X

2� Average�age�at�first�drink� X

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�have�injected�a�drug�at�least�once�during�the�past�year� X X

2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�used�kat�during�the�past�30�days� X X X X X X 3� Average�age�at�first�cigarette� X 3� Minimum�legal�smoking�age�

3� Minimum�legal�drinking�age�

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144��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

3�The�proportion�of�those�who�have�injected�drugs�in�the�past�year�who�used�a�clean�needle�at�last�injection� X

�� Migration��

1� Ratio�of�young�person�to�adult�migrants� X X international�vs.�

domestic�1� Percentage�of�young�people�who�want�to�live�in�their�home�country�as�adults� X X X X 2� Percentage�of�young�people�migrating�� X X

2�3�major�reasons�for�wanting�to�migrate�among�those�young�people�who�do�not�want�to�live�in�their�home�country�as�adults� X X X

�� Civic�Participation�� 1� Voting�age� X

1�Voting�rate�for�those�eligible�under�the�age�of�25�in�last�headͲofͲstate�election,�where�applicable� X X X X

1�Voter�registration�rate�for�those�eligible�under�the�age�of�25�in�last�headͲofͲstate�election,�where�applicable� X X X X

1� Numbers/Percentage�of�young�people�participating�in�civil�society�organizations�� X X 2� Age�to�stand�for�public�office� X 2� Existence�of�national�youth�council� 2� Existence�of�national�youth�policy� 2� Number�of�registered�youth�organizations�

2�Existence�of�formalized�process�for�young�people’s�input�into�policy�and�budgetary�process� ��

2� Young�people’s�participation�in�private�sector�and�civilͲsociety�decisionͲmaking� ��

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�volunteered�at�least�2�hours�of�time�in�the�past�week� X

2� Percentage�of�schools/universities�with�a�student�government�

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145��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

3�Percentage�of�members�of�youth�organizations�and�other�associations�in�management/leadership�positions� X

3� Percentage�of�students�involved�in�participatory�structures�in�schools� X X 3� Proportion�of�young�people�who�are�members�of�registered�political�parties� X ��3� Engagement�of�young�people�in�public�demonstrations� X 3� Percentage�of�schools�with�a�parentͲteacher�association� �� Proportion�of�young�people�involved�in�religious�organizations� X ��

�� Globalization�� 2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�have�traveled�abroad� X 3� Number�of�international�students� X X X X home�country

�� Armed�Conflict�and�Emergencies� 1� Estimated�number�of�young�person�refugees� X X X country�of�origin1� Estimated�number�of�internally�displaced�young�people� X X 2� Availability�of�small�arms� 2� Presence�of�a�national�service�requirement� X

2�Number�of�children�currently�voluntarily�or�involuntarily�associated�with�security�or�armed�forces� X X X

2� Number�of�children�without�parental�care�of�any�kind�

3�Proportion�of�young�people�who�have�lived�at�least�2�years�of�their�life�in�a�country�in�conflict� X

3� Number�of�children�demobilized�or�with�past�service�in�the�armed�forces� X

3� Proportion�of�young�people�injured�by�armed�conflict�� X X 3� Number�of�deaths/injuries�due�to�landmines� X � �

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146��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

�� Child�Protection�

1� Percentage�of�children�registered�at�birth� X X X

1�Proportion�of�adults�who�believe�corporal�punishment�is�an�acceptable�means�of�discipline� X

1� Number�of�children�identified�as�victims�of�trafficking� X X X foreign�and�national

1� Is�the�death�penalty�legal�for�children?� ��1� Number�of�homeless�young�people� X X X X X ��1� Status�of�ratification�of�the�CRC�and�Optional�Protocols� ��2� Proportion�of�child�homicides�per�total�number�of�homicides� X

2� Proportion�of�trafficked�children�repatriated� X X incoming�and�outgoing�

2� Percentage�of�children�aged�5Ͳ14�years�involved�in�child�labor�� X X X 2� Age�at�which�people�are�held�liable�as�adults�before�the�law� 2� Number�and�rate�(per�100,000�child�population)�of�young�people�in�detention�� X X X 2� Rate�of�young�person�victimization�of�violent�crime� X X X 2� Rate�of�young�person�perpetration�of�violent�crime� X X X

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�have�used�violence�or�threats�of�violence�to�get�their�way�or�solve�a�dispute�in�the�past�month� X X X X ��

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�have�been�the�victim�of�violence�by�their�family�members�or�careͲgivers�in�the�past�year� X X X X X X ��

3� Percentage�of�women�15Ͳ49�years�with�at�least�one�mutilated/cut�daughter�� X X 3� Percentage�of�women�15Ͳ49�having�undergone�FGM/C� X X 3� Number�of�young�people�in�contact�with�the�law�in�the�past�year�

3�

Proportion�of�young�people�in�contact�with�the�law�in�the�past�year�who�benefit�from�alternative�measures�(e.g.�mediation,�alternatives�to�detention�such�as�community�service�and�reparations)� X X

3� Number/Percentage�of�young�people�who�attempt�to�commit�suicide�

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147��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

3� Number/Percentage�of�young�people�committing�suicide� 3� Legal�status�of�corporal�punishment�of�children�in�the�home� 3� Legal�status�of�corporal�punishment�of�children�in�school� 3� Legal�status�of�corporal�punishment�of�children�as�a�sentence�for�a�crime�

3�Legal�status�of�corporal�punishment�of�children�as�a�disciplinary�measure�in�penal�institutions�

3� Legal�status�of�corporal�punishment�of�children�in�alternative�care�

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�that�sometimes�it�is�better�to�‘agree�to�disagree’�rather�than�to�convince�the�other�person�that�you�are�correct� X X X ��

3�Percentage�of�homeless�young�people maintaining�contact�with�their�direct�or�extended�family� X X ��

�� Information�and�Communication�Technology��

1� Percentage�of�schools�with�computer�access�for�students� X X unisex�vs.�nonͲ

unisex�1� Proportion�of�young�people�who�used�computer�in�last�3�months� X X X X X X 1� Proportion�of�young�people�who�used�the�Internet�in�last�3�months� X X X X X X 1� Percentage�of�young�people�with�mobile�phones� X X X X X X

2� Percentage�of�schools�with�internet�access�for�students� X X unisex�vs.�nonͲ

unisex�2� Point�of�usual�access�of�the�internet:�home,�work,�internet�café,�school,�etc.� X

2�Proportion�of�young�people�accessing�news�from�any�source�(TV,�radio,�newspaper,�internet,�etc.)� X X X X

2� Percentage�of�young�people�who�are�computer�literate� X X X X X X 3� Percentage�of�young�people�with�an�email�address� X X 3� Internet�cafés�per�10,000�population� X

3�Frequency�of�young�people�using:�TV,�radio,�newspaper,�magazines,�nonͲschool/work�books,�computer,�internet,�going�to�a�movie,�hiring�a�movie� X X X

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148��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

3� Computer�sciences�included�as�part�of�national�school�curriculum� X 3� Percentage�of�households�with�a�computer� X X X X 3� Percentage�of�households�with�internet�access� X X X X

�� Leisure/Culture�� 1� Young�person�membership�in�sporting�clubs�and�associations� X X

1�Percentage�of�adolescent�girls�allowed�to�perform�activities�(sports,�clubs/organizations,�etc.)�without�a�male�chaperone� X X X X X

1� Perception�of�mobility�Ͳ�ability�to�move�domestically�for�work,�school,�etc.� X X ��2� Average�amount�of�young�people�leisure�time�per�week� X X 2� Leisure�activities�performed�in�the�past�month�by�young�people� X 2� Percentage�of�young�people�engaged�in�nonͲsport�club�or�association� X X

2�Frequency�of�young�peoples'�visits�to�cultural�events,�such�as�art�galleries,�music�recitals,�theatre�performances,�etc.� X

2�Percentage�of�young�people�with�access�to�cultural�events�and�sport/leisure�activities�in�their�community� X X X

2� Percentage�of�young�people�attending�weekly�religious�services� X X X X X X 2� Average�amount�of�time�young�people�spend�in�their�house� X X X X X X ��2� Average�number�of�hours�young�people�voluntarily�spent�with�their�friends� X X X X X X ��3� Frequency�of�leisure�activities�performed�in�the�past�month�by�young�people� X X 3� Sports�activities�performed�by�young�people�in�the�past�month� X X 3� Frequency�of�sports�activities�performed�by�young�people�in�the�past�month� X X 3� Proportion�of�young�people�engaged�in�regular�organized�sports�activities� X X 3� Percentage�of�young�people�who�speak�a�language�other�than�their�native�language� X X 3� Percentage�of�young�people�who�play�a�musical�instrument� X X

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�have�read�nonͲschool/workͲrelated�material�(novels,�newspapers,�magazines,�etc.)�in�the�past�week� X X X X X

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149��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

�� Social�Cohesion�and�Intergenerational�Relations� 1� Percentage�of�young�people�living�in�a�household�where�no�member�is�employed� X X X X 1� Average�proportion�of�the�household�who�are�young�people� X ��

1�Proportion�of�people�primarily�identifying�themselves�by:�religion,�nationality,�ethnicity,�gender,�occupation,�etc.� X X X X X

1� Percentage�of�young�people�reporting�religion�as�being�'very�important'� X X X X X

1�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�they�have�enough�control�over�the�direction�of�their�life� X X X X X X ��

1�Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�violence�is�an�acceptable�way�to�solve�some�problems� X X X X X ��

2� Median�age�of�the�population�

2�Percentage�of�young�people�whose�parents/household�income�provider�have�secure�employment� X X X

2� Average�number�of�days�young�people�shared�a�meal�with�family�in�the�past�week� X X X ��

2�Proportion�of�young�people�who�are�orphans,�per�10,000�population�(lost�1�or�both�parents)� X X

2� Average�marriage�cost�as�a�multiple�of�average�annual�household�expenditure� X X X

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�they�contribute�to�the�decisionͲmaking�process�of�their�household� X X X X X

2� 3�primary�reported�barriers�to�marriage�for�young�people� X X X X

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�they�have�the�capacity�to�influence�their�local�community� X X X X X X ��

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�they�have�enough�influence�in�decisions�in�the�family� X X X X X ��

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�they�are�capable�of�making�decisions�about�things� X X X ��

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150��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�believe�that�there�are�some�problems�that�can�only�be�solved�by�violence� X X X X ��

2�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�violence�against�a�wife�is�acceptable�under�certain�circumstances� X X X X X ��

3� Percentage�of�young�people�not�living�with�either�parent�� X X X X 3� Perceived�importance�of�marriage�to�young�people� X X X X X X 3� Percentage�of�young�people�who�have�moved�house�in�the�past�year� X X X X

3�Percentage�of�young�people�who�feel�that�they�have�the�capacity�to�influence�their�country� X X X X X ��

3�Average�amount�of�time�young�people spend�doing�activities�with�their�family�outside�the�house� X X X ��

3�Average�amount�of�time�young�people spend�doing�activities�with�their�family�in�their�house� X X X ��

�� Life�Satisfaction��

1�Young�people’s�overall�life�satisfaction�Ͳ�Percentage�of�youth�that�are�very�or�somewhat�satisfied�with�their�life.� X X X

2�Young�people’s�satisfaction�with�family�Ͳ�Percentage�of�children�that�are�often�or�almost�always�satisfied�with�family.� X X

2�Young�people’s�satisfaction�with�friends�Ͳ�Percentage�of�children�that�are�often�or�almost�always�satisfied�with�friends.� X X

2�Young�people’s�satisfaction�with�school�Ͳ�Percentage�of�children�that�are�often�or�almost�always�satisfied�with�school.� X X

2�Young�people’s�satisfaction�with�living�environment�Ͳ�Percentage�of�children�that�are�often�or�almost�always�satisfied�with�living�environment.� X X

2�Young�people’s�satisfaction�with�self�Ͳ�Percentage�of�children�that�are�often�or�almost�always�satisfied�with�self.� X X

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151��

Priority

Proposed�indicator�by�domain�

Disaggregation

Sex�

Stratifie

d�age���

(10Ͳ14

,�15Ͳ19,�20Ͳ24

)�

Urban

�vs.�rural�

SocioͲecon

omic�status�

Ethn

icity/Re

ligion�

Level�of�e

ducation

Other�

2�Young�people’s�satisfaction�with�coworkers�Ͳ�Percentage�of�youth�that�are�very�or�somewhat�satisfied�with�their�coworkers,�if�applicable.� X X X

3� Average�Satisfaction�with�Life�Scale�(SWLS)�score�for�young�people� X X X

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Annex�V:��Major�household�surveys�in�MENA�countries�

�� Census� DHS� MICS1� MICS2� MICS3�

The�Arab�Family�Health�Survey�

Population�Council�Youth�Survey�

Living�Standards�

Measurement�Survey�(World�

Bank)�

World�Health�Survey�(WHO)�

Trends�in�International�Mathematics�and�Science�

Study�

Global�SchoolǦbased�Health�Survey�

Algeria� 2008� Ͳ� 1995� 2000� 2006� 2002� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� Ͳ�Bahrain� 2001� Ͳ� 2000� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� Ͳ�Djibouti� 1983� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2006� 2002� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007�

Egypt� 2006� 2008� 1996� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2009� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� 2006�Iran�� 2006� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� Ͳ�Iraq� 1997� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2000� 2006� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2006� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ�

Jordan� 2004� 2009� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� 2007�Kuwait� 2005� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� Ͳ�

Lebanon� 1970� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2000� 2006� 2003� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� 2005�Libya� 1995� Ͳ� 2003� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2006� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007�

Morocco� 2004�2003Ͳ2004� 2000� Ͳ� 2006�

2003Ͳ2004� Ͳ� 1991� 2002� 2007� 2006�

oPt� 2007� 2004� 2000� Ͳ� 2006� 2006� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� ��Oman� 2003� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2006� 2007� 2005�Qatar� 2004� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� Ͳ�Saudi�Arabia� 2004� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2007� Ͳ�Sudan� 2008� 1990� Ͳ� 2000� 2006� 2006� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ�Syria� 2004� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2000� 2006� 2001� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2003� Ͳ�

Tunisia� 2004� 1988� Ͳ� 2000� 2006� 2001� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2002� 2007� 2008�UAE� 2005� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2002� 2007� 2005�

Yemen� 2004� 1997� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2006� 2003� Ͳ� Ͳ� Ͳ� 2003� 2008��

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Annex�VI:�Institutional�definitions�of�MENA�The� following� listing� was� compiled� from� organization’s� websites� as� well� as� from� their� respective�publications.�Countries�listed�as�bolded�text�are�to�highlight�differences�from�UNICEF�regional�definition.�

ESCWA:���������������(uses�same�subͲregional�definition�as�League�of�Arab�States)�Mashreq:�Egypt,�Iraq,�Jordan,�Lebanon,�Palestine,�Syrian�Arab�Republic�Maghreb:�Algeria,�the�Libyan�Arab�Jamahiriya,�Morocco,�Tunisia�GCC:�Bahrain,�Kuwait,�Oman,�Qatar,�Saudi�Arabia,�the�United�Arab�Emirates�Arab� Least�Developed� Countries� (LDCs):� the� Comoros,�Djibouti,�Mauritania,� Somalia,� Sudan,� Yemen.����Does�not�include�Iran�

ILO:�������������Ƭ��������������Global�Employment�Trends� (General�report):� � (Separates�North�Africa�from�Middle�East)� �North�Africa:�Algeria,� Egypt,� Libya,�Morocco,� Sudan,� Tunisia� � and�Middle� East:� Bahrain,� Iran,� Iraq,� Jordan,� Kuwait,�Lebanon,�Oman,�Qatar,�Saudi�Arabia,�Syria,�UAE,�West�Bank�and�Gaza,�and�Yemen.��

Global� Employment� Trends� (Youth� 2006):�Algeria,�Bahrain,�Djibouti,� Egypt,� Iran,� Iraq,� Jordan,� Kuwait,�Lebanon,� Libya,�Morocco,�Oman,�Qatar,� Saudi�Arabia,� Somalia,� Sudan,� Syria,�Tunisia,�West�Bank� and�Gaza,�Yemen�

League�of�Arab�States�Mashreq:�Egypt,�Iraq,�Jordan,�Lebanon,�Palestine,�Syrian�Arab�Republic�Maghreb:�Algeria,�the�Libyan�Arab�Jamahiriya,�Morocco,�Tunisia�GCC:�Bahrain,�Kuwait,�Oman,�Qatar,�Saudi�Arabia,�the�United�Arab�Emirates�Arab�Least�Developed�Countries�(LDCs):�Comoros,�Djibouti,�Mauritania,�Somalia,�Sudan,�Yemen�Does�not�include�Iran�

UNAIDS:�������������Ƭ��������������Afghanistan,� Algeria,� Bahrain,� Djibouti,� Egypt,� Iran,� Iraq,� Jordan,� Kuwait,� Lebanon,� Libya,�Morocco,�Oman,�Palestine,�Qatar,�Saudi�Arabia,�Somalia,�Sudan,�Syria,�Tunisia,�UAE,�and�Yemen.�

UNDESA:��������������Ƭ��������������World�Youth�Report� � Ͳ�Algeria,�Bahrain,�Djibouti,� Egypt,� Islamic�Republic�of� Iran,� Iraq,� Israel,� Jordan,�Kuwait,� Lebanon,� Libyan� Arab� Jamahiriya,�Malta,�Morocco,� Oman,�Qatar,� Saudi� Arabia,� Syrian� Arab�Republic,� Tunisia,� United� Arab� Emirates,� Occupied� Palestinian� Territory,� Yemen� (does� not� include�Sudan).�

UNESCO:�������������Algeria,� Bahrain,�Djibouti,� Egypt,� Iraq,� Jordan,� Kuwait,� Lebanon,� Libya,�Malta,�Mauritania,�Morocco,�Oman,�Palestine� (in�data),�Qatar,� Saudi�Arabia,� Somalia,� Sudan,� Syria,�Tunisia,�United�Arab�Emirates,�Yemen�(excludes�Iran).��

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EFA�regions�Ͳ�Arab�States�Ͳ�Algeria,�Bahrain,�Djibouti,�Egypt,�Iraq,�Jordan,�Kuwait,�Lebanon,�Libyan�Arab�Jamahiriya,�Mauritania,�Morocco,�Oman,�Palestinian�Autonomous�Territories,�Qatar,�Saudi�Arabia,�Sudan,�Syrian�Arab�Republic,�Tunisia,�United�Arab�Emirates,�Yemen�(does�not�include�Iran�and�Sudan).�

UNFPA:����������������ǡ��������������In�State�of�the�World�Population:�Northern�Africa:�Algeria,�Egypt,�Libya,�Morocco,�Sudan,�Tunisia.���Western� Asia:� � Iraq,� Israel,� Jordan,� Kuwait,� Libya,� oPt,�Oman,� Saudi� Arabia,� Syria,� Turkey,�UAE� and�Yemen�(does�not�include�Iran).�

UNICEF:������������������������������Algeria,�Bahrain,�Djibouti,�Egypt,�Iran,�Iraq,�Jordan,�Kuwait,�Lebanon,�Libya,�Morocco,�Oman,�oPt,�Qatar,�Saudi�Arabia,�Sudan,�Syria,�Tunisia,�United�Arab�Emirates,�Yemen.�

UNHCR:�������������������������������Middle�East�and�North�Africa�Region�consists�of:� �Algeria,�Bahrain,�Egypt,� Iraq,� Israel,� Jordan,�Kuwait,�Lebanon,� Libya,� Mauritania,� Morocco,� Oman,� oPt,� Qatar� Saudi� Arabia,� Syria,� Tunisia,� United� Arab�Emirates,�Western�Sahara�Territory,�Yemen�(does�not�include�Djibouti,�Iran,�or�Sudan).�

WHO:�����������������������Afghanistan,� Bahrain,� Cyprus,� Djibouti,� Egypt,� Iran,� Iraq,� Jordan,� Kuwait,� Lebanon,� Libya,�Morocco,�Oman,� Pakistan,�Qatar,� Saudi� Arabia,� Somalia,� Sudan,� Syria,� Tunisia,�UAE,� Yemen� (does� not� include�Algeria).�

World�Bank:������������������������������Programmatic�work�for�the�MENA�Region�includes:�Algeria,�Djibouti,�Egypt,�Iran,�Iraq,�Jordan,�Lebanon,�Libya,�Morocco,�Oman,� Saudi� Arabia,� Syria,� Tunisia,�West� Bank� and� Gaza,� Yemen� (does� not� include�Bahrain,�Kuwait,�Qatar,�Sudan,�United�Arab�Emirates).�

Data�from�WDI:�Includes�Israel�and�Malta�and�excludes�Sudan�

� �

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Annex�VII:�Bibliography�

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Negus,�S.�“Education:�System�with�Little�Relevance�to�the�Market.”��Financial�Times,�June�2,�2008.��http://www.ft.com/reports/youth2008�

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UNDESA.��World�Youth�Report�2007�Ͳ�Young�People’s�Transition�to�Adulthood:�Progress�and�Challenges.�UNDESA,�2007.�

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World�Bank.�Youth�Employment�in�the�MENA�Region:�A�Situational�Assessment.�World�Bank,�2005.�

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Zaalouk,�M.�Quality�Education�and�Youth�Participation:�The�Case�of�Social�Protection�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�Working�Paper,�2007.�

MENAǦspecific�Publications�or�Reports�Ǧ�General�CAWTAR.�Arab�Women’s�Development�Report�2001:�Globalization�and�Gender:�Economic�Participation�of�Arab�Women,�undated.��

European�Training�Foundation.�Employment�Policy�Reforms�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Selected�Issues�on�the�Functioning�of�the�Labor�Market.�European�Training�Foundation,�2006.�

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UNAIDS�and�WHO.�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�AIDS�Epidemic�Update�Regional�Summary�2007.�UNAIDS,�2008.�http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/jc1531_epibriefs_mena_en.pdf�

UNDP/Regional�Bureau�for�Arab�States�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�Arab�Human�Development�Report�2002:�Creating�Opportunities�for�Future�Generations.�UNDP,�2002.�http://www.pogar.org/publications/other/ahdr/ahdr2002e.pdf�

UNDP/Regional�Bureau�for�Arab�States�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�Arab�Human�Development�Report�2003:�Building�a�Knowledge�Society.��UNDP�and�Arab�Fund�for�Economic�and�Social�Development,�2003.�

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UNDP/Regional�Bureau�for�Arab�States�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�Arab�Human�Development�Report�2005:�Towards�the�Rise�of�Women�in�the�Arab�World.���UNDP�2006.�

UNESCO,�Education�for�All�Global�Monitoring�Report,�2009,�UNESCO,�2009.�http://www.unesco.org/en/efareport�

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�UNESCO,�Education�for�All�Global�Monitoring�Report,�Arab�States,�An�Overview,�UNESCO�2006,�2007,�2008,�2009.�http://www.unesco.org/en/efareport/regions/arabͲstates/�

UNESCWA�and�the�League�of�Arab�States.�The�Millennium�Development�Goals�in�the�Arab�Region�2007:�A�Youth�Lens,�2007.�http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/eadͲ07Ͳ3Ͳe.pdf�

World�Bank.�Preventing�HIV/AIDS�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�A�Window�of�Opportunity�to�Act.�A�World�Bank�Regional�Strategy,�2005.�

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/Preventing_HIV__Regional_Strategy_full.pdf�

World�Bank.�Sustaining�Gains�in�Poverty�Reduction�and�Human�Development�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�2006.��http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/Poverty_front_06.pdf�

World�Bank.�Unlocking�the�Employment�Potential�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�World�Bank,�2004.�http://wwwͲwds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/06/03/000012009_20040603143832/Rendered/PDF/288150PAPER0Unlocking0employment.pdf�

CountryǦSpecific�Reports�within�MENA:�England,�A.�“Saudi�Arabia:�Effort�to�Shake�Off�a�WorkͲshy�Reputation.”�Financial�Times,�June�2,�2008.��http://www.ft.com/reports/youth2008�

Kerr,�S.�“Bahrain:�A�Radical�Overhaul�of�Education�and�Labour.”�Financial�Times,�June�2,�2008.��http://www.ft.com/reports/youth2008�

Mryyan,�N.�et�al.��New�Entrants�to�Jordanian�Labor�Market.�Al�Manar�Project,�2007.�http://www.almanar.jo/AlManarWeb/Portals/0/PDF2/new%20entrants%20to%20labor%20market.pdf�

Nation�Unies,�Document�de�travail�“Adolescents�et�Jeunes,�Données�et�défis”�Tunisie,�2007�http://www.onuͲtn.org/document/doc_Adolescents_et_JeunesͲdo_nées_et_défis_version_finale_06juin_07.pdf�

Spierings,�N.��Women’s�Labour�Market�Participation�in�Egypt,�Jordan,�Morocco,�Syria�and�Tunisia:�A�ThreeͲlevel�Analysis.��Radboud�University,�2007.�http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2007/spierings_n3399.pdf�

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Global�Publications�or�Reports�on�Young�People�Bakar,�A.�Index�to�Gauge�the�Efficiency�of�Development�Projects,�The�Brunei�Times,�August�3,�2008.��

Commonwealth�Secretariat.�Report�on�the�InterͲAgency�Consultation�on�the�Formulation�and�Development�of�the�Youth�Development�Index.�Meeting�held�11Ͳ12�July�2005,�Marlborough�House,�London.�http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/154211/154259/youth_development_report.htm��

Curtain,�R.�What�to�Do�When�Jobs�Are�Scarce:�Promoting�Young�People’s�Livelihoods�in�TimorͲLeste,�Papua�New�Guinea�and�Pacific�Island�Countries.�UNICEF�East�Asia�and�Pacific�Regional�Office,�2007.�

Deslisle,�H.�et�al.�Should�Adolescents�be�Specifically�Targeted�for�Nutrition�in�Developing�Countries?�To�Address�which�Problems�and�How?�Universite�de�Montreal,�undated.��http://www.who.int/childͲadolescentͲhealth/New_Publications/NUTRITION/Adolescent_nutrition_paper.pdf�

ILO.��Global�Employment�Trends,�2008.�http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ͲͲͲdgreports/ͲͲͲdcomm/documents/publication/wcms_090106.pdf�

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Population�Council.��The�Role�of�Social�Support�and�Economic�SkillͲbuilding�Programs�in�mitigating�Adolescents’�Vulnerabilities:�Perspectives�and�UNICEF’s�Experience�to�Date,�Population�Council�and�UNICEF,�undated.���

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Schneider,�Friedrich.�“Shadow�Economies�of�145�Countries�all�over�the�World:�What�do�we�really�know?”�Presented�at,�“Hidden�in�plain�sight:�MicroͲeconomic�measurements�of�the�informal�economy:�Challenges�and�opportunities”,�September�4Ͳ5,�2006,�London,�UK.�www.dur.ac.uk/john.ashworth/EPCS/Papers/Schneider.pdf�

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UNDP.�Youth�and�Conflict:�Society�and�Development�in�Crisis?��2006.��http://www.undp.org/cpr/whats_new/UNDP_Youth_PN.pdf�

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UNICEF.�Advocacy�Tools�and�Arguments�for�Social�Investment�in�Adolescents.�UNICEF,�Regional�Office�for�Latin�America�and�the�Caribbean,�2006.��http://www.unicef.org/lac/INVERSION_EN_ADOLESCENTESͲeng(4).pdf�

UNICEF.�Children�and�AIDS:�Second�Stocktaking�Report,�2008.��http://www.unicef.org/aids/files/ChildrenAIDS_SecondStocktakingReport.pdf�

UNICEF.�Children�and�the�Millennium�Development�Goals,�2007.�http://www.unicef.org/worldfitforchildren/files/Children_and_the_MDGs_Final_EN.pdf�

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UNICEF.��Global�Strategic�Planning�Consultation�on�Adolescent�Programming�in�Emergency�and�Transition,�2005.�

UNICEF.�Enhancing�MICS4�to�collect�data�on�emerging�challenges�for�children�and�youth;�A�preliminary�proposal.�UNICEF�CEE/CIS�Regional�Office,�Evaluation�Working�Papers,�2009�

UNICEF.��Humanitarian�Action�Report�2008�–�Full�Report,�2008.�http://www.unicef.org/har08/files/HAR_2008_FULL_Report_English.pdf�

UNICEF.��Humanitarian�Action�Report�2008�–�Summary,�2008.�http://www.unicef.org.uk/campaigns/publications/pdf/har08_summary.pdf�

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162��

UNICEF�and�UNESCO.�A�Human�RightsͲBased�Approach�to�Education�for�All:�A�Framework�for�the�Realization�of�Children’s�Right�to�Education�and�Rights�within�Education.�UNICEF,�2007.�http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/A_Human_Rights_Based_Approach_to_Education_for_All.pdf�

United�Nations.�FollowͲup�to�the�World�Programme�of�Action�for�Youth�to�the�Year�2000�and�Beyond:�Report�of�the�Secretary�General.�General�Assembly�Economic�and�Social�Council,�November�2006.��http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/a6261.pdf�

United�Nations�General�Assembly.�Report�of�the�Independent�Expert�for�the�United�Nations�Study�on�Violence�against�Children.�Notes�by�the�SecretaryͲGeneral.��GA/61/299,�29�August�2006.�

http://www.violencestudy.org/IMG/pdf/English.pdf�

United�Nations�SecretaryͲGeneral’s�Study�on�Violence�against�Children�Ͳ�Adapted�for�Children�and�Young�People.���

General�document:�http://www.violencestudy.org/a553��

Version�adapted�for�children:��http://www.unicef.org.au/documents/Study%20on%20Violence%20child%20friendly%20report.pdf�

UN�Program�on�Youth.�Report�on�the�Expert�Group�Meeting�on�Youth�Development�Indicators,�meeting�held�12Ͳ14�December�2005,�New�York.�http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/youthindicatorsreport.pdf��

United�Nations.�World�Programme�of�Action�for�Youth�to�the�Year�2000�and�Beyond:�Resolution�Adopted�by�the�General�Assembly.�General�Assembly�Fiftieth�Session,�March�1996.�http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N96/771/43/PDF/N9677143.pdf?OpenElement�

Woodrow�Wilson�International�Center�for�Scholars.��Youth�Explosion�in�Developing�World�Cities:�Approaches�to�Reducing�Poverty�and�Conflict�in�an�Urban�Age,�2003.http://wwics.si.edu/topics/pubs/ACF1AEF.pdf�

World�Bank.�Children�and�Youth:�A�Resource�Guide�for�World�Bank�Staff,�2005.http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCY/Resources/395766Ͳ1187899515414/ResourceGuide.pdf�

World�Bank.��Supporting�Youth�at�Risk:�A�Policy�Toolkit�for�Middle�Income�Countries,�2008.�http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCY/Resources/3957661187899515414/SupportingYouthAtRisk.pdf�

World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�Middle�East�and�North�Africa�Region,�2008.�http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/EDU_Flagship_Full_ENG.pdf�

World�Bank.�The�Status�and�Progress�of�Women�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa,�2007.��http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/MENA_Gender_BW2007.pdf�

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World�Bank.��World�Development�Report�2007:�Development�and�the�Next�Generation,�2006.�http://wwwͲwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/09/13/000112742_20060913111024/Rendered/PDF/359990WDR0complete.pdf�

�WHO.�Adolescent�Friendly�Health�Services,�2002.�http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2003/WHO_FCH_CAH_02.14.pdf�

WHO�and�UNFPA.�Married�Adolescents:�No�Place�of�Safety.�WHO,�2006.��http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9241593776_eng.pdf�

Global�Publications�or�Reports�Ǧ�General�Internal�Displacement�Monitoring�Centre.�Internal�Displacement�in�the�Middle�East:�Global�Overview�of�Trends�and�Developments�in�2007.��2008.�http://www.internalͲdisplacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpRegionPages)/F4C363E496AB88D1802570A6005599C7?OpenDocument�

UNAIDS.�AIDS�Epidemic�Update�2007.�UNAIDS�and�WHO,�2007.�http://data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdate_en.pdf�

UNAIDS.�Report�on�the�Global�AIDS�Epidemic�2006:�Executive�Summary,�UNAIDS,�2006.�http://data.unaids.org/pub/GlobalReport/2006/2006_GRͲExecutiveSummary_en.pdf���(other�chapters:�http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/default.asp)�

UNDESA.�Youth�Development�Indicators.�Youth�at�the�United�Nations,�2008.��http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/youthindicators2.htm�

UNFPA.�State�of�the�World�Population�2003�Ͳ�Making�One�Billion�Count:�Investing�in�Adolescents'�Health�and�Right,�2003.�http://www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/221_filename_swp2003_eng.pdf�

UNFPA.��State�of�the�World�Population�2007:�Unleashing�the�Potential�of�Urban�Growth,�2007.�http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2007/presskit/pdf/sowp2007_eng.pdf�

UNSTATS.�Official�List�of�the�Millennium�Development�Goals�Indicators�(as�of�January�2008).��http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Host.aspx?Content=Indicators/OfficialList.htm�

World�Bank.�Global�Monitoring�Report�2007:�Confronting�Challenges�of�Gender�Equality�and�Fragile�States,�2007.��http://wwwͲwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/04/11/000112742_20070411162802/Rendered/PDF/394730GMR02007.pdf�

World�Bank.��World�Development�Report�2007:��Development�and�the�Next�Generation,�2007.��

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http://wwwͲwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/09/13/000112742_20060913111024/Rendered/PDF/359990WDR0complete.pdf�

WHO.��Injury:�A�Leading�Cause�of�the�Global�Burden�of�Disease,�2000.��http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241562323.pdf�

WHO.�Maternal�Mortality�in�2005:�Estimates�Developed�by�WHO,�UNICEF,�UNFPA�and�World�Bank,��2007.��http://www.who.int/reproductiveͲhealth/publications/maternal_mortality_2005/mme_2005.pdf�

WHO/CDC.�Global�Youth�Tobacco�Survey.�Available�at:�http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/gyts/en/index.html�

Databases�and�other�sources�for�core�indicator�list�Centers�for�Disease�Control�&�Prevention.�Global�SchoolͲbased�Student�Health�Survey�2004Ͳ2008.�http://www.cdc.gov/gshs/countries/eastmediter/index.htm�

Gallup�Inc.�Gallup�Worldview,�2009.�(WorldPoll�of�100�questions�asked�in�all�countries)�https://worldview.gallup.com/�

Global�Initiative�to�End�All�Corporal�Punishment�of�Children,�2009.�http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/frame.html�

International�Labour�Organization.�LABORSTA�Internet,�2009.�http://laborsta.ilo.org/default.html�

UNDPͲPOGAR.�ArabStats,�2008.��(A�repository�of�statistical�indicators�for�human�development�in�the�Arab�Region.)��http://arabstats.org/�

UNHCR�Country�Data�Sheets�2007.��http://www.unhcr.org/statistics/STATISTICS/464478a72.html�

UNICEF.�ChildInfo,�2008.��http://www.childinfo.org/�

United�Nations�Population�Division.�World�Population�Prospects:�The�2008�Revision�Population�Database,�2008.�http://esa.un.org/unpp/index.asp?panel=2�

United�Nations�Statistics�Division.�UNdata,�2009.�(Pools�major�UN�and�large�international�organization�datatbases�into�a�single�internet�environment)��http://data.un.org/Default.aspx�

World�Bank.�EdStats�Query,�2009.�(draws�on�data�from�UNESCO�Institute�for�Statistics)�http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/EXTDATASTATISTICS/EXTEDSTATS/0,,contentMDK:21528247~menuPK:3409442~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:3232764,00.html�

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World�Health�Organization.�Life�Tables�for�WHO�Member�States�2006.�http://apps.who.int/whosis/database/life_tables/life_tables.cfm�

World�Health�Organization.�WHO�Surveillance�of�Chronic�Disease�Risk�Factors�Report�(SURF2)�2005.�http://apps.who.int/infobase/surf2/country_list.html�

World�Values�Survey,�2009.�(Survey�on�values�and�cultural�change�in�societies�worldwide)�www.worldvaluessurvey.org�

� �

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Annex�VIII:�Glossary�

Data�Age�Specific�Rates:��Calculated�by�dividing�the�number�of�cases�of�deaths�or�other�health�variable�occurring�in�each�specified�age�group�by�the�corresponding�population�or�survey�sample�in�the�same�age�group��(Source:�WHO�Global�InfoBase�Glossary����www.who.int/infobase/help.aspx?typecode=hp.tc.001#80)�

Denominator:�The�lower�part�of�a�fraction�used�to�calculate�a�proportion�or�ratio,�which�in�the�context�of�the�Review�refers�to�the�population�base,�i.e.�youth�literacy�rate�is�the�number�of�literate�youth�15Ͳ24�(numerator)�divided�by�the�total�population�15Ͳ24�(denominator)�

Disaggregation�of�data:�The�breakdown�of�observations,�usually�within�a�common�branch�of�a�hierarchy,�to�a�more�detailed�level�to�that�at�which�detailed�observations�are�taken�(Source:�OECD�Glossary�of�Statistical�Terms�http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/index.htm)�

Indicator:��A�measurement�that�reflects�the�status�of�a�system.�Indicators�reveal�the�direction�of�a�system�(a�population�group,�a�community,�the�economy,�the�environment,�etc),�whether�it�is�going�forward�or�backward,�increasing�or�decreasing,�improving�or�deteriorating,�or�staying�the�same�(Source:�National�Public�Health�Performance�Standards�Program�–�Glossary�of�Terms�2007.���www.cdc.gov/od/ocphp/nphpsp/documents/07_110300%20Glossary.pdf)�

Numerator:��The�upper�portion�of�a�fraction�used�to�calculate�a�proportion�or�ratio,�which�in�the�context�of�the�Review�is�the�interest�point�for�the�indicator�identified�through�a�proportion�or�ratio,�i.e.�youth�literacy�rate�is�the�number�of�literate�youth�15Ͳ24�(numerator)�divided�by�the�total�population�15Ͳ24�(denominator)�

Percentage:��A�percentage�is�a�special�type�of�proportion�where�the�ratio�is�multiplied�by�a�constant,�100,�so�that�the�ratio�is�expressed�per�100��(Source:�OECD�Glossary�of�Statistical�Terms�http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/index.htm)�

Ratio:��A�ratio�is�a�number�that�expresses�the�relative�size�of�two�other�numbers�–�a�numerator�and�a�denominator.��The�result�of�dividing�a�number�X�by�another�number�Y�is�the�ratio�of�X�to�Y�(Source:�OECD�Glossary�of�Statistical�Terms�http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/index.htm)�

Variable:��A�variable�is�a�characteristic�of�a�unit�being�observed�that�may�assume�more�than�one�of�a�set�of�values�to�which�a�numerical�measure�or�a�category�from�a�classification�can�be�assigned�(e.g.�income,�age,�weight,�etc.,�and�“occupation”,�“industry”,�“disease”,�etc.��(Source:�OECD�Glossary�of�Statistical�Terms�http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/index.htm)�

Demographics�Demographic�transition:��The�historical�shift�of�birth�and�death�rates�from�high�to�low�levels�in�a�population.�The�decline�of�mortality�usually�precedes�the�decline�in�fertility,�thus�resulting�in�rapid�

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population�growth�during�the�transition�period��(Source:��Population�Reference�Bureau’s�Glossary�of�Demographic�Terms��www.prb.org/pdf04/glossary)�

Dependency�ratio:�The�ratio�of�the�economically�dependent�part�of�the�population�to�the�productive�part;�arbitrarily�defined�as�the�ratio�of�the�elderly�(ages�65�and�older)�plus�the�young�(under�age�15)�to�the�population�in�the�“working�ages”�(ages�15Ͳ64)�(Source:��Population�Reference�Bureau’s�Glossary�of�Demographic�Terms��www.prb.org/pdf04/glossary)�

Growth�rate:��The�number�of�persons�added�to�(or�subtracted�from)�a�population�in�a�year�due�to�natural�increase�and�net�migration�expressed�as�a�percentage�of�the�population�at�the�beginning�of�the�time�period��(Source:��Population�Reference�Bureau’s�Glossary�of�Demographic�Terms�www.prb.org/pdf04/glossary)�

Total�fertility�rate:�The�average�number�of�children�that�would�be�born�alive�to�a�woman�(or�group�of�women)�during�her�lifetime�if�she�were�to�pass�through�her�childbearing�years�conforming�to�the�ageͲspecific�fertility�rates�of�a�given�year.�This�rate�is�sometimes�stated�as�the�number�of�children�women�are�having�today.�See�also�gross�reproduction�rate�and�net�reproduction�rate��(Source:��Population�Reference�Bureau’s�Glossary�of�Demographic�Terms��www.prb.org/pdf04/glossary)�

Youth�bonus/Youth�bulge:��The�increase�in�the�proportion�of�15ͲtoͲ24ͲyearͲolds�in�the�total�population,�a�population�with�a�relatively�high�proportion�of�children,�adolescents,�and�young�adults;�a�low�median�age;�and�thus�a�high�growth�potential��(Source:�Youth�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa:�Demographic�Opportunity�or�Challenge?�and�Population�Reference�Bureau’s�Glossary�of�Demographic�Terms�www.prb.org/pdf04/glossary)�

Poverty�Extreme�poverty:��The�share�of�people�living�on�less�than�the�international�poverty�line�of�$1�per�capita�a�day��(Source:�World�Bank.�Global�Monitoring�Report�2007:�Confronting�Challenges�of�Gender�Equality�and�Fragile�States,�2007.��http://wwwͲwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/04/11/000112742_20070411162802/Rendered/PDF/394730GMR02007.pdf)�

Poverty:��The�share�of�people�living�on�less�than�the�international�poverty�line�of�$2�per�capita�a�day�(Source:�World�Bank.�Global�Monitoring�Report�2007:�Confronting�Challenges�of�Gender�Equality�and�Fragile�States,�2007.��http://wwwͲwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/04/11/000112742_20070411162802/Rendered/PDF/394730GMR02007.pdf)�

Purchasing�power�parity�(PPP):��An�exchange�rate�that�accounts�for�price�differences�among�countries,�allowing�international�comparisons�of�real�output�and�incomes��(Source:�Education�for�All:�Global�Monitoring�Report’s�Glossary���http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpͲURL_ID=43385&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html)�

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Youth�working�poor:��The�average�of�the�youth�share�in�total�employment�and�the�youth�share�in�total�labour�force�applied�to�the�total�regional�working�poor�(under�US$1�and�US$2�a�day�levels)�to�get�a�total�number�of�youth�working�poor�living�below�these�levels��(Source:�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth�2006.�ILO,�2006���www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ͲͲͲdgreports/ͲͲͲdcomm/documents/publication/wcms_077664.pdf)�

Health�Adolescent�fertility:�The�number�of�live�births�among�girls�ages�15–19�divided�by�the�number�of�girls�in�that�age�group�expressed�per�1,000�population��(Source:�Global�Data�on�HIV/AIDS,�TB,�Malaria�and�More.�Kaiser�Family�Foundation��http://www.globalhealthfacts.org/glossary.jsp)�

Maternal�mortality�ratio�(MMR):��Number�of�maternal�deaths�during�a�given�time�period�per�100,000�live�births�during�the�same�timeͲperiod�(Source:�WHO.�Maternal�Mortality�in�2005:�Estimates�Developed�by�WHO,�UNICEF,�UNFPA�and�World�Bank,��2007.��http://www.who.int/reproductiveͲhealth/publications/maternal_mortality_2005/mme_2005.pdf)�

Prevalence:��The�prevalence�of�a�disease/risk�factor�in�a�statistical�population�is�defined�as�the�ratio�of�the�number�of�cases�of�a�disease�present�in�a�statistical�population�at�a�specified�time�and�the�number�of�individuals�in�the�population�at�that�specified�time.�In�plain�English,�"prevalence"�simply�means�"proportion"�(typically�expressed�as�a�percentage)��(Source:�WHO�Global�InfoBase�Glossary�www.who.int/infobase/help.aspx?typecode=hp.tc.001#80)�

HIV�AND�AIDS�Concentrated�epidemic:��An�epidemic�is�considered�‘concentrated’�when�less�than�one�per�cent�of�the�general�population�but�more�than�five�per�cent�of�any�‘high�risk’�group�are�HIVͲpositive��(Source:�UNICEF�“Children�and�HIV/AIDS”���www.unicef.org/aids/index_epidemic.html)�

Generalized�epidemic:��An�epidemic�is�considered�‘generalized’�when�more�than�one�per�cent�of�the�population�is�HIVͲpositive��(Source:�UNICEF�“Children�and�HIV/AIDS”���www.unicef.org/aids/index_epidemic.html)�

HIV�prevalence�rate:�Percent�of�people�estimated�to�be�living�with�HIV,�at�any�disease�stage,�including�AIDS.�It�is�usually�presented�as�percent�of�adult�population�(ages�15Ͳ49)�estimated�to�be�HIV�positive.�When�actual�surveillance�data�are�not�available,�the�prevalence�rate�is�usually�estimated�based�on�HIV�prevalence�among�pregnant�women�attending�antenatal�clinics��(Source:�WHO�Global�InfoBase�Glossary�www.who.int/infobase/help.aspx?typecode=hp.tc.001#80)�

Surveillance:��Continuous�analysis,�interpretation�and�feedback�of�systematically�collected�data,�generally�using�methods�distinguished�by�their�practicality,�uniformity,�and�rapidity�rather�than�by�accuracy�or�completeness.�By�observing�trends�in�time,�place�and�persons,�changes�can�be�observed�or�anticipated�and�appropriate�action�including�investigative�or�control�measures,�can�be�taken.�Sources�of�data�may�relate�directly�to�disease�or�to�factors�influencing�disease��(Source:�WHO�Global�InfoBase�Glossary�www.who.int/infobase/help.aspx?typecode=hp.tc.001#80)�

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Education�Gross�enrolment�ratio�(GER):��Total�enrolment�in�a�specific�level�of�education,�regardless�of�age,�expressed�as�a�percentage�of�the�population�in�the�official�age�group�corresponding�to�this�level�of�education.�For�the�tertiary�level,�the�population�used�is�that�of�the�fiveͲyear�age�group�following�on�from�the�secondary�school�leaving�age.�The�GER�can�exceed�100%�due�to�early�or�late�entry�and/or�grade�repetition��(Source:�Education�for�All:�Global�Monitoring�Report’s�Glossary���http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpͲURL_ID=43385&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html)�

Net�enrolment�ratio�(NER)�for�primary�and�secondary:��Enrolment�of�the�official�age�group�for�a�given�level�of�education,�expressed�as�a�percentage�of�the�population�in�that�age�group��(Source:�Education�for�All:�Global�Monitoring�Report’s�Glossary���http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpͲURL_ID=43385&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html)�

OutͲofͲschool�children�and�youth�(OSCY):��Individuals�ages�6�years�and�up�to�about�20�years�of�age�who�should�be�in�compulsory�schooling,�but�are�not.�Overall,�about�15–20�per�cent�of�schoolͲaged�children�and�adolescents�are�currently�out�of�school�because�they:�(i)�have�never�attended�school;�(ii)�have�not�completed�primary�school;�and/or�(iii)�have�not�attended�or�completed�compulsory�secondary�school�(Source:�World�Bank.�The�Road�Not�Traveled:�Education�Reform�in�the�Middle�East�and�North�Africa.�Middle�East�and�North�Africa�Region,�2008.�http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/EDU_Flagship_Full_ENG.pdf)�

Youth�literacy:��Number�of�literate�persons�aged�15�to�24,�expressed�as�a�percentage�of�the�total�population�in�that�age�group��(Source:�Education�for�All:�Global�Monitoring�Report’s�Glossary���http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpͲURL_ID=43385&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html)�

Livelihoods�and�Economic�Participation�Employed�youth:�Individuals�between�the�ages�of�15�and�24�who�performed�some�work�for�wage,�salary,�profit�or�family�gain�(Source:�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth�2006.�ILO,�2006���www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ͲͲͲdgreports/ͲͲͲdcomm/documents/publication/wcms_077664.pdf)�

Inactive�youth:�Individuals�between�the�ages�of�15�and�24�who�are�neither�employed�or�unemployed,�or�who�are�not�in�the�labor�force�(Source:�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth�2006.�ILO,�2006���www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ͲͲͲdgreports/ͲͲͲdcomm/documents/publication/wcms_077664.pdf)�

Labor�force�participation�rate�(LFPR):�The�sum�of�persons�between�the�ages�of�15�and�24�in�the�labor�force�as�a�percentage�of�the�workingͲage�population�and�serves�as�an�indicator�of�the�size�of�the�labor�supply�available��(Source:�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth�2006.�ILO,�2006���www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ͲͲͲdgreports/ͲͲͲdcomm/documents/publication/wcms_077664.pdf)�

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Unemployed�youth:�Individuals�between�the�ages�of�15�and�24�who�were�(a)�without�work,�(b)�currently�available�for�work,�and�(c)�actively�seeking�work�(Source:�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth�2006.�ILO,�2006���www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ͲͲͲdgreports/ͲͲͲdcomm/documents/publication/wcms_077664.pdf)�

Youth�inactivity�rate:�The�sum�of�all�inactive�persons�between�the�ages�of�15�and�24�as�a�percentage�of�the�workingͲage�population�who�do�not�supply�labour�(it�is�also�known�as�the�inverse�to�the�labour�force�participation�rate)�(Source:�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth�2006.�ILO,�2006���www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ͲͲͲdgreports/ͲͲͲdcomm/documents/publication/wcms_077664.pdf)�

Youth�labor�force:�The�sum�of�all�persons�between�the�ages�of�15�and�24�who�were�either�employed�or�unemployed�over�a�specified,�short�reference�period�(also�used�interchangeably�with�“currently�active�youth�population”)�(Source:�Global�Employment�Trends�for�Youth�2006.�ILO,�2006���www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/ͲͲͲdgreports/ͲͲͲdcomm/documents/publication/wcms_077664.pdf)�

Migration�Emigration/international�migration:��The�process�of�leaving�one�country�to�take�up�permanent�or�semiͲpermanent�residence�in�another�(Source:��Population�Reference�Bureau’s�Glossary�of�Demographic�Terms�www.prb.org/pdf04/glossary)�

InͲmigration/internal�migration:��The�process�of�entering�one�administrative�subdivision�of�a�country�(such�as�a�province�or�state)�from�another�subdivision�to�take�up�residence��(Source:��Population�Reference�Bureau’s�Glossary�of�Demographic�Terms�www.prb.org/pdf04/glossary)�

Migration:�The�movement�of�people�across�a�specified�boundary�for�the�purpose�of�establishing�a�new�or�semiͲpermanent�residence,�divided�into�international�migration�(migration�between�countries)�and�internal�migration�(migration�within�a�country)��(Source:��Population�Reference�Bureau’s�Glossary�of�Demographic�Terms��www.prb.org/pdf04/glossary)�