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The Three Elements of Coaching
Effectiveness
Jean Côté, Ph.D
Professor and Director
School of Kinesiology and Health Studies
Queen’s University at Kingston
Ontario, Canada
An Integrative Definition of Coaching Effectiveness
and Expertise
Jean Côté and Wade Gilbert
International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching
Volume 4 · Number 3 · 2009
1. What is Coaching?
What is Coaching?
Conceptual Approaches to Coaching
Chelladurai (1978, 1990, 2007)
Smoll & Smith (1989)
Côté, Trudel, Salmela, Baria, & Russell (1995, 1998)
Lyle (2002)
Mageau & Vallerand (2003)
Gilbert & Trudel (2004)
Jowett (2005)
Horn (2008)
Organization
The Coaching Model
Training Competition
Coach's Mental Model of athlete(s)’ Potential
Contextual
Factors
Coach's Personal
Characteristics and
development
Goal: Developing Athletes
Organization
(Côté et al. 1995; 1998)
Athletes' Personal
Characteristics &
Level of Development
What is Coaching?
1. Athletes’ outcomes
2. Coach’s knowledge
3. Coaching contexts
A definition of coaching effectiveness or expertise
should include these three components as its
foundation.
Component 1:
Athletes’ Outcomes
Coaching Effectiveness (Horn, 2008)
Effective coaching …results in either successful
performance outcomes (measured either in terms of
win-loss percentages, individual player development,
or success at the national or international level) or
positive psychological responses on the part of the
athletes (e.g. high perceived ability, high self-esteem,
intrinsic motivational orientation, or high level of
sport enjoyment and satisfaction) (p. 240).
Coaching Effectiveness and Athletes’ Outcomes
1. Skill development (Martindale, Collins, & Daubney, 2005)
2. Self efficacy and confidence (Bandura, 1986; Vealey & Chase,
2008)
3. Achievement goal (Nicholls, 1984; Roberts, Treasure, & Conroy,
2007)
4. Self determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Vallerand, 2007)
5. Competence motivation (Harter, 1981; Weiss & Amorose, 2008)
6. Character and moral development (Shields & Bredemeier, 1995)
7. Positive youth development (Hellison, 1995)
Coaching Effectiveness and Athletes’ Outcomes (Côté, Bruner, Erickson, Strachan, & Fraser-Thomas, in press; Jelicic,
Bobek, Phelps, Lerner, & Lerner, 2008; Lerner, 2004)
To Develop Athletes’:
1. Competence:
Positive view of one’s action in sport. Learning sport specific skills, competing, and performing.
2. Confidence:
An internal sense of positive self-worth in sport.
3. Connection:
Positive bonds with people and institutions in sport.
4. Character/Caring:
Respect for societal rules, integrity, empathy for others.
Component 1: Outcomes
Research on athletes supports the use of competence,
confidence, connection, and character as important
outcomes for coaches to develop in their athletes.
Component 2:
Coaches’ Knowledge
Major Reviews of Coaching Education,
Effectiveness, and Expertise
Abraham & Collins (1998)
Potrac, Brewer, Jones, Armour, & Hoff (2000)
Lyle (2002)
Cushion, Armour, & Jones (2003)
Cassidy, Potrac, & Jones (2004)
Nash & Collins (2006)
Trudel & Gilbert (2006)
Schempp, McCullick, & Mason (2006)
Bloom (2007)
Horn (2008)
Component 2: Knowledge
1. Professional (sport specific) knowledge: includes
technical, tactical, mental, pedagogical, training,
nutrition, etc.
2. Interpersonal knowledge: individual and group
interactions with children, adolescents, and adults
(e.g. coach-athletes relationships).
3. Intrapersonal knowledge: on-going learning and
reflection .
Collinson, 1996
Component 3:
Coaching Contexts
Coaching Contexts
“The lack of a common typology of coaching
contexts hinders the organisation of coaching
research into a meaningful framework that can be
used to inform coach education program design (p.
535; Trudel & Gilbert, 2006)”
Coaching Typology According to Athletes’
Competitive Context
Trudel & Gilbert (2006)
Recreational sport coaching
Developmental sport coaching
Elite sport coaching
Lyle (2002)
Representative team/group coach
Performance coach
Participation coach
Sport teacher
Coaching Typology According to Athletes’
Development
Although it is important to consider athletes’ level
of competition, it is also important to integrate
athletes’ development research and athletes’
development models to guide coaching practice and
the delimitation of different coaching contexts (Côté,
Young, North, & Duffy, 2007).
Athletes’ Developmental Models to
Conceptualize Different Coaching Contexts
Athletes’ development
models bring order and
organization into the
developmental changes
that occur in sport.
(Bruner, Erickson, McFadden & Côté, 2009)
Athletes’ Developmental Models:
Citation Network Analysis
1. Stambulova (1994)
2. Côté (1999)
3. Durand-Bush & Salmela (2002)
4. Abbott & Collins (2004)
5. Wylleman, Alfermann, & Lavallee (2004)
6. Bailey & Morley (2006)
7. Morgan & Giacobbi (2006)
(Bruner, Erickson, Wilson, & Côté, 2009)
Sampling Years
• High amount of deliberate play
• Low amount of deliberate practice
• Involvement in several sports
Investment Years High amount of deliberate practice
Low amount of deliberate play
Focus on one sport
Specializing Years •Deliberate play and practice balanced
•Reduce Involvement in several sports
Recreational Years
•High amount of
deliberate play
•Low amount of
deliberate practice
Entry into sport
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
The Developmental Model of Sport Participation (Côté , 1999; Côté, Baker, & Abernethy, 2007; Côté, Fraser-Thomas, 2007)
Investment Years
•High amount of deliberate practice and
physical effort (Côté et al., 2007).
•High level of personal and social resources
(Salmela, 1996).
Specializing Years
• Increase focus on performance outcomes
(Gould, Feltz, & Weiss, 1985).
• Sportmanship (Shields & Bredemeier, 1995).
Entry into sport
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
Sampling Years • Evaluation of competence as “good” or “bad” (Harter, 1999).
• Ability is not predictive of future success (Régnier, Salmela, & Russell, 1993).
• Mastery experiences with immediate and tangible outcomes (Chase, 1998;
Duda, 1993; Harwood, Spray, & Keegan, 2008).
• Adult role models for connection and character/caring development (Shields
& Bredemeier, 1995).
Recreational Years
• Importance of physical
appearance and social
acceptance (Harter, 1999).
• Relationship with peers is
important for identity
formation (McLellan &
Pugh, 1999).
• Personal growth through
sport (Hellison, 1995).
Research on Athletes’ Development
Component 3: Contexts
According to Competitive Context (Lyle, 2002; Trudel &
Gilbert, 2006)
Recreational /Participation
Performance
According to Athletes’ Development (Côté, Young,
North, & Duffy, 2007)
Sampling years (children ages 6-12)
Recreational years (adolescents/adults ages 13 +)
Specializing years (young adolescents ages 13-15)
Investment years (late adolescents/adults ages 16 +)
Sampling Years
High amount of deliberate play
Low amount of deliberate practice
Involvement in several sports
Investment Years High amount of deliberate practice
Low amount of deliberate play
Focus on one sport
Specializing Years Deliberate play and practice balanced
Reduce Involvement in several sports
Recreational Years
High amount of
deliberate play
Low amount of
deliberate practice
Entry into sport
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
Participation
coach
for children
Participation coach for
teens and adults
Performance
coach for young
adolescents
Performance
coach for older
adolescents and
adults
Coaching Expertise: Definition
1. Research on athletes supports the use of competence,
confidence, connection, and character as important
outcomes for coaches to develop in their athletes.
2. Coaching research provides categories of coaches’
knowledge that include professional, interpersonal, and
intrapersonal.
3. Athlete development models show that athletes’ outcomes
and coaches’ knowledge are characterized differently at
various stages of an athlete’s development in sport.
Proposed Definition of Coaching Expertise
The consistent application of
integrated professional,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal
knowledge to improve athletes’
competence, confidence,
connection, and character in
specific coaching contexts.
Proposed Definition of Coaching Expertise
3 components to the definition:
1. Outcomes (4 C’s; competence, confidence, connection,
and character)
2. Knowledge domains (professional, interpersonal, and
intrapersonal)
3. Contexts (4 contexts based on athletes’ development)
Testing the Definition
of Coaching Expertise: 3 hypotheses
1. Expert coaches in any context develop their
athletes’ competence, confidence, connection,
and character.
2. Expert coaches in any context have
professional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
knowledge.
3. The nature of the knowledge or competencies
associated with expert coaches’ knowledge
varies according to different coaching contexts.
2. The How: Developmental Paths of High Performance Coaches
Anderson & Gill (1983)
Occupational socialization patterns of high school basketball coaches
Schinke, Bloom, & Salmela (1995)
Career paths of high-level basketball coaches
Lemyre & Trudel (2004)
Learning paths of volunteer coaches
Werthner & Trudel (2005)
Learning processes of elite coaches
Duffy, Larkin, & O’leary (2005)
Survey of the developmental paths, motives, activities, and needs of Irish coaches
Coaching Development Studies
Structured Interview Procedure (Côté, Ericsson, & Law, 2005; Gilbert, Côté, & Mallett, 2006)
• To outline the life histories of effective coaches by
focusing on activities that could have contributed to
their development.
• The life histories are traced using a quantitative
interview procedure derived from our work with elite
level athletes (Côté, Ericsson, & Law, 2005; Gilbert,
Côté, & Mallett, 2005)
Structured Interview Procedure (Côté, Ericsson, & Law, 2005; Gilbert, Côté, & Mallett, 2006)
Detailed tracing of the life histories of
selected coaches.
Structured interview procedure assessed
developmental activities that may have facilitated
the development of coaching.
Structured Interview: Content (Côté, Ericsson, & Law, 2005; Gilbert, Côté, & Mallett, 2006)
1. Measures of formal and informal coaching education.
2. Engagement in various sports as an athlete.
Survey of sports engaged in
# of hours per week involved
# of months per year involved
Leadership role
Perceived ability
3. Engagement in various sports as a coach
Survey of sports coached
# of hours per week involved in various coaching activities
# of months per year involved in various coaching activities
# of mentors
Retrospective Studies
Gilbert, Côté, & Mallett, 2006
Erickson, Côté, & Fraser-Thomas, 2007
Gilbert, Zelezny, & Côté, 2009
Young, Jemxzyk, Brophy, & Côté, 2009
Koh, Mallett, & Wang, 2011
Training Content
Between 9,000-12,000 hours of experience in
sport divided into:
Athletic experience (3000-4000 hours)
Coaching experience (3000-4000 hours)
Informal and formal education (3000-4000 hours)
Performance Coaching
Above average
athlete in
specific sport
Formal
leadership
role as athlete
Involved in
different sports
as athlete
Coached
developmental
athletes in
specific sport
Assistant coached
developmental/
elite athletes in
specific sport
Coaching
experience
in other sports
Formal
education in
sport or PE
Coaching
Certification
Interacted
with mentors in
specific sport
sport specific sport general
Athletic experience
Coaching experience
Informal and
formal education
Elements of Coaching Development
Performance Coaching
Above average
athlete in
specific sport
Formal
leadership
role as athlete
Involved in
different sports
as athlete
Coached
developmental
athletes in
specific sport
Assistant coached
developmental/
elite athletes in
specific sport
Coaching
experience
in other sports
Formal
education in
sport or PE
Coaching
Certification
Interacted
with mentors in
specific sport
sport specific sport general
Athletic experience
Coaching experience
Informal and
formal education
Elements of Coaching Development
Performance Coaching
Above average
athlete in
specific sport
Formal
leadership
role as athlete
Involved in
different sports
as athlete
Coached
developmental
athletes in
specific sport
Assistant coached
developmental/
elite athletes in
specific sport
Coaching
experience
in other sports
Formal
education in
sport or PE
Coaching
Certification
Interacted
with mentors in
specific sport
sport specific sport general
Athletic experience
Coaching experience
Informal and
formal education
Elements of Coaching Development
Coaching Pathways as “Threshold” of
Experiences
Coaching competence occurs when a threshold of coaching
experiences is obtained.
Coaching experiences are additives and contribute to the
activation of the threshold.
Coaching competence threshold could be activated from
experiences as athletes, coaching, or informal and formal
education.
Certain coaching development experiences will carry more
weight than others in activating the competence threshold.
When in the Career of a Performance
Coach are Developmental Experiences
Happening?
Stages of Performance Coach
Development
Developmental Milestones Mean Age .
Initial organized sport participation 6.7
Initial competitive sport participation 13.1
Initial formal leadership opportunity (team sport coaches) 13.8
Initial elite sport participation 18.8
Initial coaching experience 20.8
End of elite sport participation 24.5
Initial interaction with mentor coach 25.9
Initial high performance head coaching position 28.8
Stages of Performance Coach Development
Diversified Early Sport Participation
(Age 6-12)
Competitive Sport Participation
(Age 13-18)
Highly Competitive Sport Participation/
Introduction to Coaching (Age 19-23)
Part-time Early coaching
(Age 24-28)
High Performance Head Coaching
(Age 29+)
Discussion
Can we agree on the elements of a definition of
coaching effectiveness?
The “what” and “when” of training performance
coach.
What about the development of participation
coaches?
