The vocabulary of madness from Homer to Hippocrates 1

8/17/2019 The vocabulary of madness from Homer to Hippocrates 1

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* Part 2 will be published in History of Psychiatry, 20(4).

** Address for correspondence: 44 Washington Street, Apt 403, Brookline, MA 02445, USA.E-mail: [email protected]

History of Psychiatry, 20(3): 311–339 Copyright © 2009 SAGE Publications(Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore and Washington DC) www.sagepublications.com

[200909] DOI: 10.1177/0957154X08337643

The vocabulary of madness from Homerto Hippocrates. Part 1: The verbal groupof µαίνο µαι*

HÉLÈNE PERDICOYIANNI-PALÉOLOGOU**Hellenic College–Holy Cross, Brookline, MA

In Part 1 of this two-part paper, I examine the evolution of the concept ofmadness expressed by the various forms – verbal and nominal, simple andcompound – of the verbal group of µαίνομαι in the archaic and classical periods.I point out how the divine madness is contrasted to pathological madnessconsidered as a psychic and mental disease and foreseeable by doctors as wellas curable by medications. This new procedure highlights rational knowledgeof the Greeks about the cause and the medical care of madness.

Keywords: behaviour; congenital; divine; emotional; Greece; history;mental illness; moral; pathological; physical; psychological

In Greek thought, madness represents an abundant source of tragic events. Inthis two-part paper, we will study the terms belonging to the verbal groups ofμαίνομαι and βακχεύω, as well as the noun λύσσα and its nominal and verbalderivatives, from Homer to Hippocrates. Firstly, we will single out the meaning

of the various forms, verbal and nominal, simple and compound. Secondly, wewill compare them in the totality of their usages in order to bring to light thesimilarities and dissimilarities between them. This synchronic and diachronicstudy of these terms is the first to be undertaken and will enlighten ourunderstanding of the evolution of the concept of madness from the archaic toclassical period.


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312 HISTORY OF PSYCHIATRY 20(3)

The simple verb

Despite its close etymological relationship with the Indo-European verbsmeaning ‘to think’, in Greek μαίνομαι indicates a mad and furious state(Chantraine 1968–1980: sv).

Mαίνομαι in the archaic periodWhen used with an ecstatic connotation, μαινομένοιο indicates ‘raving’Dionysus because of his association with wine and wild, ecstatic religious rites,and consequently bacchic frenzy.1 This mental state (μαίνονται) is also con-nected with the celebration of Lenaia.2 Mαίνεσθαι also occurs in a fragment ofHeraclitus referring to the mystic revelations of Sibylla. Used metaphorically,μαινομένωι indicates the mouth of the possessed prophetess, transported bydivine illumination.3

Mαίνεσθαι expresses a passing psychological state of intense trouble or exalt-ation, caused by violent emotion and considered as madness. Most usages ofμαίνεσθαι occur in a military context and convey martial furor in gods and men.

In the divine world, the fury of Ares, the god of warfare, continually causesgreat and irreparable harm. His intense anger provokes all kinds of misfortunein battle, without respect for individuals.4 Besides, the enraged Ares preventsMenelaus from returning home after sacking Ilios.5 At Il. 5, 830–4, Athenerebukes Diomedes and urges him to attack the enraged and unreliable Ares.

His unreliability is demonstrated by breaking his promise to fight against theTrojans. Finally, at Il. 15, 128–9, Athene reproaches Ares for his frenzy andhis deranged and shameless nature.

In the human world, μαίνεσθαι expresses warlike ferocity. At Il. 6, 99–100,Diomedes’ fierceness gives the impression of the strongest and most formidableof all Achaeans, including even Akhilleus. According to Bacchylides,6 the lattermakes manifest his bellicose madness by brandishing his spear. This expressionis also used to describe Ajax’s warlike ferocity in a fragment of Alcman7 and inanother in the Anacreontea8 where Ajax is depicted as a mad man brandishingthe sword and shield of Hector. Excessive combative fury causes innumerable

disasters in the enemy camp, as well. At Il. 8, 354–56, Athene warns Zeus aboutthe plight of the Achaeans before the imminent attack of Hector, who rages pastall bearing. Additionally, at Il. 21, 4–5, the reference is to the prompt flight ofthe Achaeans in order to escape from Hector’s rage.

Warlike madness can result from divine intervention. Hector is a dread warriorwho acts furiously by the inspiration of Zeus and respects neither man norgods.9 When frenzied, he is comparable to furious Ares, wielder of the spear,or a destructive fire.10 Divine bellicose dementia can be compatible with a god’sbeneficial acts. Indeed, the brave son of Tydeus reveals his violent anger withthe aid of some god standing close by him.11

We have identified usages of μαίνεσθαι having as subject a bodily organ,such as φρήν (Rogge, 1928) and η̃’ τορ (Bolelli, 1948; Cheyns, 1980, 1985;


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H. PERDICOYIANNI-PALÉOLOGOU: VOCABULARY OF MADNESS. 1 313

Ireland & Steel, 1975). Φρεσὶ μαινομένηισι indicates the furious heart ofAchilles12 who refuses to surrender Hector’s body to the Trojans. Φρεσὶ then

denotes the seat of feelings. The term also possesses an anatomic connotationand subsequently refers to the membrane which covers the heart (η̃’ τορ) agitatedby compassionate feelings: τὶ σφω̃ιν ε’ νὶ φρεσὶν μαίνεται η̃’ τορ.13 In fact, thehearts of Here and Athene are aroused to help the Argiens, regardless of Zeus’prohibition. We found three metaphoric usages of μαίνεσθαι having as subjecteither a weapon, i.e., a spear, which rages in the warrior’s hands14 or one of theelements, i.e., a forest fire.15

Used with a divine connotation, μαίνεσθαι indicates the suitor’s feeling ofintense pleasure in social life.16 In the Anacreontea fr. 9, the poet expresses hisardent desire to drink red wine abundantly so that he may feel the sweet andnon-violent madness of drunkenness.17

Mανίην μανεὶς α’ρίστην describes a man who is overwhelmed with a perfectlove madness.18 This psychic state is inconstant19 or the result of an excessivedesire.20

Mαίνεσθαι refers to madness provoked by a harmful event. At Il. 6, 388–9,Andromache has rushed to the fortifications of Troy like a madwomanupon hearing that the Trojans are being beaten down and the enemy isdominating.

Mαίνεσθαι also describes the state of being transported with a cannibalistic

furore. In the uncivilized world, Cyclops experiences a fierce pleasure indevouring the companions of Ulysses.21 Polyphemus’ madness has the result of‘breaking the ground-rules of hospitality ... because it leads to social isolation’(Heubeck and Hoekstra, 1992: 32).

Mαίνεσθαι indicates an unreasonable and unusual behaviour, which isconsidered as a state of mental illness and a lack of morality. In a politicalcontext, μαίνεσθαι means not being able to take control of one’s behaviour. InSolon’s fragment, the council, consisting of Pisistratus’ supporters, declaredthat the man who rushed into the assembly armed with spear and shield andwarned them of the designs of Pisistratus was mad because he could not controlhis words and acts.22 One who approves an impious act is considered mad. InHeraclitus’ fragment, one who thinks a person could be purified by a bloodystain would be frenzied.23

Madness related to an excessive haste is the cause of mentally disorderedbehaviour. According to Theognis, madmen make mistakes through hastebecause their hearts and minds are flighty. It is planning in the depths of one’sown heart and with good sense that leads to what is beneficial.24 Moreover,madness is considered as a mental state that can be adopted, dependent uponsocial circumstances. In the first Elegy, Theognis points out that among those

who rave, he raves with the best.25

In Homer, drinking wine to excess provokesirrationality, making Centaurus behave indecently. At the feast given by


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Pirithoos, under the influence of wine, Eurytion completely ruins the palace ofhis host.26 The destructive moral blindness caused by α’ τη appears in his desire

for vengeance.27

In conclusion, μαίνεσθαι indicates acquired and passing madness caused bydivine interference, intense psychic disturbance, or mental trouble, as well asa lack of righteousness. Innate madness as the mental state of a god is rare.

Mαίνεσθαι in the classical periodMαίνεσθαι describes disturbance of the mind and/or behaviour resulting fromdiseases altering mental faculties. These diseases manifest themselves inperceptible symptoms. Mαίνεσθαι thus possesses a pathological connotation.

Most of the usages occur in Hippocrates but there are also some in Herodotus,Euripides, Aristoteles and Plato.In Hippocrates, μαίνεσθαι is caused by the intensity of internal bodily heat.28

High temperature as the result of drunkenness makes the patient lie in a drowsystate. If on getting up he vomits bile, he then rages and usually dies shortlyafterwards.29 Besides, drunkenness, along with eating meat, sleepiness, and athoughtlessly coming into contact with any degree of temperature, is part of anunhealthy lifestyle and leads to insanity.30 Drunkenness is also related to thepsychological state of a person going insane from black bile (Roy, 1981), whichis associated with a melancholy temperament (Mueri, 1953) and persistent

depression.31 We should note that madness as the result of excessive use ofalcohol is mentioned once in Euripides. Drinking excessive wine provokesthe loss of consciousness, and then the drunk, i.e., Cyclops, becomes an easyvictim.32 This use also occurs in two passages in Herodotus, who considers itas the opposite of divine madness (ε’κ δαιμονίου).33

Another cause of madness is abnormality of the bile, which, when it breaksout, provokes a violent uncontrollable anger in the patient,34 or the brain,functioning as the coordinating centre of sensation and intellectual and nervousactivity, including madness and delirium (μαινόμεθα / και παραφρονέομεν).35 Abnormal moistness of the brain36 and its corruption by phlegm (Craik, 2002)or bile are considered as explanations for madness. Those maddened throughphlegm do not make a noise or disturbance. In contrast, those who are insanefrom bile are clamorous, restless and inopportune.37 Besides, irregular beats inthe hypochrondrium indicate a disturbance or a delirium (παραφροσύνην), whichmay cause rapid eye movement in the patient, who is expected to go mad. 38

Varicose veins or a swollen group of veins in the region of the anus canmake the patient mad.39 However, insanity can occur after the treatment ofhaemorrhoids.40 Abnormal enlargement of wounds, typically as a result of anaccumulation of fluid, occasionally prompts convulsion or madness.41 A slight

unforeseen inflammation can madden the ‘half-mads’ ( υ‛πομαινόμενους), i.e.,those who suffer from nightmares resulting from extreme quickness of the soul,


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which is provoked by the fact that the water is more mastered by the fire. Theinflammation can arise from intoxication, or from being overweight, or from

eating too much meat.42Abnormalities of blood circulation such as blood gathering in the breast,43

congenital physical deformity such as a squint,44 unsuccessful treatment offractured or cleft bone,45 or an excessive dose of a medicine such as mandrakeroot (Besnehard, 1993)46 give rise to madness. Moreover, melancholicsand patients with phrenitis become deranged (παράνοιοι), some even mad(μαίνονται), because ‘their blood is disordered by bile and phlegm’.47

In Aristotle, οι‛ μαινόμενοι indicates people unreasonable because of iras-cibility of soul.48 Moreover, insane people are fond of drinking alcohol49 andincapable of realizing circumstances relevant to an event50 as well as of delib-erating over a topic rationally.51 Additionally, they are unable to face dangerouscelestial phenomena normally.52 However, irrationality has its own limits. Thedemented never confuse two different earthly phenomena, such as fire andice.53 Madmen are comparable to animals, which are guided by bad senseand aberrance of innate instinct.54 Besides, horses are subject to madness causedby the scent of a mare in heat, or ‘horsing’.55

Finally, Plato finds a congenital reason in madness. Therefore μαίνεσθαι canbe explained by the fact that not all humans possess from birth the entire facultyof thought ( νου̃ν) and therefore do not have complete adult intellectual capacity

(φρόνησιν).56

Mαίνεσθαι then indicates an innate mental state. Apart from thecongenital origin of insanity, Plato identifies other causes. He distinguishesmadness provoked by diseases from that prompted by aggravation of naturalviolence resulting from exterior circumstances, e.g., bad education. In this case,patients are both most susceptible and most offensive. At the least offence, theyshout loudly and insult each other. This aggressive behaviour is dangerous andinappropriate for a well-conducted city.57

In conclusion, Hippocrates and Herodotus search out the causes, primarily,of acquired madness, rather than its symptoms, as Aristotle does. In theseauthors, only the pathological aspect of insanity is stressed. By contrast,

Euripides describes the causes of passing and acquired madness, as well as itsconsequences. Finally, Plato emphasizes both the causes of madness, innate oracquired, and its manifestations. The accent is clearly put on the pathologicalaspect. Innate dementia is aggravated by exterior influence. It can also be amental immaturity, appearing in early life and vanishing in adulthood.

In contrast to uses of μαίνεσθαι indicating congenital or acquired mentaltrouble, there are those related to divine madness, manifested either as a divinegift or an inflicted punishment. Sometimes a hero’s resentful rage for havingfailed is reinforced by pathological hallucination instilled by a god as a penalty.

Additionally, hallucination can be inspired by a goddess in order to satisfy herhostility.


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In the field of poetry, μαινομένων denotes skilful and perfect poets by virtueof divine inspiration by the Muses. These poets are in contrast to those who

possess only a technical ability to make poems (Simon, 1978: 150).58 Alsoinspired by divine power are those who praise great poets, such as Homer.59 Indeed, Socrates interprets this as resulting from divine dispensation ratherthan from Ion’s aptness to exalt Homeric poetry.60

Prophetic dementia instilled by Apollo is constituted of mediumism or manticpower. Mediumism is a rare gift given to those the god favours. Cassandrawas blessed by Apollo with the gift of prophecy in return for sexual favours.61 When possessed by her visions (μαίνεται), she displays wild excitement which ischaracterized by illusion and incoherence of thought and speech.62 Divinationor prophecy belonging to the prophetess at Delphi and to the priestesses at

Dodona, as well as to Sibyl, is one of the four platonic types of divine madness.63 These foretold the future and were reverenced by both states and citizens.64 Mantic power (μαντικήν), which gives the maddened (τους μεμηνότας) visions ofthe future, is also inspired by Dionysos, the prophet (μάντις) (Casevitz, 1992:1–18), when he enters into the body.65

Being initiated into Dionysiac mysteries presupposes willingness66 and theaccomplishment of a solemn religious ceremony. Once seized by the deity(δαίμων), Skylles, the king of Scythes, took part in the Bacchus’ ceremonies(βακχεύει) and in a state of wild ecstasy (μαίνεσθαι, μαίνεται).67 Women possessedby Dionysiac madness are imagined as immortal nymphs who honour Dionysos-

Iachos with night-long orgies of dancing and drinking wine.68

Dionysiacmadness as an inflicted punishment for an impiety is collective (πα σα πόλις)and considered as a result of a complete bacchic frenzy (ε’ξεβακχεύθη) (Simon,1978: 113–21).69 In the Bacchantes, Dionysos exacts revenge on the women ofThebes, his aunts Agave, Ino and Autonoe, and his cousin Pentheus for notbelieving his mother Semele’s claim she had been impregnated by Zeus andfor denying his own godhead and therefore not worshipping him. Pentheuswas slowly driven to madness by Dionysos and lured to the woods of MountCithaeron to see the Maenads.70 When the women saw Pentheus, they tore himto pieces. As he begged for his life, his mother Agave tore off his head.

Madness is also imposed as retribution for matricide (Simon, 1978: 108–13).

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Orestes is put through ordeals of terror by the Erinyes, goddesses that Electrawill not name.72 His madness is represented as self-neglect, keeping him awayfrom food and bathing,73 and as ‘intermittent, so that for most of the play hecan speak and act coherently’ (West, 1987: 184). Orestes’ madness is used asa comparison by Aristophanes in describing the behaviour of a young drunkenman who wanted to injure a fellow-citizen.74

Divine hallucination can strengthen a hero’s rage75 caused by frustration(Simon, 1978: 124–30). Ajax’s vow to kill the Greek leaders for disgracing himexpresses his wrath at not winning Achilles’ armour,76 awarded to Odysseus.Athene deludes him into believing that the sheep and cattle that were taken bythe Achaeans as spoil are the Greek leaders. He slaughters some of them andtakes the others back to his home to torture.77 Athene’s cunning outwitting


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of Ajax is explained by her desire for revenge, because of his arrogance. ‘Ajaxappears as one who has offended Athene by the presumptuous self-confidence

with which he has rejected divine aid in war’ (Jebb, 2004: xi). A similar divinemadness is the result of Here’s unappeasable hatred for her husband’s bastardson Heracles (Simon, 1978: 130–9).78 When he had performed Eurystheus’tasks, Here decided to make him kill his children,79 ‘setting his feet leaping,stirring him up, letting loose the rope of death’.80 The progress of Heracles’ mad-ness81 is described from the initial physical symptoms of rolling, protruding,bloodshot eyes,82 foaming at the mouth83 and an hysterical laugh,84 to themental illness including hallucination85 and a sudden sleep.86 Bewildered bythis madness, Heracles kills each one of his children with arrows dipped in theblood of the hundred-headed hydra.87

In sum, the immortals can use inspiring madness to express their feelings fora human being or a hero. The maddened is either in an unfortunate conditionor possessed by a supernatural gift.

Strong feelings and emotions lead to passing and intense insanity. Thesefeelings include bellicose fury, hate, love, desire, joy, pleasure, pain andindignation.

In a military context, μαίνεσθαι conveys the fierceness either of a people deter-mined to fight against the King88 or a warrior, e.g., Eteocles, whose anger iscaused by Ambition, the most unjust goddess.89 Military behaviour of a whole

people is also considered a permanent madness leading to obsession.

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Martialvehemence is expressed by metonymic use of the name of Ares (μαινόμενος …’́ Αρης). This fervour makes conquerors behave with disrespect.91 Bellicosemadness also has an influence on the seat of feelings (μαινομέναι φρενι) of Argienswarriors, who bluster against the city of Thebes with irrational aggressiveness.92 Used metaphorically, μαινομέναι characterizes the insane conflict betweenEteocles and Polyneikes in battle,93 as well as the hope of having destroyed thegreat city of Athens.94 Military madness also attacks animals, such as Potniadcolts. In the battle against the Thebans, these, upon Polyneikes’ shield as adevice, were running around and ‘leapt distraught, cunningly, somehow enclosedinside by pivots close to the handle, so as to seem crazed’.95

Mαίνεσθαι expresses an intense dislike for his enemies, which is considered agreat illness.96 Prometheus, a Titan known for his wily intelligence, displaysa deep-seated aversion to his enemies, i.e., the gods, especially Zeus, who in-flicted physical sufferings on him as a punishment for providing fire to humans.Throughout the play PV , Prometheus is bound to a rock with an eagle eatinghis liver each day, only to have it grow back to be eaten again the next day.

Mαίνεσθαι means ‘to be transported with rage caused by the behaviourof another person’. Rage can be provoked by an unjust decision of a personpossessing supreme power. In one passage, μαίνομαι is coordinated with averb expressing the speaker’s hostility.97 Besides, blaming one’s husbandfor adultery is considered a madness.98 In fact, Love rules gods and mortals ashe pleases.99


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Madness due to love overcomes all immortals and mortals who possesses it.100 Moreover, divine love is an evil (δαίμονος α’ τηι)101 (Doyle, 1984: xx; Neuberg,

1993) or a sort of insanity which is contrary to wisdom that those who are notin love possess.102 In a social context, a tyrant is considered as mad because ofhis intense erotic lust and desire.103 Madness caused by sensual passion inspiredby Eros is expressed by the expressions μαινομένα κραδία104 and μαινομέναιςφρασίν.105

Mαίνεσθαι can convey a transport of desire for death, one’s own106 or that ofa daughter.107 A father, like Creon, is also considered mad because he intendsto cause moral pain to his son Haemon by making him witness to his lover’smurder.108 Hoping for the impending arrival of Orestes, who was believed aslost forever, is another aspect of madness.109

Mαίνεσθαι expresses the state of overwhelming joy upon learning of a mis-erable event, such as the death of one’s enemies. The enemy may be a memberof the family of the raging person110 or a third party.111 Satyrs, a class of lustful,drunken woodland gods, are also transported with joy upon hearing how Ulysseswill blind Cyclops.112 Mαίνεσθαι results, too, from a feeling of great pleasure,of eating, and often overeating,113 or of drinking up a cup of wine.114 Beingcrazy from drinking wine is also a habitual and agreeable way of behaving andliving.115 Therefore, the man who refuses drinking can be considered insane.116 In a poetic context, the quality of Euripides’ plays drives the god Dionysos mad,by giving him delight and arousing his admiration.117

Mαίνεσθαι indicates the state of being maddened by pain, the result of physicalor moral affliction imposed by gods. Io’s mad flight occurs as the consequenceof Here’s vengeance,118 which explains the epithet applied to her, ‘Bacchante ofthe goddess’.

Apart from the divine connotation, μαίνεσθαι possesses a familial one. Thedecision of the Achaean army to sacrifice Iphigeneia in order that the Greek fleetmay set off provokes Agamemnon’s grave affliction.119 Furthermore, μαίνεσθαιconveys the combination of suffering and rage that husbands feel when they findtheir wives improperly outdoors.120 In a social context, μαίνεσθαι expresses thestrong psychological pain that affects slaves overhearing their masters gossiping

about them.121Μαίνεσθαι possessing as subject an internal organ, such as κραδία and φρήν,

expresses excessive sorrow aroused by either an impious act or an announce-ment of the cruel destiny of a third party. Μαινομέναι κραδίαι denotes themaddened heart of Oedipus when he becomes aware of his appalling marriage.His rage leads him to blind himself.122 In addition, the sentence μαίνεται γόοισιφρήν reveals the overpowering madness of the choreutes’ souls upon learningof Polyneikes’death. Φρήν indicates soul as the seat of the feeling of pain, dis-playing its insane grief by bursting into tears.123

We have found a metaphoric meaning of μαινομένοις possessing as subject

a feeling of deep distress caused by a physical pain. The suffering is provokedby running a sword through the body.124


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In sum, μαίνεσθαι denotes madness resulting from unstable and instinctivefeelings, as distinguished from reasoning.

Mαίνεσθαι indicates a lack of reason, preventing correct appreciation ofoneself, a third party or an event. When a man professes to be excellent in all arts,without any such skill, he is comparable to a madman whom others eitherscorn or are annoyed with. His people come and reprove him for being soinsane.125 Further, he who thinks all people, including himself, completely un-fortunate is considered mad.126 Reproaching someone with madness is a wayto react to bad judgement. At IT 1300, using μαίνηι, the Chorus leader revoltsagainst the messenger who states outrageously that the Chorus helped Orestesand Pylades to steal the statue of Artemis and to flee the Tauric Chersonese.127

In medicine, not being cautious, thus making wrong predictions, is for a doctora misfortune because he is subject not only to hatred from the patient butperhaps even being thought mad.128 Moreover, madmen are considered thosewho are under the illusion that they are gods.129

Also insane are: a person who is not capable of being aware of facts;130 thosewho are ignorant and consequently behave boldly.131

A complete change of mind is regarded as madness. At IA 388–9, Agamemnonwonders whether, having made a blameworthy decision, he is mad for nowadopting a correct one.132 A speaker uttering insolent or unbelievable statements

is held to be drunk enough to have lost control of his words133

or is mentally ill.At Ion 526, Ion refers to Xouthos as ‘mad stranger’, because he does not believethat he is his father.134 Furthermore, according to Ctesippus, Hippothales isinsane because he asserts that he does not write for one who loves neither poetrynor prose.135 Finally, o‛ι μαινόμενοι denotes those who feel base fears and baseboldness.136

Mαίνεσθαι indicates an immoral religious, family or social behaviour. Thismisconduct is both a mental trouble and a loss of sense. Mαίνεσθαι thenpossesses a pejorative connotation. It indicates a provocative attitude against

religion. In the dialogue between Pentheus and Tiresias, the latter reckonsthe king of Thebes to be cruelly insane because of his obsession to fight theGods and especially Dionysos. This irreligious spirit corrupts his soul.137 At

Nub. 1476–7, Strepsiades admits to having been insane when he rejected theGods because of Socrates.138 At Pax 54, μαίνεται conveys the strange madnessthat affected the master of the second slave. As a result, he gazes at the sky allday, railing at Zeus.139 In Herodotus, Cambyses’ madness manifests itself byderiding religion and customs.140 At Bacch. 999, μανει̃σαι possessing as subjecta word indicating the heart is juxtaposed to παρακόπωι τε λήματι in order toexpress Pentheus’ rage, insulting the cult of Bakkhos and his mother.141 Used

metaphorically, μαινομέναι δόξαι indicates the enraged mind of those whodeprive the Gods of their legitimate veneration.142


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Mαίνεσθαι refers to improper social behaviour, such as banging on the door,143 impolitely requesting money144 and trying to seduce an old woman.145 The verb

expresses unreasonable misconduct of political men or between citizens andagainst institutions. Mαίνεσθαι also conveys the absurdity of a group of teachersof philosophy. Finally, the verb refers to the social status of madmen.

Calling one’s interlocutor mad is an insult between two military chiefs. Inthe course of a dispute between Amomphiaretus, leader of the battalion ofPitane, and the Spartan general Pausanias, the former took up a stone andcast it down before Pausanias’ feet, crying that it was his pebble wherewith hevoted against fleeing from the foreigners. As he could not interpret this symbolicact, Pausanias called him a madman and distraught.146 Hybris is a symptomof political leaders’ madness,147 which results in the destruction of their city.

Furious and mad tyrants are determined to lead both the Gods and men.148 Aking’s madness causes family, social and political misfortune. Astyages manifestshis insanity by ordering a slave to kill his daughter’s male offspring to preventhim from ruling in his own place.149 According to the Egyptians, Cambyses’madness is caused by a religious crime150 and not by wine, as the Persiansstate.151 Because of this mental state, Cambyses killed his brother Smerdis152 andhis sister, whom he had married.153 His insanity also resulted in the conquestof his empire by the Medes.154

Social misconduct, such as running, wrestling, fighting and deceiving, followas the consequence of drinking excessive wine and subsequently going mad.155

Revealing divine purpose and foretelling events in the assembly of people isinsane political behaviour.156 A citizen loyal to his city would be behaving like amadman if he avoided making any compact with anybody to suppress injustice.Indeed, justice is accepted and approved as a thing honoured in the lack of vigourto do injustice.157 Also, tragic poets and the state as a whole would be absolutelymad if they gave permission to foreign actors to set up their stage before themagistrates had decided whether or not the composition deserved to be madepublic.158 Finally, we note a metaphorical usage of μαίνεσθαι, possessing a socialconnotation. The polymorphic aspect and function of a city is rendered by theexpression μαινόμενος οι̃’ νος ‘mad wine’. This makes a comparison between

the enormous differences of wealth and character in a city and a bowl of mixedwine, poured so that it foams madly.159

In reference to Sophistic education, μαίνεσθαι indicates the maddened behav-iour of Sophists and their disciples. According to Socrates, Sophists would bemad if they corrupted young people without their knowledge.160 This idea isrejected by Anytos, who thinks that young people are the true madmen becausethey pay Sophists, and their parents are even madder in permitting them tofollow their perverse training.161 In turn, these young people call traditional phil-osophers insane because they teach the customary Athenian moral educationand denounce sophistic training as disadvantageous.162

The social aspect of μαίνεσθαι is completed by usages indicating the status ofthe insane in society. They are not allowed to participate in war163 nor appear


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publicly in the city. Their relatives should keep them indoors by all possiblemeans or be liable to a penalty.164 The language and behaviour of these insane

people must not be a model for imitation to a true honest man.165 Finally, avirtuous man must never go mad.166

In conlusion, μαίνεσθαι indicates for the most part passing and acquiredmadness, caused by intense psychic or mental trouble and a lack of moral senseor, possibly, divine interference. In the latter case, the mad have the benefit ofspiritual and intellectual faculties or they are subjected to divine anger whichmakes them commit outrageous acts. Moreover, pathological insanity provokedby diseases is usually permanent and mostly leads to death. In addition,congenital madness is considered as a natural and temporary irrationality,

constant in all human beings at the very beginning of life.ConclusionIn archaic and classic times, madness is caused by psychic and mental troubleand manifests either as a vein of feeling or as family, religious or social mis-conduct. Usages of μαίνεσθαι indicating divine madness occur in both periods.Prophetic dementia and mantic beneficial power are common in all usages. Bycontrast, divine destructive madness only appears in the archaic period. In thisperiod, μαίνεσθαι is characterized by a pathological aspect resulting from eitherdiseases that affect an anatomical organ or physiological effects of illness or apsychic trouble.

Compound verbs

Eκμαίνειν in the archaic period

In a divine context, used with the meaning ‘to drive mad with passion’, ε’κμανη̃ναιconveys the furious love that Cybele instilled in her companion Attis.167

Eκμαίνειν in the classical period

Used in the middle voice and with a pathological connotation, ε’κμαίνεσθαι is

found in Hippocrates and expresses an acutely disturbed state of mind thatmostly occurs in high fever, which is either the main cause of this mental stateor a symptom of another disease. When fever is the main cause, ε’ξεμάνη conveysmad delirium, which, along with death, is one the final symptoms of otherphysical and mental disorders.168 In every fever, patients who are in danger ofraving may suffer from a pain in the neck, which is one of the worst signs in suchcases.169 Madness as well as other mental and physical disorders is caused byburning fever when regarded as a feature of other diseases, such as a headachewhich increases through heavy drinking,170 a violent pain in the great toe,171 abad regimen,172 or a difficult labour and bad lochial discharge.173

Dementia is also present after one has been heated by drunkenness and sexualindulgence174 or has drunk a quantity of undiluted wine.175 Additionally, in a


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deaf and sleepless person, insanity manifests itself just after he vomits greenishmaterial during a headache.176

In short, mad delirium, as a persistent disorder of the mental state, is con-sequent on physiological abnormality, such as fever or alcohol dependency, aswell as satisfaction resulting from having sex.

In the divine context, ε’ξέμηνα expresses the state of wild excitement andecstasy into which Dionysos drove all the women of Thebes in order to punishthem for not believing in his divine origin and status.177

Eκμαίνειν means ‘to kindle mad desire’ by love or by fear. In the first context,ε’κμαίνεις refers to Cypris, goddess of love and beauty, who drives a young manmad for a girl.178 Moreover, ε’κμη̃ναι alludes to Dejanira who attempted to

inflame Hercules’ passion with a love charm.179 Used with the second meaning,ε’κμαίνων is used in reference to the wild bull sent by Dionysos in order to drivethe four-horse team of Hippolytus mad with fear and cause them to drag himto his death.

In short, ε’κμαίνειν indicates an insane mental state into which man andanimals are brought forcibly by divine intervention so that they may either feela great pleasure and happiness or commit brutal slaying.

Eκμαίνεθαι indicates the state of going mad through a religious crime. Thismental state leads the patient, e.g., Cambyses, to misbehave in both family

and society.180

However, the acquired aspect of his madness is disputed byHerodotus who explains it as congenital epilepsy and subsequently permanent.This illness is also called by others ‘sacred disease’. Herodotus, too, makes thefollowing reasonable remark: when the body suffers from a grave illness, it isnot surprising that the spirit is also affected. The way Herodotus speaks makesclear that he was sceptical about a divine origin of madness and somehow foughtthis belief, like Hippocrates.181 We then observe that the historian assimilatescongenital madness to the divine one.

In conclusion, a divine origin of mad delirium is expressed by usages ofε’κμαίνειν in both archaic and classical times. In the human world, mad delirium

expresses a strong lust. By contrast, when referring to animals, it indicates awild and destructive excitement. Moreover, the Herodotean usage of ε’κμαίνεινfor the first time assimilates congenital madness to madness of divine origin.Finally, severe mad delirium resulting from a physiological abnormality, mostlyan acute fever, occurs solely in Hippocrates’ treatise.

Eπιμαίνεσθαι in the archaic period E πιμαίνομαι means ‘to feel an extreme and uncontrollable love’.182

Eπιμαίνεσθαι in the classical period

With a social connotation, the verb occurs at Vesp. 744. τότ’ ε’πεμαίνετ’ refersto the judicial madness of Lovecleon who used to spend all his time as a juror,


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judging others. In the family context, ε’πιμαίνεται, possessing as subject φρήν,conveys the insane delirium of the mind of Clytemnestra, who stained her

soul by killing her husband.183 Used metaphorically, ε’πιμαίνεται, possessing assubject δοριτίνακτος αι’θήρ, occurs in a military context. It refers to air that isgoing mad with the brandishing of spears.184

Usages of ε’πιμαίνεσθαι are less frequent in the archaic than in the classicalperiod. During the earlier period, the verb possesses a loving connotation. Bycontrast, in the classical period it indicates unusual social conduct of a citizenor insane furore which causes irreparable damage within a family. Metaphoricalusage of ε’πιμαίνεσθαι expresses violent furore in battle.

‛ Iππομαίνειν

In Aristotle, the verb means ‘to be horsing, or in heat: said of mares’.185

Περιμαίνειν

In the archaic period, περιμαίνει refers to Cybele who inspires an old man withlove.186 By contrast, περιμαίνεται indicates the rage of man-slaying Ares shoutingaround the grove of Phoebus Apollo.187

‛Υπομαίνεσθαι

‛Υπομαινομένους occurs once in Hippocrates.188

Nominal derivatives

Μανία in the archaic periodΜανία expresses primarly love fury that is complete189 or followed by mentaldisorder (κυδοιμοί).190 Moreover, the spirits of Madness (Μανίαι) that Erosnursed are considered cruel and disastrous. For example, Troy was destroyedbecause of Helen’s elopement with Paris, Theseus because he accompaniedPirithoos in an attempt to carry off Persephone, and Ajax because of his rapeof Cassandra.191

In a familial context, μανία was used to indicate the divine madness thatmade the possessed person, Orestes, commit matricide.192

In sum, the divine and emotional aspects of madness are strongly emphasized.

Μανία in the classical period Used with a pathological connotation, μανία occurs in Hippocrates, Aristoteles,Plato and Herodotus.

In Hippocrates, like other diseases and also death, μανία is a mental troublepredictable by a doctor.193 Derangement (παραφροσύνη) and dementia (μανία)are considered dangerous mental afflictions because they produce suffering to

the brain and the other glands.194

Insane people may hallucinate that they haveto cross rivers or face an enemy in arms or strange monsters.195


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Madness can be caused by pathological abnormalities. A patient with anabnormally high body temperature goes mad because of the internal heat

from the fever and the exterior heat.196 Moreover, a continuous fever followedby physical pain can generate insanity.197 Mental illness is also produced byeither prolonged involuntary muscle contractions in a person’s limbs198 or aninflammation due to intoxication and unhealthy nourishment, especially toomuch flesh.199 Irregularity of internal organs also gives rise to insanity. This canresult from a gathering of blood in a woman’s breasts, which is called ‘puerperalmadness’,200 as well as an infection of varicose veins and haemorrhoids (seeabove, p. 314). An extreme abnormality of bile can also lead to insanity.201 Thismental state is also provoked spontaneously or by a disease, such as typhoidfever.202 Additionally, dementia may occur after swellings on wounds disappear

suddenly. The after-effects of the disappearance are either wounds behind thatare followed by sudden involuntary convulsions and bacterial disease, e.g.,tetanus, or wounds in front that are followed by delirium, physical discomfort,or an infectious disease, such as suppuration or dysentery, if the swellings areinclined to be red.203

Another possible cause of insanity is a difference of temperature betweenthe fire and the water in the soul during steam baths. If the fire in the soul isoverpowered by the water, people can then become either senseless or grosslystupid. Incapacity of sensation and lack of intelligence or common sense whichare considered as madness are manifested by slowness in performing a specified

action and an unstable emotional state.204 In a persistent distress, melancholy is determined by physical diseases, e.g.,

apoplexy of the whole body, convulsions or blindness, or mental disorder,e.g., madness.205 As discussed above, in patients with melancholy and in thosewith phrenitis, derangement and madness are caused when blood is disorderedby bile and phlegm (see above, p. 315). The difference between melancholyand phrenitis is related to the strength of the bile producing them: weaker inphrenitis than in melancholy, so the derangement and madness are also lessintense (Potter, 1988: 178, n.1).206

Pathological abnormalities are not only causes but also symptoms of mad-

ness. Infection of the intestines, sweat and ‘an increase of the maniacal symp-toms, helping to bring the disease to a crisis’ (ε’ κστασις)207 are considered goodsymptoms that follow madness.

In Aristotle, madness occurs intermittently in patients suffering by naturefrom black bile as a result of an acute fever.208 Moreover, madness, as well asepilepsy, can diminish the logical powers of the mind.209 People affected byinsanity are not able to distinguish two distinct realities, e.g., between objectsthat are really beautiful and those which seem to be beautiful by convention.210 Additionally, they are subject to committing dreadful acts, such as sacrificingand devouring one’s mother or eating the heart of one’s fellow slave.211 Madness

may be cured by medical treatments that, along with a special diet, have thepurpose of eliminating disease from the body and consequently the soul.212


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Aristotle’s History of Animals is the only text to provide us with informationabout madness in dogs or rabies (λύττα ε’μποιει̃ / μανίαν).213

In Plato, madness is considered as a mental disease, like deficiencies ofhearing, seeing and all other kinds of physical feelings or perceptions.214 Thesole difference between madness and other mental diseases is in its duration.215 A mentally ill person continues to be capable of bodily feelings. Therefore, hedoes not imagine that he is joyful when he is not, nor that he is suffering whenhe is not.216

Finally, in Herodotus, μανίη νου̃σος refers to Cleomenes’ madness causedby drunkenness.217

To conclude, Hippocrates and Aristotle use μανία to describe both thecauses of a phenomenon and its symptoms. In contrast, Plato deals solely with

its manifestations. It is worth noting that in Aristotle we have the first explicitreference to treatments, provided by a doctor, intended to relieve or heal μανία,as well as the sole reference to animal madness and its cause.

In contrast to pathological madness caused by human diseases, a source ofmisfortune, divine delirium frees a person from customary laws218 and providesall kinds of benefits.219

In Plato, there are four aspects of the divine delirium associated with fourgods. Apollo grants the first, divinatory inspiration. From Dionysos comesmystic inspiration. The Muses confer poetic inspiration. The fourth and highest

of all is love, inspired by Aphrodite and Eros.220

According to the ancient Greeks, divinatory delirium is, by its beauty,superior to human wisdom (σωφροσύνης) that men create.221 The faculty ofdivination as a divine gift is thus predominant over a moral quality considereda human invention. The ancient Greek conception of the beneficent role of theprophetic delirium – honourable and glorious – is illustrated by the adjectiveμανική indicating the supreme art, i.e., the deliriant art (μανική τέχνη) ofdiscerning the future.222

A person possessed by Dionysiac delirium is able to cast out diseases andhardships by means of prayers to the gods and purifying rites. Ritual dementia

then enables the possessed to get free from present and future difficulties.223 As discussed above (see above, p. 316), Dionysiac dementia was inflicted onof the Theban women as a punishment for their religious impiety.224

The poetic impulse constitutes the third kind of divine madness under thecreative inspiration of the Muses. Without inspiration, there is no poetry,because technical ability alone is not sufficient. Purity and delicacy of the soulare inseparable from this poetic inspiration. Divine inspiration and integrityof soul are necessary conditions for the poet’s performing the creative andpedagogical task of composing verses that glorify the accomplishments of theancients and educate posterity.225

The fourth kind of divine dementia is Love although the beneficial roleascribed to it by Socrates is sometimes disputed. Indeed, the philosopher argues


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that if the delirium of Love is good, it will then be good both for the personloved and also for the lover.226 As ‘the source of the greatest goods that can

befall us’,227 the madness of Love results from the shock of emotion caused bysensuous beauty. By the sight of a beautiful object, one is reminded of the trueBeauty and wants to fly upward. Yet one has not the power, but inasmuch asone gazes upward like a bird, regardless of the world beneath, one is considereddemented.228 Beauty, then, evokes recollection, which is not always easy. Forsome souls had seen little of the vision, and some have forgotten what theysaw, being corrupted by evil associations.229 When moved by earthly beauty,one is deprived of self-possession and is subsequently passive and shaken outof one’s adjustment to the real world. For earthly beauty can strike the receptivemind efficiently and powerfully. This kind of Love is the best of all the kindsof ecstatic enthusiasm. The madman who falls in love with a beautiful humanbeing is, under such circumstances, called ε’ραστής.230 ‘He whose vision of themystery is fresh, and who saw much vision’ contemplates a physical Beauty,first trembling convulsively, then feeling a deep wonder and reverence as at thesight of a god; but, to avoid the risk of being regarded as an actual madman,he abstains from offering sacrifice to his beloved, as one otherwise might to aholy image.231 As a true amorous passion, ravishment, devotion, ε’ρωτικὴ μανίαprovides to lovers a great reward. After death, their souls will leave the body withbudding wings. Once having taken ‘the first steps on the celestial highway’, theywill walk together in a life of gleaming happiness and will no more return to ‘darkpathways beneath the earth’.232 This point of view is intended eschatologically.Sincere and heartfelt love is a means of ‘salvation, and salvation is achievedonly, though always, where true love exists’ (Pieper, 1962: 88).

In Sophocles, Euripides and Aristotle, μανία is often seen as a divine punish-ment. Upon seeing the bloody face of Oedipus, the Chorus wonders about thegod who ‘has given [thee] sorrow which almost exceeds the imaginable limitof human suffering’.233 The madness of Ajax inspired by Athene (see above,pp. 316–17) is mostly regarded as a disease ( νόσος)234 or an ill (κακόν).235 This madness is caused by the disgrace of the hero,236 who, believing that he

is killing the two Atreids, slaughters sheep and cattle.237

Moreover, this divinemadness makes Ajax refuse the sympathy of the Chorus.238 Heracles regretsthat he contemplated the dementia instilled by Cypris.239 Indeed, the goddess ofLove inspired his desire for Iole, which gave rise to his misfortunes. Heracles’madness also manifests itself in the mental trouble that leads him to assassinatehis children.240 This mental state was provoked by Lyssa at the instigation ofHere and Iris (see above, p. 317) as an expression of their hate for Zeus’ son.241 As indicated above (p. 316), madness is imposed by the Erinyes on Orestesas a retribution for his matricide.242 Pursued by the Erinyes, supernatural per-sonifications of the anger of the dead Clytemnestra, he runs as if mad.243 Divine

dementia causes him abnormal pathological physical, psychic and mentalsymptoms. It makes him shout like an animal244 and causes ‘rolling bloodshed


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in his roving eyeballs’, which is ‘a manifestation of the blood he has shed’ (West,1987: 241).245 It gives birth to fear,246 intense psychological pain, convulsive

trouble of his hands247 and hallucinations, making him imagine himself inimminent danger248 and fighting the Erinyes, while in reality he is attackingheifers.249 At the end of the crisis, Orestes falls down, foam dripping from hischin.250 Accomplishing Apollo’s wish to steal the statue of Artemis is the soleway for him to avoid the madness of the Erinyes and be purified.251

In sum, divine madness possesses a double aspect. As a divine gift, it has abeneficial function of bestowing on the maddened person divinatory, creativeand poetic faculties, as well as love, pleasure and happiness. When maleficent,divine madness is inflicted as punishment to a person hated by the gods.

Μανία is prompted either by emotional reactions such as fear, bellicose furyor anger, or an agreeable affective state such as desire, love or pleasure. Uponlearning of her future wanderings, Io feels fear that results in violent pain,followed by convulsions and delirium.252 These physio-pathological troublesare accompanied by convulsive rolling of the eyeballs, great verbal violence andconfusion of thought.253

In the divine world, bacchic furore appears in battle. Dionysos, who heresomewhat resembles the martial nature of Ares, intervenes in the battle in orderto disperse a terrified army before the fight has begun.254 By contrast, μανία canresult from the fury of a fighter, as in the case of Neoptolemus, determined to

take revenge for his father’s death.255Μανία can be provoked by the violent anger a person feels upon seeing his

rival. In front of Euripides, Aeschylus displays his fury by rolling his eyeballs,which is a sign of brief mental trouble.256 Μανία can also result from angerrelated to the impetuous desires of love.257 Finally, μανία is used to expressthe furious anger of a noble person, such as Lycurgus, son of the king Dryas,hostile to Dionysos’ cult.258

Corporal desire is considered as a source of μανία and passion (πτόησιν), towhich all human souls are subject. This avoids Hades retaining them in theUnderworld by chaining them with the desire of virtue.259

In intemperate people μανία comes from a violent pleasure. The madnessmanifests itself in furious and dreadful cries.260

When caused by love, μανία indicates a lover’s fury that may provoke the fearof the beloved.261 Love and the resulting furore are replaced by reason ( νου̃ν) andwisdom (σωφροσύνην) when the lover ceases loving. In this sense the oppositesof love and madness are seen as reason and wisdom, respectively.262

Μανία resulting from emotion affects both divine and human beings. Bycontrast, as a result of sexual desire and the pleasure of love, μανία violentlyattacks the souls of mortals.

In a martial context, μανία can indicate an unwise military tactic. This usageoccurs twice in Herodotus. The Persians, preparing for the imminent arrival of


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the Athenians, observed that they came on the run without cavalry or archers.This tactic was judged by the Persians as a frenzy that would cause their utter

destruction.263 Xerxes’ men also consider the offensive of the Greeks to bemadnsess, since they have only a few ships.264

Used with a pejorative meaning, μανία refers to religious, familial, and socialturpitude.

In Aristophanes, religious madness possesses a contradictory aspect. Indeed,μανία refers to committing impious acts, denying Zeus’ existence, or, on theother hand, deep devotion to him. At Thesm. 680, μανίαις φλέγων indicates ademented person committing sacrileges. At Nub. 832–33 τω̃ν μανιω̃ν alludes toStrepsiades’ declaration that the world is ruled by chaos, Zeus having been

dethroned. By contrast, at Pax 65 τω̃ν μανιω̃ν refers to the pious attitude of Trygaeuswho kept muttering to himself about how he could ever get even with Zeus.In a family context, μανία is used with regard to either the madness of hus-

bands when their wives are away from home265 (see above, p. 318) or the seriesof murders committed in the royal Mycenaean family, i.e., Iphigeneia’s sacrificeby her father and then his assassination by Clytemnestra as vengeance for herdaughter’s death.266 Also, a father’s neglecting the education of his children forthe sake of wealth is considered madness.267

In a moral and social context, μανία can exert a beneficial or maleficentinfluence. As wisdom and passion, beneficial madness gives birth to moralqualities, such as power (δύναμις) and bravery (θάρσος). These qualities are,respectively, opposed to force (ι’σχὺν) and courage (α’ νδρεία) resulting fromnature and good nourishment (α’πò φύσεως και ευ’τροφίας) of the body andsoul.268 With a maleficent aspect, madness indicates behaviour against moraland social principles. Μανία comes from degenerating courage, which leadsto moral decadence.269 As unethical behaviour, madness is compatible withlicentiousness and violence.270

Within a society, destructive μανία is equal to α’ νοια, the primary cause ofbad actions271 and a corrupted lifestyle.272 When accompanied by a maleficentspirit (κακοδαιμονίαν), madness causes unjust financial conditions, with badpeople becoming rich by unjust gains, while others who are honest suffer from

hunger.273 Moreover, madness abolishes moral values in a society. Underthe effects of madness, citizens deny the just politics that their city follows inhonouring gods.274 In addition, madness provokes a strong feeling of gettingcorrupted by Sophists’ education.275

Innovations in art are constantly parodied by Aristophanes. At Vesp. 1486,μανία hints at madness in Lovecleon dressed up in Polyphemus’ clothing andperforming a grotesque dance parodying Euripides’ Cyclops.276 Aristophanesintends to satirize the poets coming after Phrynichos for having introduced intotragedy new dances with contortions and pirouettes.

Destructive madness plays a role auxiliary to Love (ε’ ρως), nourished and

growing from other desires. In its most advanced stages, Love creates a wildand uncontrolled insanity so that if it finds any shameful opinions or appetites in


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the lover, it slays them and pushes them out until it purges his soul of sobrietyand infects it with frenzy. This is the generation of the tyrannical man, who

exercises power in a cruel, unreasonable and arbitrary way.277When they held power, the Thirty Tyrants recast laws, including one

regarding the social status of the citizens suffering from μανία. Until then,Athenian law had authorized all citizens to offer their goods to anyone theywanted unless the givers were mad, weakened by old age or influenced by awoman. This clause was abolished by the Thirty Tyrants in order to deprivesycophants of all kinds of actions regarded as undesirable.278

In conclusion, μανία is a mental trouble caused by ferocious or agreeableaffective states and also by pathological disorders, in which case it can be pre-dicted and healed by a doctor. Divine beneficial madness grants people poetic

gifts and happiness. In contrast, divine maleficent madness is destructiveand is inflicted on those the god intends to punish. The pernicious aspect ofμανία, as insane misconduct, manifests to the detriment of religious, moral andsocial values.

Contrary to the usages of μανία in texts from the archaic period, usages inclassical times are more frequent and richer in connotation. In the totalityof usages, only the emotional and divine aspects of madness are common toboth eras.

Μανικός

With a pathological connotation, μανικός occurs in Hippocrates, Aristophanesand Aristotle.

In Hippocrates, madness occurs in spring and autumn.279 In acute fevers,insanity is announced by deafness280 and can solve them as long as thepatient does not suffer from cardialgia. However, bile inhibits this reaction.281 Moreover, madness followed by death occurs when the teeth grind in fever,if this has not been a habit from childhood.282 Being affected with nausea andvomiting makes the voice shrill and the eyes take on a wool-like covering, whichcauses delirium. In some cases, patients become speechless.283 In elderly peoplesuffering from headaches or heaviness of the head, madness can occur after they

become dizzy at the same time as the pains go away and along with paralysisor blindness.284 Additionally, people suffering from opisthotonos, a spasm ofthe muscles causing backward arching of the head, neck and spine, becomemad.285 Finally, high and rapid blood circulation in the veins can make peopleirascible and even mad.286

In Aristophanes, μανικόν denotes an expression in the eyes revealing a mentalstate. At Pl. 424, Poverty’s gaze is characterized as troubled and tragic. Thispermits a comparison to Erinyes, whose terrible aspect arouses fear.287

In Aristotle, the term refers to those who are frenzied by excessive wine288 orby genetic causes, such as degeneration of lineage,289 as well as an increase and

heating of black bile. Indeed, excess and heat of the bile exert an influence onthe psychic and mental state making a person exalted, brilliant, sensual, and


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sometimes loquacious.290 The heat can attack the seat of intelligence, i.e., thebreast and heart (του̃ νοερου̃ τόπου), producing madness or inspiration. This is

the case with sibyls, seers and all possessed people whose psychic state can beexplained by a natural temperament and not by a disease.291 We may observethat Aristotle does not consider prophetic dementia as a divine gift, but ratherthe result of a pathological cause.

In conclusion, Hippocrates and Aristotle lay stress on pathological causes ofmadness. Also, Hippocrates singles out its recoverable and beneficial aspect. Incontrast, Aristophanes describes only the physical signs of madness.

Ritual dementia manifests in bacchic transports (βακχείας) and all kindsof mad dances inspired by Dionysos, who seeks to take revenge for Here’s

deranged judgement.292

Wine and religious dancing represent two great benefitsgiven by Dionysos to mankind.293

With an expressive connotation, μανικός indicates those who feel a strongand violent emotion. Their inclination to anger displays exaltation rather thancourage.294 Moreover, μανικός makes reference to both agreeable feelings,such as the pleasure of love (the most furious)295 and great psychic suffering.Indeed, the greatest and most violent pleasures cause mad pains that disturbthe human soul.296

Madness and genius are considered as creative poetic impulses. Skills inpoetry are granted to naturally gifted men and to the exalted who abandon

themselves to poetic delirium.297

In reference to the art of speech, μανικός can describe a speaker formulatingcontradictory arguments so that he may not succeed in convincing hisinterlocutor.298

In a social context, μανικά alludes to thoughts and actions contrary to socialconventions, even considered as violent.299 Moreover, μανικά πράγματα describedthe grotesque dance performed by Lovecleon, disguised in Polyphemus, toparody Euripides’ Cyclops.300

In the light of the usages of μανικός indicating a madman and μανικόν andμανικά expressing madness, we observe that mental trouble may be caused by

genetic disorders. Madness manifests itself in unreflecting feelings as well asby unreasoned thoughts and actions. In contrast to the maleficent aspect ofmadness, a beneficial one results in poetic skill.

Μανικω̃ς

The adverb occurs in Hippocrates and Plato.In Hippocrates, μανικω̃ς describes one of the pathological symptoms of

arachnitis. On the seventeeth day of the fever, the patient chews or swallowsavidly and angrily (μανικω̃ς). On the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth daysthe patient is caught by manic delirium: he shouts, he makes an effort to get

up, as he cannot support his head, he extends his hands at arm’s length, andcontinuously waves them in the air.301


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In Plato, μανικω̃ς expresses the mad behaviour of some philosopherswithin society. Indeed, they appear disguised as statesmen and sometimes

as sophists.302 In an emotional context, μανικω̃ς διακείμενος is used to describe a person

attacked by the madness of love and neglecting mundane matters.303 Μανικω̃ς denotes pathological insanity as well as unreasoning behaviour.

Μανιώδης

Μανιώδης occurs in Hippocrates, Thucydides and Euripides.In Hippocrates, μανιώδης is used to describe maniacs and also diseases related

to madness or organs whose dysfunction causes madness. Μανιώδεις indicatesthose maniacs who have become blind because of an unexpected spasm.304 People with a bilious breast are subject to stammering, madness and baldness.305 Μανιώδεα designates the illness from which young people suffer in winter.306 Inbald people, small varicose veins can also lead to madness.307

In contrast to the usages with a pathological connotation that constantlyoccurr in Hippocrates, μανιώδης can refer to the speech of a statesman. InThuc. IV, 39, 3, 2–3, μανιώδης υ‛πόσχεσις describes Cleon’s unrealistic and madpromise to bring the Athenian army back from Pylos in a short time.

With a divinatory connotation, τò μανιω̃δες occurs in Euripides indicatingbacchic delirium.308

Μαινάς

In the archaic period, μαινάς can indicate a demented woman, e.g,. the goddessDemeter driven mad upon seeing Hermes,309 and Hecuba upon hearing ofHector’s death.310

In the classical period, μαινάδες makes reference to the Bacchants or Maenadsfrom Asia, Dionysos’ devoted companions, who compose the Chorus inEuripides’ play of the same name.311 Μαινάδες also describes the Erinyes who‘resemble Dionysiac maenads in their wild appearance, their violent dancingand their mercilessness towards those who offend them’ (Sommerstein, 1989:174). One of their tasks is to watch the dead.312

Μαινάς can indicate a noble woman, such as Cassandra, transported byprophetic delirium inspired by Apollo (Perdicoyianni, 1992: 60).313 We shouldalso note an adjectival use of μαινάς indicating the bird of love delirium thatAphrodite first brought to humans.314

As a substantive, μαινάς / μαινάδες generally indicates a woman or group ofwomen under the influence of prophetic, ritual dementia.

Μαινόλης (Aeolian, Dorian: μαινόλας ), μαινόλις

In the archaic period, μαινόλις (Meillet, 1932: 130–2) indicates a ravingwoman315 or a raving heart.316


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In classical times, μαινόλις occurs in Aeschylus. At Suppl. 109, μαινόλινδιάνοιαν reveals the furious intention of the pursuers of Danaus’ daughters,

who, fleeing a forced marriage to their cousins in Egypt, turn to King Pelasgosof Argos for protection.

Μανιάς

The term means ‘furious’. In Euripides, it is used as a qualifier with λύσσα,317 λύσσημα,318 νόσος, indicating Orestes’ madness inspired by the Erinyes319 as wellas to express the mother’s shed blood that makes him mad (West, 1987: 183).320

The nominal compounds

’ AκρομανήςIn Herodotus, the term possesses two meanings, indicating with regard tothe political leader, Cleomenes,321 both ‘at the limit of his madness’ and ‘com-pletely mad’.

Γυναιμανής

In the Iliad , γυναιμανές is used twice by Hector to insult Paris as being ‘madof women’.322

Δοριμανής

At Eur. Suppl. 485, the term is used in reference to the Greeks ‘raging withthe spear’.

’ Εμμανής

With a pathological connotation, τὴν ε’μμανη̃ ε‛́ ξιν refers to young people’stendency to excessive wine-drinking.323 In the animal world, ε’μμανει̃ς is usedof female elephants in the rutting season.324

’Εμμανής indicates one or a group of maddened women under divineinspiration. At Bacch. 1094, ε’μμανει̃ς refers to the Theban women, who, having

been driven mad by Dionysos,325

tore Pentheus to pieces. At Eur. El. 1253,ε’μμανη̃ makes a reference to demented Orestes driven mad by the Erinyes. Hismadness ‘could be thought of as a direct consequence of murder-pollution oras an experience [sic] form of terror associated with the murderer’s anticipationand experience of the Erinyes’ (Cropp, 1988: 184). These can also corruptyoung men, making them mad with a fierce spirit that does not result fromwine (Sommerstein, 1989: 252). Indeed, wine causes rowdiness and violence,which is a social danger.326 Divine madness can also afflict a monster, such asCyclops, maddened by Here.327

For a god, metamorphosing a person into a delirious animal is a way to

realize his plans and to satisfy his pleasure. At Aesch. PV , Zeus, seduced by Io’sbeauty, changes her into a mad heifer to escape Here’s detection. At PV 675,


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ε’μμανει̃ σκιρτήματι describes the mad leap of Io, transformed into the heifer,when she leaves her paternal house.

In sum, ε’μμανής is a qualifier used with regard to both human and legendarymonsters, whose madness is mostly inflicted by a god as a punishment.

Used in coordination with ου’ φρενήρης, ε’μμανής describes Cambyses, drivenmad by a religious crime.328

With an emotional meaning, ε’μμανής denotes madness provoked by love oranger. Love, the fourth platonic category of delirium, is accompanied by furyin a temperate person. By contrast, in the intemperate it is characterized byexcessive fury.329 ’Eμμανής expresses furore provoked by a person’s actions. Ina family context, the term is used as a qualifier for Clytemnestra, driven mad

by Electra’s stealing Orestes and smuggling him away.330

Briefly, the divine aspect of ε’μμανής is more frequent than the affective one.Usages with a pathological connotation occur least often.

Θεομανής

The word is used in Aeschylus and Euripides. In the former, it is used to indicateOedipus’ family, hated by the gods.331 In the latter, Io uses θεομανής to refer toCreusa as being ‘in a fit of divine madness’ because she claims that she is hismother.332 Also, θεομανής describes Orestes’ rage, sent by the Eumenides.333

Used metaphorically, θεομανει̃ refers to Helen’s fatal destiny.

334

In short, θεομανής is used as qualifier indicating divine and destructivemadness.

‛ Hλιομανής

In Aristophanes, η‛λιομανὴς refers to a ‘sun-crazed cicada’.335

Θυρσομανής

At Eur. Phoenissae 792, the term indicates ‘the thyrsus-maddened god’.

‛ Iππομανής

The term occurs mostly in Aristotle and indicates a small black fleshy sub-stance on the forehead of a new-born foal, which, if procured before it waseaten off by the dam, was held to be a powerful φίλτρον.336 It also is used for amucous that runs from mares in heat and is used by women who make philtres,φίλτρα.337

At Soph. Aj. 144, τòν ι‛ππομανη̃ λειμω̃ν’ are the words ‘“the plain wild withhorses”, i.e., on which great numbers of horses (out to pasture) disport them-selves’ (Jebb, 2004: 33).

Φρενομανής

At Aesch. Ag. 1140, φρενομανής is used of Cassandra who, under the influence ofApollonian dementia, dances wildly, with mad, distracted speech and gestures.


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Χορομανής

At Aristoph. Thesm. 961, χορομανει̃ τρόπωι refers to the mad way the women ofthe Chorus perform their circular dance in celebration of the Olympian gods.

Μανιόκηπος

In archaic times, the term designates a madly lustful woman.338

Conclusion

In the light of the above data, we can draw the following conclusions:

1. The verbal group of μαίνομαι is less productive in archaic than in classical

times.2. In the archaic period, divine madness is well represented. It is considereda mental trouble affecting gods, such as: Dionysos, who manifestsbacchic frenzy; Ares, driven mad by martial or love fury; Demeter,driven insane upon seeing Hermes; and Eros, source of human disasters.Moreover, divine madness is inspired in men by gods either as a benefit,e.g., divinatory art as well as love passion, or as an atrocious impulsion,even to committing matricide.

In the human world, madness manifests as a psychic state caused bya feeling of cruelty such as military fury, or a strong emotion such as

pleasure, love, fear or moral pain. Madness can also possess an immoralconnotation when affecting the spirit of citizens so that they behave tothe detriment of religious, social and political values.

We should note that the ferocious pleasure of monsters, e.g.,Cyclops and the Centaurus Eurytion, in behaving contrary to the rulesof hospitality and social conventions are infrequent appearances ofμαίνεσθαι in the uncivilized world.

3. In the classical period, divine madness is contrasted with pathologicalmadness. Indeed, madness is more often considered a psychic andmental disease, resulting from either a genetic or an adventitious cause

and predictable by doctors, as well as curable by medical treatments.This new approach reflects the rational knowledge of the Greeks aboutthe origin and the treatment of madness and the lessening of the widerbelief that all kinds of mental troubles are caused by divine interventionagainst which all human action is ineffective.

As a passing trouble of the psychic faculties, madness is provoked bya strong emotion.

As a mental trouble, madness manifests as a passing alteration ofreasoning, preventing the patient from making correct judgements andgood decisions.

Moral transgression of religious, family and social norms is the lastmanifestation of madness.


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References

Besnehard, P. (1993) Nommer la mandragore In M.-C. Amouretti and G. Comet (ed.), Deshommes et des plantes: plantes méditerranéennes, vocabulaire et usages anciens: table ronde, Aix-en-Provence, mai 1992 (Aix-en-Provence: Publications de l’Université de Provence),127–34.

Bolelli, T. (1948) Il valore semasiologico delle voci η’̃ τορ, κη̃ρ e κραδίη nell’epos omerica. Annuali della Scuola Normale et Superiore di Pisa, 17, 65–75.

Casevitz, M. (1992) Μάντις: le vrai sens. Revue des Études Grecques, 105, 1–18.Chantraine, P. (1968–80) Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque. Histoire des mots

(Paris: Klienscieck).Cheyns, A. (1980) La notion de φρένες dans l’Iliade et l’Odyssée, I. Cahiers de l’Institut

de Linguistique de Louvain, 6 (3–4), 121–202.Cheyns, A. (1985) Recherche sur l’emploi des synonymes η’̃ τορ, κη̃ρ et κραδίη. Revue Belge

de Philologie et d’Histoire, 63, 15–75.Craik, E. (2002) Phlegmone, normal and abnormal. In A. Zucker and A. Thivel (eds),

Le normal et le pathologique dans la Collection hippocratique. Actes du Xème colloque inter-national hippocratique (Nice, 6–9, X, 1999) (Nice: Faculté des Lettres de Nice), 285–301.

Cropp, M. (1988) Euripides. Electra (Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips).Doyle, R. (1984) ’ Aτη: Its Use and Meaning (New York: Fordham University Press).Heubeck, A. and Hoekstra, A. (1992) A Commentary on Homer’s Odyssey, Vol. 2 (Oxford:

Clarendon Press).Ireland, S. and Steel, F. L. D. (1975) Φρένες as an anatomical organ in the works of Homer.

Glotta, 53, 183–95. Jebb, R. (2004) Sophocles: Plays Ajax (London: Bristol Classical Press).

Meillet, A. (1932) Sur le type de gr. μαινόλις. Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris,99, 130–2.

Mueri, W. (1953) Melancolie und schwarze Galle [l’emploi des mots μελαγχολα̃ ν, χόλος etc.]. Museon Helvetica, 10, 21–38.

Neuberg, M. (1993) Ate reconsidered. In R. M. Rosen and J. Farell (eds), Nomodeiktes (Ann Arbor,USA: University of Michigan Press), 491–504.

Perdicoyianni, H. (1992) Commentaire sur les Troyennes d’Euripide (Athènes: BasilopoulosEditions).

Pieper, J. (1962) Enthusiasm and Divine Madness on the Platonic Dialogue Phaedrus, translationby R. and C. Winston (New York: Saint Augustine’s Press); originally published inGerman in 1955.

Potter, P. (1988) Hippocrates, Vol. 5 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).Rogge, C. (1928) Homerisch φρήν, φρένες und Verwandtes in neuer medizinischerund psychologischer Bedeutung. Ein Stück aus der Urgeschichte menschlicherDenkanschauung. Archiv für die Geschichte des Psychologie, 58, 307–24.

Roy, L. (1981) Le Concept de kholé, la bile dans le Corpus hippocratique (Québec: Éditions duSphinx).

Simon, B. (1978) Mind and Madness in Ancient Greece: The Classical Roots of Modern Psychiatry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press).

Sommerstein, A. (1989) Aeschylus. Eumenides (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).West, M. (1987) Euripides. Orestes (Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips).

[Part 2 of this paper will be published in History of Psychiatry, 20 (4)]


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Notes

1. Hom. Il. 6, 132. 2. Heracl. fr 15, l. 1–4 (Diels-Kranz).

3. Heracl. fr 92, l. 3–5 (Diels-Kranz). 4. Hom. Od. 11, 537. 5. Hom. Il. 5, 714–7. 6. Bacchyl. Epin. 13, 119–20 (Snell &

Maehler). 7. Alcm. fr. 68 (Page). 8. The Anacreontea , fr . 9, l . 13–15

(Edmonds) 9. Hom. Il. 9, 237–39.10. Hom. Il. 15, 603–6.

11. Hom. Il. 5, 184–7.12. Hom. Il. 24, 114, 135. 13. Hom. Il. 8, 413.14. Hom. Il. 8, 110–1; 16, 74–5.15. Hom. Il. 5, 184–7.16. Hom. Od. 18, 406–40.17. The Anacreontea fr. 9, l. 1–3, 7–9

(Edmonds).18. Th e A n a c r e o n t e a f r . 60B, 1–2

(Edmonds).19. Anac., fr. 83, 1–2 (Page).20. T h e A n a c r e o n t e a f r . 12 , 9–12

(Edmonds).21. Hom. Od. 9, 350–1.22. Solon fr. 10, l. 49 (Gerber).23. Heracl. fr 5, l. 1–5 (Diels-Kranz).24. Thgn. Elegy I, 1049–54 (Gerber).25. Thgn. Elegy I, 313–14 (Gerber).26. Hom. Od. 21, 297–8.27. Hom. Od. 21, 301–4.28. Hippoc. Loc. 33, 1–2; Jud. 49, 1–2.29. Hippoc. Morb. 2, 22, 6–10.30. Hippoc. Prorrh. 2, 2, 9–15.

31. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 5, 1, 2, 1–2.32. Eur. Cyc. 617–18.33. Hdt.. 6, 84, 1–4, 11–14.34. Hippoc. Affect. int. 29, 2–4.35. Hippoc. Morb. sacr. 17, 9–10.36. Hippoc. Morb. sacr. 17, 14–19.37. Hippoc. Morb. sacr . 18, 1–8.38. Hippoc. Progn. 7, 6–10.39. Hippoc. Aph. 6, 21, 1–2.40. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 4, 1, 58, 1–2.41. Hippoc. Aph. 5, 65, 1–2; Morb. pop. 2,

3, 18, 2–3.42. Hippoc. Di . I, 35, 91–96.43. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 2, 6, 32, 1–2.

44. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 2, 6, 14, 2–3.45. Hippoc. Loc. 32, 3–8.46. Hippoc. Loc. 39, 1–7.47. Hippoc. Morb. 1, 30, 7–11.48. Arist. Pr . 956b, 40 – 957a, 1–3.49. Arist. Pr. 948a, 23–25.50. Arist. Eth. Nic. 1111a, 6–7.51. Arist. Ethica Nic. 1112a, 19–21.52. Arist. Eth. Nic. 1115b, 26–8.53. Arist. Gen. corr. 325a, 19–21.54. Arist. Eth. Nic. 1149b, 34–1950a, 1.55. Arist. Hist. an. 577a, 11–12. On the

horsing, cf. Arist. Hist. an. 572a, 10, 21,27; 577a, 9; 605a, 2.56. Pl. Leg. 2, 672c, 1–4.57. Pl. Leg. 934d, 1–934e, 2.58. Pl. Phdr. 245a, 5–8.59. Pl. Ion 5–6.60. Pl. Ion 536d, 1–3.61. Aesch. Ag. 1098–99.62. Aesch. Ag.1064–7.63. On the other four types of divine

madness, see p. 325.64. Pl. Phdr . 244a, 9–244b, 6.65. Eur. Bacch. 300–1.66. Hdt. 3, 79, 2.67. Hdt. 4, 79, 10–17.68. Soph. Ant. 1149–52.69. Eur. Bacch. 1296. 70. See below p. 33171. Eur. Or . 135.72. Eur. Or . 3–38.73. Eur. Or .42–5.74. Ar. Ach. 1166–7.75. Soph. Aj. 81.

76. Soph. Aj. 40.77. Soph. Aj. 51–65.78. Eur. HF 840–1.79. Eur. HF 830–3.80. Eur. HF 836–7.81. Eur. HF 952, 1137.82. Eur. HF 932–3.83. Eur. HF 933–4.84. Eur. HF 935.85. Eur. HF 947–1000.86. Eur. HF 1013.87. Eur. HF 1189–90.88. Hdt. 8, 140, 12–13.89. Eur. Phoen. 531–5.


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90. Ar. Lys. 555–56. 91. Aesch. Sept. 343–4.

92. Aesch. Sept. 483–5. 93. Aesch. Sept. 934–7. 94. Hdt. 8, 77, 6 . 95. Eur. Phoen. 1124–7.96. Aesch. PV 977–8.

97. Eur. Med. 874–5. 98. Soph. Trach. 445–8. 99. Soph. Trach. 441–2.100. Soph. Ant. 787–90.101. Eur. Hipp. 241, 247–8.102. Pl. Phdr. 244 a 4–7.103. Pl. Resp. 578a, 10–12.104. Eur. Hipp. 1274–75; Med . 432–3.105. Pind. Pyth. II, 26–27.106. Eur. Hec. 1280; Eur. IA 1251–2.107. Eur. IA 876.108. Soph. Ant. 763–5.109. Soph. El. 879–80.110. Soph. El. 1153–54.111. Eur. Méd. 1129–31.112. Eur. Cyc. 465.113. Pl. Leg . 888a, 2–3.114. Eur. Cyc. 164.

115. Arist. Mir. ausc. 832b 21–2.116. Eur. Cyc. 168.117. Ar. Ran. 103.118. Aesch. Supp. 562–4.119. Eur. IA 40–41.120. Ar. Thesm. 792–3.121. Ar. Ran. 751.122. Aesch. Sept . 777–84.123. Aesch. Sept. 967.124. Soph. Aj. 898–9; 906–7.125. Pl. Prt. 323a, 8– 323b, 2.126. Pl. Symp. 173e, 2–3.127. Eur. IA 1290–2.128. Hippoc. Prorrh. II, 2, 13–15.129. Pl. Tht. 158a, 9–158b, 4.130. Eur. Bacch. 397–401; IA 1255–6.131. Pl. Prt. 350b, 1–6; Prt. 350c, 1–3.132. Eur. IA 388–9.133. Hdt. I, 211, 5–7.134. Eur. Ion 526.135. Pl. Lys. 205a, 6–7.136. Pl. Prt . 360b, 4–6.137. Eur. Bacch. 325–6, 358–9.

138. Ar. Nub. 1476–7.139. Ar. Pax 54–9.

140. Hdt. III, 38, 1–3, 7–8.141. Eur. Bacch. 997–1001.

142. Eur. Bacch. 884–7.143. Ar. Ran. 41.144. Ar. Ran. 564.145. Ar. Plut. 1070.146. Hdt. 9, 55, 11–112.147. Soph. OC 1536–7.148. Pl. Resp. 573c, 3–5.149. Hdt. I, 109, 5–8.150. Hdt. 3, 30, 1–2. Concerning the crime

that caused Cambyses’ madness, cf.Hdt. 3, 29, 1–14.

151. Hdt. 3, 34, 7–10; 35, 12–13.152. Hdt. 3, 30, 2–17.153. Hdt. 3, 31, 1–32, 20.154. Pl. Leg. 3, 695b 4–6.155. Hippoc. Di . 24, 8–10.156. Pl. Euthphr . 3c, 1–2.157. Pl. Resp. 359a, 9–359b, 4.158. Pl. Leg . 817c8–817d, 3.159. Pl. Leg. 773c 8 – d 2.160. Pl. Menex. 92a, 2–6.161. Pl. Menex. 92a 6–8.162. Ar. Nub. 932.

163. Arist. Poet. 1451a 26–27.164. Pl. Leg. 934c, 6–934d, 5.165. Pl. Resp. 396a, 3–5.166. Pl. Resp. 396b, 6–7.167. The Anacr eon tea f r . 12, l . 1–4

(Edmonds).168. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 1, 3, 13(8), 7–8.169. Hippoc. Prorrh. 73, 1–2; Co Pres. 267,

1–2.170. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 3, 2, 4, 10.171. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 1, 3, 13(9), 7.172. Hippoc. Morb. pop . 3, 3, 17(13),

14–15.173. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 3, 3, 17(14), 9.174. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 3, 3, 17(16), 13.175. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 4, 1, 15, 8–10.176. Hipp. Prorrh. 10, 1–2. Co Pres. 165,

1–2.177. Eur. Bacch. 35–6.178. Ar. Eccl. 967.179. Soph. Trach. 1141.180. Hdt. 3, 33, 1–34, 1; 3, 37, 37, 1–2.181. Hippoc. Morb. sacr. 1, 1–6.

182. Anac. fr. 14, 1–3 (Page).183. Aesch. Ag. 1426–7.


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184. Aesch. Sept.155.185. Arist. Hist. an. 572a 10.

186. The Anac reon t ea f r . 53, l . 3–5(Edmonds).187. Hes. Sc. 98–100.188. On the meaning of the word, see

above p. 314.189. The Anac r e on t ea f r . 60B, 1–2

(Edmonds).190. Anac. fr. 53, 1–2 (Page).191. Thgn. Elegy I, 1231–4 (Gerber).192. Hecat. 1a, 1 fr. 107, l. 2 (Jacoby).193. Hippoc. Prorrh. 2, 1, 9–12; 2, 2, 5–7;

2, 2, 20–1.194. Hippoc. Aph. 15, 1–3.195. Hipp. Di. 4, 93, 23–5.196. Hippoc. Loc. 33, 1–3.197. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 7, 1, 25, 27.198. Hippoc. Loc. 39, 9–11.199. Hippoc. Di . 1, 35, 85–8.200. Hippoc. Aph. 5, 40, 1–2.201. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 4, 1, 2, 7.202. Hippoc. De iud. 42, 2; 7, 1, 11, 34–5.203. Hippoc. Aph. 5, 65, 1–6.204. Hippoc. Di. 1, 35, 56–61.

205. Hippoc. Aph. 6, 56, 1–4.206. Hippoc. Morb. 1, 30, 12–13.207. Hippoc. Aph. 7, 5, 1–2.208. Arist. Pr. 860b, 22–24.209. Arist. Eth. Nic. 1149a, 9–12.210. Arist. Gen. cor. 325a, 19–23.211. Arist. Eth. Nic. 1148b, 25–7.212. Arist. Phygn 808b, 21–6.213. Arist. Hist. an. 604a, 5–6.214. Pl. Tht 157e, 1–4 .215. Pl. Tht 158d, 8–9.216. Pl. Phlb 36e, 5–8.217. Hdt. 6, 75, 4–5.218. Pl. Phrdr. 265a 9–11.219. Pl. Phrdr. 244a 6–9; 245b, 1–2.220. Pl. Phdr. 245b, 2–6; 265a, 6–7.221. Pl. Phdr. 245d, 3–5.222. Pl. Phrdr. 244b 7–244c, 3.223. Pl. Phdr. 244d, 6–244e, 5.224. Eur. Bacch. 33–4.225. Pl. Phdr. 245a, 1–4.226. Pl. Phdr. 244b, 8 – 244c,1.227. Pl. Phdr. 266a,7–266b, 1.

228. Pl. Phdr. 244d, 4–244e, 2.229. Pl. Phdr. 250a, 1–250b, 1.

230. Pl. Phdr. 244e, 1–244e, 4.231. Pl. Phdr. 251a, 2– 6.

232. Pl. Phdr. 256d, 5–256d, 2.233. Soph. Aj. 1299–1302.234. Soph. Aj. 56, 66, 186, 271, 274, 280.235. Soph. Aj. 274, 280.236. Soph. Aj. 2216–17.237. Soph. Aj. 56–65.238. Soph. Aj. 609–11.239. Soph. Trach. 997–9.240. Eur. HF 835–7.241. Eur. HF 840.242. Eur. Or. 400.243. Eur. IT 82–4.244. Eur. IT 293–4.245. Eur. Or. 836–8.246. Eur. Or. 532.247. Eur. IT 283–4.248. Eur. IT 285–91.249. Eur. IT 296–9.250. Eur. IT 306–7.251. Eur. IT 85–88, 980–1.252. Aesch. PV 877–80.253. Aesch. PV 881–6.254. Eur. Bacch. 302–5.

255. Eur. Andr. 50–3.256. Ar. Ran. 814–17.257. Arist. Eth. Nic. 1147a, 15–17.258. Soph. Ant . 959–61.259. Pl. Crat. 404a 1–6.260. Pl. Phlb 45e, 2–4.261. Pl. Symp. 213d, 6–7.262. Plato, Phdr. 241e, 3–4.263. Hdt. 6, 112, 4–8.264. Hdt. 8, 10, 1–4.265. Ar. Thesm. 793.266. Aesch. Ag. 1573–6.267. Pl. Euthd. 306d, 6–e.268. Pl. Prt . 351a 2–4.269. Pl. Plt. 310d, 6–8.270. Pl. Resp. 400b, 2–3.271. Pl. Resp. 382c, 8–9.272. Ar. Nub. 925.273. Ar. Plut. 501–4.274. Eur. Heracl. 904.275. Pl. Men. 91c 2–5.276. Ar. Vesp. 1486.277. Pl. Resp. 573a, 4 – b, 6.

278. Arist. Ath. Pol. 35, 2, 7–10.279. Hippoc. Aph. 3, 20, 1–4; 3, 22, 1–5.


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280. Hippoc. Co. pres. 192, 1–2.281. Hippoc. Co. pres. 539, 1–2.

282. Hippoc. Progn. 3, 19–21; Co pres. 230,1–2.283. Hippoc. Prorrh. 1, 17, 1–2; Co pres.

550, 1–3.284. Hippoc. Prorrh. 2, 30, 31–32; Morb.

pop. 1, 2, 6, 12–13.285. Hippoc. Morb. 3, 13, 8–9.286. Hippoc. Morb. pop. 2, 5, 16, 1–2.287. Ar. Plut. 423–4.288. Arist. Pr. 873a 23.289. Arist. Rh. 1390b, 27–8.290. Arist. Pr.

Documents

The vocabulary of madness from Homer to Hippocrates 1