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7/28/2019 The Speed of Life
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FlowofIdeas:articles
TheSpeedofLife:ThesigniicanceofKarlMarxsconceptofsociallynecessary
labour-time
MichaelNearyDepartmentofSociology,UniversityofWarwick,Coventry,UK
GlennRikowskiFacultyofEducation,UniversityofCentralEngland,Birmingham,UK
ApaperpresentedattheBritishSociologicalAssociationAnnualConference2000,
MakingTimeMarkingTime,UniversityofYork,1720thApril
TheirstfaceofthefutureisFAST:speedwillbeeverything.Neverbeforehasthe
futuresorapidlybecomethepast.Historyisaccelerating(PatrickDixon,
Futurewise,1999,p.1).
Youmustsavetime.Yousavetimebygoingfaster:everytechnical,aesthetic,
inancial,economicandphilosophicalconsiderationoftheindustrialand
postindustrialerasassumesthatfasterisbetter.Metaphorsoftimeare
miscegenatedwithmetaphorsofmoneyandvalue(StephenBayley,Thespeedof
life,NewStatesman,25thOctober1999,p.43).
[T]henewworldofbusinessrequiresaninstinctiveappreciationofadifferent
logic[]Thinkofitasthemoneyvalueoftime.Cuttingedgepeopleand
companiesarerethinkingthenatureoftheirrelationshipwithtime(GinaImperato,TheMoneyValueofTime,FastCompany,JanuaryFebruary2000,p.40).
Economyoftime,tothisalleconomyultimatelyreducesitself(KarlMarx,
Grundrisse,1858[1973],p.173.).
Introduction
Incontemporarysocietyitappearsthatspeedandthetyrannyoftime(Reeves,
1999)areforcesgatheringincreasingstrengthinallareasofsociallife.Matthews
(1999)notesthat,subjectively,weexperiencethisasasenseofaccelerationinourdailylives(p.44).Theseeffects,notesLuke(1998),areglobalintheirscopeand
impact(p.163)thoughherecognisesthattimecompressionhasdifferential
intensityandoutcomesinparticularlocalitiesandforparticularsocialgroups.The
speedoflifehasincreasedthroughoutsociety:objectively,asallsocialprocesses
aresubjecttoanincreasingNeedForSpeed(Matthews,1999)aswetrytosave
time,andsubjectivelyasweexperiencethesensationofspeedinsociallife
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(Gleick,1999).ForLuke,thespeedoflifeincontemporarysocietyhasnowreached
suchintensitythatitrecreatestheworldashumanshavenotknownit(p.165).
DavisandMeyer(1998)assureusthatwearenotimaginingthingswhenwe
experiencelifeasBLUR[1].BLURisanamalgamofconnectivity,speedand
intangibles(seeFootnote1),which,forDavisandMeyer,arethederivativesof
time,spaceandmass(p.6).Thesethreephenomenaincombinationareinexorably
blurringtherulesandredeiningourbusinessesandourlives(ibid.)[2].
Existingaccountsofthetendencyforincreasedspeedandtheexhaustionoftimein
contemporarysocietytypicallypositafast(Agger,1989)orturbocapitalism
(Luttwak,1999),butwithoutprovidinganexplanatorydynamicofthesocialdrive
forincreasedspeedinsociallife.Thispaperprovidessuchanexplanatory
dynamic.Itunfoldsatheoryofthespeedoflifeincapitalistsociety.Thistheory
restsuponilluminatingthesigniicanceofKarlMarxsconceptofsocially
necessarylabourtimeforexploringthesocialformoftimeincapitalistsociety.In
movingtowardsthistheory,isitnecessarytoindicatehowitisgroundedwithinamoreexpansiveunderstandingofthesocialuniverseofcapital.Thisinvolves
analysisofcertainforcesatworkinthissocialuniverse:value,surplusvalue,
labourandcapital.Italsoinvolvesdelineatingtwostructuringconcepts:totality
andsocialform.Afterthisinitialexploration,thepaperproceedstodevelopa
theoryofthespeedoflifeincapitalistsocietythroughthewritingsofMarx,butalso
drawingupontheworkofMoishePostone(1996)onabstracttime,historicaltime
andabstractlabour.Thetheorydemonstrateshowthesocialformoftimein
capitalistsocietyincorporatesabsoluteandrelativemoments.Itisthelatterthat
groundstheaccelerationofsociallifeincapitalistsociety.
Precedingourpositivecontribution,thenextsectiondiscussesbrielytwo
alternativestothetheoryofthespeedoflifeadvancedinthispaper:afocusonthe
communicationsandinformationtechnologyexplosion,andglobalisation.Thisis
followedbyasectionwhichcontraststheworkofBarbaraAdam(principallyAdam,
1995)withthatofPhilipTuretzky(1998).Takentogether,thisbodyofwork
incorporateselementsthatourtheoryofthespeedoflifeseekstoavoid.Inthe
formercase(Adam),itisarguedthatthemovementfromsocialconstructionismto
subjectivismendsinarelativism(andultimatelysolipsism)thatnegates
explanationofthesubjectivefeelingsoftimeexhaustion.Inthelattercase
(Turetzky),thepolaroppositedangersareuncovered:ahistoricism,essentialism,
reiication,naturalismandanextremeformalism.Insummary:Adamswork
providesrichsocialcontent(butfailstoindicateanadequatesocialformforits
analysis),whilstTuretzkystheoryofbecomingtimeincorporatesastrongsenseof
formbuthasinadequatesocialcontent,whichultimatelyresultsinthereiicationof
time(adangerpreviouslynotedbyNeustadter,1992).Athirdpreparatorysection
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dealswithAdams(1995)explanationofthespeedoflife:whichturnsouttobea
restrictednotionofsocialspeedgeneratedbyphenomenaofaspectsofeconomic
life(e.g.profit).
TheTimeLords
Socialtheoristshaveprofferedanumberofexplanationsoftheincreasingspeedoflifeincontemporarysociety.Thetwoleadingformsofexplanationareeitherthose
basedontheexplosionofcommunicationsandinformationtechnologies(which
speedupmanyprocessesandactivitieswithineverydaylife),orglobalisation,or
somecombinationthereof(e.g.Dixon,1999).
Aleadingexampleoftheirstkindofexplanationoftheacceleratingspeedoflifeis
theworkoftheradicalsocialtheoristPaulVirilio(1995)[3].Viriliopointstowards
theexplosionofbroadcastmediaandthehallucinatoryutopiaofcommunication
technologies(p.35)assigniicantdevelopmentsmakingforanacceleratedworld
wherespace,timeandthegreatnessoftheuniverse(p.41)arecompressedina
perpetualshrinkingeffect(ibid.,originalemphases).Theproblemwiththisformof
explanationisthatitrestsonatechnologicaldeterminism.Viriliofailstotheorise
asocialdynamicpoweringtechnologicalchange.HefacesthesameprobleminThe
ArtoftheMotor(1995)whenheaddressestheemergenceoftransorposthuman
lifeforms(e.g.thecyborg,asinRikowski,1999)[4].
OnthesecondfrontofexplanationglobalisationtheworkofAnthonyGiddens,
andmorerecentlyBarbaraAdam,hasbeensignificant.Moreover,thesetheorists
haveledgeneraldevelopmentinthesocialtheoryoftimeintheUKinrecentyears.Inhislatestbook,RunawayWorld,Giddens(1999)exploresglobalisationas
theforcedrivingonthespeedoflife.Hesinglesoutthenewglobalelectric
economyanddevelopmentsinthemeansofcommunicationaskeyphenomena
alteringtheverytexturesofourlives(pp.912).Socialgeographers(seearticles
inMartin,1999;LeyshonandThrift,1997)havealsohighlightedthenewswiftness
ofcomputerisedinternationalmoneymarkets,thetechnologisationofbankingand
thedevelopingvirtualityofmoneyassigniicantaspectsofglobalisation,
engenderingthespeedingupofallformsofmonetarytransactionandeconomic
relations.However,Giddens(1999)notesthatglobalisationisalsopertinentwhen
exploringsocial,cultural,aestheticandotherareasofcontemporarylife.Furthermore,globalisationisnotjustoutthere,remoteandfarawayfromthe
individual(p.12),butaffectsthemostpersonalandintimateaspectsofourlives
(sexuality,marriage,family),includinghowweexperiencetime.
Inearlierwork,Giddens(1991,1984)discussedhowsocialsystemsareconstituted
acrosstimespaceandhenceanexplorationoftimeandspaceisattheheartofhis
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structurationtheory(1984,p.110).Startingoutfromvarioustheoristsworking
withintimegeography,Giddensshowsthatwhilstthewritingsofthesetheorists
provideausefulresourcefortheorisingconstraintsonactionandunderstanding
howtheroutinesofdailylifeareconstituted,theyalsoincorporateanotionofthe
individualwhichstandsoutsidestructure(1984,p.117).Thisdisablesattemptsto
theorisestructurationasthesimultaneousemergenceofstructureashuman
agencyandagencyastheconstitutionofstructure.
Secondly,arguesGiddens,thetimegeographersoperatewithazerosumnotionof
powerasasourceoflimitationsuponaction(ibid.).Forhisstructurationtheory,
however,GiddensfavoursaneoParsoniangenerativetheoryofpower:anonzero
sumconceptioninvokingtheabilitytogetthingsdonethroughcooperation.
GiddensendshisdiscussionoftimewithanexaminationofFoucaultsideason
timingandspacing.ItisFoucaultsneoParsonian,nonzerosumconceptionof
powerthatparticularlyfascinatesGiddens(see1984,pp.145158).Giddensisless
enamouredwithFoucaultsweaknotionofagency.However,heexpressesan
interestinwhatFoucaulthastosayontherelationofdisciplinarypowerto
modalitiesoftimeandspace(p.153).GiddensdiscussionconcludesthatFoucaults
analysesofprisonsandschools,assitesoftheoperationofdisciplinarypower
wherethecontroloftimeandspaceareintegralelements,areultimately
unsatisfactory.AgencyistooweakinFoucault.ForGiddens,prisonersarenotjust
bodiestobepunishedinprisons;theyarealsoagentsatleastforthosepartsof
thedaywhensurveillanceslackens.Withthisinsight,Giddensmovesontothe
workofIrvingGoffman,insearchofbetterresourcesfortheorisingagencyinthe
specialcaseofharshregimeswhereitisatapremium.Thisdiscussionlosestheconceptoftimealtogether,andmeandersoffintoaFoucault/Goffmancomparison.
Interestingly,priortolosinghisfocusontimeinhismusingsonFoucaultand
Goffman,Giddensnotesthat:Thebuyingandsellingoftime,aslabourtime,is
surelyoneofthemostdistinctivefeaturesofmoderncapitalism(1984,p.144).He
failstofollowupthisinsight[5].Whimsically,headdsthatthetemporalregulation
ofthedaymayperhapsbefoundinthechimeofthemonasterybell(ibid.).Though
hepointstowardsthecommodiicationoftime(ibid.)inindustrialcapitalism,
Giddensisdisinterestedinfollowingupwhythisoccursandthesocialconditions
generatingthetimecommodity.Inlaterwork(e.g.1991),Giddensdiscussestime
oncemore,buthisinterestinsystematicallypursuinglinksbetweentimeand
globalisationwanes,ironicallyastheimportanceofglobalisationinhismost
recentwritingsrises(in1998,1999).
Contrast:AdamandTuretzky
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[I]nspiteofalltheprogress,thenatureoftimeremainstoalargeextenta
mysteryforus(IgorD.Novikov,TheRiverofTime,1998,p.265).
theEgyptianeffect[Is]thetendencytocollapsetheancientandthenewintoa
singletemporaldimension,arrangingthemalongsideoneanotherandleavingthe
resultingcontradictionwideopen(MarioPerniola,Enigmas:theEgyptian
MomentinSocietyandinArt,1995,p.74).
DevelopmentonthebasisofGiddensthinkingontherelationsbetween
globalisationandtimeisfurtheredintheworkofBarbaraAdam(1991,1995).In
Time&SocialTheory(1991),AdamcritiquesGiddensearlyworkontime(i.e.his
1979,1984and1987).SheindicatesthathisthoughtsontimelowfromBergsons
conceptofdure.ForAdam,thisisthecontinuousemergenceofnovelty,wherethe
futureasaformofbecomingisinexcessofphenomenaasconiguredinthepast
(p.24).However,notesAdam,bythetimeGiddenscomestowriteTheConstitutionof
Society(1984),hisdiscussionoftimeiscompressedintoasterilemodelwherethe
dureofdaytodayexperienceischaracterisedasoperatinginreversibletime
(1991,pp.2526).Furthermore,arguesAdam,Giddenscompletelyreworks
Bergsonsconceptofdurebyaninsistencethatitexpressesrepetition.Inupshot,
Giddensendsupwithanotionofdurethatreferstocyclical(reversible)timeand
linear(irreversible)time.Thisisthestandarddualistrenderingofsocial(the
former)andnatural(thelatter)timethatformsthestartingpointformuchsocial
analysisoftime,arguesAdam.ThroughoutTime&SocialTheory(1991),Adam
arguesconsistentlyagainstdualismingeneralandthesocial/naturaltimedualism
inparticular.Itisherparticularapproachtodissolvingthisdualismthatinterests
us.
Whilstacknowledgingthattimeisafactoflife,Adamseekstodevelopaconceptof
socialtimethatencompassesitsmultipleexpressions(p.24).Herstartingpointis
thepropositionthattimeisfundamentallyasocialconstruction.Shenotesthatthis
propositionisinlinewiththeperspectiveofmostsocialscientiictreatiseson
time(p.42).However,sheacknowledgesthatmerelystatingthispropositionisnot
enough;itdoesnotdissolvetheenigmaoftimetimeastranscendent,i.e.a
phenomenonwhichcannotbereducedtoeithersocialconventionoramethodof
regulatingsociallife.Thus:Adamhasacomplementarypositionwherethesource
oftimemustnotbeignoredsinceitiscentraltoanadequateinterpretationoftimeinsocialtheory.(p.43).Butthisreintroducesthenatural/socialtimedistinctionas
aformofinteractivedualism wheretheconceptsofsocialandnaturaltimeare
implicatedintheexplanationofeachother,butadualismnonetheless.
Adamsnextpropositionisthatwhensocialandnaturalscientistssearchforthe
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sourceoftimethenitisfoundtorepresentamultitudeofphenomena,suchas:
physicalentropicprocesses;lifeprocessesofgrowth,decayandinformation
processing;mechanical,biological,andhumansocialinteractions;naturaland
societalrhythms;noveltyandbecoming;selveswithidentities,memories,social
histories;andacapacitytocommunicateandsynthesise.Theyencompass
calendars,mechanicalandatomicclocks;themotionofparticlesandlight;andspeed,velocity,andacceleration(1995,p.43).Fromconsiderationofthisragbag
list,Adamconcludesthatitisimpossibletoholdthat alltimeissocial.She
maintains,therefore,thatnaturaltimeisintimatelytiedtotheconceptualisation
ofsocialtime.(1995,p.48),andhencetheoriesofnaturaltimeneedtobe
recognisedasanimportantfocusforsocialscienceenquiry(p.49).Onthislast
proposition,thesocialtheoryoftimeincorporatesdifferentconceptionsofnatural
timeexistinginhistoricalerasandindifferentsocieties.
TowardstheendofTime&SocialTheory,Adamcanbefoundstillwrestlingwiththe
natural/socialtimedistinction.Ontheonehand,sheholdsthatherTime&Social
Theoryhasdemonstratedthatthecharacteristicsidentifiedwithnaturaltimeare
infactanexclusivelyhumancreation(p.150,ouremphasis)sothatallconceptions
oftimecanbeviewedassociallyconstructed.Ontheotherhand,shealsomaintains
thatherstudyoftimeshowsthatnaturaltimeisverydifferentfromitssocial
scienceconceptualisations.(pp.150151,ouremphasis)implyinglimitstosocial
constructionistexplanationsofnaturaltime,andopeningupnaturaltimeasa
transcendent,ahistoricalconstant.Stilldissatisiedbytheoriesofdualitieswhich
areimpervioustoecologicalprinciplesortosuchideasasresonanceand
implication,andnotingthatdualismsentailanimplicithierarchicalevaluation(p.153),Adamleavestheproblemofadequatelydissolvingthesocial/naturaltime
dualismtohernextbook,Timewatch(1995).
IntheopeningchapterofTimewatch,Adamnailshercolourstothemast.Shestarts
outfromadiscussionofmytime,ourtimeandothertime,withtheimplication
thattherearemanytimes.Thelowoftimecanvaryasbetweenindividuals[6],
socialgroups,societiesandhistoricaleras.Inthisway,Adameasilyslipsintoa
relativism(andtemporalsolipsism)whichprovidestimesociologistswithan
ininiteresearchandwritingprogramme:thecomparisonofdifferent
social/personaltimes.AdamstatestwopropositionsunderpinningthisapproachtotimeattheendoftheirstchapterofTimewatch:amultitudeoftimescoexist;
and,everydaylanguageprovidescluesaboutthecomplexityofsocialtimes(p.42).
Thisapproachimpliesthetaskoftimesociologistsistoproviderichdescriptionsof
differentsocial/personaltimes.Adamstwochapters(oneonhealthanddeath,the
otheroneducation)functionasexamplesofthistypeofwork.
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WhenAdamexploresrelationsbetweentimeandglobalisation(chapter5)she
revertstoadualismbasedonthelocalglobal.Thus,whilsthermyriadsocialand
personaltimesoperateatthelocallevel,astandardisedtimeisalsoestablished
intheeraofglobalisation.Globalisationhomogenisessocialtimethrough
standardisedclocktime.Inglobalisedcapitalismfromthelatetwentiethcentury
onwards,aglobalpresentisestablishedthroughtechnologicaldevelopments
fromthewirelesstelegraphtonuclearpower[7](p.123).Confusedly,however,
AdamstillmaintainsthatoneofthepivotalconcernsofTimewatchisthesubtle
dissolutionofdualisms(p.150).Thisisnecessarytoincludethecomplexityof
multiplesocialtimesbasedonthepersonal,social,political,scientiic,
technologicalandglobal(p.151)suchthatstandardisedglobaltimebecomesjust
oneamongmanytimes.Lateron,Adamdrawsbackfromafullblooded
postmodernismonthebasisthatpostmodernistsrejectthetotalisingtendenciesof
theabstractformoftimeflowingfromstandardising,globalclocktime.She
maintainsthatherpositionfallsshortofpostmodernismas:
Iemphasizetheuniquenessandrelativityoftimecreationwhilesimultaneously
pointingtowardsthecentralimportanceandhegemonyoftheabstract,
decontextualised,neutralmediumofclocktime(1995,p.156).
Adamstillmaintainsthatsheisnotembracingdualistthinkinghere.Furthermore,
shealsoconfusesrelativitywithrelativism.Adamclaimsthathertheoretical
positionencompassestherelativityofthetemporalwhilstacknowledgingthata:
Focusonthecomplexityoftimeandspacesentailsafundamentalrecognitionof
embedded,interactiveknowledgewhichisprincipallyrelative(p.162,ouremphasis).
Sheattemptstoavoidwhatshecallsthespectreofrelativismbyassertingthatit
isaconsequenceofthefailureofrepresentationaltheoriesoftruthtoattaina1:1
relationbetweenphenomenaandrepresentations.Adamimpliesthat,asshedoes
notholdtothisconceptionoftruth,thensheisnothauntedbythespectreof
relativism.Truthisobtainedbyconsensusbuiltwithincultural,linguisticormoral
communities(p.163).
Throughoutherwork(1991,1995),Adamattemptstoholdtoasocialperspectiveontimewhereabstractclocktimeisoneofanininitenumberoftimes.Recognition
oftheenigmaoftime,thenotionthatitisafactoflifestandingabovelifeitself,
leadshertoclingontoabstractclocktimeasanexpressionofthisenigma.Whilst
assertingthatshewishestodissolvedualismssheholdstothesocial/naturaltime
dualism,tothelast.
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Adamsattempttoexorcisethespectreofrelativismfromhersocialuniverseon
thebasisthatsheisdealingwiththerelativityoftimeratherthantherelativismof
timesdoesntholdup.Hermultiplicityoftimesnurturesthespectreofrelativism
onanontologicalbasis:thesocialuniverseiscomposedofanininitenumberof
times.Thisispreciselywhysheneedsstandardisedabstractclocktime:our
temporalexperiencescanbetranslated,comparedanddifferentiatedwith
referencetoglobaltime.Herprogrammefortimesociologicalstudiesdependson
standardclocktime;butthisresurrectsthedreadeddualismoncemore.
FromtheoutsetinTimewatch,Adamembracesatemporalrelativism,atemporal
solipsismeven(my/yourtime),whichmakesitimpossibleforhertogeneratea
socialtheoryoftime.Hermultiplicityofsocialandpersonaltimesmakesquestions
concerningthesocialformthattimeassumesincontemporarysociety
unintelligible.Whenshehastoappealtoadominantformoftimeitisnotasocial
butanaturalisedformofglobal,standardisedtimemeasuredbytheclock.Adam
oscillateswildlybetweentreatingthisformoftimeasoneamongstalltheothers,asatranscendentmarker,asahegemonicformorasanaturalphenomenon.
Adamsrichdescriptionsoftimeinhealthandeducationcontextsareinteresting,
buttheymerelyreemphasiseherreluctancetosearchforasocialformthatcan
generateasocialtheoryoftimeincontemporarysociety.Intheevent,Adam
providesadescription(ortableau)ofsocialandpersonaltimes.Itwouldbe
overgeneroustosaythatAdamhasatheoryofsocial/personaltimesratherthana
theoryofsocialtime.Sheprovidesnosystematicdiscussiononthegenerationand
genesisofsocial/personaltimes.Richdescriptionultimatelyfallsshortof
explanation.
TheworkofPhilipTuretzkyinhisbookTime(1998)illustratestheoppositeof
Adamswork.TuretzkyhasastrongsenseoftheformoftimeinhisneoDeleuzian
theoryofbecomingtime.However,Turetzkystheoryoftimelackssocialcontent.It
isahistorical,essentialist,embracesnaturalism,and,intoto,becomeswhat
Lukacher(1998)callsaformoftimefetishism.Thetimefetishistseekstouncover
theessenceoftime,topintimedown,togetatwhattimereallyis.Intheprocess,
timeispresentedasaquasimaterialentity,autonomousof,buthavingrealaffects
upon,everydaylife.Thetimefetishispreciselythatwhichquickensthelifeofthe
subjectbyspeedingupthecircleofappropriation,arguesLukacher(p.5).Withthis
preamble,letusnowturntoTuretzkysexpositionofbecomingtime.
Turetzkystheoryofbecomingtimearrivesinthelastchapterofhisbook.Itbuilds
uponanhistoricalanalysisoftheoriesoftimethatstartsoutfrompreSocratic
GreekphilosophersandendswithBergsonandDeleuze,takinginmanyother
influentialtimetheoristsalongtheway[8].Thus,asummaryofTuretzkys
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becomingtimenecessarilyunderplaysthedeephistoricalanalysisthatformsits
foundations.
Turetzkydevelopsathreestagetheoryofbecomingtime.Itisbasedonthree
interconnectedsyntheses.Theirstsynthesisoftimeproducesthelivingpresent
(p.212).Itconnectssuccessiveinstantsaspastandfuture(ibid.).Thispoints
towardstheflowoftime.Timecantbelikeadottodotpicture,otherwisetherewouldbegapsintime.Turetzkypositsthisirstsynthesisasaconnectiveonethat
bindsinstantsintoasingletime(ibid.).Thisirstsynthesis,notesTuretzky,isa
passivesynthesisoftime(p.213);thatis,itprecedesrelectionandmemoryof
individuals.Itdifferentiatespastfromfuture,whilstsimultaneouslyconnecting
them.Itgrounds(butdoesnotexplain)thelivingpresent(ibid.).
Theirstsynthesisoftimeoccursintime,arguesTuretzky(p.214).Ifthisisso,then
theremustbethepastinwhichthisirstsynthesisisconsummated.Thesecond
synthesisconstitutesapureaprioripastintime:itprovidestemporalspacefor
theirstsynthesis.Butthesynthesistakesanoddformthatgeneratesparadoxes.
Theseparadoxesaresimultaneouslyconstitutiveparadoxes:theyindicatewhythe
purepastmusthaveitsownbeingcontemporaryandcoexistentwiththepresent
eventhoughitisneverpresent.(ibid.).Thebeingofthepresentrequiresitsown
constitutionaspastinorderthatitcanpassandtakeonthenotionofpast.For:
everythingpasthasalreadybeenconstituted.Thepast,then,mustbe
contemporaneouswiththepresentitwas.Thisexplainswhyeverypresentmust
pass;everypresentisalreadypastwhenitispresent.Thisparadoxleadsto
another,thatthepastcoexistswitheachnewpresentwithrespecttowhichitispast.For,ifeverypresentisalreadypastwhenitispresent,thenthepastisnotin
anyonepresentandcoexistswitheachnewpresent(pp.214215).
Theseparadoxesarecrucial,notesTuretzky.Theygenerateconsciousnessoftime
andtheconditionsofrepresentationofphenomenaintime(p.215).Thepure
past,onthisanalysis,isasynthesisofthewholeoftimenotjustaseriesof
temporalinstants(p.215).Itisthetotalityoftimeoutsidethelivingpresent.Thus,
themodeofbeingofthepurepastisvirtual,asitsexistenceunderpinsevery
particularpresent.Since:
itisvirtual,thepastcomprisesthewholeoftime,butthiswholediffers
essentiallyfromanysetofelementsorinstants .Thisexplainshowthevirtualpast
makesthepresentpass.Sinceitisthewholeofthepastthatcoexists
contemporaneouslywitheverypresent,itopenseachsetofpresentsontoanew
present.[And]sincethewholeofthepastisopen,continuouslydifferingfrom
itself,itguaranteesthe irreversibilityoftime(pp.215216,ouremphases)
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Thepresent,then,includesthecompressionofsuccessivepresentsinthenow(the
livingpresent)andthisisalsothemostcompressedlevelofthepast(p.216).
Turetzkypointstowardsthedualitiesinvolvedhere(tothehorrorof
postmodernists):actual/virtual,present/pastandmaterial/ideal.However,asthe
presentincorporatestheactualpresentandthevirtualpastthen:
theremustbeanoperationbywhichthepresentsplitsapart,makingtheactualpresentpasswhilepreservingthevirtualpasttheremustbeanoperationby
whichthepresentsplitsapart,makingtheactualpresentpasswhilepreserving
thevirtualpastinitself(p.217).
Thisoperationpointstowardsthethirdsynthesis.
Thethirdsynthesisinvolvessplittingofthepresent,andisthemostfundamental
synthesisoftime(ibid.).Itgivessubstancetotheothertwosyntheses.Time
basicallyisthissplitting:
Thethirdsynthesisconstitutesthepastinthesametimeasitspresentis
displacedbyitssuccessor.Timesplitsintotwoheterogeneousdissymmetrical
emissions,onetowardthefuture,makingthepresentpass,andanothertowardthe
past,coexistingwhollywiththepresentitwas.Thethirdsynthesis,then,generates
theothertwo.Essentially,timeconsistsinthissplitting,intheessential
disequilibriumbetweenactualandvirtual,theirdisplacementandtheimpossibility
oftheirequivalence(p.217,ouremphasis).
Turetzkyviewsthethirdsynthesisasanempiricistsolutiontothetranscendental
problem,theproblemoftimeseemingtobeaboveandbeyondhumanlife,as
eternalmarkerofexistence.ForTuretzky,thetranscendentalproblemissolvedin
thefollowingway.Theirsttwo(passive)synthesesoftimegivetimeitsconditions.
However,thereneedstobeathirdelementthatfacilitatesthepastmakingthe
presentpastandthethirdsynthesisenablesthisthroughsplittingthevirtual
fromtheactual,andhencekeepsthepastopen,makingthepresentpassinthe
productionofsomethingnew.(p.217).Moreover:
bydoingsointhepresentitselfitshowshowtheidealrealityofthevirtualpast
canbelongtoexperience.Whiletheirstsynthesisconstitutesthepresentandthesecondthepast,thethirdpassivesynthesisconstitutesthefuture ,producing
somethingnewbysplittingvirtualfromrealandmakingthepresentpass.The
thirdsynthesisevokesaNietzscheaneternalreturn,inthatever-newbecomings
ariseineachmoment(pp.217218,ouremphases).
ForTuretzky,theproductionofnoveltythroughthesplittingofvirtualpastfrom
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actualpresentconstitutesthefuture.Thisprocessgroundstime,whichwas
previouslytranscendent,asthegenerationofnewmomentsasfuture.Turetzkycalls
thistranscendentalempiricism(p.221).Histheoryofbecomingtimeuncoversthe
conditionsunderwhichsomethingnewisproduced.(ibid.).Ourexperienceoftime
ascontinuallynewvalidatesthetheoryofbecomingtime:thisistheempirical
substratumunderpinningthetheoryofbecomingtime.
AnumberofobservationscanbemaderegardingTuretzkysaccountof
becomingtime.First,itisformalisticandabstract,asthesocialcontentofthe
theoryisminimal.Whilstthethirdsynthesisgroundsourconsciousnessoftime
throughitssplittingprocess(virtual/actualrecognition),itdoesthispurelyatthe
leveloftheabstractindividual.Atmost,itisanabstractpsychologyoftime.Of
course,thesharingofthisexperienceandatheoryofhowthisprocessbecomes
embeddedwithinsociallifemightbeawaytowardsasocialtheoryoftime.Butthis
speculativeextensionofthetheoryofbecomingtimecouldalsobeconstruedas
indicatingthat,onitsown,itisnotasocialtheoryoftimeatall.
TheabstractnatureofTuretzkystheoryisatonewithitsahistoricism.It
incorporatesPerniolasEgyptianeffect(1995),thecollapseoftheancientandthe
new.Itisatheoryoftimethatappearstobeabovehistoryandatthispointits
transcendentalism,thetranscendenceoftimeabovehumanhistorystillremains,
despiteitsempiricism.Thereisnosensethatthesocialformoftimevariesas
betweensocialformations(e.g.ancientsocieties,feudalism,andcapitalism).
Indeed,thethirdsynthesis,withitsstressonthefutureasthegenerationofthe
newisexplicatedwithoutreferencetowhatissociallynew,trulydifferent.Thus:
theproductionofthenewaccordingtoTuretzkystheoryofbecomingtimeappearstobean.Humanagencyandhistoryseemtobeinessentialtothelowof
becomingtime.Atthisjuncture,timereassertsitselfastranscendent(tohumanity
andhumanhistory,tothehumaningeneral)andas naturalflow.Thetheoryof
becomingtime,therefore,doesnotavoidnaturalism;thenotionthattimeisa
naturalphenomenon.Fromthis,itfollowsthatthesearchfortheessenceoftimeis
avalidformofexploration.Onceonthisessentialisttrack,thenotionofasocial
theoryoftimebecomessubordinatetothetaskofpinningtimedown,ofdeining
itsessence,uncoveringthestuffoftime.ForTuretzky,timeisthethirdsynthesis.
However,oncenaturalismandessentialismareadmittedthentheloodgate
controllingscientiictheoriesoftimeisopened.Turetzkysformal,logico
philosophicaltheoryofbecomingtimelosesitslustreasbigtimescientiictheories
oftimeareadmittedintotheieldofenquiry.Oncethisisdone,however,thesearch
fortheessenceoftimeresolvesitselfintotheprogressoftheoreticalphysics.With
thismove,someofthepropositionswithinTuretzkystheoryofbecomingtime
begintolookshaky.Forexample,thatthetheoryofbecomingtimeguaranteesthe
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irreversibilityoftimeisnotnecessarilyausefulguaranteeoncethescientiic
searchfortimesessenceisadmitted.Recentresearchhasindicatedthatthe
reversibilityoftimeisapossibilityinsomepartsoftheuniverse(perhapseven
withinourownGalaxy)wherestarsunexplode,eggsunbreakandlivingthings
growyoungerwitheverysecond(Chown,2000).
Thesearchfortheessenceoftime,whattimereallyis,alsoreiiestimeasathingwithindependenteffectsforhumanlife.Itisthissearchfortheessenceoftimethat
hasbedevilledthedevelopmentofasocialtheoryoftime.Neitherishorologisma
studyoftimemeasurementanyadvanceontemporalessentialism.Studiessuch
asWaughs(1999)andBrands(1999)merelyevadeessentialismthrough
concentratingonhistoriesoftimemeasurement.Theirstudiesimplyessentialism:
thehistoryofhorologyshowsthattimemeasuringinstrumentsfromearlysundials
andwaterclockstocontemporaryatomicclocksareapproachingtheessenceof
timethroughincreasingaccuracyoftimemeasurement.Thecircularityhereisthat
timeisaprovisionaloutcomeofitsmostaccuratemeasuringdevice,withtherealessenceoftimejustoverthetemporalhorizonneverinallypinneddownbythe
horologicalinstrument.Evenatomicclocksarenotabsolutelyaccurate(Falk,
1998).Thesinglesecondtheygain/loseinthreemillionyearsof(theoretical)
workingyieldsroomforimprovement!
Iftheessenceoftimeispertinenttodevelopingasocialtheoryoftimethen
prospectivesocialtheoriesoftimeareatthemercyofreifiedtimeandtheoriesof
natural,transcendenttime.Adamsinstincttoseparateoutnaturalandsocial
timeinordertodevelopatheoryofthelatterwascorrect.Butshefeltunableto
doitinpractice,maintainingthedualismthroughouttwobooks,whilstdenyingthatshewasdoingit.Ifadistinctionbetweensocialandnaturaltimecannotbe
maintained,thensocialtimetheoristsareinevitablydrawnintospeculationsabout
naturaltime,therelationsbetweensocial/naturaltimeandwhattimereallyis,
arguesLukacher(1998).However:
Rigorouslyspeaking,wecannotsaywhethertimeisiniteorininite,orifthereis
anininiteseriesofiniteuniversesthatriseandfall,orwhethercreationis
sequentiallysingularorsimultaneouslymultiple(i.e.themultiverse)(Lukacher,
1998,p.4).
Speculationwhichdelvesintotheseissuesiswhatgivestimefetishismnewlife,
arguesLukacher.Hisstrategyisnottosearchfortheessenceoftimebuttoexplore
whathasbeensaid,whatarguments,concepts,words,andimageshavebeenused
toindicatethepersistentaporiaoftimeand/ortoconceal,evade,orsimplyignore
it.(pp.45).Hisprogrammeforthestudyoftimeisbasicallyaculturalstudyofthe
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philosophyoftime:howdifferentphilosophicconceptsoftimeareembeddedin
theirrespectivesocietiesfromancientGreecetotheModerns(Schopenhaur,
KantandHegelthroughtoNietzsche,HeideggerandDerrida).Whilstthis
programmedefetishisestime,inpracticeLukachersanalysisisbasedonanarrow
viewofwheretimeconceptsultimatelyemanatefrom:philosophy.Thestudyby
Alliez(1996),isadeeperversionofaculturalhistoryoftime.Herelateschangesin
theconceptionoftimemorecloselytosocialtransformations(religionin
particular),buttheemphasisisstillprimarilyuponphilosophy.Butthisreally
missesthepoint.Evenifthesewritershadexploredconceptsoftimeasdeveloped
withinparticularsocietiesinafullersensebeyondtheconinesofphilosophyand
religionwithoutasocialtheoryoftimetheyaremerelyaddingontemporal
historical/culturalrelativismtoAdamsmultipletimes.
Inthissectionwehaveindicatedwhat,forus,arepositionstoavoidindevelopinga
socialtheoryoftime(oratheoryofsocialtime).Ontheonehand:richdescriptions
withaccompanyingrelativism,solipsismandnosenseofthesocialformoftime.Ontheotherhand:abstract,ahistoricalandformalisticaccountswithweakto
nonexistentsocialcontent,invokingthedebilitatingproblemsof
transcendentalism,naturalism,essentialism,reiicationandtimefetishism.Before
developingourownalternative,thenextsectionexaminesbrielyAdams(1995)
accountofthespeedoflife.
TheSpeedBarrier
Thereisalwaysabattleagainsttime,againsttheobstaclesthatpreventordelay
thefulilmentofadesireortherepossessionofsomethingcherishedbutlost(ItaloCalvino,SixMemosfortheNextMillennium,1996,p.37).
Timetheoristshavedescribedthespeedoflifeinincreasingdetail.Theyhave
cataloguedtheapparentquickeningoftimeinmanyareasofcontemporarysocial
life,yetsofarexplanationsofthephenomenonhavebeeneithersupericialor
halfhearted.JamesGleick(1999)isacaseinpoint.Whilstprovidingstriking
anecdotesandexamplesofthespeedoflifewithinavastrangeofspaces,sites,
organisations,institutionsandeverydayexperience,Gleicksexplanationofit
comprisesanunsystematiclistingofwhathecallsthenewaccelerators
(pp.4956).Thesenewacceleratorsaresupposedtoexplainthespeedingupofsociallife.Thelistincludesamphetamines(speedingupathletes),caffeine,alcohol
andtobaccoasspeedbasedpursuits(p.50),scienceiction(especiallytimetravel
stories)andtransport.Thishardlyamountstoanexplanationofthespeedoflifein
contemporarysociety.ItcouldalsobearguedthatGleickconfuses explanadumwith
explanans,assomeofhisexplanationsofthespeedoflifethenewaccelerators
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appeartobeaspectsofthephenomenonrequiringexplanation.Lukes(1998)
explanationofthespeedoflifeisalittlemoresystematicthanGleicks,butitstill
amountsbasicallytolistingaspectsofwhathecallskineticculture:forexample,
MotorolasIridiumdigitalcommunicationsnetwork.
BarbaraAdam,inTimewatch(1995),providesamuchmoresophisticatedand
powerfulexplanationofthespeedoflife,theapparentquickeningofthepaceoflifeincontemporarysociety.Adamstartsoutfromthenotionofefficiencyandthe
socialdrivetoincreaseefficiencyinsearchofprofitincontemporarysociety.
Profitability,shenotes,isafunctionoftheamountofmoneyspentonlabourtime.
Thus:tobecompetitiveistobefasterthanyourrival(p.100,ouremphasis).
Labourisspeededupsothatenterprisesareincreasinglyproitablethrough
producingmoreinagivenperiodoflabourtime.
However,notesAdam,althoughspeedisvaluedandthevalorizationofspeed
pertainstomanyareasoflifeeducation,sport(asexamples)speedisnotitself
avalue(ibid.).ShenotesthatinsomeMiddleEasternandAfricancountriesspeed
andhastearenegativelyvalued.Fortunately,Adamrealisesthatthissortof
comparisonisgettinghernowhereandnotesthatthecontemporaryspeed
fetishismrequiresanotherlookattheworktimemoneyeficiencyproitcircle
(p.101).Shearguesthatthetimeeconomycanbeviewedastheimplicationof
timeintheeconomicinvestmentreturnproitcycle(ibid.).Theshorterthetime
betweeninvestmentanditsreturn,thenthegreatertheproit.Themotivationis
forirmstoshortenproductioncyclessothatprofitisspunoffineverdecreasing
timeperiods.
Secondly,Adamarguesthatalthoughprofitisanunderpinningforceforincreased
speedineconomiclife,competitionplaysarole.Ifafirmproducesacommodityof
equalqualityinlesstimethanthemajorityofotherenterprisesthen,everything
elsebeingequal,thatenterprisecanreduceitspricesonthebackofthisincreased
productivity.Moreproductioniscrammedintothesameamountoftime.
Itisproitabilityandcompetitionthatareatthebasisofthespeedingupof
economiclifeforAdam,andthesefactorsunderscoretheWesternapproachto
timeandspeed,sheargues.Thisisapurelyquantitativeapproachtotime,and:
OneoftherationalesfortheWesternapproachtospeedisthustobesoughtinthe
quantiication,decontextualization,rationalizationandcommodiicationoftime,in
thecalculationoftimeinrelationtomoney,eficiency,competitionandproit
(1995,p.101).
Adamthencontraststhisformoftime,whichisassociatedwitheconomicsandthe
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quantitativetimeoftheclock(ibid.),withopenendedtimegivenovertocaring,
friendshipsandpersonalrelations.Atthispointtheanalysistailsoffinto
moralisticcriticismsofquantitativeclocktime,particularlyhowitdevaluesthe
times(andlives)ofthoseworkingtogentlerrhythms.
Inherbriefanalysisofthespeedoflife(1995,pp.100102),Adamgetsfurtherin
threepagesthanthesupericialanddescriptiveapproachincorporatedinthewholeofGleicksbook.Ontheotherhand,Gleickprovidesascattergunapproachto
abroaderspectrumofsociallife.Adamsaccounterectsakindofspeedbarrier:
thereissomeplausibilitytoherexplanationofthespeedofeconomiclife,buther
concentrationontheeconomiclimitstheutilityofherexplanationintermsofthe
speedingupofsociallifeintoto.Furthermore,profitandcompetition(withthe
conceptofefficiency)dotoomuchwork,evenwithinthenarroweconomicsphere.
Theaccountsofthelinksbetweenprofitandcompetition,timeandtheneedto
savetimeineconomiclife(thusgeneratingspeed)terminateintheconceptof
profit.Adamsaccountofprofitasmotivatorfortimesavingiswhollyonesided.Shefailstodiscusslabourasexistinginbutalsoagainstcapitalontheissueof
labourtime;resistancestospeedupintheirstinstance,butalsothegeneral
battleovertimeinthelabourprocess.Proitappearsasmagicalmotivator,
abstractedfromsocialrelationsofproduction,unexplainedandtakenforgranted
anditsrelationtolabourtimeisundertheorised.Despitethesecriticisms,inthese
fewpagesinTimewatch,Adampointsthewaytowardsadeeperanalysisofthe
speedoflifeananalysisdevelopedintherestofthispaper.
Beforesettingoutonthisanalysis,itshouldbenotedthatAdamsworkonthe
speedofeconomiclifealsoindicatestheneedtobreakthespeedbarrier.Thatis,toframeanexplanationofthespeedoflifewhichdoesnotjustpertaintoeconomic
life.OnewayoutofthismightbethroughtheworkofAntonioNegri(withHardt
1994;1996).Intheseworks,Negridevelopsatheoryofthefactorysocietyorsocial
factory.Onthisbasis,thedrivetosavelabourtimeandalltheModerntechniques
oftimesaving(Taylorism,timemanagement,jobanalysisandflexibilisationof
labourandsoon)areextendedtothewholeofsociety.However,Negridownplays
theroleofvalueinexplanationsofthephenomenaofcontemporarysociety[9]
whereasinourexplanationofthespeedoflifewestartoutfromvalue,asthe
followingsectionmakesclear.
KarlMarxsSocialUniverse
happinessliesalsoinknowledgeofthemeteors(KarlMarx,Doctoral
Dissertation1841,p.68).
ThepurposeofthissectionistoprovideanelaborationoftheEinsteinisationof
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timethatgetsbeyondthephilosophicalandsociologicalspeculationssofar
examined.FollowingEinsteinsmethodwewillsituateoursocialtheoryoftime
withinasocialcosmologyofthemovementofmatter.Themainpointofour
expositionisthatitisonlypossibletoovercometheproblemshighlightedwith
othersociologicaltheoriesoftimeiftimeisconsiderednotasadiscretesocial
event;but,rather,whentimeisunderstoodasthetemporalaspectoftheexpansive
socialuniverse.Thepointofthisexpositionisthentodevelopasocialcosmology
withinwhichthatuniversecanbeobservedandanunderstandingofsocialtime
derived.Itisourcontentionthatthemostdevelopedtheoreticalcosmologyofthe
socialuniverseisfoundintheworkofKarlMarx.WhileMarxhasprovideduswith
aframeworkwithwhichtochartthemotionsofsocialphenomenahisworkisbyno
meanscompleteandthereismuchworkthatneedstobedone.While,uptillnow,
Marxisttheoriesoftimehavedonemuchtoincreaseourunderstandingofthe
developmentofabstractmachineclocktimeanditsrelationtotheregulationof
labour(Debord,Thompsonetc),thefullextentofMarxssocialtheoryhasnotyet
beendeveloped.
ThesigniicanceoftherelationshipbetweenMarxandEinsteinscosmologieshas
beenreferredtoelsewhere:
AlthoughMarxrejectedthemethodofclassicalscience,hecontinuedtouseits
metaphors,supplementedwithothersfromevolutionarybiology.Hadhewritten
Capitalonlyfortyyearslater,thetheoryofrelativitywouldhavebeentohandto
provideamoreadequatelanguageforhisthought,whichwasinadvanceofthe
scienceofhisday..UnfortunatelythelanguageofMarxismhasnottakenadvantage
ofthetheoryofrelativity,andforthemostparthasremainedNewtonian,spicedwiththeimageryofgeology(levelsandissures)(KayandMott,1982,p.77).
WhileMarxdidnothaveEinsteinstheoryofrelativitytoworkfromhewasmore
versedinatomictheorythanKayandMottrecognise.Fromhisveryearliest
writingMarxisconcernedwiththerelationbetweenphysicsandethicsas
expressedthroughaninvestigationintothesocialconsequencesofatomictheory.
MarxsdoctoraldissertationDifferenceBetweentheDemocriteanandEpicurean
PhilosophyofNatureinGeneral(1841)isbasedontheideathatknowledgeofthe
worldofatomsandmatterisascrucialtousasitwastotheancientphilosophers.
TheancientGreeksunderstoodthatacarefulenquiryintothematterandmotionofmeteorsfreedonebothfromafearofnonbeingandfromtheworldofmotionthat
appearedtobeoutsidethecomprehensionandcontrolofoneself.Froman
understandingofthewayinwhichtheuniversemovesMarxandtheancient
philosophersarguethat:
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wecanexplainfearawayandfreeourselvesfromit,byshowingthecausesof
meteorsandotherthingsthatarealwayshappeningandcausetheutmostalarmto
otherpeople(DeGolyer,inMcCarthy,1992,p.125).
Or:happinessliesalsoinknowledgeofthemeteors(Marx,1841,p.68).
MarxindsthebasisforanewmaterialistphilosophyinthedifferencebetweentheatomictheoriesofEpicurusandDemocritus.ForDemocritusthedownwardmotion
ofatomsinastraightlinewastheonlycausationintheuniverse:deviationwas
precluded.However,Epicurusarguedthatatomsreacttoeachotherinamovement
thatcausesthemtoswerve.Theswerveisbasedontherepulsionbetweenone
atomandanother,bywhichtheatombecomesconsciousofitself.Inthiswaythe
atomasthefoundationofmatterbecomesmatteronlyintherelationofrepulsion
fromanotheratom.Thisswervingisaphysicalactwhichcarrieswithitcreative
aspectsofnondeterminationwhicharelostinDemocritussdeterminedworld.For
Epicurusitwasonlyininteractionthatmatterintheformofatomscancomefully
intobeingandtorealiseitsexistenceasthesourceandessenceofmatter.From
thismaterialexplanationonthemovementofatomsEpicurusextrapolatedonthe
existenceofahumanrealityofsocialjusticebasedontheconceptofcommunity.
ThusinEpicureanphilosophynotonlydoesMarxindawaytounifycontentand
form,buthealsodiscoversalinkbetweenthephysicalprincipleofaswerving
atomandthepropensityfortheintellectforselfconscioustheorising.Theelement
commontoboththeintellectandtheatomisfreedom(DeGloyerandBaronovitch,
1992):
Therefore,justastheatomisnothingbutthenaturalformofabstractindividualselfconsciousness,sosensuousnatureisonlytheobjectiied,empirical,individual
selfconsciousness,andthisissensuousness.Hencethesensearetheonlycriteria
inconcretenature,justasabstractreasonistheonlycriteriaintheworldof
atoms(fromMarxsDoctoralDissertationof1841,inDeGloyer,p.125).
Marxalsomakesthelinkbetweentheignoranceofastronomersandpolitical
economists.AccordingtoMarxsDissertationNotebooks,privateproperty
worshippedasanunbreakableprincipleandfoundationofsocietyandindividual
effortactuallycorrespondstothesamedeferencegivenbytheignorantin
Epicurussdaytothecourseoftheplanetsandstars.Epicurussoughttounderstandthemakeupandoperationoftheplanets,therebyabolishthemyths,andthusbring
tohumanbeingsintothecentral,selfconsciouspositiontheymerited.AsMarx
noted,EpicurussviewontheseissuesopposesGreekphilosophyasawhole,for
otherphilosophersworshipedthecelestialbodies.Yet,thesystemofthe
celestialbodiesis,Marxsaidtheirstnaveandnaturedeterminedexistenceof
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truereasonandthatthesamepositionistakenbytheGreekselfconsciousnessin
thedomainofthemind.Itisthesolarsystemofthemind.Hence,theGreek
philosophersworshippedtheirownmindinthecelestialbodies(DeGolyer,1992,
p.121)And,byimplication,politicaleconomistsworshiptheirownintellectsinthe
movementofmoneyandcommodities.
It'scosmic
Marxssocialuniverseisbasedonvalue,whichheclearlyconsideredin
cosmologicalterms:
Allthephenomenaoftheuniverse,whetherproducedbythehandofmanorindeed
theuniversallawsofphysics,arenottobeconceivedofasactsofcreationbut
solelyasareorderingofmatter.Compositionandseparationaretheonlyelements
foundbythehumanmindwheneveritanalysisthenotionofreproduction;andsoit
iswiththereproductionofvalue(Marx,1987,footnote,p.133).
ThesubstanceofMarxssocialuniverseisnotsimplylabour,butabstractlabour,
understoodasaverydevelopedtotality:
AlthoughlabourappearstobeasimplecategoryNeverthelesswhenitis
economicallyconceivedinthissimplicity,labourisasmodernacategoryasare
therelationswhichcreatethissimplecategoryIndifferencetowardanyspeciic
kindoflabour,presupposesaverydevelopedtotalityofrealkindsoflabour,of
whichnosingleoneisanylongerpredominant(Marx,1858,p.103).
Marxdevelopsthisexpositionoftheverydevelopedtotalitythroughhislabour
theoryofvalue.ForMarx,valueisnotmerelyaneconomiccategory,butisthe
socialsubstanceoutofwhichcapitalistsocietyisderived:thesocialmatterfor
analysingthewayinwhichhumanactivitiesareincorporatedintocapitalistwork.
Valueisamultidimensionalieldofsocialenergy:asocialsubstancewitha
directionaldynamic(expansion)butnosocialidentity.Inordertoexistand
expanditmusttakeonanidentityorexistintheformofathing/commodity.Inthe
momentofitsbecomingathing(metamorphosis)inaseriesofthings
(transubstantiation)alltraceofthemovementortheprocessbywhichvalue
expandsthroughthethingislost.
Or,anotherwayofsayingthesamething,isthatthelogicofMarxssocialuniverse
istheproductionoftheexpansionofnonmateriality:asubstancewithoutaform,
orabstractionwhichmustexistasarealabstraction.Valueisnotthenanempty,
inert,neutralspacebutisthematterandtheantimatterofMarxssocialuniverse.
KarlMarxisdescribingasocialworldwheresubjectandobjectsarecompressed
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intoeachotherinaspacethatceasestobesymmetrical.JustasEinsteinforced
physicstobreakwiththeconceptionoflinearmotionandtheseparationofenergy
(motion)frominertia(rest)anddeineaworldinwhichforcesactingatadistance
acrossspacefromoneobjecttoanother,forceobjectandspacetimewhereunited
inasingleconcreteformulation,whosestructuralprinciplewasdiscontinuity;so
too,withinMarx'sexpositionoftheproductionofsurplusvalue,thesubjectsand
objectsofpropertywerecompressedintoeachotherbyclassstruggle(Kayand
Mott,1982,pp.7578).Whatmakestheconceptandrealityofvaluesocosmicis
thatsocialsciencehasnowayofdealingwiththeconceptofvalueasunderstoodby
Marx.Valuedoesnotexistinthewayinwhichthingsareimaginedtoexistinthe
socialsciences.FacedwiththisproblemsocialscienceattemptstocontainMarxs
conceptbyreducingittothingsitcanunderstand:MarxisteconomicsorMarxist
sociology.Thisisastrueinsociologicaltheorisingabouttimeasitiswithregardto
anyotherproblematic.
InMarx'suniverse,exp ansionoccursthroughthelogicofcapitalistwork.Thislogicistheunavoidableprincipleofcapitalistsociety:theverydevelopedtotality.In
thisconjunction,humanlifeisforcedtotakeontheexistenceoflabourincapital:
humanlifeisforcedtoexistasitsopposite(asinNearyandTaylor,1998;
DinersteinandNeary,2000;Holloway,1995;Rikowski,1999and2000;and
Dinerstein,1998aand1998b).Basedonthisdynamiccontradictionthesocial
universeexpandsormovesthroughthestruggleinandagainstthelogicof
capitalistworkandtheattemptbythelogicofcapitalistworktoavoidthecrisis
thatisalwaysthreateningtooverwhelmit:acrisiswhichpresentsitselfasthe
possibilityofanotherformofhumanity.Or,toputitinEinsteinianterms:Marxis
offeringusawaybywhichwemightgetintothefuture.
E=MC.2orC-M-C/M-C-M
Einsteinhadaformulaforthedynamicandexplosiverelationshipbetweenmatter,
motionandenergy,expressedintheequatione=mc.2.E=energy,M=massandcis
thespeedoflight.Throughthis,Einsteinexpressestheenormouspowerofthe
universeandthewayinwhichitcanbecapturedinthesocialworldandputto
devastatinglynegativeandpositive(Chernobyl?)effect.Marxalsoprovidesa
formulaforthewayinwhichsocialenergyisconvertedintoenormouspower.Like
Einsteinthisequationdemonstratesthepositiveaspectsofenergy.ForMarx,initscurrentcondition,theworldhasbeenoverwhelmedbythewayinwhichthissocial
powerhasbeenputtouse:capitalismisthenegativesocialpower;but,thissocial
poweralsopossessestheprogressivepossibilitybywhichitmaybebroughtunder
humancontrolforthebeneitofhumanity:communism.Thisformula,describedby
Marxasthegeneraltheoryofcapital,isexpressedasCMC/MCM,inwhichM
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representsmoneyandCisthecommodity.Theirstcircuit,CMCdescribesmoney
beingtransformedintocommodities:sellinginordertobuy.Thesubjectofthis
processisthebuyerwhoseneedsformthebasisforandaresatisiedbythe
transaction.However,thegeniusintheformulaisthatbysimplyreversingthe
polarityMCMMarxprovidesthebasisforthelogicofhissocialuniverse:money
isadvanceinorderthatitmaybecomemoremoney.Inthiscircuittheneedsofthe
subjectarecentralbutsubordinatetothedominantlogicoftheprocesswhichis
nowtheproductionofmoremoney.Thesubjectoftheprocessinnowmoneyitself
anditscontinuingexpansion.Thecirculationofmoneybecomesanendinitself:
thevalorisationofvaluetakesplacewithintheconstantlyrenewedmovement.The
movementofcapitalthereforeappearstobelimitless.
Itisimportanttorememberthatinthisformulabothmoneyandthecommodity
formfunctiononlyasdifferentmodesofexistenceofvalueitself,themoneyasits
generalmodeofexistence,thecommodityasitsparticularor,sotospeak,
disguisedmode.Itisconstantlychangingfromoneformintotheother,withoutbecominglostinthismovement;itthusbecomestransformedintoanautomatic
subject.Ifwepindownthespecificformofappearanceassumedinturnbyself
valorisingvalueinthecourseofitslife,wereachthefollowingelucidation:capital
ismoney,capitaliscommodities.Intruth,however,valueisherethesubjectofa
processinwhich,whileconstantlyassumingtheformofmoneyandcommodities:
itchangesitsownmagnitude,throwsoffsurplusvaluefromitselfconsideredas
originalvalueandthusvalorisesitselfindependently.Forthemovementinthe
courseofwhichitaddssurplusvalueisitsownmovement,itsvalorisationis
thereforeselfvalorisation.Byvirtueofitbeingvalueithasacquiredtheoccultabilitytoaddvaluetoitself.Itbringsforthlivingoffspring(Marx,1867,p.255).
Communisminvertsthepolarity/subjectivityandreplacesthelogicofsocial
expansionwherethesubjectisvalue,intheformofmoney,withthelogicofhuman
needandsubjectivity.
ThedominanceofthelogicofMCMmeansthatitsunderlyingprinciple:thelogic
ofcapitalistwork,hasexpandedtoincludeallaspectsofhumansociability.Value
hasbecomesthemultidimensionalmatrixwhichformsthesubstanceofcapitalist
socialrelations.Allaspectsofhumansociabilitybecomereallysubsumedbythelogicofcapitalistwork:
Theentiresocietybecomesoneenormousfactory,orrather,thefactoryspreads
throughoutthewholesociety.Inthissituation,productionissocialandallactivities
areproductive(Negri,1989,p.204).
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Theexpansionofthelogicofcapitalistwork,andthestruggleoveritsimposition,
isextendedtothelevelofsociety:
thecapitalistformoflargescaleindustryreproducesthissamedivisionof
labourinastillmoremonstrousshapeinthefactoryproper,byconvertingthe
workerintoalivingappendageofthemachine;andeverywhereoutsidethe
factory...(Marx,1867,p.615ouremphasis).
Duringthemomentofrealsubsumptionoflabour,thecontradictioninherentinthe
struggleovertheproductionofcapitalistworkisintensiiedandsocialantagonism
isgeneratednotsimplyatthelevelofthefactorybutatthelevelofsociety.Or,
societyisantagonismraisedtothemostintolerablelevel.Capitalisnotsimplya
formofclassdominationbutaformofsociety:adevelopedtotality(Negri,1989,
p.67origimalemphasis).Classstrugglehasnotcometoanendbuthasbeen
displacedontoaterrain,whichpertainstohumantotality(Negri,1989,p.174):a
socialuniverse.
Time
InMarxssocialuniversetimedoesnotexistbeforetheevent,butemergesoutof
thecontradictorylogicofexpansionasboththemeasureofvalueandalsothe
rhythmorthebeatorthepulseortherateatwhichthisprocessoccurs.Timeisthe
temporaldimensionoftheexpansionofvalue.Marxsdevelopshisideasonthe
temporalaspectofcapitalistsocietythroughtheconceptandrealityofsocially
necessarytime.Acommodityhasvalueonlybecauseoftheabstractlabourthathas
materialisedinitwhichismeasuredbyquantityofthevalueformingsubstancethattheobjectcontains.Marxsgreatleapoutofclassicalpoliticaleconomywasto
recognisethatquantitywasadirectresultoftheamountoftimetakentoproduce
thearticle(thatwouldclearlycauseirreconcilabletheoreticalproblemsbasedon
reconcilingthedifferentspeedsatwhichpeoplework),but,rathertoseequantity
asasocialfractionorsocialaverageofthetotalamountoflabourpowerofthat
society:Althoughcomposedofinnumerableindividualunitseachunitisnota
discrete,disconnectedperiodoftimebutservesasasocialaverageofone
homogeneousmassoftheverydevelopedtotality:
Sociallynecessarylabourtimeisthenthelabourtimerequiredtoproduceanyusevalueundertheconditionofproductionnormalforagivensocietyandwiththe
averagedegreeofskillandintensityprevalentinthatsociety(Marx,1867,p.129).
WhatMarxisexplainingisthatwhiletheamountofvalueinsocietyremains
constantduringtheperiodwhenthisvalueisbeingproducedtheamountofsocially
necessarylabourtimeneededtoproducethecommodityisreduced.Asthe
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pressureistoconstantlyexpandtheamountofsurplusvaluebeingextractedthere
iscorrespondingpressuretoreducetheamountofsociallynecessarylabourtime
intheproductionofcommoditiesWhatisbeingrecognisedisnotthesimply
quantityofusevalues:anincreaseinproductivitywillincreasethequantityof
things;but,rather,thefactthatthechangeinsociallynecessarylabourtime
changesthemagnitudeofvalueoftheindividualcommoditiesproducedratherthan
thetotalvalueproducedperunittime.
Whatisbeingrecognisedintheprocessisnottheamountofvalueproduced;but,
ratherthemagnitudeof(surplus)valuethatisrecoverable.Thisisnotthensimply
aquantitativeequation,butisaregulatorydeviceastowhatconstitutesthe
sociallyacceptedstandardfortheexpenditureofhumanenergy(labourpower).
Thisreductionredeter minesthenormativesociallabourunit,whatisbeing
definedisnotsimplythequantityofsociallabour,butthestandardofwhat
constitutessocialtime.Whiletheabstractmeasurementoftimeremainsthesame,
thisprocessissetwithintheframeworksofabstracttime:day,hours,minutes,seconds,thereisachangeinthenormativesociallabourhour.
Theeffectofthisrelationisbothdynamicanddirectionalimposingalawlike
qualityindependentofhumanwill.Sociallynecessarylabourtimebecomesthe
measureofthespeedofhumanactivity.Althoughthisspeedworksatdifferent
ratesofvelocity,withatendencyforthatvelocitytoaccelerate:speedisrelative,it
isalsothecasethatinthemomentwhensociallynecessarylabourtimeissocially
recognised:atthemomentatwhichcommoditiesareexchanged,thisisregardedas
anabsolutemeasureatthatmomentintime.Thisformulationoftherelation
betweentherelativeandtheabsoluteisagainEinsteinianinitsconceptualisation.AlthoughEinsteinstheoryisentitledthetheoryofrelativityanimportantaspect
ofthetheoryiswhatisconstantabouttheuniverse.ForEinstein,theoneconstant
wasthespeedoflightandthatwasthemeasureagainstwhichallothermovement
ismeasured.InthesocialworldMarxalsoprovidesuswithasocialmeasure:
sociallynecessarylabourtime:thespeedoflife.
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Gravity
InanextremelyinsightfulaccountofthisprocessPostone(1994)explainsthatas
thelevelsofproductivitydonotimpingeonthetotalvalueproduced,thesocial
labourunitbecomesinPostone'swords,denser,eventhoughthisdensityisnot
manifestinthesphereofabstracttemporality.Thesimilaritybetweenthisaccount
ofthewayinwhichdenseobjectseffectotherobjectsintheirvicinityand
Einsteinstheoryofgravityisstriking(cf.Calder,1979).However,Postonedoesnot
maketheconnection.HechoosestoexaminethelimitationsofNewton'stheoryof
timeandspacewhensetalongsidethetheoryoftimeandspacehehasfoundin
Marxsworkintermsoftheproblemsintherelationshipbetweenabstractand
historicaltime
Thattheabstracttimeframeremainsconstantdespitebeingredetermined
substantivelyisanapparentparadoxthatIhavenoted.Thisparadoxcannotbe
resolvedwithintheframeworkofabstractNewtoniantime.Ratheritimplies
anothersortoftimeasasuperordinatedframeorreference.Aswehaveseen,the
processwherebytheconstanthourbecomesdenserthatis,thesubstantive
changeeffectedbytheusevaluedimensionremainsnonmanifestintermsofthe
abstracttemporalframeofvalue.Itcanhoweverbeexpressedinothertemporal
terms,withreferencetoaformofconcretetemporality(Postone,1996,p.292).
AlthoughPostonerecoversthetheoreticalbasisofMarxssocialuniversehedoes
notexpandthetheorybeyondMarxsownformulationaboutthepossibilitiesfor
creatinganewsocialdivisionoftimebasedonhumanneeds:notthemachinetime
ofcapital,butrealtime(Marx,1858).Marxhasgoodreasonfornotdevelopinghis
theoryoftimebeyondalternativeformsofconcretetime:althoughMarxwas
theorisingthemovementofmatteraheadofhistimehewaslivinginNewtons
world.Knowingwhatwenowknowabouttherelationoftimeandspacefrom
Einsteinwenolongerhavethesameexcuse.
EinsteinandMarx
ThepointofthispaperhasnotbeentocollapseMarxandEinsteinintoeachother.
Rather,itistoarguethatwhileEinsteinhasbeenacclaimedforhisworkin
theoreticalphysicsMarx'ssocialtheoryhasbeeneitherlargelyignoredor
misrepresented.Thisisthegreatestintellectualavoidanceofalltime.Atavery
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generallevelbothMarxandEinsteindogreatdamagetocommonsensenotionsof
timeandspaceandthroughtheirreconstructionofthewayinwhichthe
relationshipbetweenmassandenergyisconstructedtheybothdidmuchmore
thanthat:
Einsteinsparadigmisregardedasprovidingawayintothefuture:throughtime
travel.Marxsworkonmaterialityandmotionalsoprovidesawayintothefuture,butinawaythatismoreprofoundthanEinsteinsformulations.Marxswork
allowsustothinknotsimplyintermsoftravelintime,butratherthecreationofa
newformoftime,anewformofsociety:thefuture.
IfEinsteinprovidedthephysics:E=MC.2thatallowedfortheexistenceofthe
nuclearbombthenMarx,throughhisformulaCMC/MCM,providesthecritical
socialtheoryforwhythebombexists(:astheimpositionofcapitalistwork:the
epitomeofthelogicoftheexpansionofabstraction:theterrorofimmaterialityand
vaporisationofeverything)andwhyitmustbedestroyed.
Notes:
[1]SpeedxConnectivityxIntangibles=BLUR.Speed:everyaspectofbusinessand
theconnectedorganizationoperatesandchangesinrealtime.Connectivity:
everythingisbecomingelectronicallyconnectedtoeverythingelseproducts,
people,companies,countries,everything.Intangibles:everyofferhasboth
tangibleandintangibleeconomicvalue.Theintangibleisgrowingfaster.BLUR:
Thenewworldinwhichyouwillcometoliveandwork(DavisandMeyer,1998,
p.5).
[2]DavisandMeyerarguethereishopethatthedisruptiveandrevolutionising
forcesofBLURcanbetamed.For:Harnessandleveragethem,andyoucanenter
theworldofBLUR,movetoitscadenceandonceagainsetheworldclearly.(p.7).
Leadbeater(1999)alsoviewsour(individualandsocial)capacitytomanipulate
intangibles(principallyknowledgeandinformation)intheemergingKnowledge
Economyasthekeytosuccess(forindividuals,companies,nations).However,he
problematisesourcollectiveandindividualcapacitiesforcontrollingthemforthe
goalsofsocialequalityandindividualwellbeing,andadvocatesareconiguration
ofwelfareassupportforrisktakingknowledgeentrepreneursinaknowledgebasedsociety.
[3]TimLuke(1998)developedhisconceptofthespeedoflifeprincipallythrough
theworkofVirilio.
[4]AsRikowski(1999)notes:thisisaproblemcommontotheoriesthatposit
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runawaytechnologyoracyborgfuture.Rikowskiindicateshowbothformsof
developmentcanbeprovidedwithanexplanatorydynamicthroughviewingthem
asanunfoldingoftherelativeformofsurplusvalueproduction.
[5]Atthispoint,GiddensantiMarxistprejudicesgetinthewayofhisabilityto
pursueapromisinglineofenquiry.Hiseclecticandunsystematicapproachto
theorisingingeneralisdiscussedinRikowski(2000).InTheThirdWay(Giddens,1998),heannouncestheinaldiscreditingofMarxism(p.vii)andthedeathof
socialism(p.3)butGiddenshadforestalledhisownpossibilitiesfordevelopment
ofMarxistideasandconceptsmuchearlier(seeRikowski,2000).
[6]Recentresearchhasindicatedthattimedoesinfactseemtoflowmorequickly
aspeoplegetolder(Burkeman,1999).
[7]Falk(1998)notesthatthelatestatomicclocksactuallykeepbettertimethan
theplanetsthemselves.Atomicclockshavedenaturalisedtimeonapractical
basis.Theyareaccuratetoonenanosecond(onebillionthofasecond)perday:or
aroundonesecondin3millionyears.
[8]Aristotle,theSceptics,Epicureans,Stoics,St.Augustine,Newton,Locke,Leibniz,
Spinoza,Kant,Hegel,Nietzsche,McTaggartandEinsteinallfiguringprominently.
[9]SeeNegri(1996,pp.157),wherehearguesthatMarxsdefinitionoftheformof
valueinCapitalonlypertainstothe18481914period.
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