1

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

AME-409: SENIOR DESIGN PROJECT

SPRING 2013

The TEBANATOR AUTOS VECTOR

Performance and Energy System Report

Kaimana Teba

teba@usc.edu

Date Submitted:

March 15, 2013

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Table of Contents

Introduction 4

Configuration 5

Performance 6

3.1 Power Requirements

o fr, CD estimates

o Power required

o Max power required

o Power required curve

3.2 Powertrain Design

o Powertrain strategy

o Powertrain functional diagram

o Power split energy

o Powertrain components

3.3 Drivetrain Design

o Drive Ratio

3.4 Power curve

o Power available and power required

3.5 Acceleration Performance

o Acceleration Curve

Energy System 12

Energy requirements

Fuel, fuel tank, battery specifications

Energy system schematic

Comparison Study 16

Jaguar C-X75 and Rimac Concept_One

Conclusions 16

Recommendations 17

References 18

Appendices 19

3

ABSTRACT

Air quality in the Los Angeles basin has been deteriorating for decades, caused

by factories, oil dredges, and exhaust fumes from personal vehicles and various

other mechanisms. One method for reducing the amount of damage dealt to the

atmosphere has been the production of low-emission vehicles, completely

removing one cause of pollution. However, this technology has not caught on by

the public as much as it should, and many Los Angeles inhabitants’ health has

suffered because of it. This study aimed to develop a low-emission vehicle that

would popularize the technology enough to make the purchase of a hybrid vehicle

affordable and practical. The Vector supercar, with power in excess of 1000HP,

reaching a top speed of 200mph and getting there in only 12 seconds, is an

outstanding mechanical force. Not only is it extremely fast, but it can be driven

over 800miles on a single charge and tank. While not affordable to most, the

Vector is a testament to the potential for hybrid vehicles. The technology driving

this marvel can be adapted for cheaper, more user-friendly vehicles to the point

that buying a low-emission vehicle is the new normal.

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1 INTRODUCTION

Southern California is known for its summer weather year round, a beach-bound lifestyle and

laid-back attitude. However, the Los Angeles skyline suffers from a brown haze blotting out the

horizon and shrouding the surrounding mountains from view, keeping the natural California

beauty hidden from its residents. Not only is the smog an eyesore but it poses a large health risk

both for those with existing respiratory ailments and can cause problems to develop in kids.

Luckily, California is a vast and varied think tank that has been developing and adopting

technology to combat this environmental tragedy. One aspect of environmental safety that has

been widely adopted by California’s residents is the hybrid vehicle.

These vehicles are relatively new and have not seized their full potential yet, but they are

very close. According to a study by the NOAA, pollution from vehicles is down 98% from

1960, but older vehicles and factories are still causing significant damage to the atmosphere. Los

Angeles is home to over 5 million vehicles today and is one of the top 5 smoggiest cities in the

country for years. Hybrid vehicles have the potential to wipe out vehicular air pollution and

bring about a cleaner future for Californians. There are three major types of low- and zero-

emission vehicles, each with their own advantages and disadvantages.

An electric vehicle is powered by an onboard motor(s) which uses electricity from a battery

to operate. These vehicles have no exhaust emissions; however, the means to create electricity

do unfortunately. If electricity production switched to ‘green’ methods such as wind-generated

and hydroelectric means then this would not be an issue. These vehicles also take longer to ‘fill

up’, or recharge than a normal internal combustion engine and are harder to heat since there is no

exhaust waste as in an IC engine. Range and performance of electric vehicles are not on the

same caliber as IC engine vehicles but recent reputable prototypes have very promising

characteristics discussed in this report.

A fuel cell vehicle uses electricity generated by a hydrogen fuel cell to power the motors.

This technology is the greenest and most efficient but has been put on hold commercially

because there is little money to be made due to its efficiency. A fuel cell uses hydrogen and

oxygen from the atmosphere to convert into electricity for the motors and only produces water

and heat as waste products. A company in Germany, Proton Fuel Cells, has patented a triple-

hybrid fuel cell technology used by busses in Prague. This technology utilizes a hydrogen fuel

cell to power motors and charge batteries onboard. Their high efficiency and range of over

250mi along with a recharge time of less than 5 minutes make this type of vehicle the cheapest

and cleanest. It is a shame this technology is not more prevalent.

Hybrid vehicles are the most common type of low emission vehicles. They utilize both

battery powered motors and an IC engine to charge the battery and/or provide power to the

wheels. While not a pure zero emission vehicle (ZEV) it is the most practical performance-wise.

With advances in battery technology, motor efficiency, and gas turbine technology, hybrid

vehicles have become quite prevalent in the Los Angeles area and the rest of California and have

surpassed many conventional IC engine cars. To be a competitor in the vehicle market it needs

to perform at or exceed the levels of IC powered cars in maximum speed (at least 100mph),

acceleration (0-60mph in at least 8 seconds), maintaining a freeway cruise speed of 60mph for at

least 30 minutes at zero-emission, and have a range of 350 miles, and be aesthetically appealing.

As with all hybrids, they must have a low mpg and emission rating. The focus of this report is

on an elite hybrid supercar, advanced in performance, efficiency, and environmental

maintenance.

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2 STYLE DESIGN

The Vector is tasked with making hybrid technology appealing to a younger generation. The

young drivers with a large trust fund, a successful website or business, and those with an

ostentatious need for speed and beauty are the target demographic for this vehicle. It will be on

par with the likes of Lamborghini automobili in terms of performance but with the flashiness of a

Ferrari or Pagani vehicle. The Vector’s high level of performance is mirrored by the aggressive

body design and stylish scissor doors. The car is meant to ring in a new generation of thrill-

seeking individuals, incorporating the flashiest artistic properties that have become favorites

among other supercars while boasting powerful speed and superb handling to back up its

boisterous look. The Vector will be eye-catching to the point of distraction and ocular fixation to

others on the road, making it known that this car is not here to play, it’s here to win.

Figure 1: 3-view drawing of Vector

The dimensions of the Vector are based on the Lamborghini Aventador, the newest supercar

developed by the renowned car manufacturer. The Vector is 12ft long, 5.1 ft wide, and 3.2 ft

high. It is very low to the ground, giving it a low center of gravity and great turning performance

and handling. The wheelbase is 6.8 ft and clearance of only 3 inches, which does pose a slight

danger to the nose of the vehicle when going over dips or parking blocks, but this car is not

meant to be parked. Using proportions between this vehicle and the Aventador, a weight

estimate was made to be 2657lbs (1205.2kg). From the 3-view drawing, a frontal area estimate

of 15.44ft2

(1.43m2) was made. This value is vital in determining the amount of drag resistance

met while driving, which is used to determine how much power the Vector will need while

driving.

As can be seen, the body design was made to be sleek and gorgeous while maintaining

functionality. The air intakes in the nose (grille) and the side scoops will provide ample air to be

compressed by the microturbine engines discussed further in this report. The low height and

large 22” tires are designed to grip the ground and produce superb handling at speed. The small

4-pipe exhaust in the rear is designed for aesthetic purposes, as the Vector produces little waste.

6

3 PERFORMANCE

3.1 Power Requirement

The power required for any vehicle is the power it takes to overcome, at a given velocity,

resistance due to rolling friction between tires and ground and drag due to air resistance. Rolling

resistance is dependent upon the weight of the car, the velocity, and the friction coefficient

between the tires and road. To calculate the power required for rolling, Pr, the following

equation is used:

(1)

Where fR is the coefficient of rolling resistance, m is the mass, g is acceleration due to gravity,

and V is velocity. Since actual testing is not possible for the Vector, estimates of fR must be

made. For this study, a value of 0.015 was used and the vehicle has an estimated weight of

2657lbs (1205.194kg). The power required to overcome drag depends on the density of the

atmosphere, the frontal area of the vehicle, the cube of the velocity, and the vehicle-specific drag

coefficient. To determine the drag coefficient, CD, the White Method was used. This gives a

whole number rating to parts of the car, divided into 9 categories. Once these ratings are found

along with the standard deviation of the ratings, a total rating and its high and low values can be

found and CD can be calculated by

(2)

The coefficient of drift for the Vector is 0.369. The power required to overcome drag can then

be calculated using the equation

(3)

The total power required PT is the sum of Pr and PD. When these three power curves are plotted

with each other, we can see that power to overcome drag is the main concern. The resistance due

to rolling is nearly negligible next to drag which is expected of a high performance vehicle.

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Figure 2: plot of power required vs speed

The maximum required power for a vehicle can vary depending on the situation: maximum

speed, cruising velocity on an incline, and starting speed. To calculate the power required at

maximum speed, the sum of the power required to overcome drag at maximum velocity and the

power to overcome rolling resistance at maximum velocity is taken:

(4)

This power requirement assumes the vehicle is on a flat surface i.e. no incline. The power

required at a top speed of 200mph is 477HP (355.7kW). Another important situation to analyze

is the power requirement for the Vector at cruising speed on an incline of 5°. To do this, the

power to overcome drag and rolling resistance is added to the power required to climb at a given

angle. The following formula is used to do so:

(5)

where =mg*sin(5°)*Vcruise. The power required value for the Vector at cruise speed

on an incline is 37HP (27.6kW). The final important value to ascertain is the power required at

starting speed on a flat road. To find this, use equation 6:

(6)

where

. The Vector’s value for this requirement is 150HP (111.9kW).

The Vector’s maximum required power situation is at its maximum speed of 200mph with a

value of 477HP (355.7kW). This value determines how much power is needed by the motors to

drive the wheels. With an estimated drivetrain loss of 10% to accessories in the vehicle and no

loss due to an axle or drive since the motors are mechanically attached directly to the wheels, the

brake horse power of the Vector is calculated using:

(7)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

0

100

200

300

400

500

0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320

mph

HP

kW

km/H

Pr

Pd

Pt

8

yields a value of 530HP (395kW). This means that in order to maintain a speed of 200mph, the

Vector’s motors will need to supply 530HP to deliver 477HP at the wheels.

(Calculation spreadsheet tables and data are attached in the appendices).

3.2 Powertrain Design

A series hybrid powertrain was chosen for the objective of the Vector. This type of

powertrain is run by the battery but with an internal combustion engine used to drive a generator

to recharge the battery. This allows for longer drives and a boost in power when needed.

Mode Start Cruise ZE Cruise Acceleration Brake Stop

Engine X X

Motor X X X

Charge

Battery

X X X

From this drive mode chart it can be seen that the Vector will maximize performance and

efficiency on the road. The high performance motors operate at maximum torque at standstill,

allowing for quick acceleration at the start. The high capacity battery will provide more than

enough energy to maintain cruise velocity using just the motors to drive the wheels, and the

microturbine engines can charge the battery with the use of a generator while cruising or provide

power directly to the motors. The Vector will utilize regenerative braking, which slows the

vehicle by storing the Vector’s own inertial and potential energy, effectively slowing the vehicle

to a stop. If need be, the engines can also charge the battery at stop. The engine is not

mechanically attached to the wheels, removing the need for a gear box and transmission and also

allows the engine to run independent of the vehicle velocity. This means that the engine can run

at its most efficient RPM, adding to the already environmentally friendly microturbine

technology and increasing performance of the Vector.

Figure 3: powertrain functional diagram

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As illustrated, the microturbines take in air through the stylized and functional intakes of the

Vector with gasoline, biodiesel, or natural gas, allowing the engines to operate. The energy from

the engines is converted by the generator to be stored by the battery. The motors then convert

the electrical energy from the battery to mechanical energy and power the wheels. Regenerative

braking allows some of the lost energy to be recouped and used by the battery.

Figure 4: Power/Energy chart

As stated earlier in this section, the Vector’s wheels will be powered by the motors completely.

To compute how much energy the motors will need to output the maximum required power, the

following formula was used

(8)

The minimum energy required for this study is found by calculating the energy needed for the

motors to power the wheels and maintain cruise velocity (60mph) for 30 minutes. This value is

6.97kW*hours, found using the power required at 60mph (13.9kW) by 0.5hours, for the Vector.

This leads to a P/E ratio of 67.5/hour, using the value for Pmax = 477HP calculated earlier and

eqn. 8, which is much too high. More energy needs to be available to meet the performance

requirements of the Vector. In order to do this, Emin, the minimum energy requirement needs to

be increased. Research was conducted to find the highest performing batteries and concluded

with Lithium-Polymer batteries. These have a P/E of 37.5. In order to further push the

performance of the car, maximum motor power will be used in place of maximum required

power. The search for a sufficient motor yielded a 400kW and 600kW variety. To meet the

objective of the vehicle, much more power than that is needed and the choice to have individual

drive systems for each wheel was made, giving the vehicle 2000kW (2682HP). The new P/E is

37.5, with an increased Emin of 53.33kW*h. The powertrain system for the Vector includes

2 Rimac Automobili D-PM-OC-600 (600kW peak) for the rear wheels, 2 Rimac Automobili D-

PM-OC-400 (400kW peak) high speed dual permanent magnet oil cooled motors for the front

wheels. In addition, 2 Bladon Jets microturbines rated at 70kW each aid with energy needs. The

motors are rated at 6500 RPM, a maximum RPM of 10000RPM, and weigh 50kg (110lbs).

P/E = 37.5

P_motor-max = 2000kW

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Battery P/E

Motor Power

P/E chart

10

These high power motors are not operating at full throttle constantly. The microturbines operate

at 80000RPM and weigh 35kg (77lbs).

3.3 Drivetrain Design:

The motor-driven vehicle requires no gearbox or transmission since the motors are driving the

wheels directly. This greatly simplifies the drivetrain and only requires a differential gear

between them. The differential ratio is found by the formula

(9)

Where V is top speed, D is wheel diameter in inches, N is peak RPM of the motor in 1000RPM,

and R is the differential ratio. Solving for R yields the ratio 3.267. With this ratio, the Vector

reaches its rated RPM at 130mph (209km/h).

According to AME 409 lectures, the motor reaches peak power available at its rated RPM

and maintains that up to its peak RPM. This is useful in calculating acceleration time and other

aspects of vehicle performance at various velocities.

3.4 Power Curve and Acceleration Performance

Figure 5: Power available and power required

The power available from the motors provides ample power for all speeds. The engine

power remains constant due to the nature of microturbines and the manner in which they are used

in the Vector. The engines turn at a constant 80000RPM once activated, yielding constant power

of 70kW each for a total of 140kW (188HP). The power from the engine can be used to turn a

generator to charge the battery or power the motors directly. To simplify calculations, only motor

power was considered in the calculations for this study. With a large amount of excess power

available from the motors, the Vector is able to accelerate very quickly and reach speeds in

excess of 200mph.

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

02004006008001000120014001600180020002200

0200400600800

10001200140016001800200022002400260028003000

0 50 100 150 200

km/h

kW

HP

mph

Engine PowerAvailable

Total Poweravailable

Motor PowerAvailable

Pr

Pd

Pt

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Acceleration performance is calculated using excess power, Pe, and dividing by the

product of mass and velocity. Since power is equal to the product of of an object’s mass,

acceleration, and velocity,

(10)

the equation can be solved for a and the acceleration at that speed is found. However, an average

needs to be taken in order to calculate the time it takes to reach a given speed. To calculate

acceleration performance, the power available plot is broken into six columns, each 10mph wide

from 0-60mph. To calculate the time it takes to accelerate to each speed is found by substituting

a from the rearranged Eqn. 6

(11)

where Pei is the average excess power between Pei and Pei-1 and Vi is the average velocity between

Vi and Vi-1 for i=0:1:6 into the equation

(12)

Figure 6: acceleration performance curve

The acceleration of the Vector is quite remarkable with a 0-60mph time of 3.41sec and a

top speed of 200mph in just 12.7sec! The Rimac motors deliver massive amounts of power to

the wheels, enabling such high performance. The curve is nearly linear, meaning that the motors

deliver so much excess power that the acceleration between speeds is constant. This vehicle’s

performance is that of a super machine.

3.41sec, 60mph

0

50

100

150

200

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

V [mph]

Time [sec]

Acceleration

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4 ENERGY SYSTEM

The most important part of this study is energy consumption. The total energy required by

the engine and motor must be calculated to determine the size of the gas tank and battery. This is

done by using the following formulas:

(13)

(14)

(15)

The BSFC is the engine’s Brake Specific Fuel Consumption, which is the amount of fuel the

engine uses at a given RPM. The microturbines turn at a constant RPM and have a constant

power output, operating independently of the vehicle speed, and so have a constant BSFC

whenever in use. The time in these formulas is the time spent at the given power output in BHP

and BkW. The energy loss from the generator to motor, LossG-M-loss, is 20%, or 0.2. In the case

of the Vector, (13) does not apply because the engines do not power the wheels, just the

generator. To this end, (15) will be the focus for calculating fuel needs. The energy needed to

accelerate is also an important factor as all of the excess power is needed and the total power

required must also be added:

(16)

where again this is computed for the six divisions used for acceleration time in Eqn. 8 and then

added to find the total energy needed to accelerate to 60mph. Normally, the BSFC of the engine

is a factor in acceleration energy, but since the engines do not play a role in the acceleration of

the Vector and so the BSFC is ignored. The DrivetrainLoss between motor and wheel is only

10% (0.1) since the motors are mechanically attached directly to the wheels and there is no loss

of energy between motor and wheel due to an axle or transmission. This means the loss is due to

the efficiency of the motor itself and losses to accessories of the vehicle (radio, AC, etc.). The

energy consumed while cruising is found using the equation

[ ] (17)

where Pt is the total power required at 60mph and Time is the amount of time spent at cruise

velocity, which must be at least 30 minutes. Another requirement of the vehicle is climbing at

cruise velocity. The power required to do so is found using

(18)

where Vcruise is 60mph and is the angle of the incline. To find the energy needed to climb, the

following formula is used

(19)

With these equations and a Mission Table, the fuel tank and battery sizes can be determined. A

Mission Table defines what a vehicle does on a single tank and battery.

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5 Mission Scenario Description Vehicle Name: Vector

Notes: * Regenerative brake efficiency = 15% (of kinetic energy can be restored in battery)

**TotalFuelNeeded = EngineFuelNeeded + (MotorEnergyUsage / (1 – GeneratorMotorEnergyLoss))*BSFC@60mph

GeneratorMotorEngergyLoss = ~20% Assuming charging battery only at 60mph (1 [kW-h] => BSFC@60mph[g])

Phase

Speed

(mph,

*km/h)

Time

(min,

*sec)

Distance

(mile,

*km)

Power

Usage

(kW)

Engine

Speed

(RPM)

Engine

Load

(%)

Energy

Usage

(kWh)

Engine/

Motor

Energy

Split

(%/%)

Engine

BSFC

(g/kWh)

Energy/Cycle

No. of

Cycles

Total

Energy Usage Total

Time

(min)

Total

Range

(mile,

*km) Engine

(kg)

Motor

(kWh)

Engine

(kg)

Motor

(kWh)

Acceleration 0-60 3.41 .021

.032

391.5 X X 0.37 0/100 X X 0.37 4.37 X 1.62 17sec .13

.22

Deceleration* 60-0 2.35 .02

.032

X X X X 0/100 X X 16.2

gained

4.37 X X 10.26se

c

.087

.14

Cruise 60

96.6

40

2400

40

64.37

13.9 X X 9.27 0/100 X X 9.27 4.37 43.14 174.8 174.8

281.3

ZEV Cruise 60

96.6

30

1800

30

48.28

13.9 X X 6.95 0/100 X X 6.95 4.37 X 30.37 131.1 131.1

210.98

Hill Climb (5o) 60

96.6

5

300

5

8.05

41.37 X X 3.45 0/100 X X 3.45 4.37 X 15.1 21.85 21.85

35.18

Urban 25

40.23

20

1200

5

8.05

2.72 X X 0.91 0/100 X X 0.91 4.37 X 3.98 87.4 21.85

35.18

Totals 43.14 51.07 6.9hr 350

563

Total Fuel Needed** (kg): X

MPG: 34 Total Fuel Needed (gal): X

Fuel Tank Size (gal): X

Battery Weight (kg) & Size: 255kg

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As the Mission Table exhibits, for minimum requirements (350mi range) the battery must

provide 51.07kW*h of energy. A lithium polymer battery has an energy density of 0.2kW*h/kg.

Dividing the required energy by the energy density yields the mass of the battery needed.

However, Emin is 53.33kW*h, so this value must be used instead. The mass of the battery that

fits this requirement is 266kg. This will power the car for the entirety of the 350mi requirement.

Through utilizing the engines as a range extender by charging the battery or powering the

wheels, the range can increase by 360 miles with the power they provide. Using (15) the fuel

required to do so can be calculated. At 60mph, the turbines use 276g/kWh (BSFC) at a constant

RPM of 80000RPM. At this speed, the power required to travel for 9 hours (540mi) is

125.1kWh. Using (15), the fuel needed for the engine to generate this much power is 43.16kg of

fuel, which will be gasoline. Converting to gallons yields a value of 15.85 gallons. With these

specifications, the Vector will have a range of 890 miles. The Vector will also feature plug-in

charging capabilities.

Figure 7: energy system diagram

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6 COMPARISON AND DISCUSSION

Other hybrid vehicles of the same caliber in production are the Jaguar C-X75 and the Rimac

Concept_One. The Vector shares the same powertrain concept of an individual drive system for

each wheel. This technology, called torque-vectoring, allows the power delivered to each wheel

to be individually controlled, saving energy when not needed and increasing to peak power

output when high speed and acceleration are required. The differences between the three

vehicles lie in power, top speed, weight, and range.

The Jaguar accelerates to 60mph in 3.4 sec, equal to that of the Vector while the Rimac boasts

2.9 sec. This is due to a different differential between motor and wheel. The sacrifice of 0.5 sec

yielded a top speed 11mph higher than the Rimac, topping out at 200mph. The Rimac is very

heavy, weighing in at 4299 lbs which is due to the 4 heavy, high power motors and large battery

to deliver energy. Its carbon fiber frame and body help offset this weight and allow such high

acceleration. However, the heavy energy usage for high performance lowers the range

considerably, yielding only 310 miles. The Jaguar has a top speed of 205mph. This is also due

to its differential ratio and light weight. The smaller battery of the Jaguar allows slightly better

performance but at the cost of a lower range than the Vector. The Vector utilized both of these

vehicles’ concepts to form a hybrid of hybrids, combining high power with high energy density.

This vehicle has none of the weaknesses of the other vehicles: it’s lighter and smaller than

the others. At 12ft long, the Vector is 2 feet shorter than the Rimac and 3 feet shorter than the

Jaguar. The only advantages these cars have over the Vector are that they have the funding to be

produced. If the Vector was put into production, it would also be very expensive. While not

accessible to most of the public, its technology can still be adapted for cheaper vehicles, bringing

the pollution issue closer to being a non-issue. The Vector boasts an immense range and superb

motor performance, meant to be a dream car for most and the weekend ride for a few.

Specifications Rimac Concept_One Jaguar C-X75 Tebanator Vector

Acceleration (0-60mph) 2.8sec 3.4sec 3.4sec

Range 310mi 560mi 890mi

Length 14.9ft 15.2ft 12ft

Width 6.6ft 6.63ft 5.1ft

Wheelbase 9.0ft 8.9ft 6.8ft

Height 3.9ft 3.95ft 3.2ft

Weight 4299lbs 2976lbs 2657lbs

Body Carbon fiber Carbon fiber Carbon fiber

Power 1088HP 780HP 1341HP

16

7 CONCLUSIONS

The key aspect of the Vector’s performance is the torque-vector technology implemented as

the drivetrain system. The individual drive system for each wheel allows customization of

power allotment to each wheel, molding the performance of the car to the driver’s needs.

Individual drive systems mean that there is no need for a transmission or axle, lessening the

number of moving parts compared to a conventional vehicle, improving efficiency of motor-

wheel system. While the Vector may use high performance motors, this same system can be

used with smaller, more affordable motors. No transmission means no shifting, making for an

easy, fast ride. Torque-vectoring should be prevalent in all hybrid vehicles but may be too

expensive for an electric vehicle.

Energy production and consumption is the most important aspect of a low-emission vehicle.

With a low drag coefficient, the Vector minimizes drag resistance and lessening the power

required to reach high speeds. When power is minimized, the energy needed by the motors to

power the wheels is also minimized. Optimizing energy consumption was crucial to this study,

and the lithium-polymer chemistry battery served the best for a long range, high power vehicle.

Its high P/E ratio was essential since the vehicle is motor-driven. However, the lower energy

density means that a larger battery was needed, increasing the weight of the vehicle. The

advantage of having high power motors is that they counteract the extra weight and the Vector is

able to operate at peak performance instead of compromising on speed and acceleration.

While the chosen battery is enough to meet the requirements of this study, the Vector

aims to surpass them. Series hybrid vehicles are primarily used for their long range per

charge/tank. Naturally, an efficient and clean engine should be used for this purpose. Gas

microturbine engines are very efficient, losing much less heat and mechanical energy compared

to conventional IC engines and they can use various clean fuels. An additional advantage is that

they have a very large power to weight ratio. The Bladon Jets microturbines used in the Vector

have a P/W of 2kW:1kg, and they have even more powerful engines as well. The microturbine

efficiency and power generates a lot of energy for the battery to store on a minimal amount of

fuel, thus saving weight and reducing emissions.

The energy requirements were calculated assuming the Vector will be driven at 60mph

solely. This vehicle was designed to exceed speeds of 200mph, but this cannot be achieved

legally on public roads, further decreasing the potential buyers to those who have access to

private tracks. Furthermore, the battery cannot maintain the power output required to keep the

motors running at max power for an extended amount of time. However, the owners who have

the freedom to reach speeds of 200+mph will have the opportunity to charge the vehicle in an

outlet on the track and race as long as they wish.

While the Vector is a hybrid of different, private technologies, the concept behind it must be

acknowledged by the automotive world. The technology for clean, high performance vehicles

exists; all that is holding them back from achieving what the Vector has in theory is the financial

backing and the willingness to share vital technology commercially.

17

8 RECOMMENDATIONS

To further advance the performance of the Vector, a larger gas tank can be used so the

engines can generate even more energy for the battery. This will add slightly more weight, but

not enough to cause a significant rise in power requirements.

To make the vehicle more practical the differential ratio will be increased, lowering the top

speed but raising power at lower speeds. This means that more power can be used for

acceleration, decreasing the 0-60mph time.

By increasing the size of the battery, more energy will be available for the motors.

However, the weight will be raised considerably. By placing the battery in the rear it will be

over the main power source to offset the weight gain. With this much weight in the back, a

spoiler will have to be implemented to increase down-force and maintain safety and

performance. Another way to offset the weight deficit is to implement lightweight but sturdy

materials for the vehicle frame and body, such as carbon fiber. This technology has already been

implemented in such cars as the Aventador and Concept_One.

Natural gas or biodiesel should be used for future development. These fuels burn cleaner

and gas turbines can use these with no change in performance.

These changes can be utilized by all hybrid vehicles, not just high performance cars. If

efficiency and range are the most important aspects of a vehicle’s objective, a lithium-polymer

battery is the best choice for an energy source. Research into ultracapacitors should be

conducted to aid in quick battery recharging. The triple hybrid system should be adapted for

commercial vehicles, however more research needs to be done due to the high weight of the

batteries and capacitors needed for such a system.

18

9 REFERENCES

http://www.h2fc-fair.com/hm10/images/pdf/proton-motor04.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_polymer_battery

http://www.futurecars.com/futurecarscom/future-cars/future-car-of-the-week/frazer-nash-namir-

torino-tiger

http://www.motorauthority.com/news/1076012_rimacs-1088-hp-electric-car-burns-rubber-in-

new-video

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimac_Concept_One - Specifications

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery

http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html

http://gm-volt.com/2011/04/12/cost-effective-ev-battery-reportedly-passes-tests-recharges-in-

minutes/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar_C-X75

http://www.bladonjets.com/technology/gas-turbines/

http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/09/cx75-20100930.html

http://www.rimac-automobili.com/concept_one/specifications-10

http://www.jaguar-cx75.com/jaguar-cx75-specifications

19

10 APPENDICES

Appendix A – Key Specifications

The Vector US

SI Height 3.2 ft 0.97536 m

Length 12 ft 3.6576 m

Width 5.1 ft 1.55448 m

Weight 2657 lbs 1205.194 kg

Frontal Area 15.44 ft^2 1.434422 m^2

Tire Diameter 22 in 0.508 m

Drag Coefficient 0.369

0.369 Fr (rolling resistance) 0.015

0.015

rho (air density) 6. 63-7 slug/ft^3 1.8 kg/m^3

Appendix B – Motor and Engine specifications

Bladon Jets Micro Turbine (2) Weight 35 kg

Power 70 kW 95.2381 HP

RPM 80000 RPM

Motor (2 400kW,2 600kW motors)

Power 2000 kW 2682.044 HP

RPM 10000 RPM Weight 110lbs

50kg

Differential Ratio 3.267

20

Appendix C – Power available vs. velocity data

Speed [mph] Speed [km/h] Engine Power Available Motor Power Available Total Power available kW Engine Power available HP Motor Power available HP Total Power available HP

0 0 140 0 140 187.7430926 0 187.7430926

10 16.0934 140 153.8378836 293.8378836 187.7430926 206.3 394.0430926

20 32.1868 140 307.6757672 447.6757672 187.7430926 412.6 600.3430926

30 48.2802 140 461.5136508 601.5136508 187.7430926 618.9 806.6430926

40 64.3736 140 615.3515344 755.3515344 187.7430926 825.2 1012.943093

50 80.467 140 769.189418 909.189418 187.7430926 1031.5 1219.243093

60 96.5604 140 923.0273016 1063.027302 187.7430926 1237.8 1425.543093

70 112.6538 140 1076.865185 1216.865185 187.7430926 1444.1 1631.843093

80 128.7472 140 1230.703069 1370.703069 187.7430926 1650.4 1838.143093

90 144.8406 140 1384.540952 1524.540952 187.7430926 1856.7 2044.443093

100 160.934 140 1538.378836 1678.378836 187.7430926 2063 2250.743093

110 177.0274 140 1692.21672 1832.21672 187.7430926 2269.3 2457.043093

120 193.1208 140 1846.054603 1986.054603 187.7430926 2475.6 2663.343093

130 209.2142 140 2000 2140 187.7430926 2682.04418 2869.787273

140 225.3076 140 2000 2140 187.7430926 2682.04418 2869.787273

150 241.401 140 2000 2140 187.7430926 2682.04418 2869.787273

160 257.4944 140 2000 2140 187.7430926 2682.04418 2869.787273

170 273.5878 140 2000 2140 187.7430926 2682.04418 2869.787273

180 289.6812 140 2000 2140 187.7430926 2682.04418 2869.787273

190 305.7746 140 2000 2140 187.7430926 2682.04418 2869.787273

200 315.7746 140 2000 2140 187.7430926 2682.04418 2869.787273

21

Appendix D – Power required vs. velocity data

Speed

[mph]

Speed

[km/h] Pr kW Pd kW Pt kW Pr Hp Pd HP Pt HP

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

10 16.0934 0.79199 0.042558 0.834548 1.062076 0.057071 1.119147

20 32.1868 1.58398 0.340464 1.924444 2.124152 0.45657 2.580722

30 48.2802 2.375969 1.149068 3.525037 3.186227 1.540925 4.727152

40 64.3736 3.167959 2.723716 5.891675 4.248303 3.652563 7.900866

50 80.467 3.959949 5.319758 9.279706 5.310379 7.133912 12.44429

60 96.5604 4.751939 9.192541 13.94448 6.372455 12.3274 18.69986

70 112.6538 5.543928 14.59741 20.14134 7.434531 19.57546 27.00999

80 128.7472 6.335918 21.78973 28.12565 8.496606 29.22051 37.71711

90 144.8406 7.127908 31.02483 38.15273 9.558682 41.60498 51.16366

100 160.934 7.919898 42.55806 50.47796 10.62076 57.0713 67.69206

110 177.0274 8.711888 56.64478 65.35667 11.68283 75.9619 87.64473

120 193.1208 9.503877 73.54033 83.04421 12.74491 98.6192 111.3641

130 209.2142 10.29587 93.50006 103.7959 13.80699 125.3856 139.1926

140 225.3076 11.08786 116.7793 127.8672 14.86906 156.6036 171.4727

150 241.401 11.87985 143.6335 155.5133 15.93114 192.6156 208.5468

160 257.4944 12.67184 174.3178 186.9897 16.99321 233.764 250.7573

170 273.5878 13.46383 209.0877 222.5516 18.05529 280.3913 298.4466

180 289.6812 14.25582 248.1986 262.4544 19.11736 332.8398 351.9572

190 305.7746 15.04781 291.9057 306.9535 20.17944 391.452 411.6315

200 315.7746 15.8398 340.4645 356.3043 21.24152 456.5704 477.8119

22

Appendix E – acceleration data

Speed

[mph]

Speed

[km/h] Vavg [m/s] ai [m/s2] ai [ft/s2]

N [1000rpm] Acc. energy Pei

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

10 16.0934 2.235194 28.39871267 93.14777754 0.5 48.69558188 76.5017

20 32.1868 6.705583 28.38291439 93.09595921 1 145.7227209 229.377

30 48.2802 11.17597 28.35131785 92.99232255 1.5 243.0737872 381.87

40 64.3736 15.64636 28.30392304 92.83686756 2 340.9128794 533.724

50 80.467 20.11675 28.24072995 92.62959424 2.5 439.4066526 684.685

60 96.5604 24.58714 28.16173859 92.37050258 3 538.7252741 834.496

70 112.6538 29.05753 28.06694896 92.0595926 3.5 639.043421 982.903

80 128.7472 33.52792 27.95636106 91.69686428 4 740.5413311 1129.65

90 144.8406 37.99831 27.82997489 91.28231764 4.5 843.4059209 1274.48

100 160.934 42.46869 27.68779045 90.81595266 5 947.831985 1417.14

110 177.0274 46.93908 27.52980773 90.29776935 5.5 1054.023495 1557.38

120 193.1208 51.40947 27.35602674 89.72776771 6 1162.195017 1694.94

130 209.2142 55.87986 27.1672457 89.10856589 6.5 1272.571258 1829.61

140 225.3076 60.35025 25.90500695 84.9684228 7 1388.856095 1884.17

150 241.401 64.82064 23.78744847 78.02283099 7.5 1513.835711 1858.31

160 257.4944 69.29103 21.89878626 71.82801894 8 1645.960362 1828.75

170 273.5878 73.76142 20.1945304 66.23805972 8.5 1786.674989 1795.23

180 289.6812 78.23181 18.6403601 61.14038114 9 1937.724025 1757.5

190 305.7746 82.70219 17.20937528 56.44675092 9.5 2101.23652 1715.3

200 315.7746 86.32628 16.03587638 52.59767454 10 1402.878922 1668.37