THE WESTERN AREA ALGONKIANS K.C.A. Dawson Lakehead

30

THE WESTERN AREA ALGONKIANS

K.C.A. Dawson

Lakehead University

Resume. La decouverte, sur un vaste territoire, de depots de ceramique

Blackduck, d'abord definie au Minnesota, coincide avec la presence de

populations de langue algonquine de l'Ouest connues a l'epoque historique,

et peut etre identifiee a une culture algonquine qui semble s'etre developpee

a partir d'une ancienne base commune etablie entre le lac Winnipeg et la

vallee du haut Saint-Laurent.

Originally published as part of: 6th Algonquian Conference Papers (1974)

31

The Western Area Algonkians are one of a number of regional populations

who occupied the Northern Algonkian Sub-Arctic region during the Terminal

Woodland period (ca. 500 A.D. to the Historic period). They lived between

Lake Superior, west of Lake Nipigon and the height of the land and west to

about the headwaters of the Mississippi River and north to Lake Winnipeg.

The impossible task of assigning tribal names to the innumerable groups

and bands of Algonkian-speakers who are mentioned in the historic records

as residing around the Upper Great Lakes has been circumvented by describing

the late prehistoric developments indicated by archaeological recoveries in

Ontario, under the language designation, Algonkian (Wright 1965:189). Three

distinct areas of development in Ontario were initially recognized by Wright

(1972); Eastern, Northern and Western. They embrace a similar lithic

tradition but a divergence of ceramic traditions.

The Eastern Area is characterized by Huron-Petun ceramics produced by

the Algonkian-speaking Nipissings and other Algonkian groups from the Lake

Nipissing-Georgian Bay area (Wright 1968a). Ontario sites at the eastern

end of Lake Superior with Peninsular Woodland, Stamped, Push-pull and

Twisted Cord traditions out of Northern Michigan and Wisconsin have been

placed under this grouping by Wright. The Peninsular Woodland Tradition

is identified as a product of the Algonkian-speaking Fox and Sauk (Wittry

1963; Quimby 1966). The Stamped and Push-pull traditions occur in those

areas of Michigan populated in the Terminal Woodland period by many

Algonkian-speakers such as the Pottawatomi, Ottawa, Mascouten, Menomini,

Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, Chippewa and Miami (Fitting 1965:149-150). The

Twisted-cord tradition occurs in the northern part of the same area at

the Straits of Mackinac (MacPherron 1967). I have classed these mixed


32

ce ramie sites separately under Southern Area Algonkian. The Northern Area

is characterized by Selkirk ceramics which MacNeish, Wright and others

consider to be a product of the Algonkian-speaking Cree (MacNeish 1958:67;

Wright 1968b). The Western Area is characterized by Blackduck ceramics

which are considered to be the product of Ojibwa and associated groups.

This pottery is characterized by globular, cord, fabric or net exterior

surface vessels with splayed lips and cord-wrapped object impressed

decorations with deep super-imposed encircling punctate and vertical

brushing.

Some archaeologists have assigned the makers of this pottery in Minnesota,

Manitoba and Ontario to the Stone Sioux or Assiniboine (Wilford 1955;

MacNeish 1958; Hlady 1964). As this approach has become an integral part

of archaeological interpretations in these regions, the fragile basis for

this assignment must be dispensed with before proceeding.

Wilford, who first defined the Blackduck Tradition in Minnesota, simply

believed that the makers were late in time and therefore it should be

possible to identify the group historically (1945:328-329). Since the

tradition of the Sioux have it that there was a late movement of Yanktonai

Dakota from the headwaters of the Mississippi River to the Lake of the

Woods and that this, in part, coincided with Blackduck ceramic recoveries,

he suggested that those people must be the carriers. In support of this

view, he pointed to some similarities of pottery with the Dakota, Mille

Lac aspect. Evans has shown that the traits shared with the non-Siouian,

Laurel ceramic tradition far exceed those held in common with the suggested

Dakota grouping (1961:147). Not only is the assignment unsupported by trait

affinities, it does not account for the time depth or the wide distribution


33

of the pottery.

MacNeish also proposed Siouian origins for the carriers of the Blackduck

Tradition in Manitoba (1954:49; 1958:64). Both he and Wilford attempt to

support the position on the basis of Alexander Henry the elder's description

in 1776 of burial practices which are not unlike burials associated with

Blackduck pottery. The historical references cited do not specifically

refer to Assiniboine practices. In fact, Henry says in reference to the

passage, "Though inserted here they have no exclusive relation to the

Osinipoilles" (Bain 1901:306). Further, it is significant that the only

Indian word used in the description is the Algonquin word "totem" (Evans

1961:149).

MacNeish also attempts to support the claim on the basis of surface

recoveries of Blackduck ceramics from a location on the banks of the

Assiniboine River near a fort built by La Verendrye for the Assiniboine

(1954:49) and the presence of an assumed European copper hair pipe at the

Stott Mound. Such vague and tenuous observations simply do not support

the conclusions.

MacNeish after predicating the position on historic references then in

an obtruse approach, based on the stratigraphic provenience of recoveries

in southeastern Manitoba and Lowie's conclusions, based on linguistic

evidence that the separation of the Sioux could not have been recent,

considers the manifestation to be prehistoric Assiniboine, circa 1000 A.D.

to 1350 A.D. (1958:55-59). While subsequent recoveries support the early

presence of Blackduck manifestations in Manitoba and northwestern Ontario,

they also indicate the continuing presence of the occupation until historic

times (Mayer-Oakes 1970; Dawson 1974) contrary to MacNeish's view which


34

time

site at Whi

sm « . c , ^ 0 £ * — «*• — — " a l a t " C r M

occupation. 1aari„ indicate a substantial

Radiocarbon dates from Blackduck sxtes clearly •- „H1 historic times. From the Martin-Bird

depth and a continuxty until historic itefish Lake, west of Thunder Bay, for example, radiocarbon dates

rg;;rom480A.,tol775A.,(1470±115,480A.D.S772: 660,70,1290

AD S775: 175±40, 1775 A.D. S774). This site has European trade goods

as do a number of sites on Lake Nipigon. In Manitoba at the Lord site on

the Red River, a radiocarbon date of 780 A.D. (1170*0. 780 A.D. S652)

attests to the early presence of the Western Area Algonkian in that area

and trade goods from sites also attest to their continuing presence to

historic times. In Minnesota recoveries indicate a similar disposition.

Notwithstanding MacNeish's proposed Assiniboine identification of the

producers of Blackduck pottery, he goes on to suggest evidence for a

sequence of ceramic development in Manitoba (1958:158-159). In Evans-

examination of the same wares in Minnesota, he suggests an in situ

development out of the Laurel ceramic tradition in Minnesota (1961:130-142)

and the same sequence is recognized in northwestern Ontario (Dawson 1974:24).

The Blackduck ceramic tradition, which marks the presence of the Western

Area Algonkian, appears to have developed out of the Laurel ceramic

tradition, in the area between Lake Nipigon and Lake Winnipeg, in northwestern

Ontario, northern Minnesota and southeastern Manitoba. This area was

historically occupied by Algonkian peoples with various different regional

names, albeit with intrusions of Sioux in the western periphery of the

region in late historic time, but an explanation resting on a late exodus

of Sioux from the upper Mississippi does not account for the long prehistoric


35

time depth, whereas, an explanation resting on the early carriers of the

Algonkian culture such as the Cheyenne does. These carriers of the

Algonkian culture were in the region in proto historic times prior to

moving out onto the plains (Grinnell 1962). Following in this established

western movement, other Algonkian-speakers, such as, Ojibwa are recorded

moving into the region in historic times. Archaeological recoveries are

suggestive of this pattern of movement as are linguistic studies bearing

on the home of proto-Algonkian peoples (Siebert 1967).

The high mobility of the Algonkian-speaking peoples is amply attested

to in the historic records and cannot be explained simply in terms of

dislocation resulting from European encroachment. Champlain wrote in 1615

that the Ottawa went in bands to trade more than four or five hundred

leagues (Kinietz 1940:245). Taking the French league at 2.5 miles this

represents a distance of 1000 to 1250 miles. Alexander Henry the senior

wrote in 1761 of a small encampment of Indians called Makegons at the

mouth of the du Moine River about fifteen miles below Portages de Deux

Joachins on the Ottawa River (Bain 1901:25-26). This division of Musekey

of Swamp Cree lived north and northwest of Lake of the Woods, a distance

of well over 1000 miles. Umfreville in 1784 met a family of Indians in

two canoes on the west shore of Lake Nipigon who recognized him from Fort

Severn on Hudson Bay (Douglas 1929:15). This is a distance of some 450

to 500 miles. Father Claude Allouez visited the Nipissings (Nipisierinii)

in 1667 at Lake Nipigon where they fled from their homeland on the shores

of Lake Nipissing in 1650 (Thawaites 1896-1901). This is a distance of

450 to 500 miles.

The Blackduck ceramic tradition occurs across the Laurentian Upland from


36

Quebec to Saskatchewan. Sites date from as early as 500 A.D. to as late

as the Fur Trade. The remarkable uniformity in the pottery over such a

vast area and through such a long time span is unusual but also unusual

is the fact that it is seldom recovered except in association with other

ceramic traditions.

For example, at the Blackduck type site, the McCluskey site at Whitefish

Lake, west of Thunder Bay, 6.7% of the analyzable rims are non-Blackduck

rims; 2.8% are Laurel and 3.9% are Algonkian ceramics representing northern

eastern and southern affinities. Ceramics other than Blackduck from

nineteen Blackduck sites examined in northwestern Ontario and eastern

Manitoba range from 3.9% to 47.3%. The percentage of non-Blackduck ceramics

increases roughly proportional to the distance away from the 'heartland'.

They are characterized by ceramics typical of the Algonkian-speakers of

the geographic region.

From twenty-five sites with ceramic components on Lake Nipigon fourteen

had an Initial Woodland period component characterized by Laurel ceramics

with pseudo-scallop shell, dragged and dentate stamped decorations on

conoidal smooth surface vessels. Eight of the sites had Laurel ceramics

exclusively, the others also had Terminal Woodland period ceramics

represented by various Algonkian traditions.

The marked southern Michigan-Wisconsin influences noted by Wright at

the eastern end of Lake Superior clearly extend to Lake Nipigon for six

sites had Laurel and Peninsular Woodland ceramics, a sequence not unlike

those recorded in Michigan and Wisconsin (Fitting 1965; Mason 1966-

MacPherron 1967). Five 0f the sites had other ceramics, three had

Blackduck ceramics, one had Stamped, Huron-Petun and Selkirk ceramics and


37

one had Stamped and Push-pull ceramics. The latter site also had at least

one Mississippi ceramic vessel. Such ceramics are not part of the Algonkian

tradition but considering the presence of Winnebego Sioux in historic times

at the southern end of Lake Michigan and the Algonkian peoples' pattern of

acquiring females its occurrence is not surprising.

Three sites had Laurel and Blackduck ceramics, one of which also had

Selkirk ceramics. Five sites had Blackduck ceramics, one in association

with Peninsular Woodland ceramics and one with Selkirk ceramics. Two

sites had Selkirk ceramics only, and one had Huron-Petun ceramics only.

With eleven of the seventeen Terminal Woodland components having

Blackduck ceramics the area is clearly dominated by the Western Area

Algonkians, but early in the prehistory it is evident that Southern Area

Algonkian manifestations, represented by several Michigan ceramic traditions,

are in the region. Northern Area Algonkian representation is also clearly

present with Eastern Area Algonkian being marginal. The pattern suggests

considerable area stability but with constant and continuous interaction.

Further, there appears to be two or more related sequences reflecting

differing areas of influence.

Looking to the south and southeast from whence the predominant influences

appear to originate we see at the Juntunen site in the Straits of Mackinac

the florescence of Blackduck pottery in association with Mackinac ceramics

which, except for an out-rolled lip and twisted cord impressions, are

genetically related to Blackduck ceramics. This ware occurs at the eastern

end of Lake Superior at the Pic site although at the time of anlaysis it

was lumped with Blackduck (Wright 1966). It is related to Heins Creek

Wares, Madison Cord Impressed and Wayne Cord-marked of the Michigan Younge


38

Tradition from which many of the ceramic traditions recorded in Northwestern

Ontario have their origin.

Other wares from the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin which developed out of

the earlier Initial Woodland North Bay wares, appear to be identical to

some of the variants of Blackduck ware, e.g. Heins Creek Corded Stamped.

The Heins site is dated at 720 A.D. (12301150 B.P.) (Mason 1966:28). Some

of the ware is considered by Mason to be comparable to Leland cord-marked

from southwestern Wisconsin which Wittry (1963:256) considers to be a

variant of Illinois Weaver ware. Mason considers Heins Creek Corded Stamped

and Heins Creek Cord-wrapped to be identical to Levsen Stamped of Iowa.

These latter ceramics occur on the territory which was occupied by the

Algonkian-speaking Illinois and Miami.

The Algonkian culture appears to have developed out of an early widely

dispersed common base such as North Bay, Laurel and Point Peninsular II,

a base which extends from Lake Winnipeg to the upper St. Lawrence river

valley in the ecologically similar Lake Forest, biotic province. Mason

has called this the Northern Tier Middle Woodland Tradition (1967:338).

Across this vast area the development of Terminal Woodland out of an

earlier Woodland base is everywhere in evidence.

Ritchie has observed a similar situation in New York State where cord-

wrapped stick decorated pottery was produced and shared by various groups

whose linguistic affinities included Algonkians but whose tribal

seems largely to have been a very late prehistoric phenomenon (1965:289).

Here he is referring to the Algonkian-speaking Delaware or Munsee. A

cursory examination of published He*,- -Polished literature on cord-wrapped stick decorated

pottery in the east suggests th^r- -i . . nggests their inclusion may belong more appropriately


39

in an Algonkian sequence rather than the Iroquois sequence.

Archaeologists have observed the overriding genetic similarities in

corded pottery of one sort or another which extends from the Atlantic

slope to the plains in traditional Algonkian country (Ritchie 1944:326;

Byers 1961:47-48; MacPherron 1967:276-278). In the Woodland period

parallel development is everywhere in evidence with increasing regional-

ization in the Terminal Woodland period. Sites with such pottery

sequences, it is suggested, are a product of a single ethnic group which

in the late prehistoric times appear as independent bands of Algonkian-

speaking peoples. In northwestern Ontario and adjacent territories the

Western Area Algonkians in historic times are known by the generic term

Ojibwa and identified by the presence of Blackduck tradition ceramics on

archaeological sites.


40

References Cited

Bain, J., Editor, 1901. "Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories Between the Years 1760 and 1776 by Alexander Henry", First Hurtig edition, 1969, Edmonton, Alberta.

Byers, D.S., 1961. "Second Comment on William A. Ritchie's 'Iroquois Archaeology and Settlement Patterns' In Sympsoium on Cherokee and Iroquois Culture", Fenton and Gulick editors, Bureau of American Ethnology Bull. 180, Washington, D.C.

Dawson, K.C.A., 1974 (in press). "The McCluskey Site, A Terminal Woodland Period Blackduck Tradition Manifestation in the District of Thunder Bay, Northwestern Ontario", National Museum of Man, Mercury Series, Ottawa, Ontario.

Douglas, R., Editor, 1929. "Nipigon to Winnipeg, A Canoe Voyage Through Western Ontario", by Edward Umfreville in 1784, Ottawa, Ontario.

Evans, C.E., 1961. "A Reappraisal of the Blackduck Focus or Headwaters Lake Aspect", unpublished M.A. Thesis, Dept. of Anthropology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Fitting, J.E., 1965. "Late Woodland Cultures of Southeastern Michigan", Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 24, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Grinnell, G.V., 1962. "The Cheyenne Indians, Their History and Ways of Life", Vol. 1, Cooper Square Publishers, New York.

Hlady W.M., 1964. "Indian Migrations in Manitoba and the West", Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba, Series III, No. 17, 18, Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Kinietz, W.V., 1940. "The Indians of The Western Great Lakes, 1615-1760", University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

^ManUoba'R!;"'' "'^î â^108^1 êstigation in the Grand Rapids Manitoba Reservoir, 1961-1962", Occasional Papers, Department of Anthropology, University of Manitoba, No. 3, Winnipeg! Manitoba.

^^tioAal'Mêuf4; C^ ^S" "^ "* Vill*8e' **« *^d°«> M-itoba"> Natxonal Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 132, 20-65, Ottawa, Ontario.

MaCM:nit;baR"S-Nation8;i M^ ^f^™ "° the Archaeology of Southeastern , Natxonal Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 159, Ottawa, Ontario.

MacPherron A 1QA7 "TU T of the Upper Great. Lakes Area""? 1?° f ^ L a " W ° ° d l a n d ^history Anthropology, £ £ £ £ " ^ « *?"!'>."""? f

y UJ- nxcnigan, No. 30, Ann Arbor, Michigan.


41

Mason, R.J., 1966. "Two Stratified Sites on the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin", Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, No. 26, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Mason, R.J., 1967. "The North Bay Component at the Porte Des Morts Site, Don County, Wisconsin", The Wisconsin Archaeologist, Vol. 48, No. 4, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Quimby, G.I., 1966. "The Dumaw Creek Site, A Seventeenth Century Prehistoric Indian Village and Cemetary in Oceana County, Michigan", Fieldiana: Anthropology, Vol. 56, No. 1, Chicago, Illinois.

Ritchie, W.A., 1944. "The Pre-Iroquoian Occupations of New York State", Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences, Memoir No. 1, Rochester, New York.

Ritchie, W.A., 1965. "The Archaeology of New York State", New York, New York.

Siebert, F.T., 1967. "The Original Home of the Proto-Algonquian People", National Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 214, 13-47, Ottawa, Ontario.

Thawaites, R.G., Editor, 1896-1901. "Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents", Cleveland, Ohio.

Wilford, L.A., 1945. "The Prehistoric Indians of Minnesota: The Headwaters Aspect", Minnesota History, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minnesota.

Wilford, L.A., 1955. "A Revised Classification of the Prehistoric Cultures of Minnesota", American Antiquity, Vol. 21, No. 2, Salt Lake City, Utah.

Wittry, W.L., 1963. "The Ball Site", The Wisconsin Archaeologist, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1-57, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Wright, J.V., 1965. "A Regional Examination of Ojibwa Culture History", Anthropologica, Vol. VII, No. 2, 189-227, Ottawa, Ontario.

Wright, J.V., 1966. "The Pic River Site", National Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 210, Ottawa, Ontario.

Wright, J.V., 1968a. "The Michipocoten Site, Ontario", National Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 224, 1-85, Ottawa, Ontario.

Wright, J.V., 1968b. "Cree Culture History of the Southern Indian Lake Region", National Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 232, Ottawa, Ontario.

Wright, J.V., 1972. "Ontario Prehistory: An Eleven Thousand Year Archaeological Outline", National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.
