The Voynich Botanical Plants 2.0

The Voynich Botanical Plants 2.0

Botanists, who examined the VM’s botanical drawings, have

dismissed them as a mishmash of flowers and leaves belonging to unrelated plants. The fanciful nature of some drawings makes identification with 21st century plants difficult. For example, one plant has a root system resembling a headless cat, another has leaves that look like a series of spears. The large number and variety of species in the plant kingdom further complicates the problem. The 18th century Linnean Herbarium contains over 14,000 plants classified into genera. The Ranunculus genus had 78 species; today, this number has increased to 600. Other members of the Ranunculaceae family include buttercups, spearworts, water crowfoots, winter aconite, monk’s hood and the lesser celandine. Their flowers may have a few, many or no petals at all and a variety of different types of leaves. The diversity of flowers and leaves within a genus and the magnitude of the plant kingdom, makes the identification of the VM’s botanical plants rather like looking for a needle in a haystack.

The botanical section of the VM may represent, in part, a private

herbal. Consulting herbals used in the Middle Ages should help with the identification of these drawings. Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 40 – c. 90 AD) produced the first herbal. His simple, natural drawings, used to illustrate De Materia Medica, were the gold standard for herbal illustrations until about 1550 AD. The illustrations in many subsequent herbals are degraded, stylized reproductions of Dioscorides’ work. Fortunately, by the 15th century, herbal illustrations had improved. These illustrations were simple basic drawings of plants, often representing not much more than a twig with a few leaves and perhaps a few flowers. By the middle of the 16th century, botanists like Dodoens Pemptades, Fuch and Mattioli reintroduced naturalism and more complexity into their herbal drawings.

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Digitized copies of 15th century herbal books and manuscripts,

contemporary with the VM, are now available on the Internet. The simple woodcut illustrations in the herbal incunabula (books printed before 1500 AD) in conjunction with their Latin names, have allowed me to identify many of the VM’s botanical drawings.

I also used illustrations from the following two books: Herbs, for the Mediaeval Household, Margaret B. Freeman,

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1943. Herbals, their Origin and Evolution, Agnes Arber, Cambridge

University Press, 1938.

The incunabula were: Herbarius, Peter Schoeffer, 1484, in Latin., MGB Digital Library. Hortus Sanitatis, Peter Schoeffer, 1485, The only illustrations I

could find from this herbal are from Margaret Freeman’s book, Herbs, for the Mediaeval Household.

Gart der Gesundheit, Peter Schoeffer, 1485, Botanicus.internet site.

Ortus Sanitatis, Jacob Meydenbach, Mainz, Germany, 1491. There are two copies of this herbal, one in black and white with easy to read Latin titles is available on the Smithsonian internet site, and a colored version on the Harvard University Library site.

Herbarius Patauie Impressus, 1485, Harvard University Library site.

Some of the VM’s botanical drawings show a surprising similarity to

woodcut illustrations in herbals, printed after 1484, using the Gutenberg Press in Mainz, Germany. One of the printers, Peter Schoeffer, was apprenticed to Gutenberg and after Gutenberg’s death, he continued printing his own books, publishing his first herbal in 1484. His herbals were printed in either German or Latin. It should be pointed out that Peter Schoeffer was just the publisher of these herbals; he probably did not write the texts. Printers of other herbals used many of





his woodcuts. The author or authors of these herbals are unknown, likewise the origin of the woodcuts and who carved them.

Examining these woodcuts caused me to postulate that many of

the VM’s drawings were not drawn from nature, but were copied from a contemporary herbal or herbals with similar odd characteristics. VM folio 14r has leaves like spears and is very similar to the illustration of sorrel, in Peter Schoeffer’s Herbarium, Plate 1. The illustration of diptamus in Jacob Meydenbach’s Ortus Sanitatis has roots resembling a headless animal, similar to the plant, folio 90v1, that has roots like a headless cat, Plate 2. Other examples are given later. Nobody in the 15th century would have considered the VM’s drawings strange or unacceptable; they are no different from other 15th century herbal drawings.

Plate 1

Plate 2

What initially puzzled me was why some of the VM’s drawings

appear almost identical to illustrations from herbals printed in Germany, from 1484 onwards. The VM is assumed to have originated in Italy sometime around the middle of the 15th century. Further investigation showed that some VM drawings closely resembled illustrations from the following Italian herbals:

Herbal, N. Italy (Lombardy), c.1440, Sloane MS 4016, British Library internet site.

Tractatus de herbis (Herbal); De Simplici Medicina, Bartholomaei Mini de Senis; Platearius; Nicolaus, between c.1280 and c.1310. S.Italy (Solerno). Egerton MS 747, British Library internet site. This manuscript provides English names with the plant illustrations.

Herbarien des Pseudo Apulelus und Antonus Musa, & Essen 305, Fulda. C~1470. The small size of the illustrations made the print too small to read.

Pseudo Antonus Musa. De Herba Vettonica Liber. Hartley MS 1585. Produced in the last quarter of the 12th century. British Library internet site. Antonius Musa was a botanist and physician to the Roman Emperor Augustus. His brother was physician to King Juba II of Mauretania (Libya).

Further investigation of the drawings of VM’s plants indicated that

they could be divided into two basic groups, plants that were drawn directly from nature and those drawings that were very similar to or could be identified from illustrations in German or Italian herbals. Latin names were used to identify plants in the early herbals. If this name later became the botanical name of the plant, identification is simple. However if the two names are different, then correlating an illustration with a living plant is not always possible.

Plate 3


Many of the drawings of plants, I have dubbed drawn directly

from nature, are alpine. I had the good fortune last year, while on a cruise down the Danube, of buying the following book: Alpen Pflanzen, text R.Slavik, illustrations j. Kaplicka, Artia, Prag, 1977. I realized, while thumbing through its pages, that I was looking at a number of the VM drawings, drawings I was unable to find counterparts for in the various herbals I had consulted. This observation probably indicates that the author of the VM lived in a hilly or mountainous region of Northern Italy, where the winters are cold, something like Leonardo da Vinci’s landscape drawing, dated 1473, of the Arno River, Plate 3.

Plate 4

Iam not sure whether I have simplified the mysteries surrounding

the VM or further muddied the waters. Some people may conclude that this article confirms the hypothesis that the VM is just a forged

document or that its author was a German. This is negated by the similarity in dress, except for the hats, of the archers in the VM’s zodiac Sagittarius folio and in the Sloane MS 4016, c. 1440 manuscript, Plate 4.

Plate 5

The dress of the man and woman in the VM’s zodiac Gemini folio

and the Sloane MS 4016 manuscript are also similar, Plate 5.

Plate 6

Later in the 15th century men’s skirts became extremely short,

requiring the use of a codpiece, Plate 6. The fact that the VM’s male clothing and the recent C14 dating of its parchment, both date the manuscript to near the middle of the 15th century, makes the forgery hypothesis unlikely. The correlation of these drawings with an Italian herbal, c. 1440, probably excludes the hypothesis that a German was the author.

Plate 7 and Plate 8 show how similar two of the apothecary jars

from the VM’s herbal section are to jars illustrated in Peter Schoeffer’s 1485 herbal, Gart der Gesundheit.

Plate 7

Plate 8

Plate 9

Anyone who has wondered about the nude little ladies sitting in

wooden bath tubs in the VM’s astrological drawings should take a look at Plate 9. Judging by the attire of one of the attendants in this woodcut, who is obviously wearing a codpiece, this illustration was made about 50-60 years later than the VM’s drawings. It shows that wooden bath tubs were in use during the latter part of the 15th century and possibly earlier.

This investigation has produced a few surprises. Dried clove flower

buds came exclusively from the Spice Islands of Indonesia. An accurate drawing of a clove tree in full bud, Egerton 747 c. 1300 AD, shows an accurate drawing of this tree, yet a few pages later the drawing of a coconut palm bears no resemblance to a palm tree. The VM’s drawing (Folio 27v) accurately depicts the clove tree’s white daisy like flower with an elongated calyx. The Arab traders, who used the silk road to supply the Mediterranean countries with herbs and spices, kept the source of their products a closely guarded secret, hence my surprise that the author of Egerton MS 747 knew what a clove tree looked like.

Another surprising plant is, caulis polygonii multiflori, an important

herb, native to China. It is accurately illustrated in Jacob Meydenbach’s 1491 herbal. This vine with a large tuberous root could equally well substitute for Byrony (Folio 96v). After making several guesses regarding the identity of the infamous ‘sunflower’ (Folio 33v), I am satisfied that this folio represents the small plant, winter aconite, a member of the Ranunculaceae family. Winter aconite, like Folio 33v, has ‘tuberous roots, palmate lobed leaves, yellow flowers with large hood-like upper sepals and an aggregate of follicles.’ A good fit with Folio 33v. The VM’s drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale.

Not all the illustrations in these medieval herbals, like the case of

the coconut palm, are correct. In addition, the Latin names given to

some illustrations may not represent a 21st century plant with the same name. For example, there is an illustration in Ortus Sanitatus, labeled Sambacus, which is another name for elderberry. The sambacus flowers in this illustration look a lot like Folio 10v’s ‘twin flower,’ and nothing like an elderberry flower. Differences like this are part of the problem with the identification of the VM’s botantial drawings. Some drawings may represent ‘fictitious’ plants.

Iwas unable to find a herbal that represented all the VM’s odd

characteristics or all its plants, even though some printed herbals listed about 500 plants. A few of the illustrations used in this article are from internet web sites whose URLs I failed to record. I was unable to identify Folio 90r1 or correlate it with illustrations in other herbals.

Ihave assigned the rest of the VM botanical folios to one or another

of the following three categories:

1. Drawings that are probably copies of illustrations found in other herbals

2. Drawings that are similar to illustrations in other herbals3. Plants drawn from nature

With each folio I provide a brief description of how the plant was

used during medieval times. A (*) indicates the source of the information was:

1. Wikipedia2. Freeman, M., Herbs, for the Medieval Household, The Grete

Herball, the English translation of Hortis Sanitatis and Bancker’s Herbal referred to in this book are not currently available on the internet

3. Arber, A. Herbal4. Grieve, M, A Modern Herbal, Dover Publishers, New York

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Folio 2r. Devil’s dung or giant fennel (Ferula foetida), is a large herbaceous plant

with an unpleasant pungent smell. The gum or resin exuded by the roots of several species has antiviral properties and was used in 1918 to combat the Spanish influenza pandemic and more recently Taiwan researchers reported that it is able to kill the swine flue virus. (1) (A)

(1) Wikipedia

(A) Drawings that are probably copies of illustrations found in other herbals

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Folio 2v. Water lily (Nymphaea odorata) The Greeks named this plant after water

nymphs or virgins because it was considered to have anti-aphrodisiac properties. Throughout the ages, the flower was the symbol of purity and chastity. The leaves and root were used to treat wounds, cuts and bruises. (1) (A)

(1) Wikipedia


http://www.edithsherwood.com/voynich_botanical_plants_2/plant.php?id=2


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Folio 3r. Salvia or garden sage (Salvia officinalis). The Romans called the plant

salvia and used it as a diuretic and a local anesthetic for the skin. It was used during ancient times to treat snake bites. Its principal use today is culinary; sage and onion stuffing is popular at Thanksgiving. It may be effective in the management of mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease. (2) (A)

(2) Freeman, M., Herbs, for the Medieval Household, The Grete Herball


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Folio 8v. Bugloss (Anchusa officinalis). “According to Hortus Sanitatis this herb is

good for him who has a wicked moisture of the lung and a bad cough. When drunk with


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water helps swollen feet, with wine develops good blood and when drunk with wine and honey makes a man merry and glad.” (2) (A)



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Folio 14r. Sorrel (Rumex acetosa). This plant has been cultivated for centuries. Its

sour tasting leaves are added to spice up salads, soups and stews. Oxalic acid, is responsible for sorrel’s sour taste . Sorrel is toxic when eaten in large quantities due to calcium oxalate stones that are deposited in the kidneys, causing kidney failure. Sorrel was used to treat sinusitis by reducing inflammation of the nasal mucous membranes and as a diuretic. (1) (A)

(1) Wikipedia





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Folio 15v. Herb paris (Paris quadrifolia) Jacob Meydenbach labeled this plant

Indicus, however it does not resemble the important Indian herb, Sphaeranthus indicus. The hearts on the leaves make it more likely to be Herb paris or true lover’s knot. Sprigs of Herb paris were worn in the spring to ensure true love and were believed to have aphrodisiac properties. Herb paris is described by Hortus Sanitatis “as being from Venus, useful in staunching the flow of blood and intestinal fluid.” (1) (A)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 20r. Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium). Pennyroyal was used as a cooking herb by

the Greeks and Romans. Pseudo Apulenus recommended smearing a paste made from this herb and wormwood on the body to counteract seasickness. (1) (A)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 21r. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris), “Thyme was grown in Medieval times to

flavor soup and meat dishes. Dioscorides said that being eaten with meat it avails the dull sighted. He prescribed it mixed with honey for driving out “phlegmy from the thorax for asthema and for expelling worms. Oil of thyme, thymol, is an antiseptic that was once used on bandages and is a common ingredient of mouthwashes.” (2) (A)



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Folio 25r. Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) “Dioscorides says that the leaves of the

balm being drunk with the wine and also applied are good for the scorpion-smitten and the dog-bitten. Being smeared on they will assuage the pains of the gout. The Grete Herball claims that meddled with grease, balm is good against all aches. Hortus Sanitatis claims “the leaves when eaten with salt will relieve the difficulty in breathing … and will clear the chest.” (2) (A)






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Folio 31r. Siderica. The Latin name does not help in identifying this plant. The word

siderica may refer to sidereal astrology. Medieval people believed in an association between certain plants and the stars, planets and moon. Herbals related to astrology are not currently available on the internet. (A)


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Folio 31v. Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare). The bulb, seeds and leaves of this plant

were used to flavor many culinary dishes “Medieval herbalists state that fennel seed comforteth the stomach. Also if it be drunk with wine it will break the dropsy and all



manner of swellings. It was good for mistiness of the eyes and worms in the ears, It makes a woman’s milk to increase.” (2) (A)



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Folio 35r. The identity of this plant is not known. (A)


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Folio 35v. English ivy (Hedera helix). “Pseudo-Apuleius explains that earth ivy is

good for the stones in the bladder, for sore of the milt and for bite of creeping things; also it is used in case the nostrils smell ill, or in case a man is not able to hear well and that the head may not ache from the heat of the sun. Bancker’s Herbal adds that if it be sodden in swine’s grease, it is good for all manner of things.” (2) (A)



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Folio 36r. Larkspur (Delphinium). “The medieval writer on agriculture, Petrus de

Crescentius, claimed that a paste made from larkspur seads and vinegar was good for treating head lice and scabies and the powered seeds when mixed with honey and taken internally killed worms.” (2) (A)






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Folio 36v. Henbit (Lasmium) is a useful plant in the garden for repelling insects. It

makes an edible spring green and is a mild astringent. (A)


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Folio 37v. Mint (Menthe). There are many different species of mint. Bankers Herbal

describes how if mint is rubbed on the teeth it will “give a sweet smelling mouth; made into a sauce it will make thee have a talent (appetite) to thy meat; used in a poultice it will cure blotches on the face;” “Mint is good for toothache, it is used to prevent vomiting. If it be oft eaten it will slay worms.” (2) (A)






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Folio 41r. Oregano/marjoram (Origamum vulgare). Oregano in medieval times, like

today, was an important herb for flavoring soups, stews and salads and “before the discovery of hops it was used in the brewing of beer. It was attached to the head to cure a cold and when drunk with wine it warmed the stomach and comforted the digestion It was grown for its flavour and beauty.” (2) (A)



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Folio 44v. Italian parsley (Petroselinum. crispun var. neapolitanum) is a flat leafed

parsley with slender stems. It has more flavor than the curly leafed variety. Parsley is a good source of vitamins A, B, and C and iron. Teas are used as a diuretic and medications for kidney stones, bladder infections and jaundice. Pregnant women should avoid parsley as it can irritate the kidneys. (1) Bancker’s Herbal states that it “multiplieth a man’s blood…it is good for the side and the dropsy. It comforteth the heart and the stomach.” (2) (A)

(1) Wikipedia



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Folio 47r. Houseleek ( Sempervivum tectorum). The juice from this succulent plant

was used to soothe burns, bites, stings and a variety of skin conditions.” Dioscorides recommended it for inflammation of the eyes, feet gouts, hemorrhage and headaches. Crescentius notes that the “juice laid on hot ulcers drives away infection … mixed with oil of roses is good for burns.” Hortus Sanitatis states that “who ever is deaf should take the milk of a woman nursing a 10 to 12 week old boy and put with this the juice of the houseleek and the drip 3 or 4 drops in the ear soothingly and hearing will return.” (2) (A)






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Folio 49v. Water lily (Nymphaea alba). There is also a red variety of this water lily.

The alkaloids extracted from the rhizomes and flowers are used as astringents, antiseptics, anti-aphrodisiacs and sedatives. For centuries monks and nuns have used the crushed roots with wine for its anti-aphrodisiac properties. (1) (A)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 52v. Heliotrope (Heliopropium). These plants turn their rows of flower heads

with the sun. Porta in Phytognomonica classified heliotropes with a scorpion because its curved flower spike resembled a scorpions tail. (A)


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Folio 53v. Hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiaca). This plant is used as an astringent and

for reducing catarrh and in the treatment of whooping cough, asthma and bronchitis. It contains a blood thinner similar to coumarin, an antibiotic against brucellosis and a compound found in sun screen. It is a powerful diuretic. (1) (A)

(1) Wikipedia





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Folio 55v. An unknown plant. (A)


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Folio 87vleft. Cowslip/primrose (Primula veris). Banckers Herbal says that “if

the juice of the primrose is put in a man’s nose it will destroy the megrim.” The cowslip was often called Herba paralysis because it was believed to be good for “the gouty and palsy folk and them that fall of the high evil called epilepsy.” The Vertouse Boke of Distyllacyon states that “the distilled water from the cowslip is good against the pain in




the head … coming of cold … biting of mad dogs and for women that beareth child. Also the face often washed therewith withdraweth the spots and pimples in the face and causeth the skin to be fair.” (2) (A)



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Folio 1v. Herba orbicularis. According to the notes of Dr. W.O. Hassell (Herbal, MS

Bodley 130 C. 1100, The Bodleian Libraary Oxford), herba orbicularis is Aristrolochia pallida. Cicero claimed that the plant was named for an unknown Greek called Aristolchos who had learned from a dream that the plant was an antidote for snake bites. (1) Neither drawing looks much like the plant known today as Aristrolochia pallida. (B)

(1) Wikipedia

(B) Drawings that are similar to illustrations in other herbals

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Folio 4r. An unknown plant. (B)


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Folio 5v. Mallow (Malva sylvestris). The flowers, leaves, and roots are edible and the

Romans considered dishes made from mallow a delicacy. “A plaster made from mallow and sheep’s tallow was good for the gout. Sodden with vinegar and linseed it helped the wicked gatherings that be endangered in a man’s body. More over it kept witches away from one’s house.” (2) (B)



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Folio 6r. Bear Breeches (Acanthus mollis) is native to Southern Europe and one of

the earliest garden plants to be cultivated. Romans used scrolls and the leaves from the Acanthus plant to decorate the Corinthian columns. The mucilage from the plant has traditionally been used to treat burns and dislocated joints. (Encyclopedia of medical plants) (B)


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Folio 6v. Caster oil (Ricinus communis). The seeds are very toxic due to the presence

of the protein ricin. A dose of ricin as small as a few grains of salt can kill a man so great care should be taken when handling this plant. The heat process used to extract the oil from the seeds destroys the ricin. Caster oil seeds have been found in Egyptian tombs. The Greeks used the oil to anoint their bodies. Castor oil is used medicinally as a laxative and a purgative. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia




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Folio 7v. Madder (Rubia tinctorun). Madder was used as a diuretic, for stomach

ailments, hysteria and amenorrhea and complaints of the liver and spleen. Its principal use was the pink, rose or crimson dye obtained from its roots. The color depended on the mode of extraction and the mordant used to set the dye. (An Illustrated History of Herbals, F. Anderson, p.84.) (B)


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Folio 10r. Chicory /Endive (Cichorium pumilum). The Romans used chicory in their

recipes and Horace stated: “As for me, olives, endives, and mallows provide sustenance.” Today the leaves are used in salads and the parsnip-like roots are cooked for a vegetable or dried and used as a coffee substitute. The chicory root contains an oil effective in eliminating intestinal worms. (1) (B)



(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 11r. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis). Rosemary’s spiky, evergreen leaves

have a pungent aromatic odor and are used to flavor a wide variety of Mediterranean foods. Banker’s Herbal states that putting “the flowers amoung your clothes will keep away moths … crush the flowers and bind them in a cloth under thy right arm and thou shall be light and merry … boil the leaves in white wine and wash thy face therewith … and thou shall have a fair face … put the leaves under thy bed’s head and thou shall be delivered of all evil dreams … Also make thee a box of the wood and smell to it and it shall preserve thy youth.” (2) (B)



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Folio 14v. Betony (Stachys officinalis). Antonius Musa, chief physician to the

Emperor Augustus, claimed that betony cured 47 diseases and was effective against sorcery. It was planted in graveyards to prevent activity of ghosts. An early medieval herbal states it “shields him against monstrous nocturnal visions and dreams … If a man become tired in mickle riding or in mickle goings let him take betony … seethe it in wine; drink at night fasting three cups full; then he will soon be unweary.” Bancker’s Herbal states that if Betony be “stamped and then laid on a wound in the head … it will heal the wound fair. It is good for all diseases of the head from watery eyes to tooth ache.” (2) (B)



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Folio 15r. Sow Thistles (Sonchus oleraceus). The ancient Greek name for these

plants was Sonchus. The stem contains a milky latex that is extruded if any part of the plant is cut. The plants were fed to lactating sows in the belief that their milk production would increase. The young leaves are used in salads. They have high vitamin C content and are a good source of calcium, phosphorous and iron. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia





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Folio 16r. Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) is one of the worlds oldest crops. “It was

prescribed for distended stomachs, dropsy, pains in the anal region, and as a plaster for boils and carbuncles. Applied to wounds it relieved pain, and a decoction of its roots and seeds mixed with white lead and oil of roses was used to treat erysipelas. Only when its vapors were employed to ease a headache did it come close to its modern use as a hallucinogen.” (An Illustrated History of Herbals, F. Anderson, p.94.) (B)


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Folio 17r. Swallowwort. There are several plant families to which this name has been

applied, but none of them appear to fit the plant depicted in these two illustrations. (B)


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Folio 17v. Smilex, is a genus of 300 to 350 species that grow in temperate to tropical

zones through out the world. The plant is known in China as China root and in Jamaica as sparsparilla, an ingredient of root beer. It is also used in soups and stews. The berries are an important winter food for birds and small animals and as a jelling agent for jams and jellies. The root contains sapogenins, precursors of steroidal hormones like cortisone and progesterone. Herbalists use the root to treat premenstrual syndrome and skin diseases like psoriasis that are due to a hormonal imbalance. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia




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Folio 18v. Columbine (Aquilegia alpina) is a perennial plant found at higher altitudes

in the Northern Hemisphere. Bancker’s Herbal states that it is “good for him who hath the quinsy.” Pseudo Apuleius claims that “he who hath this herb with him will not be barked at by dogs. When drunk it driveth away all poisons. When stamped and drunk with ale, will destroy all pestilence.” It is not used as a herb today. (2) (B)



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Folio 20v. Carduus thistle, (cirsium). There are a number of different species

belonging to this genus, the milk or blessed thistle, the bull thistle, the Italian thistle and the artichoke thistle, all commonly called cardoon. This folio may represent the Italian thistle, a species native to the Mediterranean. Its stems, like the folio drawing, are winged



with spines. Pliny and medieval writers thought that thistles could return hair to a bald head and until modern medicine it was used as a remedy for headaches, plague, cancer sores, vertigo and jaundice. (4) (B)

(4) Grieve, M, A Modern Herbal, Dover Publishers, New York


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Folio 23v. Borage (Borago officinalis). This herb is used to flavor soups, stews and

salads. Bancker’s Herbal states that it will “cleanse the red choler of a man and will destroy abscesses that be gathered of the black choler. Also the water drunketh with wine maketh a man glad and merry.” (2) It is grown today mainly for the oil in its seeds which is the main plant source of some polyunsaturated fatty acids like gamma linolenic acid.

(1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia




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Folio 24r. Squash. A species in the genus Cucurbita. The cucumber

is also a member of this family, so this folio may equally represent a cucumber vine. Cucumbers have been cultivated for at least 3,000 years. The Romans were very partial to the fruit and are reported to have used cucumbers to treat scorpion bites, bad eyesight, and to scare away mice. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 24v. Botris. No plant is known by this name. (B)




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Folio 26r. Wormwood (Artemesia absinthium). “The juice of the

bitter woodworm mingled with sweet mulk is good for the worms in the womb and for the worms in a man’s ears,” states Bancker’s Herbal. “When drunk with Spicknard it assuages the wicked winds of the stomach. Pounded with the gall of bull, and there after put into a man’s eyes, it putteth away all manner of impediments of the sight. It is good to comfort the heart.” (2) (B)



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Folio 26v. Horsetail (Equisetum). The plant depicted in these two

illustrations does not look much like the plant we know today as horsetail. (B)





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Folio 27r Meadow sage (Salvia pratensis). Sage, as the name

implies, caries the power of wisdom and longevity and has the reputation of restoring the memory in elderly people. Sage tea with vinegar was used during the plague. After an outbreak women were forced to drink sage juice to make them more fertile. Sage was a cure all for many complaints. (B)


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Folio 27v. Clove (Syzyglum aromaticum). Cloves are native to the

Maluku islands in Indonesia. The flower buds from this tree are used as a spice; Oil of cloves is used in some toothpastes, laxative pills and as a local anesthetic. In the 3rd century BC, a Chinese leader required visitors to chew cloves to freshen their breath. In the Middle Ages, Muslim sailors traded cloves. Ibu Battuta (1304 1368) a Moroccan explorer who visited Eastern Europe, mentions the clove trade and Sinbad the Sailor is known to have bought and sold cloves. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 28r. Plantago major was an important medical crop. A poultice

of its leaves when applied to a wound, sting or sore helped healing and prevented infection. A tea made from its leaves was used to treat diarrhea. Its leaves are rich in calcium and vitamins A, C and K. the young leaves may be eaten raw and the older ones cooked in soups and stews. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia






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Folio 28v.B Rhododendron. Some rhododendron species are

extremely toxic to grazing animals, particularly horses. The Greek soldier Xenophon, (431 to 355 BC), noted that some of his soldiers became ill after eating honey made from the nectar of rhododendron flowers. Pompey’s soldiers, in 67 BC, reportedly suffered lethal casualties from eating honey from a similar source. Rhododendrons produce a toxin that has a slightly hallucinogenic and laxative effect on humans. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 29r. Lettuce (Lactuce sativa). The Egyptians and the Romans

considered lettuce to be a symbol of sexual prowess, but the Greeks connected the plant with male impotency. When the stem of lettuce is cut a white liquid is extruded, lettuce opium, which has mild narcotic properties. Lettuce extracts are sometimes used n skin creams and for treating sun burns. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 29v. Roman coriander (Nigella sativa), is an annual plant in

the ranunculaceae family, native to Southern Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The fruit is a balloon-like capsule containing numerous seeds that are frequently referred to as black cumin and are used in Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. Muslim tradition claims that these seeds are a cure for all ailments except death. The seeds contain two toxic substances so this spice should be used in moderation. (1) (B)

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Folio 30r. Comfrey (Symphytum officinale). Contemporary herbalists question the

therapeutic value of comfrey. In the past it was used for a variety of ailments ranging from bronchial problems, broken bones, sprains, arthritis, severe burns and various skin conditions. It is reputed to build bones and teeth in children and was used to treat many female disorders. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 30v. Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis). The bay leaf is used in seasoning, particularly

Mediterranean dishes. A laurel wreath was used as a prize in Ancient Greek games. An astrological herbal claims “that if the marigold is gathered, the Sunne beynge in the sygne Leo, and wrapped in a leafe of a Laurell or baye tree and a wolves tothe be added there to, no man shall be able to have a word to speake against the bearer but woordes of peace.” (3) (B)



(3) Arber, A. Herbal


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Folio 32r. Speedwell (Veronica officinalis). The Romans discovered Veronica during

their conquest of Northern Europe and named the plant “the world medicine.” It eases digestion and helps bowel movement, increases memory, reduces verdigo and has a calming effect. It has even shown to be very helpful in the treatment of depression. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 32v. Tormentil (Tormentilla erecta). The extremely bitter rhizomatous root

produces a red dye that is used to dye leather red. The roots are used to flavor a bitter Bavarian liqueur and is the main ingredient in a medication for diarrhea. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 33v. Winter aconite (Eranthis heymalis). This is the folio the botanist Hugh

O’Neill, identified as a sunflower, dating the VM to a post Columbus date, which from the carbon dating results is incorrect. I feel confident that this folio represents the small tuberous plant, winter aconite, that is one of the first plants in alpine regions to flower in the spring. It is a member of the ranunculaceae family and all parts of the plant are poisonous. (B)



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Folio 34r. Ox-eye daisy (Callilepis laureola). This plant is native to South and East

Africa. It is a perennial herb with stems sprouting from a large, poisonous, woody tuber. The Zulu use an infusion of the tuber as a purgative and to treat tapeworm, snakebite, infertility, as a pregnancy tonic and to kill maggots in cattle. Fatalities have occurred from an overdose. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 34v. Devil’s weed (Tribulus terrestris). The fruit, leaves and root of this plant

have been used for a variety of complaints, particularly for kidney and urination problems. Today it is used to increase testosterone in men after they have completed an





anabolic steroid cycle. However, although it increases some hormones in animals, there is no evidence that this is the case in humans. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 38r. Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). The use of opium predates the

ancient Greeks. Opium is obtained when the green seed pod of the poppy is cut and the latex harvested and later dried. Morphine and its derivative heroin are the main alkaloids obtained. Apart from its effective way of relieving severe pain, opium was used for treating asthma, stomach illnesses and bad eye sight. Poppy seeds are used in baking. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia




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Folio 39r. Wallflower/gillyflower (Erysimum). Hortus Sanitatis states that “the

flowers smell like violets and the yellow ones are the best in medicine. Juice of the flowers put in the eyes takes away the wicked specks there in. Water of the distilled flowers drunk noon and night for 3 to 4 weeks doth cause women to be fruitful. It is good for all hard labor in childbirth, paralysis, dropsy and the chaps which are in the seat.” (2) (B)



Folio 40vFull Image

Folio 40v. An unknown plant. (B)






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Folio 41v. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum). In the Middle Ages coriander seeds

were used to flavor wine, preserves, soup and meat dishes. “One delectable dish was of fowl and veal and cooked with bacon in water and wine and a spice that is hight red coriander and garnished with pomegranate seeds and fried almonds. The herbalist states that “the seeds are good to do away with the fevers that come on the third day and when drunken with honey will slay worms.” (2) (B)



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Folio 42r. Wood sorrel and sorrel (Oxalis acetosella and Rumex acetosa). As their

generic names indicate, both plants taste sour due to the presence of oxalic acid. In the






past, an oxalate, sal acetosella was extracted from wood sorrel by boiling. The leaves of both plants should be eaten sparingly to avoid forming calcium oxalate stones in the kidneys. (B)


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Folio 43v. Wild oats (Avena sterilis). Oats were domesticated in Europe during the

Bronze Age. It grows in cooler climates and under wetter conditions than the other cereals like wheat, rye or barley. Oats are gluten free and are used as a cereal, and in baked goods for individuals who are gluten intolerant. Oats may be used as a malt for brewing beer. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 44r. Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum). In the Middle Ages the people

believed that the forked, parsnip-like taproot of this plant resembling a human form gave the plant magical powers. The aphrodisiac properties of the mandrake are referred to in Genesis. The Romans gave the juice from the root to patients as an anesthetic during operations. Dioscorides describes how it is “given to such as cannot sleep, or are grievously pained, and upon whom are cut or cauterized they wish to make a non feeling pain. He explains who ever eats it is non sensible for 3-4 hours.” (2) (B)



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Folio 45r. Orach (Atriplex hortensis). According to the book of Job, the leafy

vegetable was eaten by outcasts. The leaves have a salty spinach-like taste. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 46r. The identity of this plant is not known. (B)


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Folio 47v. Lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis). The botanical name Pulmonaria, is

derived from Latin for lung. The speckled, alternate, oval leaves resemble a diseased or ulcerated lung. This plant was therefore used to treat pulmonary infections including tuberculosis, asthma and coughs. It contains toxic components and should be used with care. (B)



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Folio 48v. Celandine (Chelidonium majus). Bancker’s Herbal, quoting Galen, says

that celandine is “good for sore eyes. It is good for the canker in a man’s mouth and for him that hath drunken venom. Also take selondyne (celandine) and draw out the juice thereof and meddle it with white wine and anoint the visage therewith and it shall do away with freckles of the visage.” (2) (B)



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Folio 51v. Millet (Setaria italica). Millet was one of the staple grains of Europe until

the introduction of corn and rice. It was also one of the first grains to be cultivated. Millet contains no gluten and therefore can only be used to make flat breads that do not require yeast. Its protein content is similar to wheat, it is rich in the B vitamins and a number of important minerals like iron and calcium and phosphorous. As it is gluten free it can be used for people with celiac disease. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 52r. Lovage (Levisticum officinale). Lovage leaves are used in salads and

soups. The roots taste rather like celery and may be cooked as a vegetable. The seeds resemble fennel seeds and are used as a spice. Lovage tea can be applied to wounds as an antiseptic or drunk to stimulate the digestion. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia





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Folio 53r. Herb Christopher (Actaea spicata). This plant is also known as baneberry.

It is a member of the ranunculaceae family and its black berries are extremely poisonous. These berries when mixed with alum yield a black dye. (B)


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Folio 54r. Creeping thistle (Circium arvense). This plant is also known as the cursed

thistle as it readily spreads underground from its rhizomes and is considered a noxious weed. The roots are edible but produce flatulence in some people and the leaves are too prickly to eat. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia




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Folio 54v. Sage (Salvia officinalis). Sage was an important ingredient in Medieval

cooking. Bancker’s Herbal notes that sage “soothest the nerves, quietest the shaking of the palsy, improved digestion. It is good for the venom or poison. Seethe sage in wine or ale and use to drink in three days and thou shall be made good, by the grace of God. Also if a man has an itching, wash the itching well with the juice of this herb and it shall slay the itching soon.” (2) (B)



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Folio 55r. Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis). Early herbalists considered that fumitory

was good for the eyes. It was used externally in an antiseptic and anti-inflammitory lotion for acne and exema, and also to fade freckles. Modern herbalists use it to treat skin diseases, conjunctivitis and also to cleanse the kidneys. Fumitory is poisonous and should be used with extreme care. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 57r. Lady’s Mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris). In the Middle Ages this plant was

associated with the Virgin Mary; the scalloped leaves resembling the edge of her mantle. Nicholas Culpeper claimed that lady’s mantle is “very proper for inflamed wounds and to stay bleeding, vomiting, fluxes of all sorts, bruises by falls and ruptures. … Drink a decoction thereof and wash the wound therewith. It drieth up all humidity of the sores and abateth all inflammations thereof.” (4) (B)







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Folio 65r. Larkspur / Delphinium. The main use for this herb in the Middle Ages was

to rid the head of lice. Crescentius says, “The seed made into powder and mixed with vinegar is a good salve for lice and scabs. That is why it is called lousewort. … Also the powder taken in honey kills worms.” (2) (B)



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Folio 65v. Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus). The pigment extracted from the flowers is

mixed with alum-water to create an ink. Culpepper, considered that the seeds or leaves taken in wine would ward off the plague and all infectious diseases. Cornflowers are often used to flavor some blends of tea, like Lady Grey. (1) (B)





(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 66v. Bay laurel (Laurus nobilis). Bancker’s Herbal states that bay is “good to

purge a man of phlegm and the choler. It is good for a man that may not hear, for if the juice thereof be put in his ears … it will heal it.” The Grete Herball adds that “for colic a bath made of bay leaves is good. Also against the evil color of the face … and also the manner of red things that come in young peoples faces … take new bay berries and put out the hulks and make fine powder put it in honey and anoint or bathe the face.” (2) (B)



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Folio 87r. Aloe (Aloe vera). Dioscorides mentions the bitter taste of aloes. He

describes the value of aloe juice, from the “conglutinating of wounds and loosening of the belly to procuring of sleep and preventing the hair falling off.” The Grete Herball adds that this herb is “good for worms in the belly and ears and for ill color caused of the coldness of the stomach” (2) (B)



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Folio 90r2. Chervil (Arthriscus cerefolium). The plant we know today as chervil

looks nothing like these two illustrations. (B)


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Folio 90v1. Arugula / Rocket (Eruca vesicaria). This plant is a member of the

cabbage family. The early Romans used it in a mixed salad. It is considered to be an excellent stimulant and aphrodisiac, so it was considered prudent to mix it with lettuce which has the opposite effect. In the Middle ages monasteries were forbidden to grow arugula in their gardens. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 93v. Panicum is switch grass. It does not resemble either of these two

illustrations. (B)




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Folio 94r. Moonwort or Moonfern (Botrychium lunaria). It is a small fern with fleshy

roots. Its fronds are pinnate with 3 to 8 pairs of rounded leaves and a fertile spike that is completely covered, when ripe with brown spores. Legends claim that it can raise the dead, open locks and unshoe horses that tread on it. This folio was identified by Dana Scot. (1) (B)

(1) Wikipedia





Folio 95v2. No plant today has the name Apium silvestre. Apium would imply that it

is a member of the celery family which is most unlikely. (B)


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Folio 96r. Black hellebore (Helleborus niger) is a member of the ranunculaceae

family and is therefore poisonous. In the Middle Ages people strew hellebore flowers on the floor to drive out evil influences. These same people believed that witches employed the herb in their spells and that sorcerers tossed the powdered herb in the air to make themselves invisible (1). Dioscorides describes hellebore as a purgative that is “good for ye Epileptical, Melancholicall, Frantic, Arthritical, Paralyticall.” The Grete Herball claims is will “cure gout, scruff of the head and scabies.” (2) (B)

(1) Wikipedia



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Folio 96v. Black Byrony (Tamus communis) is a species of flowering plant in the

yam family. The fleshy black root is very poisonous and should not be used to induce vomiting. It is used topically to reduce bruising, strains, and the pain of gout and arthritis by stimulating the nerve endings of the skin with needle–like crystals (1). Black byrony is a dangerous irritant poison. It is a powerful diuretic and was once used as a remedy for gravel. An overdose would result in a painful death. (4) (B)

(1) Wikipedia



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Folio 3v. Dungwort / Bear’s foot (Helleborus foetidus) is a small, herbaceous shrub

native to Western Europe. It has a thick, succulent stem; palmate compound leaves; drooping green, cup-shaped flowers; and short rhizomes for roots. All parts of the plant are poisonous. The leaves emit a bad smell when crushed. (C)

(C) Plants drawn from nature





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Folio 4v. European bellflower (Campanula). This genus contains over 500 species

distributed across temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. One species, rampion, is grown for its spinach-like leaves and radish-like roots. There is an Italian tradition that the possession of a rampion excites quarrels among children. The story of Rapunzel is related to the theft of rampions from a magician’s garden. (C)


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Folio 5r. Wolf's bane (Arnica montana) is a European flowering plant with large,

yellow, daisy-like flowers. Tincture of Arnica has been used for external application to sprains, bruises, and wounds, and on chilblains when the skin is unbroken. Repeated applications may produce severe inflammation. Due to its toxic properties it is seldom used internally. (C)





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Folio 7r. Bog stichwort / bog chickweed (Stellaria alsine). Some species of stellaria

can be used as a leaf vegetable, often in salads. (C)


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Folio 8r. Green Pea (Pisum sativum) is an annual Eurasian vine of

the legume family that is grown for its protein-rich seeds. Cultivation of pea plants spread from the Middle East into Europe during Neolithic times. Mendel used green pea plants to establish his laws of inheritance and formulated the basic principles of modern genetics. (C)




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Folio 9r. Ragweed (Ambrosia). The ancient Greeks considered that

ragweed was food for the gods of Mount Olympus, hence the name Ambrosia. This weed is very difficult to eradicate and its pollen is a major cause of hay fever. (C)


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Folio 9v. Heartsease / Wild Pansy (Viola tricolor). Heartsease has a

long history of use as a herbal. It has been recommended for epilepsy, asthma, bronchial disorders and as a diuretic. As the name heartsease




implies it was used as a love potion. Orphelia’s much quoted line from Hamlet: “There’s pansies for thoughts.” Shakespeare was referring to V, tricolor, and not a modern pansy. (1) (C)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 10v. Twinflower (Linnaea borealis), is small alpine plant with a

slender stems with opposite, evergreen oval leaves (plant 10v has very long leaves). The flowers are paired, pendulous, and pale pink with a five-lobed corolla. This was the favorite flower of Linnaeus. It was named after him and he took the flower as his personal symbol when he was raised to the Swedish nobility in 1757. (C)



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Folio 11v. Rhodiola rosea. This is an alpine plant like many others in

this section. The Russians and Scandinavians have used this plant for centuries to cope with the cold Siberian climate and stressful life. It may be effective for improving mood and alleviating depression. (1) (C)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 13r. Banana (Musa). Linnaeus may have given the banana the

botanical name Musa, after Antonius Musa, botanist and physician to the Roman Emperor Augusta, (c. 23 BC). Musa’s brother was Euphorbus, physician to King Juba II of Numidia, (ancient Libya), the




plant Euphorbia was names after him. Pliny the elder noted that the people of India ate bananas. Arab traders introduced bananas into West Africa and Portuguese sailors started banana plantations in the Canary lslands. (1) (C)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 13v. Honeysuckles / Woodbines (Lonicera periclymenum), The

small Italian honeysuckle of Mid and Southern Europe is used as a skin tonic, and the seeds as a diuretic. Dioscorides wrote that a syrup made from the flowers is “good to be drunk against diseases of the lungs and spleen.” (1) (C)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 16v. Chrysanthemum. This plant was first cultivated in China

in the 15th century BC. The flowers were adopted by the 8th century AD Japanese Emperor for his official seal. The blue flower may be a stylized drawing of an Indian dendranthema. The small yellow or white variety of chrysanthemum is used to brew a sweet tea. The petals are used to thicken a snake meat soup. The seeds from pyrethrum, a species of chrysanthemum, provides a useful insecticide against all insects. (1) (C)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 18r. Alpine daisy, Italian aster (Aster amellus). The name is

derived from the Greek word meaning star. (C)





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Folio 19r. Greek valerian (Polemonium caeruleum). Greek valerian

is found in woodlands, meadows and rocky areas in temperate regions of Europe. It was first used as a medicinal herb in ancient Greece. The root was used to treat dysentery, toothaches and animal bites. In the 10th century it was used as an antiseptic and to treat rabies. (1) (C)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 19v. Nailwort (Draba nivalis), is a tiny European plant that

grows in early spring. The leaves are clustered in whorls around the




plant base and the 1-2 inch long stem ends in white flowers with deeply notched petals. The plant may have been used medicinally for inflammations of the fingernails. (C)


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Folio 21v. Burning bush, False Dittany (Dictamnus albus), is a

native of southern Europe. During the summer, the whole plant is covered with a gluey volatile substance, which may cause the plant, in very hot weather, to ignite spontaneously. Hence the name burning bush. The plant is inedible and the leaves taste very bitter. The root was once used as a remedy for epilepsy and diseases of the head, to help resist poison and for cases of hysteria. (1) (C)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 22r. Common Vervain or Holy Herb (Verbena officinalis), unlike

most verbenas, is a perennial herb, native to Europe. The name holy herb may be due to the legend that it was found on the Mount of Calvary, where it was used to staunch the wounds of the crucified Savior. Medieval herbalists considered that “it was good for the stomach, liver and lungs and was applied to bites from venomous animals. It was also considered to have magical properties: “If one goes to battle, let him seek the vervain and keep it in his clothing and he will escape from his enemies.” (2) (C)



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Folio 22v. Tulips, are native to southern Europe, North Africa, and

Asia. They are indigenous to mountainous areas with temperate climates and need a period of cool dormancy. They thrive in climates with long cool springs and dry summers. The variegated tulip, like the one shown in the VM folio, is the result of a viral infection. The virus weakens the plants so variegated tulips have been nearly eradicated. (C)




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Folio 23r. Pasque flower (Pulsatilla vulgaris), is found in short

clumps in the meadows of Eurasia that have cold winters and mild summers. It is one of the first flowers to bloom in the spring, hence the name Pasque meaning Easter (Passover). As a member of the Ranunculaceae family, the plant is very toxic, producing cardiogenic toxins and oxytoxins which slow the heart in humans. The flower is useful to treat eye diseases such as cataracts. (C)


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Folio 25v. Woad (Isatis tinctoria). Woad has been cultivated

throughout Europe since ancient times and was the only available source for blue dye until the end of the sixteenth century. In Medieval times, Tuscany Italy was one of the centers for the cultivation of woad.



It was used to dye textiles. The presence of a dragon on this folio may indicate that woad could be used in treating dragon bites. (C)


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Folio 33r. Gentiana verna. This is one of the most common species

of gentian found in alpine regions of central and southeastern Europe. A number of superstitions are associated with this spring-flowering gentian. It is considered bad luck to bring this flower into the house; the individual would run the risk of being struck by lightening. Folk law suggests that death would follow if the flower was picked. (1) (C)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 37r. Foxglove (Digitalis purpura). The foxglove had been used

for centuries, mainly as a diuretic. William Withering (1741-1799), a British physician, observed the value of a complex herbal recipe for the treatment of dropsy (cardiac edema). His investigations showed that the active ingredient was the dried leaves of the foxglove. He determined a safe dosage for this drug, which remains in use today. (Notes from the John Martin Rare Book Room, University of Iowa) (C)


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Folio 38v. Stonecrops (Sedum anacampseros). This is an alpine

species of stonecrop. Its succulent leaf is occasionally used as a salad leaf or herb in Europe. The ancient Greeks used it to treat epilepsy, skin diseases and to induce abortions. (1) (C)

(1) Wikipedia






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Folio 39v. Ragwort (Senecio vulgaris). The debate on how to control

this noxious, unpleasant-smelling weed goes back as far as the 1st century. It contains many different alkaloids making it poisonous to animals and humans alike. (C)


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Folio 40r. Primula minima is a small primrose that grows in large mats in the

mountainous habitats in the Dolomites in Italy. This is another alpine plant. (C)




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Folio 42v. Columbine (Aqulegia vulgaris). This is a different species of columbine.

Unlike aqulegia alpina (Folio 18v), this species does not have palmate-shaped leaves. (C)


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Folio 43r. Alpine balsum (Erinus alpinus) is a small perennial evergreen with rose-

pink flowers native to the alpine regions of southern and central Europe. (C)




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Folio 45v. Lavender (Lavendula officinulis). Lavender was a treasured herb in the

Middle Ages, it was used to “perfume the clothes of the rich and was strewn in the chests to keep away the insects. If the head is sprinkled with lavender water it will make that person chaste for as long as he keeps it on him. For the headache,” Hortus Sanitatis recommends to “take the flowers of lavandula stoeches and put them in a little bag along with bay and betony, red roses and marjoram, clove, pinks and nutmeg blossom. … If this little bag is put on the head it will soothe all pain. Lavender also had strange unspeakable virtue against apoplexy, palsy and loss of speech.” (2) (C)



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Folio 46v. Ploughman’s Spikenard / Great Fleabane (Inula conyza), is native to

Europe, Asia, and Africa. The name Inula dates back to the Romans. This is a tall, rather plain plant, with a biennial root, oval leaves resembling those of a foxglove, and clusters of rayless, dull, yellow flowers. A decoction of Ploughman’s Spikenard was frequently used for bruises, ruptures, and internal wounds; the juice from the plant was used to soothe itchy skin. The leaves were burnt as an insecticide to destroy fleas. (C)


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Folio 48r. False hellebore (Adonis vernalis) is found in the drier regions of southern

Europe. The plant is poisonous, containing compounds similar to those in digitalis for stimulating the heart, but its action is stronger and is said not to be cumulative. (C)


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Folio 49r, Blue Nile Lotus (Nymphaea caerulea). This water lily is the sacred flower

of ancient Egypt. The blue flowers rise and open above the surface of the water in the morning and in the evenings close and sink again. The ancient Egyptians equated this behavior with that of their sun god Isis. According to the Odyssey, the Lotus Eaters were a happy, indolent people as a result of eating the blue Nile lotus for its soporific and psychedelic effects. When Odysseus landed among them, some of his men ate their food. They forgot their friends and home and had to be dragged back to the ships. (C)


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Folio 50r. Masterwort (Astrantia major), is a native of the eastern Mediterranean and

West Asia. According to the 17th century English physician and herbalist, Culpepper, its black woody rhizome is hotter than pepper, and useful for treating colds and diseases of the stomach. (C)


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Folio 50v. Soldanella pulsitilla. The genus Soldanella, commonly known as

snowbell, includes about 15 species that grow in woods and damp pastures in the Pyrennes, Apennine Mountains and the Alps (1). It is one of the herbs in Jacob Meydenbach’s Ortus Sanitatis. (C)

(1) Wikipedia


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Folio 51r. European Searocket (Cakile maritima) is a member of the mustard family.

It is widespread in Europe, especially on coastlines where it grows in clumps on the sand dunes. The young plant may be cooked or used in salads. (C)


Folio 56rFull Image




Folio 56r. Round leaf sundew (Drosera rotundifolia) is a carnivorous plant, native to

all continents. These plants capture and digest insects using stalked mucilaginous glands that cover their leaf surface. Their leaves are arranged in a rosette, generally flat on the ground. The white flower spike (outlined in blue) is well above the leaves so bees are not trapped. Sundews were used as medicinal herbs as early as the 12th century, when an Italian doctor, Matthaeus Platearius, described the plant as an herbal remedy for coughs under the name "herba sole" This folio was identified by Denis Barthel. (1) (C)

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Folio 56vFull Image

Folio 56v, C Sago Palm (Cycas revoluta) is native to the Old World tropics.

However, fossils of this palm have been found on almost every continent on the planet. It is an ancient plant that is either male or female. Folio 56v represents a male sago palm with a dying cone. This palm is very slow growing and the trunk can branch multiple times, thus producing multiple heads of leaves. China is reputed to have a 1,000-year-old sago palm. (C)




Folio 87vrightFull Image

Folio 87vright. Lousewort (Pedicularis flammea). This plant grows mainly in cool or

temperate climates of the Northern Hemisphere. Linnaeus gave the plant the Latin word for louse as its generic name, due to the belief in medieval times that livestock grazing on the plant got infected with lice, which they passed on to humans. Culpepper believed that “lousewort is accounted profitable to heal fistalas and hollow ulcers and to stay the flux of humours in them as also the abundance of courses and any other fluxes of blood being boiled in port wine and drunk.” (4) (C)






Folio 90v2. Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare). In medieval times, the young leaves of

tansy, mixed with eggs, was known as a tansy. It was a favorite dish to celebrate the end of Lent and was supposed to purify the body of bad humours after a long diet of salt fish. It is one of several herbs in a 14th century prescription cure for the plague. (2) (C)



Folio 93rFull Image

Folio 93r. Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus). Artichokes were cultivated by the Greeks

and Romans over two thousand years ago. The blue thistle flowers dry out as they age. The erect stalk has alternate thistle-like leaves. The green paint used to paint the leaves of this VM drawing may have covered up the serrated edges of the leaves. The bud, is the part of the artichoke eaten. It aids digestion, hepatic and gallbladder function and raises the HDL/LDL ratio. (1) (C)

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Folio 94vFull Image

Folio 94v. Rose campion (Lychnis coronaria). This drawing could equally well

represent lychnis alpina which, because of its sticky stems, is known as alpine catchfly. (C)



Folio 95r1. Alpine Bayberry (Arctostaphylos alpina). This procumbent shrub is

limited in southern Europe to the Pyrenees and the Alps. The fruit, a favorite of bears, is edible and the leaves are used in folk medicine. (1) (C)

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Folio 95v1. Hollyhock (Alcea) is a member of the mallow family that was imported

into Europe from China. It is a biennial often found growing in clumps. The roots are thick (tuberous), long, and tapering; the leaves are broad and palmate; and the purple, red, pink, or yellow flowers are used to make dyes. They may also be in ingredient in skin moisturizers. (C)



Folio 95r2. Ribwort (Plantago lanceolata) is a perennial European herb with long

lance-shaped basal leaves that have 3-5 strong parallel veins. The flower stalks are often more than 2 feet long, terminating in blunt cylindrical spikes. During mediaeval times children used these flower spikes to play a game called kemps. The game involved striking one stalk head against another until one stalk broke. Kemps (cempa) was the Anglo-Saxon word for soldier. Ribwort is used in tisanes that is an effective cough remedy. (1) (C)





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The Voynich Botanical Plants 2.0