THE

SURVIVALHANDBOOK

BY RAYMOND MEARS

© 1990 Raymond Mears

ISBN 1 85648 180 8

First Published 1990 ByThe Oxford Illustrated Press,This Edition Published 1994 ByThe Promotional Reprint CompanyLtd, Exclusively For Bookmart Ltd,Desford Road, Enderby, Leicester,LE9 5AD

Printed and bound in China

All rights reserved. No part of this book may bereproduced or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic or mechanical, includingphotocopying, recording or by any informationstorage retrieval system, without the permissionof the publisher.

Contents

Introduction

Possibles

Shelter and Protection

Fire

Water

Plants

Hunting

Tracking

Trapping and Fishing

Cooking, Preserving and Storing Food

Cordage, Basketry, Pottery and Glue

Stone and Bone Working

Hideworking

Hitting The Trail

This book is dedicated to the memory ofKingsley Royce Hopkins my guide and mentor

for nearly sixteen years, who passed awayduring the production of the manuscript. His

will be a tough act to follow.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all those people who have encouragedand supported me during the writing of this book, and the

fellow outdoors enthusiasts with whom I have shared camp-fire and trail. In particular, I would like to mention the

following in no specific order: my patient and long-sufferingparents, Nick Crane the instigator, Philip Wells and Sally

Collings, James and Brenda Locke, Roger Hopkins for sometwentieth-century wizardry, Vivien Drake, Roy Belanger,

Charles 'Badger' Taylor, Richard Kluckhohn, Scott Kuipers,Mike Clinchy, Robert Craigie, Kurt Folsom, Richard and

Ruth Bennett and the seventh Purley Scout Group.

Introduction'My son, you know no one will help you in this world . . .You must run to that mountain and come back. That willmake you strong. My son, you know no one is your friend,

not even your sister, your father, your mother. Your legs areyour friends; your brain is your friend; your hands arc your

friends; you must do something with them.'

(The words of an Apache father, An Apache Life by MorrisOpler.)

Do you like clean air, fresh water and thewonders of the natural world? If so read on forthis book is written for you.

The skills contained within this book arenot new, experts have been writing aboutthem for nearly a hundred years, groupingthem together under the well-suited title of'woodcraft'. In more recent years they havesomehow acquired a macho image and beenrenamed survival skills. There is no real harmin this but for the fact that in the process,many of the techniques have been inaccu-rately described. To those of us who grew upwith, and still use the original skills ofwoodcraft, these errors are alarming ifsometimes funny. But more importantly theyrepresent the watering down and gradualdisappearance of knowledge and experiencewhich was formerly passed from father to son,mother to daughter. Were these skills todisappear altogether it would be a tragedy,for they are our birthright, a living link withour palaeolithic ancestors, that allows us tosee nature with native eyes andunderstanding.

Today the skills are less easily acquired;many of the old masters are gone, andwithout the reality of living and having tosurvive in the wilderness, few have time toserve the long apprenticeship in the wild.

However if you are in no hurry to masterthem the techniques which follow can begradually learned and perfected. They are theskills of the native which, once learned, canenable you to be totally self sufficient in anatural environment. In studying them youwill certainly learn much about yourself. Butthis is not the only value of the skills, for evenin our age of space exploration the awareness,understanding and attunement to naturewhich is a natural by-product of their studywill boost your confidence, enhance yourappreciation of the fragile world we inhabitand enable you to enjoy your outdoorpursuits more fully. Like suddenly taking off ablindfold you will be dazzled by the view; theplants and animals around you will becomemore familiar, useful and meaningful.

All of the skills covered in the followingpages are described from practical ex-perience. In choosing which skills to include Ihave described those techniques which can bemost easily self taught, and wherever possiblehave included alternatives. Whilst this meansinevitably that I have described the techni-ques I most often employ myself, I must stressthat these are not the only ways to do things;hopefully you will gradually evolve your owntechniques.

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The aim is to describe the methods bywhich you can find natural alternatives tomodern outdoors equipment, and by so doingenhance your perception of nature. Since Ibegan my own study of these techniques myview of the natural world has radicallyaltered: the grass is like a carpet and the sky aceiling; many fears have evaporated allowingdeeper enjoyment, and on those few occasionseach year when I 'go walk about' and relysolely upon my woodcraft abilities andnature's gifts, the feeling of refreshedwholeness and connection with wild things isindescribable. Even when climbing orbackpacking, woodcraft skills cannot beturned off and you will find yourself watchingwoodpeckers and magnificent birds of preyfrom crag tops or, supplementing your pre-packaged 'trail mix' with fresh wild delights.Recently a youngster I was teaching said,'you would be alright if you lost your rucksackand all your gear wouldn't you?' He had hitthe nail on the head. When you understandnature and know how to procure your needsfrom her gifts there is little to fear andeverything to enjoy.

For my own part, the study of woodcrafthas taken me to many beautiful areas ofwilderness, and introduced me to experts,craftsmen and fine people, many of whom areinterested in wildlife and the future of ourown species. Undoubtedly these experienceshave influenced my own attitudes to naturealthough perhaps the strongest influence hasbeen my study of Native American survivaltechniques. Many of their ways coincide withNative Australian attitudes to the land and ifyou search hard enough the same attitudescan be found in Europe. Of course, wheneverone speaks of the native peoples of a continentthere are bound to be generalisations. Soallowing for this fact, and the truth that evennature-based cultures sometimes are guilty ofdamaging their environment, the following isa generalised perception of life common tomany hunter-gatherer communities aroundthe world both past and present.

* * *

The native American lived in a world ofmeaning. Every tree, plant, animal, rock,type of soil had its use. Through carefulobservation of wildlife and weather patterns,the natural cycle of a year might be divided

into as many as twelve or fourteen distinctseasons. A closeness to the Earth and adetailed understanding of the environmentwere the real secrets of survival. To them theEarth was their mother; people were bornfrom her and returned to her at death. Homewas the 'wilderness, and life was a gift to beenjoyed and made full use of, man's role innature being to 'look after the land. Theworkings of nature were a constant source ofwonder and fascination.

Tempered by the reality of their hunter-gatherer existence they did not cloud theirvision of life with romantic notions, theyaccepted that to live they must take the life ofa plant or an animal. This showed no lack ofreverence for the living, in fact many nativehunters would say prayers and leave offeringsto their prey who they believed allowed itselfto be caught because it recognised thehunter's need for food or clothing.

Without the equipment to see viruses andbacteria, diseases were attributed to badspirits, and were eloquently explained infolklore. Compared to our sophisticatedmodern view of the world these beliefs seemcomically primitive, but in reality theyprovided a detailed working guide to survivalin an untamed wilderness. Today we canunderstand and explain many of the phe-nomenon that so puzzled these hunters; weare able to avoid the bad spirits at a waterhole from making us ill by purifying ourwater. But this can make us complacent forwhen faced with a river to cross we have nomore control over the torrent than ourforefathers or the Indian brave - althoughthey stopped to leave an offering of food orsacred tobacco in recognition of the danger ofthe crossing. Recognising danger is the firststep to avoiding it. For this reason let usabsorb the native folklore that is of use and fillin the gaps with our own wisdom. And likethe native hunter or warrior, let us pay heedto the teachings of the animals, masters ofstealth, camouflage and awareness. This is thestudy of 'Woodlore'.

Days spent in the wilds or on the trail arechallenging and exciting—full of life—there isthe campfire, rain, sun and wind; the sweetcomforting scents of the differing seasons; thesounds of lizards scuttling under stones ormice daring to cross your trail; these are thethings you will remember. Yet there is risk,danger and intoxicating adventure in which

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you can drown if you are careless. So, beforeyou set out there are certain things which youshould be familiar with. I call them theTwelve Woodlores. Born out of experienceand observation they will keep you safe andpreserve the wilds for other adventurers.

The Twelve Woodlores

1. Don't challenge Nature, challengeyourself: Occasionally you will hear peopletalking about beating the elements by con-quering a mountain or crossing an ice cap orsome such brave deed. The truth is that thechallenge is internal. Have you the skill? Canyou overcome your fear? No one can beat theelements; all those who fail to heed thewarning signs or have the stupidity to pressahead regardless, die. Instead of takingunnecessary risks challenge yourself to knowwhen to turn back; learn to be more skilful;above all challenge yourself to betterunderstand the way nature works.

2. If you're roughing it, you're doingsomething wrong: Any fool can be un-comfortable, you gain no points for carrying aheavy backpack, or for any deeds of self-imposed endurance. While you may train foran expedition by roughing it, if there is a wayof making yourself more comfortable, withoutthe effort becoming a disadvantage, do so. Inemergency situations in particular, just asmall amount of hardship can prove to befatal once your level of morale has dropped.

3. Always give 100% effort the firsttime: Whether shelter building, firelighting,or whatever, if you don't set about it in theright way the first time you are wasting yourenergy and will simply have to start fromscratch again.

4. Aim to achieve maximum effi-ciency for the minimum effort: To workyou need energy; for energy you need food. Inthe outdoors finding food is work. When yougather your firewood for your fire do youcarry large armfuls to the log pile or do youonly fill your hands?

5. Never pass by an opportunity: Thisis very important. As you travel along, shouldyou find suitable water, food or firelightingmaterials, gather them as you pass since youmay not have the opportunity later whenthey are needed. This is particularly true offire building materials where by the end of aday's travel it may be raining or have rained

earlier soaking the available tinder. Many ofmy old shirts and jackets have birch barkpieces in the pockets that I gathered someyears ago now.

6. As far as you can, adapt yourexpectations to a level which you canmeet given the circumstances: If youcannot build a large comfortable shelter, besatisfied with a small shelter. If there is not awide variety of wild foods available to you, begrateful for the one type you can eat. Makeyour psychology work for you. Be realistic—make yourself comfortable but do not over-work yourself to achieve this: it's no usebuilding a palatial shelter if you then collapsewith exhaustion inside it. But also do notunderestimate what you can achieve.

7. Only eat that which you have pos-itively identified as edible: Do not trusttaste tests or in any way experiment withunfamiliar plants or other materials for use asfood. The only real way to eat in safety andconfidence is to learn what can be eaten andjust how to prepare the food before you setout. If this seems like hard work you shouldnot be eating wild foods.

8. Suspect all water as being infected:Even the cleanest, coolest most alluring watermay well be contaminated; you cannot tell ata glance. Boil or purify all water—check inparticular for signs of chemical pollution, thismay be concentrated by boiling!

9. The state of your fire is directlyproportionate to your level of morale:Whatever your level of morale, if you canlight a fire it will be raised, but if you fail itwill plummet like a stone. If you are notconfident of your ability to light a fire in therain it may well be better to wait until therain stops before trying.

10. Whenever gathering your resour-ces use natural selection as your guide,this is the 'way' of nature: Leave thestrong, harvest the weak; when gatheringfood you should always leave a proportion ofhealthy plants, shellfish or whatever tocontinue the line. By this lore stronger healthycreatures will have the best chances forsurvival and thereby proliferate in the future.

11. Take only memories leave onlyfootprints: Wherever possible minimise yourimpact upon the natural environment, andalways aim to leave a campsite in a betterstate than you found it.

12. Befit, able to swim and do not give

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in: Every single skill or technique whichfollows is easier to learn and master if you arefit. The outdoors is filled with risks and thedanger of unpredictable circumstances. Yourfitness may well be your last line of defence insuch circumstances.

* * *

These lores are the guide to successfulbackwoodsmanship, but in writing them Ihave assumed that you are able to carry outbasic first aid. If you cannot you shouldattend a course run by an organised bodysuch as the Red Cross. Almost invariablyevery outdoors man or woman will haverecourse to such knowledge at some time oranother. One aspect of first aid of particularrelevance in the outdoors is an understandingof how hot and cold environments affect yourbody, these are problems you will face on aregular basis.

ExposureExposure, or as it is more correctly called'mountain hypothermia', is the greatestenemy of the outdoors enthusiast. Gaining aworking knowledge of what it is and how toprevent it is the single most important firststep to enjoying outdoors pursuits in safety.So before we study any other skills let us lay asound foundation.

Mountain hypothermia is a profound cool-ing of the human body in the mountain oroutdoors environment, such that the tem-perature of the body's vital core falls to a levelat which mental and physical abilities areimpaired. If allowed to worsen it can lead todeath. It is a problem which is particularlyassociated with adverse weather conditions,or people who are exhausted.

While anyone can become exposed thosemost at risk are: the young, people from warmclimates especially those with dark skin,people who are slim with little insulatingsubcutaneous fat, the unfit, anyone who isinjured or in a state of shock, and people whohave low morale or are experiencing stresssuch as in the case of becoming lost. The riskfrom exposure is greatly reduced by the use ofoutdoors clothing appropriate to the preva-lent conditions.

The external factors: Cold, wet, andwind are the three external factors which areresponsible for exposure. A combination of

any two of these will bring about exposure,but the worst possible situation is when allthree are present. Of the three external factorsthe most dangerous is wind. Even on a warmdry day the wind can cause you to feel cold;this is known as wind chill. The stronger thewind the colder you will feel; also wind actingupon exposed flesh increases your rate ofdehydration. Wind chill can have dramaticeffects upon your body temperature, andmust never by underestimated. Exceptingreally unusual circumstances, cold on its owncan be countered with insulative clothing.Wet on its own such as a summer shower is oflittle danger.

The internal catalysts: When any two,or all three of the above factors are encoun-tered you can reduce heat loss from your bodyby donning protective clothing or findingshelter. To maintain a constant temperatureyou must keep your internal boiler stoked byeating food. Carbohydrates are the foodstuffmost readily converted into energy by yourbody, particularly sugars. If you fail to eatfood containing sufficient calories you willhasten the onset of exposure. Lack of food isan internal catalyst to exposure. There aretwo more internal catalysts to defend against:dehydration and exhaustion. Dehydrationimpairs your ability to convert food intoenergy and also impairs your ability todistribute heat effectively throughout yourbody. It can also adversely affect your powersof reasoning and decision making. Especiallyin cold weather, thirst is less obvious andeasily neglected.

By far the most dangerous internal catalystto exposure is exhaustion. This can beprevented in three ways: firstly by maintain-ing a level of personal fitness above thatordinarily required of your usual outdooractivity, secondly by reducing dehydrationand eating sufficient calories. But thirdly andmost importantly of all by avoiding over-stretching yourself and your energy reserves.When walking in the hills try to maintain aneven rate of heart beat despite the terrain.This will mean shortening your stride as youmove uphill which will seem slow but in thelong run you will be able to walk for longerand further in this way. If you are faced withappalling conditions do not rule out stoppingin shelter and waiting for better conditionswhile you are still fit and able, many peoplehave collapsed and died in the British hills

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while making a last dash for safety. The bestexample to follow is the Canadian Eskimo,who, if caught out in severe weather wouldfind the best shelter he could and sleep thestorm out, conserving his valuable reserves ofenergy.

Symptoms of exposure: The symptomsof exposure are anything but obvious. In factone of the greatest problems in diagnosing it,is that those developing exposure are oftenquiet and go unnoticed. They may also fail torecognise any changes in themselves andclaim that they are fine, so if you are in aleadership position it is important to watchclosely for signs of exposure. If you suspect amember of your party is developing theproblem you might shorten your route ormake an impromptu stop in the lee of somerocks for a warming brew and sugar snack.This is always more preferable than confront-ing a party member with the suggestion he issuffering from exposure.

Once exposure sets in, deterioration can bevery rapid and if untreated can lead to death.After a period of worsening lethargy andfurther loss of sensory faculties, shivering stopsand the body begins to close down in a lasteffort to maintain life, the casualty slippingfrom unconsciousness into a coma, which mayprecede death. Even though these stages areextremely dangerous, death is not the inevit-able outcome. With the advantages ofmodern medicine and first class rescueservices there is every reason not to give in.Should the casualty's respiration stop, treatthem for exposure and carry out artificialrespiration for as long as you can, makingcertain that you do not exhaust yourself andbecome a second casualty.

Signs to watch for are complaints or signs ofcoldness, tiring and lethargy, dragging feet,slurred speech, bursts of energy, lack ofphysical co-ordination, slipping and tripping,failing vision and involuntary shivering. Thelast two are serious warning signs which mustnot go unheeded. If you walk with a regularcircle of friends it is a good idea to try andadopt a steady calm walking pace by habit, inthis way any unusual behaviour signs willshow up more easily. A couple of years agowhile walking in the Peak district I cameacross one of the most flagrant examples ofinadequate attention to exposure I have everseen. While ascending a ridge with somefriends I noticed some unusual tracks. The

weather was not good, with heavy drivingrain, strong winds and visibility down to onlya few yards. Just as I was about to stop tofigure out what exactly was odd about thetracks we caught up with the person leavingthem. She was a lady of about middle age andaverage build who was dragging her feet andquite obviously developing exposure. She waspart of a rambling party a quarter of a mileahead. When we caught up with the rest ofthe party we discovered the leader was totallyunaware that she had been left behind.

Treating exposure on the trail:Treating exposure in the wilds is much moredifficult than taking steps to avoid it in thefirst place. The treatment must firstly preventany further cooling of the vital core and thengradually effect a rewarming. Place thecasualty out of the reach of the externalfactors which have contributed to the expo-sure, perhaps in a tent well insulated from theground. Then place him into a sleeping bag.If the casualty is wearing wet clothing it isbetter to place a waterproof layer such as apoly bag between him and the dry insulationof the sleeping bag. The classic rewarmingprocess is to place a fit and well person in thesleeping bag with the casualty as a heatingelement; this is best effected through skin toskin contact. If you are able to warm the tentor shelter with a stove do so but make surethat you allow adequate ventilation. If thepatient is capable of taking them, warm sweetdrinks can be administered.

The most important aspect of treatingexposure is that the rewarming must begradual, if you try to rewarm the patient tooquickly he can go into shock or become moreexposed. This happens because as your bodybecomes cool the blood vessels which carrywarm blood to the extremities contract toreduce heat loss from these areas, so that thebulk of body warmth is retained in the vitalcore. If these extremities are suddenly heatedby the use of hot water bottles or a fire, thevessels expand allowing the blood flow toresume normally. This sudden turning on ofthe radiators drains the vital core of heat,thereby worsening the problem.

A classic, more minor problem particularlyassociated with backwoodsmanship in winterconditions, is that while building a shelter thebackwoodsman may frequently stop to re-warm his hands by a fire and once they feelwarm again resume work. He is of course

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increasing heat loss for the above reasons. Thebest way to rewarm hands is to place themunder your armpits or in your crotch wherethey will warm and regain sensation but notto the excessive degree of fire warming. Withall of your rewarming efforts direct them atthe body core, chest and abdomen, leavingthe extremities till later.

While mentioning exposure we should alsolook at frostbite. As mentioned above, whenextremities become chilled, the body reducesheat loss from them by reducing the supply ofblood to these regions. Frostbite is the freezingof tissue and is greatly hastened if you aredehydrated, because your blood is moreviscous and cannot reach the extremities suchas finger tips and toes when the vesselscontract. Were you to be fully hydrated thewarm blood would reach these areas moreeasily.

Heat ExhaustionHeat exhaustion is caused by over exertion inconditions where the body's heat cannot belost quickly enough, particularly hot andhumid conditions. In simple terms your bodybecomes overheated and dehydrated, this isfrequently encountered in expeditions wherethe members are. working at altitudes abovethose of their normal environment, especiallywhen insufficient time has been allowed foracclimatisation.

Heat exhaustion can easily be avoided bywearing sensible light airy clothing and

reducing pack loads. Before starting the day'sactivities drink as much water as you can, andmake full use of the cooler temperature of theearly morning and late afternoon, stopping atmidday for a siesta.

The symptoms of heat exhaustion aregeneral discomfort in the head, headache andnausea, a ruddy complexion, cramp and evensome disorientation. If allowed to worsen thepatient may develop heat stroke, stop sweat-ing and eventually collapse. This is veryserious.

To treat heat exhaustion rest the patient insome cooling shade, loosen his or her clothing,apply wet towels to the limbs, and graduallyadminister clean water to rehydrate them.Under no circumstances give the patient salt.

* * *

So having equipped yourself with a firmfoundation for outdoors safety and a skeletonof lores on which to hang the details of the •following skills, you can begin to develop yourexpertise. The most important thing toremember is that you will only learn thefollowing techniques by practise; practise andexperience is what counts. I cannot stress thisenough; the only way to learn is to have a goyourself. Simply reading, watching or lis-tening is not enough. To help you in yourendeavours I have included as many clearillustrations or photographs of the techniquesas space will allow.

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Possibles'Although I had lost my rifle and all my plunder, I felt quiterich when I found my knife, flint and steel in my shot pouch.

These little fixin's make a man feel right peart when he isthree or four hundred miles from anybody or any place.'

(Hugh Glass according to Hall)

Equipment, kit, duffle, tackle, gear—whatever you call it—has always been amajor topic of conversation between outdoorsfolk. During the hey day of the fur traders,rifles and other items which exchangedbetween Indians and mountain men earnedpowerful reputations and some such asHawken rifles and Hudson Bay point blanketsare still sought after today. So respected wasthe judgement of these pioneers that everyaspiring mountain man would try to emulatethem.

Today things are somewhat different; repu-tations are not earned in the field so much asin the media where the hype and publicitysurrounding the launch of new outdoors gearmatches that of any other product. A sideeffect of this is that fewer and fewer manufac-turing firms put practicality and durabilitybefore a fashionable colour and styling. Whilesuch clothing and equipment is suitable forday hikers, the more adventurous outdoorsperson who aims to explore the wilder regionsof the world often has to fall back on thesoldier-proof khaki and camouflage clothingof the military. In most cases an unpopularchoice.

For the emerging outdoors enthusiast nopath has more hidden pitfalls and hurdlesthan the one which leads to the outdooroutfitters. Walk into any outdoor pursuitsshop and you are met with a sophisticatedsales pitch on the latest revolutionary mat-

erials, and a range of clothing supplied inevery colour of the spectrum and sporting theprice tag to match. Fortunately though, thebackwoodsman's needs are simple, and theequipment he or she carries will form thefoundation of a kit that is suitable for mostother more specialist outdoor pursuits.

Before discussing clothing and equipmentthough, I would point out that the mostimportant items any outdoors person cancarry are know-how and training. These aremuch harder to lose than a knife or cagoule,and will never be left behind. Train yourselfto be self reliant and able to improvise analternative for every piece of equipment orclothing you carry. Use your knowledgeinstead of high-tech gadgetry. So often I seefolks burdened down with all manner ofknick-knacks which are unnecessary ballast inthe backcountry. On one particular occasionI met a backpacker who carried a survival kitwhich weighed as much as his tent andsleeping bag combined! He did not seem torealise that his tent, sleeping bag, knife andother conventional gear was the only survivalkit he needed. By simplifying your needs youwill lighten your load as well as your budget.

Like many people, when I first startedcamping I couldn't afford either a sleepingbag or a tent, and I was forced to improvisecooking pots out of old biscuit tins and a tentfrom polythene. I can clearly remember anearly hike made with a school friend who was

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also adept at improvisation. Without sleepingbags we spent the night around the campfirewarmed by the flames and above all enjoyingthe sense of adventure and new-found free-dom we had discovered. The advantage of asleeping bag was not obvious even then and itwas several years and many trips later that Ibought my first sleeping bag—a two-seasonbag which on its first outing was pressed intoservice in a winter bivouac with temperaturesas low as —27 degrees. Now I can look backat my tenderfoot years and laugh at the firsttime I sat on a sleeping mat and realised itsobvious advantage, or the snowy night I sitedmy bivouac in the wrong place and was keptawake by repeated facefuls of snow from theswaying trees. But that is the essence of thegreat outdoors: the excitement and wildnessof it all which make the hardships seemunimportant. Today when I work with youthgroups where the youngsters are fully equip-ped from the start, I realise that it was inthose green novice days that I was temperedto the trail and I wonder if they aren't missingsomething.

The equipment list which follows is notessential, it simply represents the gear youmight eventually gather. Of the students Ihave taught it is often those who cannotafford the fancy gear who learn bushcraft thequickest and most thoroughly—and in doingso gain in experience and confidence.

ClothingYour outdoors clothing is your first defenceagainst the elements; many disasters could beaverted if everyone who ventured into wildplaces wore the correct clothing. So what isthe 'correct' clothing? In Britain this hasbecome rather stereotyped into cagoule,breeches, walking boots and a day-sackcontaining the obligatory cheese and picklesandwich. The answer to the question isclothing which suits the prevailing conditionswhile allowing full and free movement of thewhole body. Comfort is your instinctive guideto correct clothing. Then it should be easilyadaptable to the widest range of situationsyou will face. In hot conditions your clothingshould be light and airy, preferably with longsleeves and trousers which will preventsunburn and reduce moisture loss. In coldclimates your clothing should enable you tomaintain an even body temperature. Thismay mean extra layers for use when standing

or sitting still and clothing which can be easilyvented to prevent you over heating whenworking hard. As a general rule stick toclothing which is uncomplicated with theminimum fittings to go wrong. Always it isbest to work on the layer principle so that youhave maximum flexibility; three or four layersof t-shirt, shirt, then woollen jumper jacketwill cater for many more situations than just aheavy jumper and waterproof.

Underwear: As the layer of clothingclosest to your skin, it is most important thatyour underwear is chosen carefully and fitswell; it can otherwise be the cause of somenasty problems. Any clothing that is too tightwill not provide adequate insulation in coldweather, but underwear in particular cancause painful chafing; especially when dampfrom perspiration. Comfortable underwear isa priority when dressing for the outdoors, so,choose carefully and if in doubt buy on thelarge side. If you expect to be wading throughrivers you might substitute a swimmingcostume, but this is generally too tight fornormal use.

In really cold weather you will needunderwear which covers as much of your skinas possible with long sleeves and legs.Thermal underwear though a little moreexpensive should seriously be considered,otherwise those made from synthetic mat-erials, are cheap, long lasting and effective.More expensive still are silk garments—butthey are more comfortable and some wouldsay warmer. Cotton can be worn in dry, coldenvironments, but it loses its warmth whenwet, as it has the unfortunate habit ofabsorbing moisture like blotting paper andbeing reluctant to give it up; it is better toavoid cotton underwear.

Do not wear warm underwear simplybecause the weather is cold; consider whetheror not you really need to. Consider yourmetabolism, your amount of body fat, andhow much strenuous activity you will bedoing. Make your choice of clothing to suitthe conditions you are to encounter.

Shirts and sweaters: Usually the secondlayer of your clothing, the choice of materialfalls between cotton, synthetics and wool.Cotton shirts are best suited to hot climates,although brushed cotton is an acceptablesecond layer in cold dry conditions. Woolshirts are an excellent choice for winter or as awarm night garment on the summer trail.

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Wool has long been a favourite materialamongst hunters and trappers, because of itsability to remain warm when wet. In reallycold weather I prefer a roll neck sweater to ashirt. Increasingly there are synthetic al-ternatives to wool which should be consideredas they are often as warm yet absorb lessmoisture than wool, making them lighterwhen wet and enabling them to dry farquicker.

Jersey and thermal jacket: While theoiled wool Jersey or Arran pullovers are still acommon sight in the hills of Britain they areno longer the most popular. Now they mustcompete with a host of synthetic alternatives,most notably the fibre piles. The greatadvantage of fibre pile is its ability to copewith wet conditions. It is also very hardwearing; I have a Helly Hansen pile pulloverwhich is now seven years old and still inconstant use. Very often this pullover is theouter layer of my clothing; had it been wool,it would long ago have been pulled to piecesby snagging branches and thorns. Howeverwool still remains a favourite material whichis functional and aesthetically pleasing; it isalso less costly to the environment to produce.

Thermal jackets are best suited to extremecold and situations where you may bestanding around for long periods. For theoutdoorsman or woman the weight of such agarment would be more usually better spenton several independent layers of insulativeclothing. In this way you can tailor theinsulation of your clothing far more closely toyour actual needs.

Trousers: Trousers are a most essentialarticle of clothing for many reasons. Theygive protection from the ravages of coarsefoliage and biting insects as well as providingessential warmth in cold weather and shade inhot. They take a constant pounding frombeing in constant movement as well as fromsitting down on the ground, and unlike otherlayers of clothing which come off and on withthe changing weather, trousers are expectedto do their job regardless. Yet for all this theyremain the article of clothing that is least wellserved by most clothing manufacturers.

What is needed are trousers that arelightweight, which dry fast when wet, whileremaining strong, are resistant to abrasionand do not melt with the merest spark from acampfire. They should also provide adequateresistance to wind. As yet I have only found a

few varieties of polycotton trousers to meetthese demands, the best of which are thelightweight trousers used by the British Army.

Windproof jackets: To stay warm youmust prevent the loss of body heat. This is bestachieved by using layers of insulative clothingto trap layers of insulative air. To take fulladvantage of such layers you must preventthem moving or being replaced by cold air.This is where a windproof shell to yourclothing is essential. This can either be aspecific garment such as a ventile or buckskinjacket or can be a waterproof cagoule.

Socks and gloves: The hardest parts ofyour body to keep warm are the extremitieswhich are farthest from your heart—especially your feet. Always make certain youhave plenty of spare pairs of socks. 80% wool,20% nylon mixes are the best. To avoidblisters check the socks for any fluff balls orloose threads which may rub sore spots.Change your socks when they become dampfrom perspiration. You should always havedry socks to wear at the end of the day. Somepeople prefer two pairs of thinner socks to onethicker pair.

Because you can warm your hands underyour armpits or between your thighs, glovesare slightly less essential. However theyshould be of either wool or pile and preferablya mitten design. Some excellent versions arecurrently available which have waterproofouters with changeable inners. In cold, dampconditions carry two pairs.

Footwear: This has been a point ofcontention for many years. In general I wouldadvise you to choose a quality pair of walkingboots with a sole that allows the fitting of awaterproof gaiter. In this way you areequipped for the mountains and bad weatherconditions. Make certain you choose the typeof boot which has a flexible sole. It will takesome time to wear the boot in so never buyboots just prior to an expedition.

My own preference in footwear is for goodquality fell running shoes. These are light andcomfortable, less tiring to use than boots andenable me to remain nimble. They are theclosest approximation to moccasins that I canfind, but with the added advantage of a goodgripping sole. In damp weather they are notas waterproof as boots, though they do dryquicker; and I can carry two pairs withseveral changes of socks and still they weighless than boots. However in really damp

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conditions or winter mountain conditions Iresort to good boots. You must make yourown decision, though if in doubt, don't chooseexpensive boots until you have the experienceto decide for yourself.

Head gear: You will be surprised at justhow much warmth your body loses from yourhead. Always carry a hat in cold weather; themost versatile of these is a woollen balaclavawhich can be worn either rolled up as anormal hat or rolled down to give almost totalcover to your head if the weather really turnscold. In hot humid conditions a bush hat willprovide protection from sun and bitinginsects.

Waterproofs: It is in the field of wat-erproof clothing that modern materials reallystrike gold. In recent years there has been thedevelopment of breathable fabrics which aretotally waterproof yet which allow perspir-ation to escape, meaning you stay drier inside.Most notable of these is Gore-tex whichdespite its high price is invaluable. To helpthe consumer this fabric is only available tomanufacturing firms that meet the Gore-texmanufacturing standards such as Berghaus.

* * *

Cutting toolsThere is no tool more useful in the backcoun-try than a knife; it will enable you to constructand improvise from local materials with swiftand efficient ease. At a pinch any knife willdo, but the seasoned woodsman learns to bevery particular about his choice of knife. Thesize, weight and design of a knife are the vitalfactors, always assuming that it is made ofsuitable material. For the full range of jobs itwill be put to, no one knife is perfect foreverything. For this reason you should ideallycarry two or more knives; usually a smallwhittling knife and a larger camp knife. I usea range of knives for different purposes: if I ambackpacking I am most likely to take a smallhome-made carbon steel sheath knife,whereas if I am travelling further afield I willcarry my large knife plus a small folding knife.

Knives do not come cheaply these days andthere is much controversy surrounding theiruse. In general, people underestimate the sizeand strength of knife they need. Your choiceof knife will almost certainly be a matter ofpersonal preference and if you are unused to

using a knife for long periods you willprobably buy several before you finally findthat which suits you best. If you are in doubtask a friend or expert to explain their choiceand show you the knives they prefer to use;their advice and experience will be inva-luable.

My own search for a practical knife led meto many different makes of knife, even tomaking and designing my own. There aremany different factors to consider whenchoosing your knife, all of which will have abearing on its field performance. The follow-ing are the key criteria of choice.

Stainless or carbon steel: The dif-ference between carbon and stainless steelknives is more than just that stainless does notrust whereas carbon steel does. Carbon steel issofter than stainless which means that it iseasier to sharpen but will not hold its edge aslong (although there are now some highcarbon steels which are hard and virtuallyrust proof). In general you are more likely tobuy a good knife made of carbon steel thanstainless; the knife market is flooded withcheap stainless steels which do not take asharp edge. Stainless is however a morehygienic steel which will resist corrosionunder the worst conditions; if you can find asuitable knife made from a high qualitysurgical or cutlery steel you have the mostperfect compromise. These steels, while notcheap, will take a razor edge and hold itthrough thick and thin. With experience youshould be able to look at a knife blade andjudge the properties by the colour of the steel;a good stainless steel tends to be a blue greywhile cheap steel such as that used in manydiving knives is more a yellow grey.

Temper: When a blade is manufacturedit is hardened by heat and then temperedwhich is a lowering of the hardness to preventbrittleness. If a blade is soft tempered it willnot hold an edge but will resist chipping. Ablade which is hard tempered will take a verysharp edge and hold it but will become brittleand prone to chipping.

For a woodsman's knife you need a bladewhich is tempered with the best of bothqualities—soft enough to resist chipping andshattering yet hard enough to take and holdan edge. The hardness of the steel is a part ofthe manufacture process of modern kniveswhich can be precisely controlled and isquantified in either a Rockwell or Vickers

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hardness rating. A reputable manufacturershould be able to give you the specifications oftheir blades on request; although every steelhas its own properties, a hardness ratingbetween 55 and 58 Rockwell is about theaverage for a good woodsman's knife,although 55 or below (i.e. softer) might alsobe acceptable. Unfortunately many manufac-turers over-temper their blades to gain goodedge retention; these are actually dangerousas they can shatter or break suddenly whenunder leverage.

If, as I do, you carry a small and a largeknife, have the small knife of a higher temperand use your larger knife for prising andlevering.

A good cutting tool is essential for any outdoors person,the wilder the country you explore the more important itbecomes. The rule is always to buy well the first time.1 Light tomahawk made by Estwing. 2 Crooked knife,made by the author to a native American design; acombination draw knife and gouge. 3 Folding bush sawfor cutting logs or even snow blocks, by Sandvic. 4 Asmall general purpose knife made by the author. 5 TheWilkinson Sword survival knife, designed by the authorto combine the ideals of a woodsman's knife with therequirements of an expeditioner. 6 The Wilkinson SwordType 'D' knife adapted by the author, an alternative forthose who prefer carbon steel to stainless.

Design: Your large knife should be of asize you can easily carry. Machette andtwo-foot blades are common features onsurvival courses but are seldom found ingenuine use outside of tropical climates; youraim is to carry a complementary system ofcutting tools. A survival knife is a general-purpose knife which should be equally athome either hammering in tent pegs or doingfine carving. It needs therefore to span arange of tools in function, giving you max-imum mechanical advantage for slashing andchopping, while remaining strong enough tobe used as a frue for splitting. Yet it must alsobe of a size convenient to carry on a belt or ina daysack. The size I prefer for this style of

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knife is overall about 310mm in length with ablade 6mm thick and varying in widthaccording to a shape which is efficient forcutting. The blade and handle should be all ofone piece of metal, the handle remainingstrong throughout, not narrowing at theguard as many fine skinning knives do. Aguard is not essential but is a good idea if youare not used to using a knife extensively. Theguard needs only to prevent your fingersslipping onto the edge itself. Saw backs,hollow handles and other gizmos are notessential but provided they do not weaken orhamper the knife I would rather have themthan not; they often can prove very useful inunusual situations.

The grip should not be metal but made of auser-friendly material and oval shaped toaccommodate your grasp. It is sometimesnecessary to build up or carve down a grip tofit your hand. I prefer not to wear a lanyardwith a knife of the above dimensions; it shouldnot be so heavy as to pull loose from yourhand, and if it does you are either not using itcorrectly or it does not fit your hand properly.If you decide though that you prefer to use alanyard, fit it so that the blade will not swingtowards you if you lose your grasp.

Small folding knives should have a bladeabout three inches long, my own favourite formany years being the Opinel N07 which canbe used to produce sparks for firelighting (seeChapter Four). Choose a rugged knife whichwill take rough use (not a gadget knife); onegood blade is all that you need. If you choosea knife with too long a blade you will betempted to lever with it; this is not good forany hinged blade.

Maintenance and sharpening: A goodknife becomes a part of your hand enablingyou to produce the finest wood carvings. Itdeserves the best care and attention you cangive it. Stainless steel blades are sterile,mechanical and efficient requiring onlysharpening but were it not for their practicaluse I would never tolerate their presence inmy rucksack. A carbon steel blade on theotherhand sings as it cuts; it tarnishes inresponse to sap and weather, always changingits appearance, demanding attention to belavished upon it. In time such blades acquirea stain or patina which gives them someprotection from the elements but care mustalways be taken to clean the blade and honethe edge.

Once your knife is sharp, keep it so by regular honing. Icarry a set of two ceramic sharpening rods (coarse andsmooth) in a hand-made holder.

Two things are needed to sharpen yourknives: a large Arkansas or Washita sharpen-ing stone for serious base camp sharpeningand a set of coarse and fine ceramic rods foruse in the field. If you keep your edgeconstantly honed—which may mean stoppingto re-hone it in mid job—you will have fewproblems maintaining the edge over longperiods away from a sharpening stone. In theworst circumstances you can use a smoothboulder from a river bed as a hone.

The sharpening stone should be used tomaintain the correct angle of edge. To beused most efficiently they must be lubricatedto prevent metal particles clogging the pores.Any stone you expect or intend to carry onthe trail should only be lubricated with spittleor water. But stones which you know willremain in the work shop, can be used withoil—my preference is to use a fifty-fiftymixture of motor oil and methylated spirits.Worked together into an emulsion on thestone this keeps the stone clean and yet allowsit to bite into the steel.

The possibles bag: Sometimes called a dittybag, the possibles bag contains those vital bitsand pieces of equipment which make lifepossible! You might call this the backwoods-man's survival kit. There are no hard and fastrules about what this should contain; thecontents will probably change from season toseason and trip to trip. But the following arethe items which seem to live permanently inmy possibles bag, in addition to the small

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The items most often found in my possibles bag are: compass, loud whistle, waterproof match safe, insect repellent,folding knife, personal medical kit, three-inch crepe bandage, strong twine, honing rods, chinagraph pencil.

folding knife and set of ceramic sharpeningrods.

Compass with a whistle attached: A compass isan essential piece of navigational equipmentwhich will give you the freedom needed tostrike safely off trail in the backcountrywithout losing your way. An important partof your outdoors know-how is almost totallyintangible; it is the store of experiences yougain by moving about confidently off trail,amongst the shier animals. The whistle is thesimplest way to attract attention and hassaved the lives of many outdoors people. Theinternational emergency signal is six blasts inquick succession with a minute gap. Alongwith these navigational aids I often carry achinagraph pencil so that I can make notesand annotations to my route on a coveredmap or map case.

Matches: Take strike-anywhere friction(red) matches. To keep them safe and dryfrom the elements I use a match safe. This is asmall box with screw lid which is waterproof.The design I prefer is made of alloy and has asmaller box inside which actually holds the

matches—the idea being that you can lift thematches out and strike them inside theprotection of the outer case which is linedwith a striker paper. I find this rather fussyand have modified my match safe by fixing apiece of coarse wet-and-dry paper to theunderside of the inner case; this is a morereliable striker but will only work withstrike-anywhere matches. Contain thematches in your match safe so that the headsare down and you will not impart moisture tothe heads when you remove a match for use.It is also a good idea to carry an artificial flintbar in your match safe as a back up. This canbe used on the tinders described in chapterfour. On a major trip I will carry a backupsupply of matches in another match safe andin another part of my duffle.

Insect repellent: Usually only a small bottle ofvery strong repellent. In general I try to avoidusing this if at all possible but there comes atime in every outdoorsman's experience whenthe mosquitos become too much and begin tointerfere with the enjoyment of a canoe trip orcamp-out. Choose repellent which contains

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95% Diuethylmetatoluamide and keep it wellaway from your compass or any perspex orplastic as it is a solvent and will make thesematerials opaque if it comes into contact withthem.

Emergency medical kit: Designed to fit intothe back pocket of a pair of jeans, this is morethan a first-aid kit and contains prescriptiondrugs tailored to my specific backcountryneeds. This kit has grown from experience.For years I carried a comprehensive first aidkit in my rucksack but on one occasion I hadleft base camp and hiked deep into a forestfollowing a deer trail taking as was usual, onlymy knife, waterbottle and metal cup. Havingcome to a suitable site I stopped to brew aherbal tea and set about shaping a bow drillto light the fire. It was a hot day and therewere a lot of horse flies buzzing around. Justas I was making some hefty chops to shape thehearth, my eye was momentarily distractedby a fly and the knife cut flesh instead ofwood. That was as close as I have ever cometo removing a digit. Somehow my reflexesstopped the blade at the bone which could beclearly seen in the cut which began to wellwith blood. Wrapping the cut tightly with mybandana I remembered that I had somepowdered yarrow in the bottom of myday-sack which helped staunch the bleedingand prevent infection (see Chapter Six). Thejourney back to camp was much longer thanthe journey out, and gave me plenty of time toconsider the stupidity of carrying my knifeand no first aid kit. In some of the regions Ihave travelled alone, this relatively minorwound could well have proven fatal. The kit Inow carry is deliberately small enough to notbe a burden and yet is sophisticated enough toprovide practical aid for serious injuriesassuming that bandages can be improvised.

Make certain you learn from my mistakeand carry a small-cuts kit at the very leastwhenever you carry your knife, for it is acertainty that if you use a knife, no matterhow careful you are, you will eventually cutyourself. As your experience grows you willcome to know your medical needs very welland might then consider consulting yourdoctor about upgrading your first-aid kit, tocope with those situations when you are threeor four days away from assistance. Along withthe medical kit there should be room in yourpossibles bag for a three-inch crepe bandage.

Twine: Another item which commonly

travels in my possibles bag is a reel of strongtwine which is an essential part of any outfit. Iprefer to carry a twine made from naturalfibres as this will decay swiftly if accidentlyleft behind in the 'bush'. But if you wouldrather carry the strongest, use Dacron sea-fishing line.

Torch: A mini maglite torch with freshbatteries is the last perennial traveller in myoutfit. These torches are one of the few piecesof modern equipment which are earning areputation the old way by being simply thefavourite amongst professionals.Other items: If I am travelling in the moun-tains I will usually augment this equipmentwith a large survival bag, some strong nyloncord, a slow-burning candle and a head torchwith spare batteries.

Other items you might consider carryingare a fishing kit, emergency flares or smokedistress signals.

Water BottleWithout water you cannot live for more thana few days; while water is heavy to carry youshould always carry some with you. There aremany good designs of water bottle available.Military waterbottles are excellent forwoodcraft purposes. It is better to opt for alarge rather than a small bottle, my ownpreference being for a water bag, or best of alla U.S. Army 2-quart canteen.

If your canteen comes in a cover, include aMillbank bag for filtering sediment out ofmuddy water. Purification tablets can also becarried in the cover, some of which areequipped with a special pocket for thispurpose.

Sleeping Bag and BlanketThis is one of the most important items ofoutdoors equipment you will ever buy. Yoursleeping bag should give you countless nightsof silent slumber on the trail. But buying asleeping bag today can be a complicatedbusiness. Each year sees the announcement ofa new design, or super-warm synthetic filling.Without going into too great detail, here aresome practical tips to guide you in yourchoice. When it actually comes to makingyour decision ask around amongst dealers andmanufacturers outlining to them the sort ofuse your bag will be put to. Don't skimp onthis item of equipment; a good night's sleep isworth its weight in gold. Sleeping bags come

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in a variety of fillings but very basically theycan be broken down into three categories

Down-filled bags: These are thewarmest bags weight for weight and havecaptured the hearts of many mountaineers.They are best suited to dry cold conditions orto campers who always use a tent with asewn-in ground sheet. If they become dampthey lose their loft (the ability of the filling totrap air) and with it their insulative prop-erties. Even in the driest, coldest conditionsthis can happen if the user does not air his bagthoroughly each day to dry out the moisturegiven off by the human body. Used for whatthey are intended, these bags are excellent,and can be used for general purpose use aswell -so long as you keep them dry. Theirgreatest drawback is their price tag which inthe case of the finest bags can reach fourfigures.

Bags with synthetic fillings: These archeavier warmth for warmth than the naturalfilling bags. But in recent years they haveswamped the market because they are acomparatively low price and have the mar-keting advantage of not losing as much loftwhen wet so should provide better insulationin damp conditions. This does not howevermean that it does not matter if the bagsbecome wet. Any sleeping bag which becomesdamp will lose much of its insulative prop-erties. These fillings in my experience do notlast as well as natural filled bags.

Fibre-pile bags: These are excellent indamp conditions and for mountain rescue useas they conform well to the user's body,trapping air efficiently. They are also verycomfortable to use, as well as being hardwearing, but their drawback is that they areheavy and bulky. Fibre pile liners designed toupgrade a sleeping bag are very useful.

Most manufacturers specify what tem-peratures their bags are designed to be usedin. This is most usually in the form of a seasonrating: 1 season being designed for summeruse and 4 or 5 seasons being designed for thecoldest conditions. For most practicalsituations a 3 to 4 season bag is the best. If ithas a full length zip fitted even better, as youcan then vent it to cool off in warmerconditions.

The shape of the bag and the way it isconstructed also have a large bearing onperformance. Although most modern manu-facturers of quality sleeping bags use good

construction techniques, what you end upwith will depend more or less upon what youhave paid.

For woodcraft use you will need a versatilebag. Choose one which has a 3-4 seasonrating and a full length zip. A synthetic fillingis the most suitable for bivouac use and veryimportantly make sure your bag is mummyshaped with a cowl hood and boxed foot.When you have searched through the bro-chures and found a selection of bags go andtry them out in the shop. Make absolutelycertain that the bag is big enough for you,allowing adequate shoulder and knee room.Lastly try to choose a bag with a comfortablelining. My favourite bag which should havebeen replaced ages ago, survives because ithas a red polycotton liner which is reallyinviting and comfy. The previous bag had awhite nylon lining which wore better, but wasnot so inviting or comfortable against theskin. Remember at the end of the day you arebuying a good night's sleep. (See ChapterThree for natural beds.)

Sleeping MatsDespite having the warmest sleeping bag, youwill be cold without insulation between youand the ground. A sleeping bag works bytrapping an insulative layer of air but whereyou lay, it is compressed and cannot provideinsulation. For this reason a sleeping mat ofsome sort is even more important than asleeping bag. Several times I have slept inrelative comfort with only a thermarestbeneath me and a cagoule for a blanket.

Any sleeping mat will do although some arebetter than others. Closed-cell mats are warmbut somewhat uncomfortable. They are verystrong and long lasting but difficult to pack.Their chief advantage is that they are verycheap. Air beds are comfort personified butneed a jersey or some similar garment placedon top of them to prevent your heat beingcarried away down the channels between thesegments. They are also heavy and prone topuncture.

But without any doubt the best bed is thethermarest which combines the warmth of afoam mattress with the comfort of an air bed,These beds are not cheap but more than anyother item, will contribute to your beautysleep, I have used a standard three-quarterlength version for many years, camping onrock, forest floors littered with thorns, and in

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cactus-filled deserts without ever developing apuncture. After ten minutes on the mat itwarms you like an electric underblanket andbest of all, when packed up, will easily fitinside your rucksack. (See Chapter Three fornatural sleeping mats.)

ShelterFor a light shelter the tarp or army poncho isthe most versatile. These can be easily erectedas fly sheets in a variety of ways usingimprovised pegs and some nylon cordage.They are strong and cheap. In recent yearsGore-tex bivvi bags have become popular asthey simply fit over your sleeping bag butthey are very expensive for what they are.

Tents are more specialised shelters whichlike sleeping bags must be carefully chosen tomeet your needs. Take specialist and detailedadvice before investing in such a long-termshelter. (See Chapter Three for naturalshelters.)

CookwareIt is in the camp kitchen that stainless steelreally wins out over all of the rest. While youcan improvise billy cans from catering-sizedtin cans nothing really equals the convenienceof well-designed cooking pots. Round are bestfor they are easily cleaned, cook food evenlyand fit well over both fires and hike stovesalike. Choose your pans to have lids andall-metal fittings if they are to be used on thecampfire. If you intend to carry only one pancarry a large one rather than a small one asthis is more practical—especially in regionswhere you have to boil all of your drinkingand washing water.

For most of your needs one large pan and acup will suffice adding an extra pan for up tothree people. With your cookset (whichshould be contained in a stuff sack) carry astainless steel spoon and fork, and anycondiments you prefer to use (see ChapterTen).

RucksacksTo carry all of this gear you will need arucksack of a suitable design. Here againmodern technology has revolutionised mat-ters and made the choice a matter ofcomplication. Whatever rucksack you buyand whatever the manufacturers claim, it isnot going to make your burden any lighter.

But a well-chosen rucksack will enable you tocarry the load further and for longer byallowing you to maintain a good bodyposture. In general you should be looking fora reputable make of rucksack which isdesigned to carry the majority of your load ator slightly above shoulder height. Avoid theold-fashioned rucksack which is wider at thebottom than top.

Make certain that the rucksack is fittedwith a padded waistbelt which is designed totransmit some of the load to your hips.Women must choose their rucksacks particu-larly carefully as most sacks on the market aredesigned around male anatomy. Despitemanufacturers' claims, depending on theshape of your back, one make of rucksack mayfit you better than another. Try them on andif possible ask shop assistants to load themwith genuine gear for weight rather thanfeatherweight padding for bulk. The best wayto find a sack which suits you though is to tryor borrow a friend's to gain some idea of fitand how design features work. Some of thebetter-known manufacturers produce sacks indifferent back lengths. Check with them howto measure your back to discover what sizeyou need. Be very wary of over enthusiasticshop assistants; a wrongly fitting rucksackcould very easily damage your back.

Choose a large capacity sack which hascompression straps that allow you to reducethe sack's volume when you are carryingaverage loads. The large size is not intendedfor weight but to accommodate the bulk ofwinter insulative clothing. Choose a sackwhich has an internal frame which willconform to the shape of your back; this ismore comfortable and convenient than anexternal frame. Lastly, more by personalpreference than practical import, choose asimple sack without too many straps andbuckles.

In GeneralWhile good outdoors equipment will enhanceyour enjoyment of the outdoors it is all tooeasy to become preoccupied with it. Equip-ment does not make you a better outdoors-man or woman; that comes from skill,patience, enthusiasm and practise. For thatreason I have deliberately curbed my discuss-ion with regards to gear.

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Shelter and Protection'When your days of travelling are over, and it is your turn toremember the adventures and excitements of the past, it is by

your former campsites that your memories will take theirbearings. So take my advice and choose your campsite wellwhen setting up for the night, for in truth you are setting a

stage for your memories.'

(Unknown traveller)

Occasionally people are lured far from theircampsite by the hypnotic meander of a brookor the glimpse of a spire-like peak waiting tobe climbed; the halfway point of the day'stravel is passed unnoticed, and a return tocamp before nightfall impossible. For thetenderfoot such a moment can be frightening;in the silence of the forest the shadowslengthen and the obscuring trees can seem tocrowd threateningly, causing him to panic.For the experienced outdoorsman, however,such a moment is the perfect excuse for amemorable wilderness adventure, perhaps amoonlit hike back to camp or an impromptucampout.

Secure in the knowledge of his practisedskills, the experienced backwoodsman willselect his building needs from the naturalmaterials which surround him and willcalmly construct his home for the night. Bythe time the dark blanket of night has fallen,he will have settled down by the warmth ofhis campfire and be listening to the nightshiftgoing about their dark business, until with ahearty yawn he falls victim to the sweetaroma of his leaf bed.

The ability to find or provide yourself withshelter is a fundamental step towards being athome in the outdoors. In most situations thisis not a difficult task to achieve, but it nearlyalways requires the investment of physical

labour. For this reason it is essential that youknow how to go about the task in as efficient away as possible. The key to a good shelter ispractical planning and organisation. Anyshelter must provide two things; firstly protec-tion from the prevailing elements and secon-dly the comfort of a good night's sleep. At thesame time it must not be so ambitious as todrain you of precious energy reserves. Striveto achieve maximum efficiency for minimumeffort.

Having been a witness to shelter buildingby widely varying individuals and groups ofindividuals I have come to realise that thereare essentially four 'internal' factors whichwill determine how successful your shelterbuilding efforts will be:

1. Attitude: In a wilderness situation youwill find life less stressful if you are able toadapt your attitude and aspirations to yourimmediate physical needs. In this way com-fort becomes a relative consideration. Themost successful backwoods men and womenare those who make the most of theircircumstances and optimistically anticipatean improvement.

2. Brains: Your greatest asset in life isyour ability to conceive an idea before you setto work. Yet all too often shelters show littleor no planning in their construction. When Iset about building a shelter, at least 80% of

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the process is planning: choosing the shelterlocation, carefully scrutinizing the lie of theland, searching for a site which might providea beneficial feature to include in the shelterdesign and visualising the shelter in situ atevery stage of construction so that by the timeI start to gather the building materials I knowprecisely what I am looking for. As the shelteris erected I remain flexible and will makealterations to my original plan as I gain abetter understanding of the building mat-erials I am employing.

3. Confidence: Without any doubt,anyone who has been taught and practisedshelter building begins with a great advan-tage. Experienced people, even when facedwith a totally alien environment will set aboutthe task of building a shelter with a selfassurance which not only totally removes thefear of failure but reduces it to a series ofpractical problems. The advantage of practisecannot be overstressed in shelter building.

4. Determination: All too often the inex-perienced will spend too long building thestructure, leaving little or no time beforenightfall to insulate it or gather wood for afire. The wise woodsman or woman workshard to finish their shelter early so that heenjoys a warm night, insulated from the cold.While as a general rule you should work at aleisurely pace in the outdoors this does nothold true for shelter building. If you do notachieve a warm, comfortable night's sleepyour morale is greatly reduced and the nextmorning, instead of getting on with otherimportant tasks you must spend valuableforaging time improving your shelter. Thequicker you complete and refine your shelterthe quicker you are going to adapt to yournew environment.

What Type of Shelter?There is an unlimited number of shelterdesigns at your disposal for a wide variety ofsituations and environments. So how do youchoose which suits you best? The answer isusually decided for you by the circumstances.Is your shelter for an emergency? Are youinjured? Are you alone? Is your shelter anovernight shelter or a long-term shelter?What building materials do you have at yourdisposal? How much daylight do you haveleft? What useful materials do you have withyou that could be incorporated in theconstruction? What must the shelter protect

you from? Can you light a fire? Do you have asleeping bag?

The above questions will help you establishyour aim, identify your resources andhighlight any difficulties. Shelters fall into twocategories: those that have to be built andnatural shelters you can 'borrow'. Each typeof shelter has its use so never rule one outwithout careful evaluation of its potential.Whilst most people might, given a choice, optfor a natural shelter, in my experience theyoften require as much effort to make habita-ble as a tailor-made shelter built from scratch.A middle course is to look for an easilyadapted natural feature.

If you find yourself caught without sheltermake every effort to find terrain which willprovide you with plenty of shelter-buildingmaterials; ideally woodland. This cannot beoverstressed. While it may take you an hourto walk back to where you last saw a suitablesite, that time will soon be regained in thetime you will save building your shelter.

Natural SheltersCaves: Theses are the most obvious form ofnatural shelter; after all they provided earlyman with shelter from weather and wildanimals for many thousands of years. But notall caves are suitable for habitation—they arefrequently damp and drafty and are alwaysdark. If you were able to travel back in timeto observe Stone Age cave communities youwould find the scene a smelly and smoky onewith animal bones and fat being burned toprovide light and warmth. Caves in manyregions of the world are associated with eviland bad luck and this in some cases can belinked to the large populations of bats whichinhabit some caves: a fungus on the guano ofbats, if breathed in, can lead to a very seriousillness called Histoplasmosis which has oftenproved fatal. There is also evidence of thedisease occuring in association with large birdpopulations. Some caves of course will pro-vide excellent shelter but they are in myexperience few and far between.

Cliff overhangs: These are the next bestthing to a cave and in many parts of the worldare still in use as homes. Very often walls arebuilt under the overhang to reduce drafts andgive a sense of cosiness. Nearly always theseshelters are found on south-facing cliffs whichmake best advantage of the sunlight and local

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winds. In New Mexico the cliff faces were sosoft that the Anasazi inhabitants were able tocarve homes out of the rock itself, almostinvariably on the sunny side of the Mesas. Ifyou find a cliff overhang which you think willmake a good home for the night feel theground at its base for dampness. This will tellyou whether or not the overhang is a goodrain shelter. You will be able to reduce chillydrafts by constructing low walls at ninetydegress to the cliff at either end of yoursleeping area. For insulation and furthercomfort you can build a sleeping mattress andblanket (see Beds).

Arbors: These will usually provide coolshade from the bright sun but can also onoccasion provide a waterproof canopy.Many's the time I have taken refuge from aheavy downpour inside the dry shade of anold holly tree and enjoyed the bonus offinding in the fallen leaves and branches atthe tree base, the fixings of a small fire,enough to warm a drink with. Usuallyevergreen trees such as yew provide the bestrain cover. While arbors provide excellentshort-term shelter they are not suited tolonger stays, although you might construct amore permanent structure under the protec-tion of an arbor. In this way you will find that

even in quite heavy downpours your generalliving space will be spared from the discom-fort of mud and you will be able to go aboutyour chores without the effort of enlargingyour shelter or building a porch.

Siting: The siting of your shelter will becrucial to its success and to the amount oflabour it will require to construct. Until youdevelop an experienced eye for just the rightlocation take your time to select it carefully.You are looking for a compromise: a sitewhich is not too far from water yet not so closeas to bring you within striking distance ofbiting insects. Also check that you are not toonear to wasp or hornet nests. The site shouldprovide you with plenty of easily availablematerials and fuel for your fire.

Check that it is not on the runs of anydangerous animals and that it is not overhungby any dead branches. Consider whether youare building in an area full of poison ivy orwhether you risk a flash flood for example inthe base of a canyon. A few minutes spent inthis way can save you many hours ofdiscomfort.

Man-Made SheltersLean-tos: Fallen trees, are often quoted asbeing the ideal foundation for a bivouac,

Lean-tos are the simplest of the survival shelters and in many cases are the most practical to build. Most, however, requirea fire to keep the occupant warm. A tip: if you are relying upon a primitive firelighting technique, light your fire before youexpend precious energy building your shelter.

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A classic shelter design, the fallen tree lean-to is very strong, weather proof and requires no cordage in its manufacture. Itis one of the few lean-tos not specifically designed to incorporate a fire.

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although they are used in this way far lessthan is suggested. This is because they poseseveral problems. To construct a weather-proof lean-to against a fallen tree, the roof inmost cases needs to extend beyond the apex ofthe bole's camber to prevent rain fromrunning off into the living space. Looked atanother way this means that part of yourliving space is taken up by the tree! Howeverthere are occasions when such a shelter is theobvious option-- especially when cordage isunavailable and you are short of daylight.

Choose your tree as carefully as you can, itneeds to be high enough to provide your roofwith an adequate run off angle but not toosteep. If you choose a high apex you will haveconsiderable difficulty draft proofing the endsof the lean-to which is a very important factorin the success of this shelter. Fallen trees tendto create channels for wind and drafts tofollow. If you do not block off these drafts youwill not only experience a considerable loss ininsulation but of sleep as well. The construc-tion technique you employ will depend uponthe building materials you have available, theeasiest method is to construct your roof from

tightly spaced struts leaning against the treeor suitably shaped rock. This way you neednot employ any cordage. To weather-proofthe roof use either leafmould piled thick, oroverlapping birch bark, cedar bark, paperbark, or basswood bark slabs or strips. Onlybackcountry areas can provide suitable bark,and in fact I find the more widely availableleafmould is a much better insulator anyway.In the deep coniferous forests you can useevergreen boughs although they work betterif hooked onto a grid type roof frame.

Once you have finished your roof put inyour bedding (see Beds). With a roof overyour head and a cosy nest to curl up in youcan make your refinements. Block off all thedrafts you can find, I usually erect close-fitting walls at either end of the shelter fillingany gaps with leafmould, moss, or adobe(mud or clay mixed with grass or a similarfibrous material). If you are going to use thisshelter for several days (especially in coldweather) you can even consider fitting anadobe fireplace with a hollow log for achimney. Fit this at one end of the lean-to. Analternative roofing material which works well

The open-fronted lean-to is quickly and easily constructed and can be used in cold weather although it relies for its warmthon a reflecting fire at the entrance and walls at both ends to exclude draughts.

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for this type of shelter is turf. It can either belaboriously cut from the ground or moreeasily pulled from rocks or boulders where itwill often be found growing. If you want toencourage turf to grow and become a livingroof, lay a covering of earth on the raftersbefore you apply the turf.

Open-fronted lean-tos are commonly em-ployed in survival situations—especially incold dry climates. However, they rely upon afire for their warmth so do not build this typeof shelter if you are unable to light a fire. Forthe uprights choose sturdy poles preferablywith branches forking off at their tops whichcan be used to lodge the ridge and supportpoles, saving you the task of making cordage.The frame must be sturdily constructed totake the weight of the roof, which can be builtin the same way as for the fallen tree lean-to.Again construct end walls to reduce colddrafts. The beauty of this shelter is that youcan build a fire in front of the open side with areflector behind it to bounce heat back intothe shelter; this makes a considerable dif-ference (see Fires). If you are short of daylightconstruct the shelter with only one end of the

ridge pole raised. In this way you will halvethe amount of roofing materials needed aswell as improving the warmth.

If you are not alone it is better to build oneof these shelters for each person so that the fireis contained between them. In this way eachperson receives warmth from their fire alongthe whole length of their body, the opposingshelter acting as the reflector for the fire. Thelogical extension of this process is to constructa completely circular shelter for a group.

The group lean-to is the five-star-hotel ofshelters. The secret is to keep it small with amaximum of seven occupants, any more thanthis and the fire must be enlarged touneconomic proportions. With careful con-struction you should not need to use anycordage in its construction as every uprightand ridge pole supports every other. I onceused this shelter with a mixed group of ablebodied and handicapped youngsters some ofwhom were wheelchair bound and wouldhave had difficulty keeping warm. Theytended the fire while the others built thelean-to around them and that night they satround the campfire watching the trees above

The optimum size for a group shelter is 7 people. Any more and one fire is not sufficient to heat everyone. Note the doorswhich both exclude draughts and turn the shelter into a chimney, making the smoke rise straight up.

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Because this lean-to is circular, the supporting posts support each other and with care no cordage is needed.Well-constructed survival shelters are usually warmer than tents as they can often be centrally heated and have goodinsulative walls.

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dancing to the rhythm of a November galewhich could not penetrate their sanctuary.Another advantage of this shelter is that oncea door is fitted the fire is completely hiddenand the smoke is drawn straight upwards.Even if there is a frost, despite being open tothe elements, this shelter remains welcoming;the warmth strikes you as you walk in.

Tripod StructuresThe tipis: The classic native shelter builtaround a tripod is the tipi, and that used bythe plains tribes of North America was at thepeak of its development. While some nationsfavoured a four-pole foundation the majorityfavoured a tripod against which the ad-ditional poles were leant and eventuallylashed. Today these tents still find favour withyouth groups since they make a romantic aswell as a practical addition to any camp. Ihave been asked by friends who use the latesthi-tech mountain tents how tipis fare in highwinds, their being so tall. In the answer to thisquestion lies one of the tipi's design featureswhich is not obvious. The tripod structure ofthe tipi does not stand perpendicularly; thepole which faces away from the wind isextended further than the other two poles.This stabilizes the structure as well asstreamlining it. The tripod is then anchored

securely by a large peg place below the apex.Wigwams: Of course other nations em-

ployed tripod structures; in the woodlandregions wigwams were covered with differentbarks such as birch, cedar, and basswood.These are however quite elaborate sheltersbest suited to long-term occupation.

The Wikiup: This is a large tripod shelterwhich is of short-term use and which iscovered with brush and general naturaldebris to a depth suitable for the prevailingweather: a light covering for instance providesshade from the harsh desert sun and the chill,night breezes, while heavier coverings willgive protection from snow. A wickiup can bebuilt can be built to quite large proportionsthough a five-person version is about thelargest I would advise. It is possible to use afire inside this shelter though you will need tobe very careful to avoid sparks which mightset the roof alight.

One or two-person tripod structures:For the majority of your backcountry travelsyou are most likely to be travelling eitheralone or with one other companion. For thesesituations smaller tripod-based shelters arebetter suited to your needs. There are twobasic designs you can employ, the first of theseis arranged so that the tripod is formed fromtwo short poles with one long pole forming a

Tripods are one of the strongest shelter structures. By shortening one or two of the tripod legs two other variations arepossible.

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Large tipi-shaped shelters can be difficult to thatch adequately. By shortening two of the poles a one- or two-person sheltercan be constructed. Because they are small they are strong and warm.

ridge. The shelter opening lies between thetwo short poles, the roof being constructedalong the ridge which sweeps to the ground. Adesign error in many shelters which incorpo-rate a ridge pole is a tendency to choose aridge pole which is too short. Test yourstructure before you roof it, if the pole is tooshort you will not have room for your feet,also remember that the pole will settle underthe weight of the thatching material. Thisshelter design is well suited to wet weatherproviding as it does, all-round roofing. Itsshortcomings are that it does not allow you tomake good use of a fire for heating. If you arewithout sleeping bags build this shelter smallso that you save your body heat. At leastdouble your bedding materials and mostimportantly construct a doorway which willexclude as many drafts as possible.

My favourite tripod shelter is almost thecomplete opposite to this structure, havingtwo long poles and only one short. Theopening is between the two long poles where areflecting fire can also be located. In effect the.shelter is two quick lean-tos facing each other

except that by sharing the same upright thereis more storage space at the head end. Whenyou are laying on the roof supports allowthem to overhang the ridge poles; at the headend you can allow them to overhang enoughfor the two sides to meet at an apex for a fewfeet. The best use of this shelter is as anovernight stop for two people. Its greatadvantage over other shelters is how quicklyit can be built; it can easily be done inside anhour if you work hard and the materials are tohand. For your beds build the high-walled cotdesign described later, this will prevent youand your bedding from shifting out of the leeof the roof. As with all shelters whichincorporate a fire, keep a stock of firewoodand kindling inside in case of bad weather.

Four-Pole StructuresThe Trapper's Shelter: Along the lines ofthe wickiup but incorporating four polesinstead of three as its base is the trappers'shelter. This is one of the best one-mansurvival shelters, being well suited to bothmedium and long-term occupation yet

The beauty of this overnight tripod shelter is that it can be built very quickly. Designed for two occupants it requires onlythe same amount of thatching as a one-person shelter. It can be constructed in under half an hour by an experienced team.

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Once the roof is thatched, two small sleeping areas are created, leaving the space between the long legs open. To heat theshelter a small fire with reflector is placed on an imaginary line between the ends of the long poles.

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Quadruped shelters are chosen when a rectangular floorplan is desired. They comprise two 'A' frames which either meetat their apex or are spaced apart with a ridge pole. They tend to be substantial and used more long-term.

The wickiup is my favourite quadruped shelter that is especially versatile. Firstly it is a good long-term shelter whichallows the use of a fire, provides good working space, and food can be smoked in the eaves. Secondly it is especially usefulin arid windy lands, and thirdly in winter or subarctic forest conditions a tight fitting door, a ventilation port and extrainsulation of snow on top can be added.

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quickly built. The quadruped base should beset up to form a rectangular base, with thelong side as long as you are tall plus an armlength, and the width two thirds the length.Only three sides of this shelter are roofed—one long and two short sides—the remaininglong side becoming the entrance with areflecting fire in front of it. At the apex theshelter should be about chest to shoulderheight. The advantage of this shelter is that itprovides a good living space which is heatedas well as offering ample storage space androom to work in when the weather is bad.

It should not be underestimated howimportant living and working space is whenyou are billeted in a shelter for more than afew days. Cramped conditions lower moralevery quickly, especially if you are knockingyourself on protruding branches in the roof.Whatever the design always spend a fewmoments tidying the shelter up as you build,the more it looks like a home the better youwill feel about it. If at the end of your stay in abackwoods shelter you feel sorry to leave ityou have succeeded.

The Brush Hut: This is one of the mostoften described backwoods shelters. It isconstructed around a skeleton whichcomprises two A frames linked by a ridgepole. As a shelter it is fine and has foundfavour among a number of native tribes. Butit is slow to build, cold, drafty and difficult to

heat. I rate this as greatly inferior to the othershelters described, unless it is tightly thatchedand much effort is spent on draft-proofing it.In hot conditions however, it is acceptable asa shelter to provide shade.

Bent Sapling SheltersIn some cases you may find young saplingsmore abundant than dead branches forbuilding materials. This being the case youwill need to adapt your construction techni-que to suit.

The hoop kennel: The easiest saplingshelter that can be built is the hoop kennel.To construct this shelter you bend wands(saplings about finger thickness) into hoopswhich are pressed into the ground, the hoopsshould be 60—80cm high with the ends 80cmapart. Place the hoops parallel to each otherand at about 30cm intervals so that they forma tunnel shape. If you cannot find saplingssupple enough to form hoops use two shortersaplings pushed into the ground so that theyface away from each other then bend themtogether and intertwine them to form a hoop.Once this tunnel is complete weave longersaplings along the tunnel walls to addstructural strength. With this done it isusually easier to fill the shelter with yourbedding material before you thatch theshelter. At the feet end of this shelter weavesaplings to close it off in a bullet shape. To

Dome and tunnel-shaped shelters can be exceptionally strong and are easily constructed. They are less tiring to build butgenerally more difficult to thatch.

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The hoop kennel is the quick overnight bent-sapling shelter. It can be built for one or two persons and makes an excellentframework for a large shelter sheet. Thatching requires careful interweaving of the framework with withes, fibrous barksor grass before covering with leaf litter, turfs or slab-like barks.

roof the shelter you can use leaf litter,bracken, long grass, bark, reeds or a combi-nation of these things. Start thatching at theground on both sides of the kennel and workto the apex where your last layers of thatchingshould overlap. This is an excellent overnightshelter which is quickly built, requires no fireor sleeping bag for warmth, is weather proofand cosy. The most common mistake made inthe construction of this shelter is to skimp onthe bedding. Make absolutely certain thatyou create a springy mattress that will keepyou well off the ground.

Domed shelters: For a larger sapling-built shelter you should consider a domestructure. In North America people builtwaginoogans, wigwams or domed-shapedhomes covered in bark. In the African Congopygmies construct dome-shaped shelterswhich are ingeniously tiled using large(Mongongo) leaves, whilst on the NorthAmerican plains sweat lodges (backwoodssaunas) were also created from saplings.Dome-shaped shelters are extremely strong,as was proven to me one summer in the

British Lake District where I was involvedwith a camp. Not untypically for that regionthe rain had not stopped for a week and whena gale blew up we were forced to abandon thesweat lodge we had begun to build andretreat to our tents. But that night afull-blown gale struck, causing the collapse ofany worn-out or badly-pitched tents. Thesweat lodge was pressed into emergencyservice for half the camp and when theyemerged in the morning to the scene of rippedcanvas and vanished tents all commentedhow secure, sturdy and cheery the sweat lodgehad been compared to their tents.

For group activities large dome shelters canmake an excellent focal point, especially inthe cold winter months. Unless you are in anarea which is blessed with an ample supply ofbark, the traditional covering is out of thequestion. If you are planning to build this sortof shelter then a practical solution is to useground sheets or polythene sheeting—although a woodcraft solution would be to tileyour shelter with grass blankets or similarwoven mats (see Basketry).

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To build a large dome shelter the techniqueis essentially the same as for the hoop kennelexcept that the hoops are much larger and theground plan is an oval.

Shelters made of SnowDespite popular belief emergency snow shel-ters arc not toastingly warm. They arelast-resort shelters which are used when othermaterials arc frozen up. They work byproviding a warmer environment inside thanoutside, by blocking off the chilling wind, andby trapping body heat. Ground warmth isalso significant but you will need to providethis in the form of pine boughs, skins orsleeping mats. The choice of shelter youdecide to build will depend upon the condi-tions you are faced with, terrain and mostimportantly the type of snow. Snow is not astatic material; it is always changing and as itchanges so do its properties and usefulness.For this reason no one type of snow shelterwill always be usable.

The most useful type of snow you willencounter is neve which is porous ice that hasnot yet compacted to form solid ice. Becauseof this it is full of air and acts as a goodinsulator. This type of snow can be carvedand even quarried into blocks from whichigloos and snow walls can be built. Itshandling qualities are very similar to largeblocks of polystyrene. When used for morethan a couple of days the snow will graduallybecome compacted into ice and will thereforelose its insulative qualities, making it necess-ary to build a new shelter. This compactingprocess is greatly speeded up when a stove isused inside the shelter.

The Quinze: With powdery snow it is acomplete waste of time trying to constructigloos or snow trenches as the snow has nostructural strength. To overcome this or foruse in areas with only a light covering of snow,the hunters of the north devised the 'quinze'or snow-heap igloo. This will only workthough if the temperature is below twentydegrees. To build this type of shelter select asuitable location and stir the surface thor-oughly in a circle about eight to nine feet indiameter. Having done this begin pilingsurrounding snow into the circle if possibleallowing it to settle gently by falling from aheight of several feet. Keep piling the snow onuntil you have a mound about six to seven feettall. Now you must leave the heap for

between one to three hours until the snow isfirm enough to carve. What actually happensduring this time is that the snow recrystalisesand binds together.

A labour-saving dodge explained to me bya friend who is an Alpine guide is to pile thesnow over a cairn of rucksacks, which areexcavated when the snow hardens. In thisway you need to pile less snow to the volumeof space occupied by your rucksacks.

Once you are able to carve the snow, shapethe mound into a dome. This will providebetter structural support than the cone whichtends to be top heavy with the risk of the roofcaving in. Hollowing out the dome is rela-tively easy. Simply tunnel in at ground level. Iusually tunnel in three to four feet and thenexcavate the sides of the initial tunnel startingfrom the entrance where I can accuratelyjudge the wall thickness. This should be about30cm thick at the base and taper to 15cm atthe apex. Be careful and avoid tunnelling toofast or you may tunnel out of the side. To helpjudge the wall thickness you can use a thinpiece of wood similar to a knitting needle, it isa good idea to stop regularly to check yourbearings. Some people advocate placing anupright pole in the centre of the heap andanother leading along the ground to theupright. These are to act as way markers asyou tunnel, though I have not found them tobe necessary.

As soon as you can, cut an 8-cm vent holenear the top of the shelter. This will help toprevent carbon monoxide poisoning fromyour stove, but as with all such vents makecertain that you can keep it clear of snow. Thefinishing touches to your shelter are to clearthe snow to earth level if that is possible: theNative American will tell you that MotherEarth will warm your shelter and they areright, for under these conditions the ground iswarmer than the snow. Also smooth the wallsof the shelter to avoid annoying drips frommelting snow. Apart from laying in pineboughs or some such bedding you arefinished.

Snow caves: Deep snow drifts, especiallyon sloping ground or against a bank of earthor a boulder, can provide the basis of aneasily-built shelter. The snow however mustbe either wind packed or have been lying acouple of days so that it is firm enough toexcavate. Start your excavation by tunnelingstraight in to the snow drift. Avoid overheat-

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ing and sweating by removing some clothingas your temperature rises; if you do not do thisyour sweat will reduce the insulative prop-erties of your clothing.

As you tunnel, throw the excavated snowbehind you where it can be further shifted by

a colleague. Stop frequently and surface forair. When you have tunneled in for about ametre begin to excavate a chamber, thisshould be longer than it is tall with a raisedsleeping platform. The raised platform isnecessary because the warmer air inside theshelter is always near the roof and the coldernear the floor. Just as you did with the quinze,cut an air hole. This is vitally important if youdo not want to risk poisoning yourself withcarbon monoxide, a risk increased by the useof a stove inside the cave. Even a slight lack ofair can cause problems, for without sufficientair your body cannot burn food efficientlyand you will be cold. In fact it has beenknown for men to become frozen solid duringtheir sleep waking to find themselves unableto move!

Once the excavation of the cave is completethe procedure is the same as for the quinze:smooth the walls and create an insulated floorwith whatever you can. A final refinementyou can make is to create a draught-proofentrance by building a wall outside the tunnelentrance. By burning a candle inside the snowcave you can considerably raise the morale ofthe occupants by increasing the temperatureand creating a cheery light. As the shelter isused however, combination of heat from yourbody, stove and candle will cause somemelting and therefore a reduction in insu-lation. Depending on local conditions you willneed to build a snow shelter every few days.

Snow trenches: The quickest and easiest ofall snow shelters to build is the snow trench, italso has the advantage of not being enclosedso reducing the risk of suffocation. Itsdisadvantage is that it is generally colder thanthe more draught-proof snow shelters.

The simplest snow trench which can bebuilt is a grave-sized trench with a roof madefrom branches laid across and covered with

When snow is hard and packed it can be cut into blocks and all manner of wall-like constructions can be built. The ultimateof these shelters is the igloo which is a wall that spirals around up and over into a dome. The most important factor iscutting the blocks so that they lock tight with their neighbours. This is not a shelter to build for the first time in anemergency.

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The secret to building an igloo is to use the force of gravity to lock the blocks together.

snow (snow is an excellent insulator). If youare a skier a similar shelter can be improvisedusing your skis and ski poles as roof supportsand a poncho or ground sheet as thethatching material.

If none of these materials are available youcan always use the snow itself by constructingan arched roof of snow blocks.

The igloo: This is the snow shelter whichrightly earns its reputation as a classic.Essentially it is a shelter for two or morepeople and given the right conditions andteam work, Native Canadians have beenknown to build an igloo in under forty-fiveminutes.

To build an igloo you must begin with goodwind-packed snow. This should be quarriedinto blocks which are roughly a metre long byhalf a metre wide and fifteen centimetresthick. If the snow is of a poorer quality thanusual you may be forced to use smaller blocks;these will work but are much harder to use.To cut the snow use a long bladed knife orimprovise a snow knife from whatever youcan; the natives used to use snow knives madefrom wood or bone. The snow blocks are

heavier than you might imagine so worksteadily. The best method is for one person toconstruct the igloo while the other membersof the party cut and transport the snow blocksto the building site.

Choose a level area to build on and start byconstructing a ring of snow blocks each ofwhich tilts inwards and contacts with itsneighbour. This low wall is the foundation ofthe igloo so make sure it is stable and solidlybuilt. The secret of building an igloo is to usethe force of gravity to lock the snow blockstogether. This is achieved by laying the blocksin an upward spiral so that as each block islaid it rests against the layer below it and theblock laid previously. The spiral starts at thefoundation wall where the wall is cut toproduce a slope from the base of one block tothe top of its fourth or fifth neighbouringblock.

Start laying the blocks making sure theymake contact in three places; this is essential ifthey are to hold together. As you progressincrease the angle at which the blocks leaninwards, if incorrectly built the wall will beginto take on an alarmingly unstable appear-

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ance. If you do not tilt the blocks in enoughyou will end up with a more conical thanhemispherical igloo, which is an inefficientshape for warmth retention as the warm airnear the ceiling is allowed to rise above thesleeping platforms. As the blocks spiral in toenclose the roof you will need to cut them to asuitable shape, so that the king block (the lastblock which locks the structure into a stableshape) is fitted wedge like with bevelled

Built correctly, the builder should beentombed in the doorless igloo. The next taskis to cut a ventilation hole in the roof and adoorway at ground level. To wind proof thetunnel you can either dig it as a trench whichhas a right-angle turn up into the igloo, oryou can construct a walled tunnel into theinterior. The finishing touches to an igloo areto caulk any cracks in the walls with loosesnow and to pile snow against the wall base toprevent the foundation from being eroded bywind. If you have access to a slab of ice youcan even fit a window.

As with all snow shelters you shouldarrange a sleeping platform to raise you off

the floor and away from the cold air. Heatingcan be provided from a candle or hike stove(ventilate well). Traditionally the koodlik, alamp which burns crushed seal fat by meansof a plant fibre or moss wick, was used for thispurpose.

Beds in the BackcountryNo matter what type of shelter you arebuilding it will not provide you with a propernight's sleep unless you arrange a bed of somesort. This has to be the most under-ratedsurvival chore. The choice of bed you chooseto make will depend upon the conditions,materials and lime available to you.

Cot wall bed: The simplest bed whichprovides adequate insulation for general use isthe cot wall bed. This has for its base a layer ofwood designed to raise your body off thewarmth-sapping earth, which is then furtherinsulated and sprung with bracken or dry-leaves in quantity. The best wood for this isdead dry branches with an average diameterof three finger widths. Lay these so that theyare horizontal to the length of your body andthen construct a wall of two long logs, one on

The cot wall acts as a restraining barrier to prevent your insulative bedding from shifting in the night. Seen here in a tripodshelter it has the added task of keeping the occupants snugly in the lee of the shelter.

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top of the other, either side of the log bed. Ifpossible use the back of your shelter as asubstitute for one side of the cot. The purposeof the walls is to contain the insulating layer ofleaves and prevent it from shifting under yourweight. I find that it is unnecessary to wall inthe head and feet ends. Do not underestimatethe amount of leaves you need when you havefilled the cot. A good guide is to treble theamount you have included to allow forcompression. Just as with a sleeping bag, airthe leaves each day.

Saplings and branches: This is thewoodsman's spring mattress. Gather springyyoung branches from a recently fallen tree(ideally an ash tree). Bundle these springybranches together and lay them as a mattress,testing it to ensure that there are no coldspots. If you do the job correctly you will besuspended at least three inches off the ground.The comfort of this bed is improved byadding a further layer of leaves or better still ablanket which can be woven from plantmaterials if you haven't got a woollen onewith you.

Spruce bough bed: If you step into ahunting lodge of the woodland people of thefar north you will find the floor carpeted witha thick layer of spruce boughs which sendtheir sweet aroma to the rafters. The sprucebough bed is made from the tips of spruceblanches which are nipped off by hand atabout fifteen centimetres. They are then laidupright so that the broken woody stem istouching the ground, each bough beingsupported by its neighbour. It helps with asmall bed to construct a frame to enclose these

boughs. Costly on branch tips, this techniquemust be reserved for those wilderness areaswhere the spruce and balsam trees grow thickand close. An alternative to spruce bough isheather; this works equally well and onceprovided me with a slumber akin to hiber-nation.

Hot coal bed: In the far north thetemperature can drop so low that your handsexposed from gloves for more than a fewminutes begin to bleed from the cold. Tosurvive the night in these conditions thenative inhabitants learned to make a bedwhich gives out heat. By clearing the groundto bare earth and lighting a large fire on it forseveral hours, depending on the fuel used, theground becomes dry and hot. To make thebed clear away the embers with an impro-vised rake and brush away all of the ash readyto take your bedding. The ground if heatedlong enough (and with adequate insulationunderneath yourself) should warm youthrough the night. The biggest problem withthis bed is that the ground may be too hot.

A variation on this theme which gives heatof more even temperature is the hot coal bed.The technique is the same except thatfist-sized rocks arc added to the fire (thesemust be dry and non glassy as such rocks mayexplode when heated). When you are readyto turn in for the night you can dig the embersand rocks into the ground and give them agenerous covering of earth to prevent anunpleasant awakening! Allow any moisturewhich may steam from the ground to ceasebefore laying down your bedding.

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Fire'Oh, the magic of the campfire! No unkind feeling long

withstands its glow. For men to meet at the same campfire isto come closer, to have better understanding of each other,

and to lay the foundations of lasting friendship.'

(Ernest Thompson Seton, Two Little Savages)

The Indian knew that, 'Grandmother Fire,'the bringer of warmth and light was a force tobe respected. Without the convenience ofmodern materials and firestarting equipment,he had to know in which trees she slept andhow to coax her from slumber to his aid.Today she still sleeps in those same woods andthe competent backwoodsman need never bewithout fire once he has learned to call her.

Fire by FrictionOf all the ancient survival skills, frictionfirelighting is the hardest to master, requiringperseverance and determination coupled withtechnique and physical fitness. From a techni-cal point of view it is theoretically very simpleand once mastered, is practically very simple.The difficulty lies in adopting the correctmental approach. Time and again I have seenstudents with the correct technique failbecause they gave up on the verge of successor did not attack the problem with success inmind. Determination counts for a great deal,as was borne out when I demonstrated thebow drill to a friend who had been wanting tolearn this technique for years. Once he hadthe correct apparatus in his hand there was nostopping him and despite an inefficienttechnique which was painfully less effectivethan the ideal, when he was on the verge ofcollapse he produced fire. Do not expect toemulate quite such success on your first

attempt as you have to master making theapparatus as well as the technique. But makesure you put in one hundred per cent effort atevery stage. Success comes from the rightcombination of wood, the correct apparatus,the correct technique and a determination tosucceed.

Fire DrillsThere are two main fire drills—the bow drilland the hand drill—and as their namessuggest, the technique of using them involvesdrilling one piece of wood into another atninety degrees to the grain. The differencebetween the two is the method by which thedrill is spun ranging from using a count-erweighted flywheel to simply spinning thedrill between your palms. The secret is toachieve the correct ratio of drill rotations todownward pressure, this is something you willget a feel for as your experience grows, andwill vary from wood to wood and technique totechnique.

The bow drill: This is the most popularfriction firelighting technique. It earns itspopularity from its success in damp condi-tions, and was commonly employed by thenative peoples of the central Canadian Arctic.For survival purposes it would be ideal exceptfor the fact that it requires a piece of strongcordage which is not always to hand.

With any friction firelighting techniqueyou are wasting your time and hard-earned

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Used as far north as the Canadian Arctic, the bow drill fire set is the most practical primitive firelighting technique inemergency situations. To succeed though, every part must be precisely manufactured.

energy if you try to conjure fire from thewrong woods. Listed below are some of themost suitable woods for the bow drill techni-que, the list is not inclusive of all woods whichcan be used as it would take a lifetime to tryevery possible combination. Instead it coversthose woods you are most likely to encounteror succeed with. You would be wise howeverto experiment when and wherever you can.

Bow Drill Woods

Aspen Hazel*Red Cedar Oak*Cottonwood Poplar*Elder* SotolBalsam Fir Yew*Field Maple* Birch*White Pine Cherry Root*Saguaro Rib CypressWillow* Slippery ElmBasswood and Lime* Juniper*White Cedar Lodgepole PineCottonwood Root Wild Rose*American Elm Sycamore*Yucca* = European woods; others are American

The condition of the wood you select formaking your fire drill is important. Greenwood is far too damp to produce fire and

rotten wood will simply crumble when used.Ideally you must look for dead wood whichhas not quite begun to decay. While you canoccasionally find such wood on the groundthe best source is often those branches whichhave broken off yet have remained suspendedor snagged in the tree and have thereforeremained comparatively dry. An alternativesource can be found in a copse where saplingshave been damaged by animals or affected bydrought.

If the wood is suitable you will not need aknife to break it free since it should snapsharply, although not too easily. Check thatthe wood is not rotten at its core by inspectingthe break; it should be firm rather than eithertoo hard or soft and in a condition fit to carve.

If you have found the right piece of wood,which may take several tries, you now need tostudy the wood. A good woodsman can seewhat he is trying to carve in the wood asthough it is trying to jump out, his task beingto merely free it. Using your stone tools orknife carve the wood to the design of theapparatus. If you have chosen your woodwisely it should need little work and be nearlyof the correct dimensions already. The drill isabout 20-25mm thick and about 20cm long(whenever carving allow at least an extra

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finger thickness at each end). It is importantthat the drill is perfectly cylindrical andstraight. The end which rotates in the 'hearth'must be blunt pointed to create maximumfriction while the opposite end should besharp to reduce friction at the bearing block.The hearth should be produced from thesame type of wood as the drill. To make thehearth, square off three sides of this limb sothat you have a board about 40mm wide,5mm thick and at least 30cm long. Thehearth and drill are the only parts of the bowdrill set which need to be carved of the correctwood.

As long as it serves the purpose intendedany wood can be used for the remaining parts.The bearing block is best carved in hard woodand can even be green; it should be from 8 to12cm long and carved to fit the handcomfortably, with a small depression carvedin it to locate with the pointed end of the drill.Your aim with this piece of the apparatus is toapply downward pressure to increase frictionat the hearth. If however too much friction is

created at the bearing block you will notsucceed, and then to help reduce the frictionyou can lubricate the bearing block depress-ion with pine resin, fat or waxy leaves such asholly or laurel.

To provide the rotation to the drill you willneed a piece of strong cordage; this is usuallythe hardest part of the set to make. Theproblem is that the string needs to be bothstrong and resistant to abrasion. Very fewplant fibres are suitable for this purpose,stinging nettle stems are one of the bestsources but require laborious preparation anddoubling twice (see Cordage). In arid countryyucca and similar plants will provide suitablystrong cordage quickly. For the most part Itake cord with me and prefer it made ofrawhide or gut (see Hideworking). The cordshould be a little over a metre long and fittedto a bowed piece of wood; it is a commonmisconception that this 'bow' must be springylike an archery bow. On the contrary this bowshould have little or no spring in it. Choose alight strong wood with as near perfect a shape

If your bow drill technique is correct and you are using the correct woods, you should be able to produce fire easily within aminute.

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as possible. String it with the cordage so thatwhen the drill is twisted once in the cordage itis gripped firmly.

Working In: If you have followed theinstructions carefully you should be ready tofine tune your fire-starting kit. Take a sharpimplement (stone or knife) and gouge ashallow depression in the hearth board. Thedepression should be located in the centre ofthe board and about 40mm from one end.Now, holding the equipment as shown in thephoto, begin to drill into the hearth. If youarc using the correct technique you shouldfind the drill beginning to smoke at thehearth. Stop after a couple of seconds andinspect the depression; it should now be acharred circular depression the samediameter as your drill. If you have difficultywith the drill spinning out, either the initialdepression you made was not deep enough oryou are not keeping the bow parallel to theground as you drill.

Having burned in the hearth depressionthere only remains the notch to cut. This iscritical to the success of the apparatus. As youdrill, some parts of both hearth and drill areconsumed, becoming a fine hot black dust. Bycutting a notch you enable the dust to collectin one place as a 'coal'. When enough of thishot dust or coal has gathered, it will begin tocoalesce just like cigarette ash and it is fromthis that you will generate fire. The notch is astraight forward 'V cut extending from theedge to the centre of the hearth depression. Insize it is just over one eighth of the depression.Try to copy the illustration exactly. Assumingyou have built your fire and have preparedyour tinder you are now ready to light yourfire.

Place a small slab of bark under the notchto prevent the coal falling onto the dampground. Once you have produced the coalyou will be able to use this slab to transport itto your prepared tinder. Some people preferto compress their tinder and place this underthe notch. This works just as well althoughthere is a risk that your tinder will becomedampened.

Using the Bow Drill: Do not be surprised if ittakes you several attempts to succeed; this isnormal. In fact you will probably need tomake several depressions and notches. Use theaccompanying photographs as a guide to howto make it work. If you are left handed readleft for right and vice versa.

Place your left foot on the hearth just left ofthe depression, with the hearth under thearch of your foot. Place your right knee on theground about a thigh length behind your leftheel, with your right foot extended behindyou. Now take the drill and twist it into thecord as shown. Place the friction end of thedrill into the depression and place the bearingblock on top, making sure you have takensteps to lubricate it.

With less suitable wood types, damp conditions or whenyou are tired, what is otherwise a simple task can becomevery difficult. Working with a friend can help.

Hold the bearing block with your left handand reinforce this hold to prevent wobble byresting your left wrist against your left shin.This is very important. Grasp the bow in sucha fashion that your fingers are wrappedaround both bow and string so that bytightening your grip you tension the string.Now, being sure to keep the bow parallel tothe ground begin to drill. Your aim is todevelop a rhythm and then to increasepressure and speed until a coal is produced.This will take some practise but as a guide,watch the amount of smoke you are produc-ing and as soon as the hearth begins to give offsmoke increase both your downward pressureand speed to the point where the smoke is sothick you cannot see the hearth; this can berather acrid. Once you reach this point makelong powerful strokes of the bow being sure tomaintain the same level of smoke. Withpractise you will be able to judge when to

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stop, but while learning count twenty longstrokes before stopping.

Now, if all is well you should have a pile ofblack powder smouldering in the notch. Donot panic or rush things—sit back andrelax—many a coal has been lost throughover haste. If you fan gently with your handor blow gently on the coal it should smouldermore hotly and begin to glow, as well asholding together better. Next take a smalltwig or pine needle and carefully place it ontop of the coal and roll the hearth away. Youshould now be able to lift the coal by the pieceof bark and drop it into the tinder bundle youhave previously prepared. Make sure that thecoal is tightly surrounded by finely teasedtinder and blow on the bundle so that the coalcan grow. Once the bundle is glowingbrightly it normally only takes a final puff toset it aflame.

Troubleshooting: If you have not producedenough powder to fill the notch despiteathletic attempts to do so, there could beseveral things wrong. One of the most likely isthat the wood of the drill and hearth are of adifferent hardness therefore one is simplyconsuming the other instead of producing acoal. Another is that you may not be drillinghard or fast enough; an indication of this is ifthe coal is more brown than black. If you arepushing down harder than you are drillingfast you will find that the powder is morefibrous and less powdery. If the notch is filledwith powder but is not smouldering you arenot putting enough effort into the process andmust push and drill harder.

Alternative methods: There are several othermethods of firestarting that are very closelyrelated to the bow drill method. A techniqueemployed in arctic regions where wood longenough to produce a decent bow can rarely befound, was to use a thong with a toggle ateach end. This works for one or more people.If you are using it by yourself then you hold atoggle in each hand and bear down on thedrill top with a bearing block which is carvedso that it can be held between the teeth. Aneasier way is if there are two or three of youand then one can hold the bearing block andthe other one or two can draw the thongbackwards and forwards. When working as ateam you will be able to produce fire from afar wider range of woods than when workingsolo.

Another method of fire lighting often

quoted is one using a set-up similar to thepump drill the notion being that you canproduce fire with less effort. Such a device wasused by the Iroquois to make ceremonial firesusing a shaft over a metre long. I find thismethod to be impractical despite all itsadvocates: the apparatus involves consider-ably more effort to produce than a bow drilland in operation it is slower. A practisedfire-lighter can usually summon fire from abow drill considerably quicker than with apump drill.

The Hand Drill: The easiest fire drill tomake is the hand drill. As its name suggeststhis technique involves generating fire byspinning a drill between your hands. Its greatadvantages are that it is easy to make andthat it does not require any cordage. It is alsolight and easy to transport. Its drawbacks arethat it is less effective in damp conditions thana bow drill and that the wood it is made frommust be perfectly dry. It is also a difficulttechnique to perfect to the point where youcan rely implicitly upon it. However thisshould not put you off. Even in dampEngland I use the hand drill to light my fire atleast twice as often as the bow drill. After all ifyou fail you can always fall back on the bowdrill.

Compared to the bow drill the hand drillrequires great finesse since you are generatingheat with less mechanical advantage. For thisreason the drill must be of a smaller diameter.Because the process is less violent you canmake the drill from wood which has a softpithy centre (many of which would beunsuitable for the bow drill). The secret tosuccess lies in achieving the perfect balance ofspeed to pressure, but because this methodattains little mechanical advantage the tim-ing and execution of your technique must beabsolutely perfect or you will exhaust yourselflong before you produce a coal.

Your choice of wood is directly related tothe technique you must use to drill. Forexample if you are using a drill of elder or aField Maple hearth you will need to drill fastwith as much downward pressure as you cangenerate, while if you are using a drill ofCattail (Greater Reedmace) which is verypapery you would need to use a very fastdrilling action with little or no downward

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The hand drill does not require the use of any cordage but does require an absolutely perfect technique. Manypithy-centered woods can be used for the drill.

pressure. You will also find that the drill tipsneed to be prepared in slightly different ways.This knowledge will come with practise but tobegin with you just need to be aware thatdifferences exist between woods and combi-nations of woods.

Hand Drill Woods

Drill Woods Hearth WoodsAspen AspenBuckeye* Burdock*Burdock CedarCattail* Clematis*Cottonwood CottonwoodElder* Elder*Juniper* Juniper*Lodgepole Pine Lodgepole PineMullein* Field Maple*Sage Brush Mullein*Saguaro Rib Pinon PineSotol Red Swamp MapleSycamore* Saguaro RibWillow* SotolPussy Willow* Sycamore*

Pussy Willow*Willow*

* = European woods; others are American

Choose your woods carefully making abso-lutely certain that they are as dry as you canfind. In most cases the drill should be as long

The hand drill is spun between your palms while exertinga downward pressure. Watch the hearth to see when youhave produced a 'coal'.

and straight as possible (with practise you willfind you can use shorter drills). With a longdrill you can apply downward pressure moreeasily and can drill for longer withoutstopping. The diameter of the drill will varyfrom wood to wood, but to give you someindication, I found some of my drills to havethe following dimensions: elder drills werebetween 13 and 11 mm in diameter andbetween 500 and 630mm long. Mullein drillswere between 8 and 10mm (though moreoften IO) in diameter and somewhatshorter between 375 and 460mm. Cattaildrills which are very fragile averaged 9mm indiameter and 480mm in length. I onlymeasured what I consider to be the averagedrills; quite a few in my collection areconsiderably shorter, but most of these startedout at an average length and have becomeshorter through use. For your initial attemptsdo not use a drill shorter than 700mm.

The hearth is made in the same way as youmake the hearth for the bow drill except thatit is scaled down in size to match the drill, donot make this too thick—15mm is thickenough. As you will see from the list thehearth wood is often a different wood to thedrill, it is not necessarily the case that the drillmust be harder than the hearth as some havesuggested. The relative hardness of drill tohearth will vary from combination to combi-nation; experimentation is the only way youcan tell what will or will not work.

Using the Hand Drill:. When you first cometo use this technique solo, it will feel veryawkward to be holding the hearth still whileyou are trying to spin the drill fast. All thesetechniques benefit from practise and I wouldsuggest you try it with a friend first who canhold the hearth for you until you learn toproduce fire. Once you can do this you canthen develop your own method for holdingthe hearth as you drill. To perfect the drillingtechnique you need to learn to drill conti-nuously by spinning the drill between yourpalms and applying considerable downwardpressure. In doing so you will find your handswill gradually move down the drill. To spinthe drill continuously, you must learn to movethem back up the top again by stoppingdrilling and holding the drill in the hearthwith one hand as you reposition the other atthe top of the drill. This action must besmooth and swift as the longer you stop thecolder the coal will become.

Begin drilling slowly and gently (keepingthe wear and tear of your hands to aminimum) and as you see smoke beginning torise from the hearth gradually increase yourspeed and downward pressure to your max-imum. This is the art of the technique; withthe bow drill you can drill longer and harderbecause of the mechanical advantage the bowgives you, but with this technique it is downto your own stamina. If you can learn tojudge when to apply full power, you will findthis technique much easier, and will avoiddeveloping blisters so quickly. The coal whichyou eventually produce though is muchsmaller than with the bow drill so must betreated with a little more care.

Alternative method: To apply downwardpressure on the drill an alternative techniqueis to use a bearing block held between yourteeth. This can be useful in so far as you canproduce fire from harder woods than wouldbe possible with the hand drill, but the drillmust be perfectly straight to reduce thesensation of the vibrations scrambling yourbrains!

A variation on the hand drill is to apply downwardpressure with a mouth-held bearing block.

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The fire saw and fire plough are two less commonly found fire lighting techniques which are very simple to operate. I havefound that they work best when employed by a team of two.

Fire SawsExactly as its name implies, this techniqueinvolves sawing one piece of wood intoanother, and just as with the drill techniques,if you saw the pieces of wood hard and fastenough, you will produce a powder whicheventually becomes a coal. You use the samewoods as you would use for the bow drill. Thesaw should be no smaller than 500 to 750mmwide, 60 to 90cm long and 120mm thick in itsmiddle, tapering like a blade to the edges.The hearth has the same dimensions but has agroove carved down its centre parallel to theedges. This groove serves the same purpose asthe notch in the drilling techniques, it shouldbe about 80mm wide and the same deep.

Take the saw and begin sawing across thehearth at right angles. This will produce afurrow and when this is apparent but not yetestablished, stop sawing and rest in prep-aration to produce fire. The secret to successwith this technique is a short fast sawingaction combined with as much downwardpressure as possible. It is absolutely essentialthat the hearth is securely anchored to theground. Even if you are working as a team oftwo, peg the hearth to the ground to helpprevent sideways movement.

Begin sawing at a medium pace butaccelerate quite rapidly, for as the saw cuts itsway into the hearth the friction increases,

slowing your sawing action (thus it is im-portant to make full use of the extra speedpossible at the start of sawing). Exactly in thesame way as for the bow drill, use the amountof smoke produced as your guide to when tostop. The tendency with this technique is tostop sawing too soon or to slacken off thedownward pressure as it becomes moredifficult to saw. Compared to the abovetechniques this method is extremely labourintensive but it is simple and easily manufac-tured. If you can work as part of a team of twothis technique is much easier, but you willneed to make the equipment large enough foryou both to handle comfortably.

Fire PloughsFire ploughs are similar to fire saws in thatthey involve rubbing one stick against an-other but in this case they are rubbed in linewith the grain. Of the principal frictionfirelighting techniques this is my leastfavourite, as it is a difficult technique toimpart to students as the coal does not collectin such a definite and obvious manner as theother techniques. For the hearth you willneed to carve a board about 60cm long,25mm thick and 50 to 75mm wide. Establisha groove down the centre of this boardparallel to the edges, this only need be deepand wide enough to keep the plough stick

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Above: The principle is simple. One piece of wood, when sawn against the other at ninety degrees, produces a coal whichforms in a groove down the middle of the hearth piece.

Below: Modern firelighting equipment.

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