the Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern european History · 2016-08-12 · the whole of continental Europe, as well as relevant aspects of the British experience. Lively and authoritative,

Modern european

History

the Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of

Since 1789

Nicholas atkiNMichael Biddiss

FraNk tallett

the Wiley-Blackw

ell Dictionary of

Mo

dern eu

ropean

Histo

ry Sin

ce 1789

The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 is an authoritative and highly accessible reference guide to the major people, events, and issues that have shaped Europe’s development from the time of the French Revolution to the opening of the twenty-first century. This comprehensive volume features almost 1,000 encyclopedic entries, written in collaboration by a trio of distinguished historians. The authors move well beyond basic definitions and descriptions to provide readers with a richer analytical understanding of the wider significance of historical events as they unfolded over the course of two centuries. Associated links and connections are revealed through an extensive series of cross-references. A sequence of maps charting the evolution of modern European states offers further clarity. The work covers the whole of continental Europe, as well as relevant aspects of the British experience.

Lively and authoritative, The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 is an indispensable reference guide to the broad sweep of historical events and experiences that have shaped the Europe we see today.

Nicholas Atkin was Professor of History and Head of the School of Humanities at the University of Reading and the author or editor of several books on European issues. At the time of his death in 2009, he had just published Themes in Modern European History, 1890–1945, co-edited with Michael Biddiss.

Michael Biddiss is Emeritus Professor of History at the University of Reading, and a former President of the Historical Association. He is the author, co-author, or co-editor of numerous books and articles on modern Europe.

Frank Tallett is Head of the School of Humanities at the University of Reading, and Co-Director of its Centre for the Advanced Study of French History. A Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, he is also the author or co-author of several books, including Priests, Prelates and People: A History of European Catholicism from 1750 to the Present (2003).

Jacket image: French School, The Taking of the Bastille, 14 July 1789 (18th century).Château de Versailles/ Giraudon/ The Bridgeman Art Library

Jacket design by Simon Levy Associates

Also available from Wiley-Blackwell

atkiN,Biddiss, tallett

The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of

MODERNEUROPEAN

HISTORYSINCE 1789

The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of

MODERNEUROPEAN

HISTORYSINCE 1789

NICHOLAS ATKINMICHAEL BIDDISSFRANK TALLETT

This edition first published 2011� 2011 Nicholas Atkin, Michael Biddiss, Frank Tallett

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by JohnWiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program hasbeen merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

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Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brandnames and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registeredtrademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associatedwith any product or vendormentioned inthis book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to thesubject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in renderingprofessional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competentprofessional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Atkin, Nicholas James, 1960- , author.The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 / Nicholas Atkin,

Michael Biddiss, and Frank Tallett.p. cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4051-8922-4 (hardback)1. Europe–History–1789-1900–Encyclopedias. 2. Europe–History–20th century–Encyclopedias. 3. History, Modern–Encyclopedias. I. Biddiss, Michael D.(Michael Denis), 1942- , author. II. Tallett, Frank, author. III. Title.D299.A84 2011940.203–dc22

2010044399

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 9.5/11.5pt Minion by Thomson Digital, Noida, IndiaPrinted in

1 2011

www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell

Dedicated by his Co-Authors

To the Memory of

NICHOLAS ATKIN

(1960–2009)

Contents

Preface ix

Summary Listing of Entries and Principal Cross-Headings xi

Maps xxv

The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 A–Z 1–473

vii

Preface

Although this work has three authors, the respon-sibility for composing its Preface falls sadly to twoof us alone. Our friend and colleague NicholasAtkin died in October 2009, during the very finalstages of the writing, at the tragically early age of49.We have therefore dedicated the Dictionary tohismemory, as a token of our deep admiration fora collaborator possessed of so many intellectualand personal qualities.The book stems from the many years of expe-

rience shared by all three of us while teaching andresearching in the field of European history at theUniversity of Reading. It sets out to provide asubstantial work of reference that encompassesthe whole period from the late eighteenth centurythrough to the opening years of the twenty-first.Within it we have aimed to do justice to theeastern as well as western parts of the maincontinental landmass, as well as to certain aspectsof the particular British experience that are inte-gral to an understanding of Europe in its mostinclusive sense. Spread across nearly a thousandentries supported by a sequence of maps, theencyclopaedic subject matter of this Dictionarycovers personalities, states, regions, and institu-tions, together with significant themes and dis-tinctive terms likely to be encountered in therelevant historical literature.The entries contain ample cross-referencing,

indicated by use of SMALL CAPITALS. However, wehave been anxious not to distract readers byindiscriminate resort to this device. Therefore wehave tried to refrain from such capitalizationwhenever mention of a particular person, state,

region, or other topic covered more fully else-where happens to be occurring in away thatmightbe thought fairly incidental to the main subjectmatter of the entry immediately at issue. Thisconsideration has particular bearing on someimportant terms whose very frequent appearancein a work of this kind could hardly be avoided: forexample, “Balkans,” “Napoleon I,” “nationalism,”or “Soviet Union.” Conversely, our policy hascertainly been to capitalize cross-references tothese andother headwordswherever such pointerstowards the text of further entries might seemlikely to offer more positive help to our readers.

Regarding foreign words and phrases, we havenot normally italicized these when they occur inthe titles of institutions, movements, or politicalparties and similar organizations. Beyond that liesa set of cases where the crucial, but often hazier,issue is whether the terms concerned have nowbeen sufficiently “naturalized” into English.There we have tried to follow whatever seems tobe the generally prevailing usage in the mostrecent historical literature. Thus readers will en-counter here, for instance, “biennio rosso” and“szlachta” on the one hand, together with“d�etente” and “Junkers” on the other. It can alsobe seen from the last of those examples that wehave always retained the proper form of initialcapitals for German nouns. For dating, we haveconsistently followed the Gregorian (“new style”)calendar, as distinct from the Julian (“old style”)version: the latter survivedmost notably in Russiauntil January 1918, at which point it was running13 days behind the system already adopted nearly

ix

everywhere else in Europe by the late eighteenthcentury.

In conclusion, we wish to record our thanks tothose who have been most generous in assistingour completion of this project. The deepest debtsof gratitude go to Claire Atkin, Ruth Biddiss, andJudy Tallett for their constant encouragement tothe authors over a substantial period of prepara-tion. Our former colleague, Dr David Laven, wasdirectly involved in the preliminary planning ofthe Dictionary and, upon his move to the Uni-versity of Manchester, he kindly allowed us tomake use of his initial drafting for some entries.

We are pleased to acknowledge the unfailinglyefficient support provided to us by Wiley- Black-well, including the editorial and production ex-pertise of Tessa Harvey, Tom Bates, Sarah Dancy,and Janey Fisher. Finally, we owe a debt of grat-itude to Dr David Trim for his assistance incompiling the electronic edition of the book.

Michael BiddissFrank Tallett

University of Reading

October 2010

P REFACE

x

Summary Listing of EntriesandPrincipal Cross-Headings

A (pp. 1–23)

Aaland (A�land) Islands

Abdul Hamid II (of Turkey)

Aberdeen, George Hamilton

Gordon, Earl of

Abgrenzung

absolutism

Abwehr

AbyssinianWar (see ITALO-ETHIOPIAN

WAR)

acquis communautaire

Action Francaise

Adenauer, Konrad

Adrianople, Treaty of

Aehrenthal, Alois Baron Lexa von

Africa, Scramble for (see underIMPERIALISM)

Agadir crisis (see under MOROCCAN

CRISES)

agitprop

agriculture (see under RURAL

SOCIETY)

Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of (see

under CONGRESS SYSTEM)

Albania

Albert

Alexander I (of Russia)

Alexander I (of Yugoslavia)

Alexander II (of Russia)

Alexander III (of Russia)

Alfonso XII (of Spain)

Alfonso XIII (of Spain

Algeciras Conference (see under

MOROCCAN CRISES)

Algerian War

Alsace-Lorraine

Alto Adige (see SOUTH TYROL)

Amendola, Giovanni

Amiens, Treaty of

Amsterdam, Treaty of

anarchism

Ancien Regime

Andorra (see MICRO-STATES[1])

Andrassy, Count Gyula

Andreotti, Giulio

Andropov, Yuri

Anglo-French Union

Anglo-German naval agreement

Anglo-Russian Entente

Anschluss

anticlericalism

Anti-Comintern Pact

antisemitism

Antonescu, Ion

apparatchik

appeasement

aristocracy

Armenian genocide

Arrow Cross

artel

artisans

Aryanism (see under RACISM)

assignats

Attat€urk, Kemal

August decrees

Auschwitz camp (see under

CONCENTRATION CAMPS)

Ausgleich

Austerlitz, Battle of

Austria

Austrian Netherlands

Austro-Hungarian empire (see

under HABSBURG EMPIRE;AUSGLEICH)

Austro-Prussian War

Axis, Rome–Berlin

Aza~na, Manuel

xi

B (pp. 24–59)

Baader–Meinhof Group

Babeuf, Francois-No€el(“Gracchus”)

Bach, Alexander, Baron von

Badoglio, Pietro

Bakunin, Mikhail Aleksandrovich

Balbo, Cesare

Balkan Entente

Balkan Leagues

Balkan Pact

Balkan Wars

Balkans

Ballhausplatz

Baltic States

banking

Barbarossa, Operation

Barr�es, Maurice

Basic Treaty

Basle, Treaties of

Basques

Bastille, fall of the

Batavian Republic

Battle of Britain

Bauer, Gustav

Bavaria

Beck, J�ozef

Beer Hall putsch

Belarus

Belgium

Benelux

Bene�s, Edvard

Beria, Lavrenti

Berlin blockade

Berlin Conference

Berlin Congress

Berlin Wall

Berlinguer, Enrico

Berlusconi, Silvio

Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste

Bernstein, Eduard

Bessarabia (see under MOLDAVIA;

MOLDOVA; ROMANIA)

Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von

Beust, Count Friedrich Ferdinandvon

biennio rosso

Bierut, Bolesław

Bismarck, Otto von

Black Hand

Blair, Tony

Blanc, Louis

Blanqui, Louis Auguste

Blitzkrieg

Bloc National

Bloody Sunday (see under RUSSIAN

REVOLUTION OF 1905; IRELAND)

Bl€ucher, Gebhardt von

Blum, L�eon

Bohemia

Bolsheviks

Bonaparte, Joseph

Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon (seeNAPOLEON III)

Bonaparte, Napoleon (see NAPOLEON

I)

Bonapartism

Bonomi, Ivanoe

Bormann, Martin

Borodino, Battle of

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Bosnian Civil War (see underBOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA)

Bosphorous

Boulanger affair

Bourbon dynasty

bourgeoisie (see under CLASS)

Brandt, Willy

Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of

Bretton Woods agreement

Brezhnev, Leonid

Briand, Aristide

Brissot, Jacques-Pierre

Britain, Battle of (see BATTLE OF

BRITAIN)

Britain and Europe

Brousse, Paul

Brumaire, Coup of

Br€uning, Heinrich

Brusilov offensive

Brussels, Treaty of

Bucharest, Treaties of (1812, 1913,1918)

Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich

Bukovina

Bulganin, Nikolai

Bulgaria

Bulgarian massacres (see underBULGARIA)

Bulge, Battle of the

B€ulow, Bernhard von

Buonarotti, Filippo

bureaucracy

Burgenland (see under TRIANON,

TREATY OF)

Burschenschaften

SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I E S AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS

xii

C (pp. 60–106)

Cabet, Etienne

caciquismo

Caetano, Marcello

Cagoulards

Campo Formio, Treaty of

Canning, George

C�anovas del Castillo, Antonio

capital cities

capitalism

Caporetto, Battle of

Caprivi, Leo Graf von

Carbonari

Carlism

Carlsbad Decrees

Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite

Carol II (of Romania)

Cartel des Gauches

Casablanca Conference

Castlereagh, Robert Stewart,Viscount

Catalonia

Catherine II (of Russia)

Catholicism

Cattaneo, Carlo

Caudillo

Cavaignac, General Louis-Eug�ene

Cavour, Camillo

Ceausescu, Nikolae

Center Party (Germany) (see

ZENTRUM)

Central Powers

Champ de Mars massacre

Charles I of Austria (see under

HABSBURG EMPIRE)

Charles X (of France)

Charles Albert (of Piedmont-Sardinia)

Charles Felix (of Piedmont-Sardinia)

Chateaubriand, Francois Ren�e,Vicomte de

Chaumont, Treaties of

Chechnya

Cheka

Chemin des Dames (see under

NIVELLE)

Chernenko, Konstantin

Chernobyl disaster

Chernyshevsky, Nikolai

Chetniks

Chirac, Jacques

Chouans

Christian Democracy

Churchill, Winston

Ciano, Galeazzo

Cisleithania

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

class

Clausewitz, Karl Philipp Gottlieb

von

Clemenceau, Georges

Code Civil

Code Napol�eon (see CODE CIVIL)

Codreanu, Corneliu Zelea

Cold War

collaboration

collectivization

colonialism (see under IMPERIALISM;

DECOLONIZATION)

Comecon

Cominform (see under THE

INTERNATIONAL)

Comintern (see under THE

INTERNATIONAL)

Committee of Public Safety

Common Agricultural Policy

(CAP)

Common Market (see under

EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)

Commonwealth of Independent

States (CIS)

communications

communism

Compromise of 1867 (see AUSGLEICH)

Comte, Auguste (see underPOSITIVISM)

concentration camps

concordat

Confederaci�on Nacional delTrabajo (CNT)

confederalism (see under FEDERALISM[1])

Conf�ed�eration G�en�erale du Travail(CGT)

Confederation of the Rhine

Conference on Security and

Cooperation in Europe (seeHELSINKI CONFERENCE)

Congress of Europe

Congress System

Consalvi, Ercole

conservatism

Constantinople agreements

Constituent Assembly

constitutionalism (see under

LIBERALISM)

Consulate

Continental System

Convention

Copenhagen, Battles of

SUMMARY L I S T ING OF ENTR I ES AND PR INC I PA L CROSS -HEAD INGS

xiii

Cordeliers Club

Corfu incident

corporate state

Council of Europe

Craxi, Bettino

Crimean War

Crispi, Francesco

Crna Gora (see MONTENEGRO)

Croatia

Croix de Feu

Crystal night (see KRISTALLNACHT)

Curzon line

Custozza, Battles of

Cuza, Alexandru

Cyprus

Czartoryski

Czech Republic

Czechoslovakia

D (pp. 107–23)

D’Annunzio, Gabriele

D’Azeglio, Massimo

Daladier, Edouard

Danton, Georges-Jacques

Danube question

Danubian principalities

Danzig corridor

Dardanelles

Darlan, Jean Francois

Darnand, Joseph

Darwinism (see SOCIAL DARWINISM)

Dawes Plan

Dayton Accord

D-Day (see NORMANDY LANDINGS)

DDR (see GERMAN DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC)

de Gasperi, Alcide

de Gaulle, Charles

de Valera, Eamon

De�ak, Ferenc

D�eat, Marcel

Debr�e, Michel

Decembrist conspiracy

dechristianization

Declaration of the Rights of Man(see RIGHTS OF MAN)

decolonization

Degrelle, L�eon Marie

Joseph Ignace

Delcass�e, Th�eophile

Delors, Jacques

democracy

demography (see POPULATION)

Denmark

Depressions (see GREAT DEPRESSIONS)

Depretis, Agostino

D�eroul�ede, Paul

d�etente

Dimitrov, Georgi

Directory

Djilas, Milovan

Dolchstoss

Dollfuss, Engelbert

Doriot, Jacques

Dreikaiserbund (see THREE EMPERORS’

LEAGUE)

Dreyfus Affair

Dual Alliance

Dual Entente (see FRANCO-RUSSIANALLIANCE)

Dual Monarchy (see underHABSBURG EMPIRE)

dualism (see under HABSBURG

EMPIRE)

Dub�cek, Alexander

Duce (see MUSSOLINI)

Duma

Dunant,Henri (see under RED CROSS,INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE)

Dunkirk, evacuation from

Dunkirk, Treaty of

E (pp. 124–39)

East Germany (see GERMAN

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC)

Eastern Question

Eastern Rumelia

Ebert, Friedrich

Economic and Monetary Union(EMU)

Eden, Anthony

education

Eichmann, Adolf

Eire (see under IRELAND)

emancipation of the serfs (see underSERFDOM)

emigration (see under MIGRATION)

Ems Telegram

Enabling Act

Engels, Friedrich

ENIGMA (see under ULTRA)

Enlightenment

enosis

Entente Cordiale

environmentalism


xiv

Erfurt Union

Erhard, Ludwig

Erlander, Tage

Estado Novo

Estates General

Estonia (see under BALTIC STATES)

Ethiopian War (see ITALO-ETHIOPIAN

WAR)

ethnic cleansing

Eupen-Malm�edy

Euratom

Eurocommunism

Europe des patries (see underEUROPEAN INTEGRATION; DE GAULLE)

European Coal and SteelCommunity (ECSC)

European Commission (see underEUROPEAN INTEGRATION)

European Community (EC) (seeunder EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)

European Constitution Treaty (seeunder EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)

European Convention on HumanRights

European Council (see underEUROPEAN INTEGRATION)

European Court (of Justice; ofHuman Rights)

European Defence Community(EDC) (see under WESTERN

EUROPEAN UNION)

European Economic Area (EEA)

(see under EUROPEAN FREE TRADE

ASSOCIATION)

European Economic Community(see under EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)

European Free Trade Association(EFTA)

European integration

European Monetary Union (see

ECONOMIC AND MONETARY UNION)

European Parliament (see under


European Political Community (see

under EUROPEAN INTEGRATION)

European Union (see under


extermination camps (see under

CONCENTRATION CAMPS)

F (pp. 140–63)

Fabius, Laurent

Falange Espa~nola

Falkenhayn, Erich von

Falloux Law

Fanfani, Amintore

Fascism

Fashoda crisis

February Revolution (see underRUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1917)

Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)

federalism

feminism

Ferdinand I (of Austria)

Ferry, Jules

Fifth Republic (France)

Final Solution

Finland

First Empire (France) (see underNAPOLEON I)

First International (see under THE

INTERNATIONAL)

First Republic (France) (see underFRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789)

First World War (see WORLD WAR I)

Fiume

Five-Year Plans

Foch, Ferdinand

Former Yugoslav Republic of

Macedonia (see under MACEDONIA;YUGOSLAVIA)

Fouch�e, Joseph

Fourier, Charles

Fourteen Points

Fourth Republic (France)

France (see, principally and in broadchronological sequence, FRENCH

REVOLUTION OF 1789; FRENCHREVOLUTIONARY WARS; NAPOLEON I;

NAPOLEONIC WARS; LOUIS XVIII;CHARLES X; JULY MONARCHY; SECOND

REPUBLIC; NAPOLEON III; FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR; PARIS COMMUNE;

THIRD REPUBLIC; VICHY REGIME;FOURTH REPUBLIC; FIFTH REPUBLIC)

Francis I (of Austria)

Francis Ferdinand, Archduke

Francis Joseph I (of Austria-

Hungary)

Franco, Francisco

Franco-Austrian War

Franco-Prussian War

Franco-Russian alliance

Frankfurt, Treaty of

Frankfurt parliament

Frederick III (of Prussia)

Frederick William III (of Prussia)

Frederick William IV (of Prussia)

Free French

free trade (see LAISSEZ-FAIRE)

Freemasonry

Freikorps

French Revolution of 1789

French Revolutionary Wars

Front National

F€uhrer (see HITLER)


xv

G (pp. 164–88)

Galicia (regions in [1] Habsburgempire and [2] Spain)

Gallipoli campaign

Gambetta, L�eon

Gamelin, Maurice

Garibaldi, Giuseppe

Gastein, Convention of

Gaullism (see under DE GAULLE)

gender

Generalgouvernement

Geneva Conventions

German Confederation

German Democratic Republic(GDR)

German empire

German Federal Republic (see

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY)

German reunification

German Revolution of 1918–19

German unification

Germany (see, principally and inbroad chronological sequence,

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE; HABSBURG

EMPIRE; CONFEDERATION OF THE

RHINE; GERMAN CONFEDERATION;BISMARCK; AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR;

NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION;GERMAN UNIFICATION; GERMAN

EMPIRE; WEIMAR REPUBLIC; HITLER;NAZISM; FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

GERMANY; GERMAN DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC; GERMAN REUNIFICATION)

Gestapo

Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe

Gibraltar

Gierek, Edward

Gioberti, Vincenzo

Giolitti, Giovanni

Girondins

Giscard d’Estaing, Val�ery

glasnost (see under GORBACHEV)

Gleichschaltung

Gneisenau, Count August von

Goebbels, Joseph

Goering, Hermann

gold standard

G€omb€os, Gyula

Gomulka, Władisław

Gonz�alez, Felipe

Gorbachev, Mikhail

Gottwald, Klement

Gramsci, Antonio

Great Depressions ([1] 1873–96;

[2] 1929–34)

Great Fear

Great Purges

Great War (see WORLD WAR I)

Greece

Greek Civil War

Greek colonels

Greek War of Independence

Greek–Turkish War

Greenland (see under DENMARK;

SCANDINAVIA)

Gregory XVI, Pope

Gromyko, Andrei

grossdeutsch/Grossdeutschland (see

under GERMAN UNIFICATION).

Guderian, Heinz Wilhelm

Guernica

Guesde, Jules

Guizot, Francois

Gulag

H (pp. 189–202)

Habsburg empire

Hague Conferences

Hague Tribunals

Hallstein, Walter

Hanover

Hardenberg, Karl August von

Haussmann, Georges Eug�ene,Baron

Havel, V�aclav

Heath, Edward

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

Helsinki Conference

Helvetic Confederation (seeSWITZERLAND)

Helvetic Republic (see underSWITZERLAND)

Herriot, Edouard

Herzen, Alexander

Herzl, Theodor

Hess, Rudolf

Himmler, Heinrich

Hindenberg, Paul von

Hitler, Adolf

Hitler Youth

Hoare–Laval Pact

Hohenzollern candidature (see EMS

TELEGRAM)

Hohenzollern dynasty

Holocaust (see FINAL SOLUTION)

Holy Alliance

Holy Roman Empire

Honecker, Erich

Horthy de Nagyb�anya, Mikl�os


xvi

Hossbach meeting

Hoxha, Enver

human rights (see RIGHTS OF MAN;EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN

RIGHTS)

Humboldt, Wilhelm von

Hundred Days

Hungarian rising of 1956

Hungary

Hus�ak, Gust�av

I (pp. 203–17)

Iceland

Illyrian movement

immobilisme

imperialism

industrialization

The International

International Brigades (see under

SPANISH CIVIL WAR)

International Working Men’s

Association (see under THE

INTERNATIONAL)

Ireland

Iron Curtain (see under COLD WAR)

Iron Guard

irredentism

Islam (see MUSLIMS)

Istria

Italian unification

Italo-Ethiopian War

Italo-Turkish War

Italy

Izvolsky, Alexander Petrovich,Count

J (pp. 218–24)

Jacobins

Jaruzelski, Wojciech

Jaur�es, Jean L�eon

Jela�ci�c, Josip

Jena-Auerst€adt, Battles of

Jenkins, Roy

Jews

Joffre, Joseph

John XXIII, Pope

John Paul II, Pope

Juan Carlos I (of Spain)

July crisis

July Days (see under RUSSIAN

REVOLUTIONS OF 1917)

July Monarchy

July plot

July Revolution (see under JULY

MONARCHY; REVOLUTIONS OF

1830–2)

June Days

Junkers

Jutland, Battle of

K (pp. 225–34)

K�ad�ar, J�anos

Kadets

Kaliningrad

Kamenev, Lev

Kapp putsch

Karadjordjevi�c dynasty (see under

SERBIA)

Karamanlis, Constantine

K�arolyi, Mih�aly

Katyn massacre

Kautsky, Karl

Kekkonen, Urho

Kellogg–Briand Pact

Kerensky, Alexander

Keynes, John Maynard

KGB

Khrushchev, Nikita

Kiesinger, Kurt Georg

Kirov, Sergei

kleindeutsch/Kleindeutschland (seeunder GERMAN UNIFICATION)

Kohl, Helmut

kolkhoz

Kolowrat, Count Anton

K€oniggr€atz, Battle of (see SADOWA)

Kornilov affair

Kosovo

Kossuth, Louis

Kosygin, Alexei

Kreisky, Bruno

Kristallnacht

Kronstadt uprising


xvii

Kropotkin, Peter

Krupps

kulaks

Kulturkampf

Kun, B�ela

Kursk, Battle of

L (pp. 235–50)

Lafayette, Gilbert Motier, Marquisde

Laibach, Congress of (see underCONGRESS SYSTEM; TROPPAU,

CONGRESS OF)

laissez-faire

Lamartine, Alphonse Marie Louisde

Lamennais, F�elicit�e Robert de

Lassalle, Ferdinand

Lateran Treaties

Latvia (see under BALTIC STATES)

Lausanne, Treaty of

Laval, Pierre

Le Chapelier Law

Le Pen, Jean-Marie

League of Nations

Lebensraum

Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre

legitimism

Leipzig, Battle of

Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich

Leningrad, Siege of

Leninism (see under LENIN;

COMMUNISM)

Leo XII, Pope

Leo XIII, Pope

Leopold II (of Belgium)

Lesseps, Ferdinand Marie de

liberalism

Lidice massacre

Liebknecht, Karl

Liechtenstein (see MICRO-STATES[2])

Lisbon, Treaty of, 2007 (see under


List, Friedrich

literacy

Lithuania (see under BALTIC STATES)

Little Entente

Litvinov, Maxim Maximovich

Lloyd George, David

Locarno Treaties

London, Treaties of (1827, 1839,

1852, 1913, 1915)

Louis XVI (of France)

Louis XVIII (of France)

Louis Napoleon (Bonaparte) (see

NAPOLEON III)

Louis-Philippe, of France (see JULY

MONARCHY)

Ludendorff, Erich

Ludwig II (of Bavaria)

Lueger, Karl

Lun�eville, Treaty of

Luxemburg

Luxemburg, Rosa

Luxemburg compromise

M (pp. 251–79)

Maastricht, Treaty of

Macedonia

Macmahon, Marie Edm�e PatriceMaurice de

Madrid, Siege of (see under SPANISH

CIVIL WAR)

Mafia

Maginot Line

Mahmud II (of Turkey)

Makarios III, Archbishop

Malenkov, Georgi

Malta

mandates

Manin, Daniele

Marat, Jean-Paul

March on Rome

Marchais, Georges

Marengo, Battle of

Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France

Marne, Battles of the

Marshall Plan

Marx, Karl

Marxism (see under MARX;COMMUNISM; SOCIALISM)

Masaryk, Jan

Masaryk, Tom�a�s

mass society

Matignon agreements

Matteotti affair

Maura, Antonio

Maurras, Charles

Mazzini, Giuseppe

Mediterranean agreements

Medvedev, Dmitri (see under

PUTIN)

Memel

Mend�es-France, Pierre


xviii

Mendiz�abal, Juan �Alvarez

Mensheviks

Merkel, Angela

Mers-el-K�ebir

Messina Conference

Metaxas, Ioannis

Metternich, Klemens von

mezzogiorno

Mickiewicz, Adam

micro-states (Andorra,

Liechtenstein, Monaco, SanMarino, Vatican City)

middle class (see under CLASS)

migration

Millerand, Alexandre Etienne

Milo�sevi�c, Slobodan

mir

Mitteleuropa

Mitterrand, Francois

modernism (cultural, religious)

Moldavia

Moldova

Molotov, Vyacheslav

Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (see

NAZI–SOVIET PACT)

Moltke, Helmut Karl Bernhard,

Count von, “the Elder”

Monaco (see MICRO-STATES[3])

monarchism

Monnet, Jean

Montenegro

Montreux Convention

Moravia (see under BOHEMIA; CZECHREPUBLIC; CZECHOSLOVAKIA)

Morgenthau plan

Moro, Aldo

Moroccan crises

Moscow, retreat from

M€unchengr€atz Convention

Munich agreement

Munich putsch (see BEER HALL

PUTSCH)

Murat, Joachim

Muslims

Mussolini, Benito

Mustafa Kemal (see ATAT€URK, KEMAL)

N (pp. 280–305)

Nagy, Imre (see under HUNGARIAN

RISING OF 1956)

Nansen, Fridtjof

Naples and Sicily, Kingdom of (see

TWO SICILIES)

Napoleon I (of France)

Napoleon III (of France)

Napoleonic Wars

Narodniks (see under POPULISM)

nation-state (see underNATIONALISM)

National Guards

National Socialism (see NAZISM)

nationalism

NATO

naturalism

Navarino, Battle of (see under GREEK

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE)

Nazi-Soviet Pact

Nazism

Necker, Jacques

Negrin, Juan

Nelson, Vice-Admiral Horatio,

Viscount

NEP (see NEW ECONOMIC POLICY)

Nesselrode, Karl Robert, Count

Netherlands

Neuilly, Treaty of

neutrality

New Economic Policy (NEP)

New Order

newspapers

Nice, Treaty of, 2001 (see underEUROPEAN INTEGRATION)

Nicholas I (of Russia)

Nicholas II (of Russia)

Night of the Long Knives

Nightingale, Florence

nihilism

Nivelle, Robert Georges

NKVD

nomenklatura

Nordic Council

Normandy landings

North Atlantic Treaty Organization(see NATO)

North German Confederation

Norway

Novara, Battles of (1821, 1849)

Novi Pazar, Sanjak of

Novotny, Anton�ın

Nuremberg laws

Nuremberg trials


xix

O (pp. 306–10)

Obrenovi�c dynasty (see underSERBIA)

October days

October manifesto

October Revolution (see underRUSSIAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1917)

Oder–Neisse line

oil crises

Ollivier, Emile

Olm€utz agreement

Opus Dei

Oradour massacre

Organization for European

Cooperation and Development(OECD)

Organization for Security andCooperation in Europe (see

under HELSINKI CONFERENCE)

Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele

Orleanism

Orsini plot

Orthodox Christianity

Ostpolitik

Ottoman empire (see under TURKEY

AND EUROPE)

P (pp. 311–38)

Palack�y, Franti�sek

Pale of Settlement

Palmerston, Henry John Temple,

Viscount

Panama Canal scandal (see under

LESSEPS)

Pan-Germanism

Pan-Slavism

papacy (see under CATHOLICISM;

PAPAL STATES)

Papadopoulous, Georgios (see

under GREEK COLONELS)

Papal States

Papen, Franz von

Paris, Pact of (see KELLOGG-BRIAND

PACT)

Paris, Treaties of (1814, 1856, 1947)

Paris Commune

Paris Congress (see under CRIMEAN

WAR)

Paris Peace Settlement

parliamentary government (see

under DEMOCRACY)

Partitions of Poland (see under

POLAND)

Pa�si�c, Nikola

Passchendaele, Battle of

Paul I (of Russia)

Paveli�c, Ante

peasantry (see under RURAL SOCIETY)

Peninsular War

perestroika (see under GORBACHEV)

P�etain, Henri Philippe Omer

philhellenism

phoney war

Piedmont-Sardinia

pillarization

Pillnitz, Declaration of

Piłsudski, J�ozef

Pius VII, Pope

Pius IX, Pope

Pius XI, Pope

Pius XII, Pope

place names

Plekhanov, Georgi

Plombi�eres agreement

Pobedonostsev, Konstantin

pogroms

Poincar�e, Raymond

Poland

Polignac, Jules, Prince de

Polish corridor (see DANZIG

CORRIDOR)

Polish-Soviet War (see RUSSO-POLISH

WAR)

Politburo

Pompidou, Georges

Popular Fronts

population

populism

Porte, the Sublime

Portugal

positivism

Potsdam Conference

Poujade, Pierre

Prague, Treaty of (see under

AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR)

Prague Spring

Pressburg, Treaty of

Primo de Rivera, Miguel and Jos�eAntonio.

proletariat (see under WORKING

CLASS)

Protestantism

Proudhon, Pierre

Prussia

Putin, Vladimir


xx

Q (pp. 339–40)

Quadrilateral, The

Quadruple Alliance

Quai d’Orsay

Quintuple Alliance (see underQUADRUPLE ALLIANCE)

Quisling, Vidkun

R (pp. 341–71)

racism

Radetzsky, Josef Wenzel, Count

Radical Party (France)

railways (see underCOMMUNICATIONS)

R�akosi, M�aty�as

Ralliement

Rapallo, Treaties of (1920, 1922)

ras

Rasputin, Grigori

Rathenau, Walter

realism (see under NATURALISM)

Realpolitik

Red Army

Red Brigades

Red Cross, InternationalCommittee of the (ICRC)

Reichstag Fire

Reinsurance Treaty

reparations

republicanism (see under

MONARCHISM)

resistance

Restoration (see under VIENNA

CONGRESS; MONARCHISM)

Revolutions of 1830–2



Rexists

Reynaud, Paul

Rhine, Confederation of the (seeCONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE)

Rhineland crisis

Ribbentrop, Joachim von

Ricasoli, Bettino

Riga, Treaty of (see under RUSSO-

POLISH WAR)

Rights of Man and of the Citizen,

Declaration of the

Riom Trials

Risorgimento

Rivoli, Battle of

Robespierre, Maximilien FrancoisMarie Isidore de

R€ohm, Ernst

Roman question (see under PAPAL

STATES)

Romania

Romanov dynasty (see under RUSSIA;

and in chronological order

CATHERINE II, PAUL I, ALEXANDER I,

NICHOLAS I, ALEXANDER II, ALEXANDERIII, NICHOLAS II)

romanticism

Rome, Treaties of

Rome Statute

Rommel, Erwin

Roon, Albrecht Theodor Emil, Grafvon

Rothschild family (see underBANKING)

Ruhr occupation

rural society

Russia

Russian Civil War

Russian Revolution of 1905

Russian Revolutions of 1917

Russification

Russo-Finnish War

Russo-Japanese War

Russo-Polish War

Russo-Turkish Wars

Ruthenes

S (pp. 372–414)

SA (see STURMABTEILUNG)

Saarland

Sadowa, Battle of

Saint-Just, Louis-Antoine-L�eon

Saint-Simon, Claude-Henri de

Rouvroy

Salazar, Ant�onio de Oliveira

Sal�o Republic

Sammlungspolitik

San Marino (see MICRO-STATES[4])

San Stefano, Treaty of (see underRUSSO-TURKISH WARS; TURKEY AND

EUROPE; BERLIN CONGRESS)

Sanjak of Novi Pazar (see NOVI

PAZAR)


xxi

sans-culottes

Sarajevo assassination, 1914 (see

JULY CRISIS)

Sarkozy, Nicolas

Saverne affair (see ZABERN AFFAIR)

Saxony

Scandinavia

Scharnhorst, Gerhardt Johann

David, Graf von

Schengen Agreement

Schleswig-Holstein question

Schlieffen Plan

Schmidt, Helmut

Sch€onbrunn, Treaty of (see VIENNA,

TREATIES OF[1])

Schr€oder, Gerhard

Schuman, Robert

Schuschnigg, Kurt von

Schutzstaffel

Schwarzenberg, Karl Philipp,

Count

Scramble for Africa (see under

IMPERIALISM)

SD (see SICHERHEITSDIENST)

Second Empire (France) (see underNAPOLEON III)

Second International (see under THE

INTERNATIONAL)

Second Reich (see GERMAN EMPIRE)

Second Republic (France)

Second Republic (Spain)

Second World War (see WORLD

WAR II)

secret police (see, for differentcountries, CHEKA; GESTAPO; KGB;

NKVD; STASI)

secularization

Sedan, Battle of

separatism

September massacres

Serbia

serfdom

Sevastapol, Siege of (see under

CRIMEAN WAR)

S�evres, Treaty of

sexuality

Shoah (see FINAL SOLUTION)

Sicherheitsdienst

Sicily (see under TWO SICILIES)

Siey�es, Emmanuel-Joseph, Abb�e

Sikorski, Władysław Eugeniusz

Silesia

Single European Act (SEA)

The Six

SixWeeksWar (see AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN

WAR)

Slavophiles

Slovakia

Slovenia

Soares, M�ario

social Darwinism

social democracy (see underSOCIALISM)

Social Democratic Party ofGermany

socialism

Socialist Revolutionary Party

Solidarity

Solidarnos�c (see SOLIDARITY)

Somme, Battle of the

Sonderbund (see under

SWITZERLAND)

Sorbs

Sorel, Georges

South Tyrol

Soviet Union.

Soviets

Spaak, Paul-Henri

Spain

Spanish Civil War

“Spanish” influenza

Spartacist rising

Speer, Albert

Speransky, Mikhail Mikhailovsky,

Count

squadristi

Srebrenica massacre

SS (see SCHUTZSTAFFEL)

St Germain, Treaty of

“stab in the back” (see DOLCHSTOSS)

Stalin, Josef

Stalingrad, Battle of

Stalinism (see under STALIN;COMMUNISM)

Stamboliisky, Alexandar

Stambolov, Stefan

Stasi

Stavisky affair

Stein, Karl, Baron vom

Stolypin, Pyotr

Straits question

Stresa Front

Stresemann, Gustav

student revolts of 1968

Sturmabteilung

Su�arez Gonz�alez, Adolfo

subsidiarity

succession states

Sudetenland

Suez crisis

Svoboda, Ludv�ık

Sweden

Switzerland

Sykes-Picot agreement

syndicalism

Sz�alasi, Ferenc (see under ARROW

CROSS)

Sz�echenyi, Count Istv�an,

szlachta


xxii

T (pp. 415–31)

Taaffe, Count Eduard

Talleyrand, Charles Maurice

Tannenberg, Battle of

Tehran Conference

Tennis Court Oath

The Terror

terrorism

Teschen dispute

Thatcher, Margaret

Thermidor

Thiers, Louis Adolphe

Third International (see under THE

INTERNATIONAL)

Third Reich (see under HITLER;

NAZISM)

Third Republic (France)

Thorez, Maurice

Three Emperors’ League

Tilsit, Treaties of

Tirpitz, Alfred von

Tiso, Jozef

Tisza, Istv�an (see under TISZA,

K�ALM�AN)

Tisza, K�alm�an

Tito

Tocqueville, Alexis de

totalitarianism

trade unionism

Trafalgar, Battle of

Transleithania (see under

CISLEITHANIA)

Transnistria (see under MOLDOVA)

transport (see underCOMMUNICATIONS)

Transylvania

trasformismo

Treaty on European Union (seeMAASTRICHT TREATY)

trialism (see under HABSBURG

EMPIRE)

Trianon, Treaty of

Trieste

Triple Alliance

Triple Entente

Tripolitanian War (see under ITALO-TURKISH WAR)

Troppau, Congress of

Trotsky, Leon

Truman doctrine

Tudjman, Franjo

Tuileries, attack on the (see underFRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789)

Turkey and Europe

Two Sicilies, Kingdom of the

U (pp. 432–7)

Ukraine

Ulbricht, Walter

Ulm, Battle of

ULTRA

ultramontanism (see underCATHOLICISM)

Ultras

Uniates (see under CATHOLICISM;ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY)

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(see SOVIET UNION)

United Kingdom (see BRITAIN AND

EUROPE)

United Nations

UNRRA (see under UNITED NATIONS)

urbanization

USSR (see SOVIET UNION)

Usta�se (see under PAVELI�C)

utopian socialism

V (pp. 438–46)

Valmy, Battle of (see under FRENCH

REVOLUTIONARY WARS)

Varennes, flight to

Vatican City (see MICRO-STATES[5])

Vatican Councils

Vend�ee

Vend�emiaire, rising of (see underNAPOLEON I)

Venizelos, Eleftherios

Verdun, Battle of

Verona, Congress of (see underCONGRESS SYSTEM)

Versailles, Treaty of

Vichy regime

Victor Emmanuel II (of Italy)

Victor Emmanuel III (of Italy)

Victoria, Queen ofGreat Britain andIreland


xxiii

Vienna Congress

Vienna Treaties (1809, 1815, 1864,

1866)

Villafranca, truce of

Visegr�ad states

Vojvodina

vonMoltke, HelmutKarl Bernhard,Count (see MOLTKE)

von Papen, Franz (see PAPEN)

vozhd

W (pp. 447–64)

Wagram, Battle of

Waldheim, Kurt

Wałesa, Lech

Wall Street Crash (see under GREAT

DEPRESSIONS[2])

Wallachia (see under DANUBIAN

PRINCIPALITIES; ROMANIA)

Wannsee conference

War Communism

warfare

Warsaw, Grand Duchy of

Warsaw ghetto

Warsaw Pact

Warsaw rising

Waterloo, Battle of

Weimar Republic

welfare state (see under WELFARISM)

welfarism

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, first

Duke of

Weltpolitik

Wends (see SORBS)

West Germany (see FEDERAL REPUBLIC

OF GERMANY)

Western European Union (WEU)

White Terror

Wilhelmine empire (see GERMAN

EMPIRE)

Wilhelmstrasse

William I (of Germany)

William II (of Germany)

Wilson, Thomas Woodrow (see

under FOURTEEN POINTS; PARIS PEACESETTLEMENT)

Windischgr€atz, Prince Alfred

Windthorst, Ludwig

Winter War (see RUSSO-FINNISH WAR)

Witte, Sergei

Wollstonecraft, Mary

women, emancipation of (see under

FEMINISM; GENDER)

working class

World War I

World War II

W€urttemberg

Y (pp. 465–9)

Yalta Conference

Yeltsin, Boris

Yezhovshchina (see under GREAT

PURGES)

Young Czechs

Young Italy (see under MAZZINI)

Young Plan

Young Turks

Ypres, Battles of (1914, 1915, 1917)

Ypsilantis, Alexander

Yugoslavia

Z (pp. 470–3)

Zabern affair

zemstva

Zentrum

Zhdanovshchina

Zhivkov, Todor

Zhukov, Georgi

Zinoviev, Grigori

Zionism

Zog (of Albania)

Zollverein


xxiv

Maps

Moscow

SW

ED

ENNORWAY

(underDanish

rule)

BRITAIN DENMARKDUTCH

REPUBLIC

AUSTRIANNETHERLANDS

FRANCE

HUNGARY

POLAND

GALICIA

O T T O M A N EM P I R E

SPAINPO

RTU

GAL

SWITZ.

REPUBLICOF GENOA

TUSCANYPAPALSTATES

VENICE

SAVOY

NAPLES

N o r t h S e a

A t l a n t i cO c e a n

B l a c k S e a

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Ba

l ti c

Se

aRUSSIA

1772 toAustria–Hungary

Bukovina, 1775 toAustria–Hungary

AUSTRIA–

Border of the HolyRoman Empireof the German Nation

500 miles

500 km

London

Paris

Madrid

Rome

St Petersburg

Constantinople

Berlin

Vienna

SICILY

MAP 1. Europe in the 1780s.Adapted from: S. Berger (ed.), A Companion to Nineteenth-century Europe (Blackwell, 2006), map 1.

xxv

Holland12 Berg (part)

Oldenburg34 Hanseatic States and Hanover (part)

Danzig (French occupation)56 Berg

Neuchâtel7Helvetic Confederation8

9 Republic of the Valais10 Kingdom of Italy11 Lucca12 Piombina13 Illyrian Provinces14 Montenegro15 Bessarabia (to Russia 1812)16 Catalonia

French satellites/allies

Britain anddependencies

Frontier ofConfederationof the Rhine

French Empire(frontiers ofDecember 1809)

French Empire(annexations 1810–12)

French occupation/administration

SWEDEN

RUSSIA

FRENCHEMPIRE AUSTRIAN

EMPIRE

DUCHY OFWARSAW

SPAIN

KINGDOMOF NAPLES

HOLLAND

SARDINIA

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

PRUSSIA

BRITAIN

CO

NF

ED

ER

ATION

OF

THE

RH

INE

12 3 4

6

78

9 10

11

12

14

13

16

15

N o r t h S e a



Ba

l ti c

Se

a

5

PO

RTU

GAL

SICILY

500 miles

500 km

DENMARK

NORWAY(underDanish

rule)

MAP 2. Napoleonic Europe, May 1812.Adapted from: G. Ellis, Napoleon (Longman, 1997), map 3.

MAPS

xxvi

SWEDEN

NORWAY

BRITAINDENMARK

THENETHERLANDS

FRANCE

AUSTRIA–HUNGARY

O T T O M A N EM P I R E

SPAIN

PO

RTU

GAL

SWITZ.

PIEDMONT–SAVOY PAPAL

STATES

N o r t h S e a


B l a c k S e a


Bal

ticS

ea

R U S S I A NE M P I R E

FINLAND

KINGDOMOF THE TWO

SICILIES

PR

US

SIAPRUSSIA

BAVARIA

ALGERIA

GREECESICILY500 miles

500 km

The secession of Greece fromthe Ottoman Empire in 1830

The secession of Belgium fromthe United Kingdom of theNetherlands in 1830

MAP 3. Europe, 1815-48.Adapted from: S. Berger (ed.), A Companion to Nineteenth-century Europe (Blackwell, 2006), map 2.

MAPS

xxvii

Zurich

VeronaTrieste

FiumeTurin

Venice

Florence

Rome

Genoa

Gaeta

Naples

Palermo

AUSTRIA–HUNGARY

SWITZERLAND

FRANCEOTTOMAN

EMPIRE

KINGDOMOF THE TWO

SICILIES

PAPALSTATES

NAPLES

KIN

GD

OM

OF

SA

RD

I NI A

PIEDMONTPARMA

1860

MO

DENA18

60

PAPAL LEGATIONS/ROMAGNA1860

CORSICA(French)

NICEto France

1860

LOM

BARD

Y

1859

VENETIA1866

TUSCANY1860

UMBRIA1860

THEPATRIMONY

1870

MARCHES

1860

Entered by GaribaldiSept 7 1860

SARDINIA

SICILY

DALMATIAIS

TRIA

TYROL

Magenta1859

Castelfidardo1860

Lissa1866

Aspromonte1862

ELBAA d r i a t i c

S e a

T y r r h e n i a nS e a


R. Po

SAVOYto France

1860 Milan

Solferino1859

Custozza1866

Mentana1867

100 miles

100 km

MAP 4. Italian Unification, 1859–70.Adapted from: R. Gildea, Barricades and Borders: Europe, 1800–1914 (2nd edn., Oxford University Press, 1996), map 4.

MAPS

xxviii

Documents

the Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern european History · 2016-08-12 · the whole of continental Europe, as well as relevant aspects of the British experience. Lively and authoritative,