Principes, 36(3), 1992, pp. I33-I42

The Use of Palms by the Pume Indians ofSouthwestern Venezuela

ree2)

Asstnecr

This paper presents information on the patternsof use of Astrocdryum jauari, Euterpe precatoria,Mauritia flexuosa, and Mauritiella aculeata amongthe Pum6, a native American group living in theseasonally inundated savanna region of southwesternVenezuela. Palm products form an integral part ofeveryday Pum6 life providing fiber, food, and shelter.The use of these four genera of palms by the Pum,1is compared to their use among other South Americanpeoples.

In this paper are described the uses ofA s Lroe a ryum j auari, Eu te r pe p recatori a,Mauritia f.exuosa, and Mauritiella acu-leata amongthe Pum6, a native Americangroup living in the seasonally inundatedsavanna region of southwestern Venezuela.The close relation between humans andpalms in lowland South America has beenlong remarked upon by botanists and eth-nographers (Wallace 1853, Levi-Strauss1950, Beckerman 1977, Anderson 1978,Balick and Beck 1990). Despite the factthat only a few palm species have everbeen domesticated worldwide, palms prob-ably provide more economic benefits tohumans in the form of food, fiber, buildingmaterials. fuelwood. and folk medicine thanany other family of plants, including grassesand legumes (Uhl and Dransfield 1988,Johnson 1988, Beckerman 1979, Levi-Strauss 1950, Balick 1986, Clementl9BB). This is also true among the Pum6for whom palms provide fiber to manufac-ture artifacts and clothing, food in the formoffruits, palm heart, and grubs, and leavesused to thatch houses and make additionalartifacts.

GRAGSON: USE OF PALMS BY THE PUME

TBo L. GRecsolrDepartment of Anthropology, Unit:ersity of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602

Background

The Pum6 inhabit the Llanos de Apurelocated in southwestern Venezuela west ofthe Orinoco river and south of the Apureriver (Fig. l). The Llanos de Apure havean average elevation of less than 200 mabove m.s.l. and lie at the center of thetropical savanna extending from the Deltaof the Orinoco in northeastern Venezuelato the Guaviare river in southern Colom-bia. The most characteristic landscape fea-tures of the area occupied by the Pum6are longitudinal sand dunes less than I0m high, 20-50 m wide, and up to 500 mlong (Morales 1979). Average annual rain-fall in the area occupied by the Pum6 isnearly 2,000 mm, but most precipitationis concentrated in a six month rainy sea-son. This climatic characteristic combinedwith the slight gradient of the Llanos deApure results in extensive flooding that canlast from one to I0 months of the yearand be as deep as I m (Zink 1986, Andeland Postma 1954, FAO 1965, Goosenr964).

The 1983 Indian Census of Venezuelarecorded a total Pum6 population of 3,873(OCEI 1985). Of this total, about 837orefer to themselves as bea lthonomePum6and are calfedYaruro by Spanish speakers(a name also commonly used in historicand older ethnographic accounts). The beakhonome Pum6 live in permanent villagesalong the major rivers running through theLlanos de Apure: the Arauca, the Cunavi-che, the Capanaparo, the Riecito, and toa lesser extent the Cinaruco. Their sub-sistence is based predominately on manioc

C A R I D B E A N 8 E A

I / f B R A Z T L

P R I N C I P E S [Vor. 36

I. Location of the Pum6 within Venezuela

horticulture supplemented with fish andother vertebrates obtained from the rivercourses and many of these Pum6 work ona seasonal basis as migrant laborers, Theremaining 17% of the Pum6 populationare referred to as ciri lthonom.e Pum6 byother Pum6 and, as Capuruchano by Span-ish speakers. This subpopulation occupiesthe interfluvial savanna between theCapanaparo and Cinaruco rivers and rep-resents the least acculturated segment ofPum6 society. The ciri khonome Pum6Iive in semi-nomadic villages following asubsistence pattern based on fishing, hunt-ing, gathering of wild foods, and some gar-dening of manioc and corn (Gragson l989,in press).

Methods and Results

Ethnobotanical information on the Pum6is presented by Ramia (1962), Mitrani(1976), and Gragson and Tillett (n.d.).Ramia collected a limited amount of eth-nobotanical information among the Pum6while conducting a botanical survey of theLlanos de Apure. Mitrani conducted eth-nographic research on the medicinal useof 'plants by bea khonome Pum6 livingnear the Cunaviche river. I have con-ducted ethnographic research since 1986on ciri khonome Pum6 subsistence ecologyand settlement practices that is comple-mented with botanical collections. To datein this research, 103 plant specimens havebeen collected in the area bounded by the

Capanaparo, the Cinaruco, and the Riecitorivers and processed by Stephen Tillett,Universidad Central de Venezuela. Voucherspecimens and duplicates are currentlydeposited in the Dr. Victor Manuel OvallesHerbarium (MYF), but matching sets willeventually be placed at the VenezuelanNational Herbarium (VEN) and the NewYork Botanical Garden (NY). The palmspecies reported in this paper are part ofthis collection and their determinations weremade or confirmed by Andrew Henderson(NY). The descriptions of palm biology andecology in the next section derive frompersonal observations (Gragson 1987), thegeneral works of Uhl and Dransfreld ( I 987),and Braun and Chitty (I987).

Palm Use

Astroca.ryum cf . jauari Mart. Pum6: baito. Spanish: macanilla. Voucher speci-men: TLG 46.

The oomacanilla" is a monocaulous,arborescent, pinnate leaved palm growingto an approximate height of 5 m. The stemhas well-defined leaf scars and is thicklyarmored with flat spines up to 12 cm long;the petiole and rachis combined reach aIength of 3 m, and the underside of indi-vidual leaflets are covered with shorterspines. This palm tends to grow along themargins and in the more open areas ofseasonally flooded gallery forests associ-ated with major rivers throughout the LIa-nos de Apure (e.g., Riecito); it is sparselydistributed in the interfluvial areas withsingle specimens occasionally being foundalong seasonal streams.

The bea lthonome Pum6 use A. jauariextensively as a source for fiber to weavesmall bags and baskets used to hold per-sonal items and to twine into cord for mak-ing hammocks. Fiber is extracted from leafpinnae by beating and stripping, and theextracted fiber is whitened in boiling waterbefore use. The ciri khonome Pum6 sel-dom use A. jauari as a fiber source sub-stituting instead Mauritia f.exuosa. This

r9921 GRAGSON: USE OF PALMS BY THE PUME I 3 5

is a reflection of the lower availability ofA. jauari in the interfluvial area since alarge number of palms are needed to obtainthe quantities of fiber required to manu-facture most items. Nevertheless, itemsmade from A. jauari fiber are preferredby both Pum6 and Criollos over the sameitems made from M. f.exuosa fiber, andare widely traded and sold throughout theLlanos de Apure. With particular refer-ence to hammocks, the Pum6 say thosemade from A. jauari fiber are smootherand more comfortable to sleep on, whileboth Pum6 and Criollo say they wear betterand last much longer than the same itemsmade from M. f.exuosa fiber.

Almost without exception, bows forhunting among both the bea khonome andthe ciri khonorne Pum6 are manufacturedfrom the stemwood o{ A. jauari. To man-ufacture a bow, a palm is felled and thetrunl< is split lengthwise to remove a wedge-shaped blank, which is then scraped intoshape with a knife over a period of weeks.The woody, immature seeds of A. jauariare drilled length-wise to make the nosepieces on yopo (Spanish) inhalers. Yopo(an hallucinogen manufactured from theseeds of Anadenanthera peregrina) is usedextensively by nearly all Pum6 men onceremonial and secular occasions (Fig. 2).

Euterpe cf. precatoria Mart. Pum6: h 6nanto. Spanish: manaca. Voucher speci-mens: TLG 45 and TLG 96.

The "manaca" is a monocaulous, arbo-rescent, pinnate leaved, palm growing toan approximate height of 20 m. The stemis gray-black in color and has well-definedleaf scars, while the stemwood is soft andstringy. The leaf sheath is up to 1.5 mlong, and the petiole and rachis combinedreach a length of 3 m. This palm is foundgrowing in the Llanos de Apure in thedeeply shaded interior ofseasonally floodedgallery forests associated with permanentand temporary waters.

E. precatoria has a minor, and non-

exclusive place in the economy of thePum6. Its principal use is in the prepa-ration of peram6.n (Spanish), a resinoussubstance used to seal, bind, and water-proof a multitude of manufactured items,and especially important in the manufac-ture of arrows. Droplets of resin collectedfrom Symphonia globulifera are workedby hand into a single mass and then mixedwith leaves ol E. precatorialhat have beenburned into ash. Ash from M. f.exuosapetioles may be substituted, however (Fig.

3). The fruits and heart of E. precatoriaare occasionally eaten raw, but are notactively sought.

Mauritia f.exuosa L.f. Pum6: tho to(mature), bObui to (woody-stemme-djuvenile), chee to (acaulescent juvenile).

Spanish: moriche. Voucher specimens:TLG 2 and TLG 3.

The "moriche" is a monocaulous, arbo-rescent palm growing to a height of 30 m,that has reduplicate and briefly costapal-mate leaves. The stem is unarmed, gray-ish-brown in color, and bears distinctiveleaf scars. The petiole on mature speci-mens is up to I m long, but on acaulescentjuveniles it can reach a length of 5 m. M.

f,exuosa can grow as a solitary individualin the interior of seasonally flooded galleryforests, but is often found in relatively dense,monospecific concentrations in seasonallyflooded savanna (locally referred to inSpanish as a morichal).

M. f.exuosa is the most widely used ofall palms among the Pum6. Fiber is obtainedfrom the young, unrolled leaf (sword leaf)and is used in a manner similar to the fiberextracted from the leaves of A. jauari.

Fiber is extracted by placing the swordleaf in the sun for a few hours to dry andthen separating the cuticle from the leafsegment by rolling them between the fin-gers and stripping; the cuticle is allowedto dry completely in the sun for severaldays before it is used to manufacture arti-facts. The fiber obtained trom M. flexuosa

1 3 6 P R I N C I P E S [Vor. 36

:&

2. Pum6 man taking yopo through an inhalator. The nasal pieces are made from seeds of lstrocaryum jauari

while the tubes (made of bird bone) are bound with peram6n manufactured with ash *om Euterpe precatoria

leaves. The yopo pallet is being supported on a mat woven from Maurit ia fexuosa leaf segments. 3. Pum6

man making peram6n. He is at the stage of incorporating ash (in this instance from Mauritia feruosa) into the

reg2) GRAGSON: USE OF PALMS BY THE PUME t J /

leaves is dyed red by boiling in a decoctionof Arrabidaea chica leaves and used with-out further modification as a ooloincloth"

by woman. The fiber is also used to weavesmall bags to hold personal possessions,slings for carrying babies, and most impor-tantly to weave mats. Soils throughout theLlanos de Apure are loose and sandy, andmats are used for sitting on, Iayinguncooked and prepared food on, and aswind (or rain) shields. Twined fiber is usedto manufacture the hammocks used by cirikhonome Pum6. A byproduct of fiberextraction which is occasionally used arethe prominent midribs found on each leafsegment. These are loosely woven intomanioc flour sifters.

Whole, mature leaves of M. f.exuosaare used to weave floor mats, upright wind-shields, and the large baskets used as stor-age units for personal belongings insidehouses, and by women to carry manioc,wild roots, and firewood. The major use ofmature leaves, however, is for thatchinghouses. The attachment of the blade to thepetiole of leaves is broken and the leaf isleft to sun-dry for several days. In thatch-ing a house, leaves are split in half length-wise and hung over roof slats most fre-quently made of Mauritiella aculeata.(Between four and 1,200 leaves of M.

f.exuosa are used to thatch a single housedepending on style, size, and season ofuse.)

Dry petioles of acaulescent juveniles ofM. f.exuosa are fairly straight, quite rigid,and extremely light. In this condition, indi-vidual petioles are used to make fencesaround small patches of squash or tobaccowithin the village. Several petioles can bepierced onto a stick to form a platformthat is used as a shelf when suspendedfrom the rafters of Pum6 houses, or awindbreak,/rainshield when stuck upright

into the ground. The petioles may also becharred and the ash used to manufactureperam6n in the manner already describedfor E. precatoria. Rafts are made by lash-ing together with vines (several genera areused) three to four platforms composed ofI0 to 12 petioles each. (The number ofplatforms used depends on the weight ofthe person using the raft.) These rafts areused to cross rain-swollen streams in thewet season and to fish from in lakes anddeep ponds poisoned with barbasco (Span-ish, Tephrosia sinapou) during the dryseason (Fig. ).

The ripe fruit of M. f.exuosa is activelysought during the wet season and favoredfor consumption over that of any otherpalm. The mesocarp is sucked and scrapeddirectly off the endocarp without prepa-ration. The palm heart is also eaten,although a palm will seldom be felled forthe sole purpose of extracting the heart.If the sword leaf is taken for fiber or leavesare collected for thatch, then the heart isnearly always extracted as well. LargeRhynchophorus palmarun grubs, whichare roasted and eateno are collected fromthe rotten trunks of M. f.exuosa felled inprevious years to obtain thatch.

Maurit iella aculeata (Kunth) Burret.Pum6: kuecha to (mature), thon6nga to(juvenile). Spanish: moriche negro.Voucher specimens: TLG 6, TLG 7, TLG42, andTLG 47.

The "moriche negro" is a multi-stemmed, arborescent palm growing to anapproximate height of l0 m, that has redu-plicate and briefly costapalmate leaves. Thestem is silvery-gray in color, has distinctleaf scars, and is armed with stout, upwardcurving spines I to 2 cm long. This palmgrows in deeply shaded areas of seasonally

€-softened resin of Symphonia globulifera. The man's left knee is touching a basket made from a mature leaf ofMauritia flexuosa and in the background is a hammock made of fiber extracted from the sword leaf of the same

specles.

138 P R I N C I P E S [Vor. 36

4.' Pum6 man spreading barbasco in a river pondfrom a raft made with petioles of juventre Mauritia

f.exuosa. He is poling himself with a petiole from thesame species.

flooded gallery forests and is typically foundgrowing in shallow basins retaining wateryear-round and located adjacent to streamsor rivers.

The most important use of M. a'culeataamong the Pum6 is in house construction.A mature palm is felled, the spines areremoved, and the stem is split lengthwiseinto 6 to I0 slats. The spongy interior ofthe stem is scraped from each slat with amachete and discarded. Slats are tied tothe roof beams on Pum6 houses using vines(Cynachum ?) and serve to support thesplit leaves of Mauritia f,exuosa used asthatch (Fig. 5). Mauritiella aculeata slats

are also used to build shelves inside Pum6houses.

The petiole of acaulescent juveniles ofM. aculeata are some 3 m in length andabout I cm in diameter. After sun-dryingfor several days, the petioles are used tomanufacture arrow shafts although thepractice is now largely restricted to oldermembers:among the ciri khonome Pum6.This use of petioles appears to have beenmore widespread in the past before Gyne'riurn sp. cane was widely planted in gar-dens; Gyneriunx sp. cane has greater rigid-ity and durabilitythan M. aculeataperioles,and the sturdier arrows that can be pro-duced are favored by the Pum6.

Leaves of acaulescent juveniles of M.aculeata are the most cornmonly usedmaterial for weaving fire-fans, while thefibrous outer layer of the petiole is usedfor ties and binding material once it isstripped away from the pithy interior. Thesebindings are obtained on a spontaneous,as-needed basis, and are readily discardedafter use. The fruits of mature M. aculeataare reportedly edible, but are not activelysought by the Pum6. Table I summarizesthe use of different palm species amorigthe Pum6.

Discussion

In general terms, the Pum6 appear torely on a smaller number of palm generathan most native and non-native peoplesthroughout the lowlands of South America;more than a difference in native knowl-edge, however, this may simply reflectenvironmental differences between tropicalsavanna where the Pum6 live and tropicalforest where most of the work on palmethnobotany has been carried out. Thereappear to be fewer genera of palms rep-resented in tropical savannas than thereare in tropical forests (Balick 1985, BoomI9BB, Anderson l97B), even though theobservations are largely unsystematic innature. The intensity and variety of usesof the palm genera by the Pum6 is nev-

r9921 GRAGSON: USE OF PALMS BY THE PUME

Table I. The names and uses of palms (nnong the Pum6.

Edible EdibleFruit Heart

Pum6 SpanishName Name Scientific Name

Build- Artiing facts/

Mate- Handi-Thatch rial crafts Other

bai to macanilla

h6nan to manaca

tho to morichekuecha to moriche

negro

Astrocaryum cf. jauariMart.

Euterpe cf, precatoriaMart.

Mauritia flexuosa L,I.Mauritiella aculeata

(Kunth) Burret

X

a

X

. O

X X

O .

x : important or major useO : uimportant o, -iro. t.r"".o : no known use.

ertheless comparable to that of groups

relying on a larger number of genera.

Like the Pum6, the Bari of the Mara-caibo Basin and the Ch6cobo of north-eastern Bolivia manufacture bows from thehard stemwood o{ Astrocarywn (speciesunknown for the Bari, and A. aculeatumfor the Ch6cobo fBeckerman I977,Boom

19881). The Bari, the Ch6cobo, and theYanomama of southeastern Venezuela also.use Astrocaryallrr stemwood to manufac-ture arrow points (1. aculeatum in thecase of the Ch6cobo and the Yanomama);the Pum6 now use metal arrow tips exclu-sively, but may have made arrow tips fromstemwood in the past before metal was so

5. Pum6 dry season house in an early stage of construction showing the roof slats made from Mauritiellaaculeata- In the background are two occupied houses thatched with Mauritia flexrzosa leaves.

I40 P R I N C I P E S [Vor. 36

easily obtained. The Guahibo living in theLlanos del Meta just south of the Pum6in Colombia, use seeds ol A. acaule tomanufacture the nasal pieces of yopoinhalers similar in shape to those manu'factured by the Pum6 (Balick 1979).

The Bari and Guajajara ofnortheasternBrazil are specifically known to extractfiber from the leaves of several species ofAstrocaryum (Beckerman 1977, BalickigBB), but the practice is widespreadamong lowland peoples (Levi-Strauss 1950,Uhl and Dransfield l9BB, Kahn 1988'Balick and Beck 1990). Although the Pum6are not known to eat the fruit or the heartof A. jauari, these two items are obtainedfor consumption from various species ofAstrocaryum by the Bari, the Ch6cobo,the Yanomama, the Guajajara, and mes-tizos throughout lowland South America(Beckerman 1977, Boom I9BB, Anderson1978, Balick l9BB, Mejia I9BB, Balickand Beck 1990).

The Pum6 make limited use of. E. pre'co,toria compared to its use among otherlowland South Americans. The fruit of var-ious species of Euterpe, but most com-monly E. oleracea (the assai palm), arewidely used to manufacture beverages andmushes of various kinds by caboclos inBrazil as well as many native groupsincluding the Bari, the Ch6cobo, the Gua-hibo, the Yanomama, the Apinay6 (living

in northeastern Brazil), and the Guajajara(Levi-Strauss 1950; Beckerman 1977;Boom l98B; Balick 1979, I9B8; Ander-son 1978; Strudwick and Sobel l98B).The palm heart of E. precatoria and E.oleracea are also eaten by many groups'and that of. E. oleracea is the source ofcanned palmito sold in the United Statesand Europe (Balick 1985, Kahn l9BB,Strudwick and Sobel t98B). Fronds ofEuterpe precatoricl are used for thatchinghouses by the Ch6cobo and the Guahibo,while the stemwood of this species is usedby the Yanomama to build shelves andtables (Boom 1988, Balick.1979, Ander-son I978).

Throughout the seasonally flooded areasof lowland South America, Mauritia f'ex-uosais undoubtedly the most widely usedof alJ palms. The Warao, a native groupliving in the Orinoco Delta region of Ven-ezuela, make the most extensive use of thispalm. They use the stems as piles to sup-port their houses and to extract starch forconsumption; they draw fiber from theleaves to manufacture clothing and ham-mocks; and they consume the fruits andthe palm heart (Heinen and Ruddle I974).The Yanomama, Apinay6, and Guajajaraeat the mesocarp of M. f.exuosa fruitswithout preparation like the Pum6, whilethe Guahibo make a fermented drink fromthe mesocarp (Balick L979, L988, Ander'son 1978). Trade and sale of M. f'exuosafruit is a major source of income for res-idents of Iquitos, Peru (Padoch l9B8).

Like the Pum6, the Guahibo and severalIndian groups of the Guiana region favorMauritia spp. for thatching their houses(Balick i979, Levi-Strauss 1950, Thurnt883, Balick and Beck 1990). Palm grubs(Rhynchophorus paltnarurn) are con'sumed by numerous native and mestizogroups throughout the tropical lowlands,and in the market at Iquitos grubs are soldboth live and fried in their own fat (Padoch19B8, Kahn 1988, Mejia 1988, Balick1986). The Guahibo and mestizos of thePeruvian Amazon extract grubs specifi-cally from the rotten stems of M. f'exuosa(Balick I979, Padoch l9B8). The Guahiboand the Pum6 are the only two SouthAmerican groups I am aware of who usethe petiole from acaulescent M. f'exuosato build rafts (Balick 1979).

The Apinay6 use the leaves of Mauri-tiella arrnata for manufacturing baskets,and the stemwood for manufacturing bows(Balick 1988). The stemwood of M. armatamust have very different physical prop-erties than M. aculeata used by the Pum6to manufacture house slats since the soft,spongy stemwood of this last species isinappropriate for making bows. Althoughthe fruit of M. aculealo is not widely used

r9921 GRAGSON: USE OF PALMS BY THE PUME I4I

by the Pum6, the Apinay6, the Yano-mama, and several mestizo groups in thePeruvian Amazon consume the fruit of sev-eral different species ol Mauritiella (Ba-lick 1988, Anderson 1978, Mejia l98B).In all, there are few references to the useof Mauritiella among lowland SouthAmericans to compare with its use amongthe Pum6 (Balick and Beck 1990).

Conclusion

Palms form an integral part of Pum6culture, as they do for many other nativeand non-native peoples of lowland SouthAmerica. Some of the future investieationsplanned among the Pum6 are aimed atformally assessing the economic value ofpalms partictularly Mauritia f,exuosa.Given the importance of this palm to thePum6 for thatching and fiber, the levelsof extraction could have a significant effectupon nutr ient cycl ing and ecosystemregeneration. The cumulative effects ofhuman exploitation patterns on tropicalecosystems are an issue of both theoreticaland practical importance.

Acknowledgments

The fieldwork during which the plantvouchers and observations presented in thispaper were collected was funded in partby grants from the Hill Foundation Fel-lowship (The Pennsylvania State Univer-sity), the UCLA Latin American Center,and the Wenner-Gren Foundation (grant#5058). The manuscript was commentedon by Barry Hewlett, Steve Beckerman,Stephen Til lett, and an anonymousreviewer. I would like to thank each of theorganizations and individuals mentioned fortheir financial or editorial assistance.

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