Thematic Study on National Identity and the Media (WP4) Participants: “Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati, Department of English. Romania “Dunarea de

Thematic Study on Thematic Study on National Identity National Identity

and the Mediaand the Media (WP4)(WP4)

ParticipantsParticipants: : ““DunDunaarea de Jos” University of Galati, rea de Jos” University of Galati,

Department of English. Romania Department of English. Romania

Panteion University of Social and Political Panteion University of Social and Political

Sciences, Center for Gender Studies. GreeceSciences, Center for Gender Studies. Greece

““Euro-Balkan” Institute, Research Center in Euro-Balkan” Institute, Research Center in

Gender Studies. Former Yugoslavian Republic of Gender Studies. Former Yugoslavian Republic of

MacedoniaMacedonia

Thematic Study on National Thematic Study on National Identity Identity

and the Mediaand the Media (WP4)(WP4) Key words:Key words:

•National identity;National identity;• Images of otherness;Images of otherness;•Migration;Migration;•Gender;Gender;•Media representations.Media representations.

National IdentityNational Identity Theoretical framework adopted: imagology Theoretical framework adopted: imagology

and cultural studiesand cultural studies Imagology: Imagology: the study of the representations of the study of the representations of

the foreign other in the mental structures the foreign other in the mental structures prevailing in a cultural community at a given prevailing in a cultural community at a given historical moment in its evolution; the study of historical moment in its evolution; the study of the force lines that at a given moment govern the force lines that at a given moment govern and condition the representation of alterity in a and condition the representation of alterity in a base culture.base culture.

The corpus of common ideas or mental structures The corpus of common ideas or mental structures held by one community with respect to another is held by one community with respect to another is inevitably influenced by ninevitably influenced by national identity, ational identity, i.e. i.e. the subjective construct, collective self-images the subjective construct, collective self-images that influence the cultural and social praxis .that influence the cultural and social praxis .

Images of Otherness and Images of Otherness and National IdentityNational Identity Distinction is made between two types of interrelated images:Distinction is made between two types of interrelated images:

•self (auto-) imagesself (auto-) images (i.e. images shaped by the attitude one (i.e. images shaped by the attitude one has towards one’s own cultural values) and has towards one’s own cultural values) and •hetero-imageshetero-images (i.e. images shaped by one’s attitude (i.e. images shaped by one’s attitude towards the other). towards the other). These images may be positive or negative in their valorization, These images may be positive or negative in their valorization, reflecting different attitudes such as xenophilia, tolerance and reflecting different attitudes such as xenophilia, tolerance and cosmopolitism, on the one hand, and xenophobia and cosmopolitism, on the one hand, and xenophobia and ethnocentricism, on the other. ethnocentricism, on the other.

National stereotypeNational stereotype: an attempt to fix a certain : an attempt to fix a certain representation of identity as characteristic for the “national representation of identity as characteristic for the “national character”; an instance of cultural confrontation reflecting an character”; an instance of cultural confrontation reflecting an extrapolation of the particular with the general, and of the extrapolation of the particular with the general, and of the individual with the collective.individual with the collective.

↓↓ Our interest will not be on establishing the truth value of these Our interest will not be on establishing the truth value of these

images as if they were items of information about reality, but on images as if they were items of information about reality, but on disclosing the properties of the disclosing the properties of the contextcontext which makes them which makes them available as patterns of identification for a group of people.available as patterns of identification for a group of people.

Migration and Gender as Migration and Gender as Cultural MapsCultural Maps

CultureCulture: maps of meaning whereby a particular group : maps of meaning whereby a particular group of people make sense of everyday practices, that are of people make sense of everyday practices, that are prone to processes of formation and deconstruction. prone to processes of formation and deconstruction.

In reading the representational “terrain” of national In reading the representational “terrain” of national identity, we will focus on identity, we will focus on migrationmigration and and gendergender as as variable and fluid maps of meaning which are open to variable and fluid maps of meaning which are open to negotiation and re-negotiation. negotiation and re-negotiation.

contextaddresser - message -

addressee contactcode (Roman Jakobson’s diagram of communication)(Roman Jakobson’s diagram of communication)

• Who is saying this? What audience is the author addressing? Who is saying this? What audience is the author addressing? Why is it important for the author to make this point? What are Why is it important for the author to make this point? What are the political circumstances at the time the text is produced? the political circumstances at the time the text is produced? How does the author attempt to convince the addressee of the How does the author attempt to convince the addressee of the validity of his claim? What type of textvalidity of his claim? What type of text and code does (s)he use to construct a certain image?

Media RepresentationsMedia Representations

Media texts:Media texts:• Printed texts: books, newspapers and Printed texts: books, newspapers and

magazines;magazines;• Audio-visual texts: television and film Audio-visual texts: television and film

(feature films and documentaries);(feature films and documentaries);• Electronic texts/ internet: blogs, Electronic texts/ internet: blogs,

podcasts, forums.podcasts, forums.

In analysing these representations with In analysing these representations with an aim at underlining a certain an aim at underlining a certain

relationship between the examining relationship between the examining self and the examined other, it is self and the examined other, it is

important to:important to: delimitate the delimitate the spatial framespatial frame;; identify the dichotomic coordinates relating the identify the dichotomic coordinates relating the

geographical spacegeographical space to the to the mental structuresmental structures underlying the representation of cross-cultural underlying the representation of cross-cultural encounters (East vs. West; town vs. country; distant vs. encounters (East vs. West; town vs. country; distant vs. familiar; margin vs. centre; included vs. excluded) ;familiar; margin vs. centre; included vs. excluded) ;

consider the consider the time componenttime component (both diachronically and (both diachronically and synchronically) ;synchronically) ;

read the text as an read the text as an anthropological documentanthropological document bearing bearing on social practices, manners, living conditions, etc. on social practices, manners, living conditions, etc.

consider the auto- and hetero-images as they emerge in consider the auto- and hetero-images as they emerge in textual termstextual terms as an ensemble of signs meant for a as an ensemble of signs meant for a certain public in order to meet certain expectations. certain public in order to meet certain expectations.

Case Study: Migration and Case Study: Migration and Image Construction in the Image Construction in the

Romanian Context Romanian Context Spatial mapping of the Romanian context Spatial mapping of the Romanian context

as:as:• migration source;migration source;• migration target;migration target;• migration transit space.migration transit space.

Temporal mapping of the Romanian context: Temporal mapping of the Romanian context: • pre-1989 migration;pre-1989 migration;• post- 1989 migration.post- 1989 migration.

(De)constructing the migrant in media texts.(De)constructing the migrant in media texts.

Romania as migration Romania as migration sourcesource

Before 1989 (under the Communist regime)Before 1989 (under the Communist regime)• restrictive exit policiesrestrictive exit policies, severely limiting the ability of , severely limiting the ability of

citizens to travel internationally with the hope of citizens to travel internationally with the hope of reducing the number of asylum applications made by reducing the number of asylum applications made by Romanians abroad; Romanians abroad;

• Nonetheless, a relatively high amount of permanent, Nonetheless, a relatively high amount of permanent, legal emigration → Ethnic minorities, i.e. legal emigration → Ethnic minorities, i.e. Jews, Germans Jews, Germans and Hungariansand Hungarians (44% of the emigrant population (44% of the emigrant population between 1975 and 1989)between 1975 and 1989)

Jews → Israel and the United States;Jews → Israel and the United States; Germans → the Federal Republic of Germany;Germans → the Federal Republic of Germany; Hungarians → Hungary, most of them choosing illegal Hungarians → Hungary, most of them choosing illegal

strategies of leaving (strategies of leaving (crossing the green border crossing the green border illegally, staying in Hungary without residence permit, illegally, staying in Hungary without residence permit, etc.).etc.).


Before 1989 (under the Communist Before 1989 (under the Communist regime)regime)• temporary migration notably for the temporary migration notably for the

purposes of education and work. Labour purposes of education and work. Labour migration was exclusively state-managed, migration was exclusively state-managed, and a large majority of Romanian workers and a large majority of Romanian workers headed to the Middle East, particularly to headed to the Middle East, particularly to the Persian Gulf area, where their labour the Persian Gulf area, where their labour activities were tightly regulated and activities were tightly regulated and family reunification forbidden. family reunification forbidden.


After 1989 (after the fall of the After 1989 (after the fall of the Communist regime)Communist regime)• Liberalization of passport administration and international Liberalization of passport administration and international

travel;travel;• a set of acts meant to regulate the international mobility

of the labour force (both outflows and inflows): 2002 - Labour Force Migration Office; bilateral agreements on labour migration. E.g. In 2006

it provided 53,029 Romanian workers with foreign jobs (up 137% from 2002), mainly as seasonal workers in Germany (the major destination for this type of migration), Spain and Hungary.

2004 – the National Strategy on Migration (its main goal: to provide a coherent legal framework for labour migration, asylum cases and naturalization).


1. 1. ethnic minoritiesethnic minorities (especially Germans and Hungarians) – (especially Germans and Hungarians) – over-represented among the migrants in the 1990s.over-represented among the migrants in the 1990s.

2. 2. studiesstudies abroad in both European and American educational abroad in both European and American educational institutions (secondary schools and mainly universities).institutions (secondary schools and mainly universities).

3. since the 1990s – massive migration of Romanian 3. since the 1990s – massive migration of Romanian labour labour forceforce on account of the restructuring of Romanian economy on account of the restructuring of Romanian economy resulting in increased unemployment. 3 phases of labour resulting in increased unemployment. 3 phases of labour migration:migration:

1990-1995: migration to Israel, Turkey, Hungary (mostly 1990-1995: migration to Israel, Turkey, Hungary (mostly ethnic Hungarians) and Germany ;ethnic Hungarians) and Germany ;

1996-2002: westward migration increasingly to Italy and 1996-2002: westward migration increasingly to Italy and Spain;Spain;

2002- to the present: removing the visa requirements in the 2002- to the present: removing the visa requirements in the Schengen space →Italy, Spain, Portugal and the UK.Schengen space →Italy, Spain, Portugal and the UK.

Estimations: 3.4 million Romanians were working abroad in mid-Estimations: 3.4 million Romanians were working abroad in mid-2007, approximately 1.2 million of them legally . Almost two 2007, approximately 1.2 million of them legally . Almost two thirds of Romanian emigrants are women.thirds of Romanian emigrants are women.


Categorisation of immigrants:Categorisation of immigrants:• Legal/ authorized immigrants;Legal/ authorized immigrants;• Undocumented/ illegal/ irregular/ unauthorized

immigrants (Romania – mainly a source country for irregular migration)

Sectors most likely liable to undocumented employment:• construction and associated businesses; • hotels and restaurants; • cleaning of industrial facilities and buildings; • agriculture and forestry; • food, beverage and tobacco industry;• transportation of persons and goods; • metal processing industries;• businesses in the entertainment sector (bars,

nightclubs, amusement arcades); • private households and private building sites

(domestic work – cleaning and caring)

Romania as migration Romania as migration sourcesource Consequences of massive migration from Romania:Consequences of massive migration from Romania:

•Positive effects: Positive effects: For the migrant ethnic minorities (Jews, Germans, Hungarians) - For the migrant ethnic minorities (Jews, Germans, Hungarians) - regaining their sense of national identity by rediscovering, by regaining their sense of national identity by rediscovering, by displacement, their cultural ‘roots’.displacement, their cultural ‘roots’.

For students – direct access to a varied range of academic For students – direct access to a varied range of academic approaches to different study fields from which they could benefit by approaches to different study fields from which they could benefit by acquiring more working (but also) life experience.acquiring more working (but also) life experience.

For workers - increasing the living standards of migrant households For workers - increasing the living standards of migrant households (e.g. the National Bank of Romania reported the record amount of (e.g. the National Bank of Romania reported the record amount of EUR 4.8-5.3 billion for remittances in 2006)EUR 4.8-5.3 billion for remittances in 2006)

•Negative affects:Negative affects: loss of valuable professional labour force, since many of the students loss of valuable professional labour force, since many of the students trained abroad and of the well-trained workers left abroad more often trained abroad and of the well-trained workers left abroad more often than not decide not to return to Romania (mainly for financial than not decide not to return to Romania (mainly for financial reasons).reasons).

↓↓growing shortages in sectors of the Romanian labour market growing shortages in sectors of the Romanian labour market

abandonment of minors by their labour migrant parents (especially abandonment of minors by their labour migrant parents (especially by their mothers in the recent years) (e.g. in 2006 - 60,000 children by their mothers in the recent years) (e.g. in 2006 - 60,000 children at risk for having their parents working abroad, out of which one third at risk for having their parents working abroad, out of which one third deprived of both their parents - the National Authority for the deprived of both their parents - the National Authority for the Protection of Children’s Rights Protection of Children’s Rights

trafficking in human beings, especially women.trafficking in human beings, especially women. increased criminalityincreased criminality

Romania as migration Romania as migration targettarget

Before 1989 (under the Communist Before 1989 (under the Communist regime)regime)• rather limited inflow of foreign migrants rather limited inflow of foreign migrants

to Romania, especially from the to Romania, especially from the “unfriendly” countries;“unfriendly” countries;

• foreign students, especially from the foreign students, especially from the Middle East and African countries (from Middle East and African countries (from the 1970s onwards) (= 7-8% of the the 1970s onwards) (= 7-8% of the students in the Romanian universities in students in the Romanian universities in the 1980s). the 1980s).


After 1989 (after the fall of the Communist regime):After 1989 (after the fall of the Communist regime): Main reasons for immigration to Romania: Main reasons for immigration to Romania: studies; studies;

marriage; work/ business.marriage; work/ business. Several phases in the immigration process:Several phases in the immigration process:

• 1990s: mostly 1990s: mostly entrepreneursentrepreneurs, especially from Turkey, , especially from Turkey, the Middle East (Syria, Jordan) and China;the Middle East (Syria, Jordan) and China;

• 2000 – to the present: 2000 – to the present: foreign workersforeign workers meant to make meant to make up for the shortages on the Romanian labour market up for the shortages on the Romanian labour market (especially in sectors like clothing and construction (especially in sectors like clothing and construction industries).industries).

↓↓Countries of origin: mainly Turkey and China, but also Countries of origin: mainly Turkey and China, but also Ukraine and Middle-East countries (Syria, Iran, Lebanon, Ukraine and Middle-East countries (Syria, Iran, Lebanon,

Jordan, etc.)Jordan, etc.)But also But also investors and highly specialized workers investors and highly specialized workers from from

countries like France, Germany, Italy, the United States, countries like France, Germany, Italy, the United States, etc. etc.


Migrants from the Migrants from the neighbouring Republic neighbouring Republic of Moldova (building of Moldova (building on historical ties)on historical ties)

The 1991 The 1991 Romanian Romanian Citizenship LawCitizenship Law, , which practically which practically defined the migration defined the migration of Moldovan citizens of Moldovan citizens as a form of as a form of repatriation repatriation

Total number of immigrants and immigrants from the Republic of Moldova, 1991-2005

Romania as Romania as transittransit migration spacemigration space

Romania counts as a transit country for many asylum applicants due to its geographical location on the European Union’s eastern border and due to its position as a crossroad between the north-south migration axis (African countries being significant places of origin) and the east-west route (Far East, Middle East and former Soviet Union as main sources).

As the Romanian economy is still not very attractive to economic migrants, most of these groups just adjourn on their way toward more developed west side of Europe. → crossing the border illegally, staying in → crossing the border illegally, staying in Romania without residence permit, etc.Romania without residence permit, etc.

↓↓the largest groups of apprehended aliens: Turkey, China, the largest groups of apprehended aliens: Turkey, China, Republic of Moldova, Ukraine, Syria, India, Nigeria, etc.Republic of Moldova, Ukraine, Syria, India, Nigeria, etc.

Romania as transit Romania as transit migration spacemigration space

Refuge and asylum in RomaniaRefuge and asylum in Romania• 1991- the UN Convention and the Protocol Relating to 1991- the UN Convention and the Protocol Relating to

the Status of Refugees ; Romanian Government the Status of Refugees ; Romanian Government Ordinances (e.g. no. 616/ 06.06.2004 defining the Ordinances (e.g. no. 616/ 06.06.2004 defining the National Strategy regarding Migration)National Strategy regarding Migration)

• the National Office for Refugees (the Romanian the National Office for Refugees (the Romanian governmental unit in charge of the implementation of governmental unit in charge of the implementation of asylum policy) asylum policy)

• The number of applications currently in decrease, but The number of applications currently in decrease, but it might increase in the near future owing to the fact it might increase in the near future owing to the fact that approximately two-thirds of Romania’s borders that approximately two-thirds of Romania’s borders are with non-EU countries (Moldova, Ukraine and the are with non-EU countries (Moldova, Ukraine and the former Yugoslavia) .former Yugoslavia) .

Romania as transit Romania as transit migration spacemigration space Romania – both a source and a transit country (for persons Romania – both a source and a transit country (for persons

originating from Moldova, Ukraine and Russia) of originating from Moldova, Ukraine and Russia) of human human traffickingtrafficking, with victims (including children) being trafficked to , with victims (including children) being trafficked to various places in the Balkan states as well as Italy, Spain, France various places in the Balkan states as well as Italy, Spain, France and beyond. and beyond.

Considerable pressure on the Romanian authorities to implement Considerable pressure on the Romanian authorities to implement effective policies to address this problem: effective policies to address this problem: • 2001: the law to combat and prevent human trafficking;2001: the law to combat and prevent human trafficking;• Focus mainly on trafficking with children – 2004: a Draft Focus mainly on trafficking with children – 2004: a Draft

National Plan of Action for Preventing and Combating National Plan of Action for Preventing and Combating Trafficking with Children Trafficking with Children

• enforcement of regulations meant to prevent or sanction enforcement of regulations meant to prevent or sanction trafficking; setting up institutions to assist victims including trafficking; setting up institutions to assist victims including centres that underage victims of trafficking can return to and centres that underage victims of trafficking can return to and centres where adult victims of trafficking can receive centres where adult victims of trafficking can receive counselling.counselling.

However, as international reports evidence, in spite of the However, as international reports evidence, in spite of the progress made at the legislative level, Romania remains a source progress made at the legislative level, Romania remains a source and transit country primarily for women and girls trafficked from and transit country primarily for women and girls trafficked from Moldavia and Ukraine to Bosnia, Serbia, Macedonia, Kosovo, Moldavia and Ukraine to Bosnia, Serbia, Macedonia, Kosovo, Albania, Greece, Italy and Turkey for the purpose of sexual Albania, Greece, Italy and Turkey for the purpose of sexual exploitation. exploitation.

Romanians, Migration and Romanians, Migration and Media RepresentationsMedia Representations

Printed texts: books Printed texts: books • novels, diaries and monographies written by novels, diaries and monographies written by

Romanians who migrated (legally or illegally) under the Romanians who migrated (legally or illegally) under the Communist regime:Communist regime:

E.g. Sorin Alexandrescu, E.g. Sorin Alexandrescu, Identitate în ruptură Identitate în ruptură (Identity in Rupture)(Identity in Rupture), , Sanda StolojanSanda Stolojan, , Nori peste Nori peste balcoane. Jurnal din exilul parizianbalcoane. Jurnal din exilul parizian (Clouds over (Clouds over balconies. The Diary of a Parisian exile)balconies. The Diary of a Parisian exile), Hertha , Hertha Muller, Muller, The Land of Green PlumsThe Land of Green Plums;; Oana Orlea,Oana Orlea, Une Une Sosie en Cavale; Sosie en Cavale; Oana Orlea, Oana Orlea, Les Anées volées – dans Les Anées volées – dans le Goulag roumain à seize ansle Goulag roumain à seize ans,, Louise Gherasim, Louise Gherasim, Escape from RomaniaEscape from Romania

• diaries and monographies mainly by young Romanian diaries and monographies mainly by young Romanian postgraduates who left for studies after the 1989 postgraduates who left for studies after the 1989 change of regime:change of regime:

E.g. Ioana Bot, E.g. Ioana Bot, Jurnal elvetian (Swiss Diary)Jurnal elvetian (Swiss Diary)


newspapers and magazines: newspapers and magazines: • daily Romanian newspapersdaily Romanian newspapers (broadsheets): Romania (broadsheets): Romania

libera; Adevarul; Evenimentul zilei; Jurnalul national, etc.libera; Adevarul; Evenimentul zilei; Jurnalul national, etc.• international pressinternational press: La Stampa, Corriere della Sera, : La Stampa, Corriere della Sera,

The Guardian, The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian, The Times, The Daily Telegraph, International Herald Tribune, etc.International Herald Tribune, etc.

• Romanian diaspora pressRomanian diaspora press: Actualitatea romaneasca – : Actualitatea romaneasca – Romanii de pretutindeni; Diaspora romaneasca – Romanii de pretutindeni; Diaspora romaneasca – Romanii de pretutindeni; Repere romanesti – Romanii de Romanii de pretutindeni; Repere romanesti – Romanii de pretutindeni, pretutindeni, Romanian Global NewsRomanian Global News, next to (, next to (on-on-line)line) newspapers of Romanian communities in newspapers of Romanian communities in different European countriesdifferent European countries (Italy, Spain, Hungary, (Italy, Spain, Hungary, Germany, the UK , France ,Belgium, Sweden) Germany, the UK , France ,Belgium, Sweden)


Audio-visual texts: television Audio-visual texts: television • Romanian TV channels (TVR, PRO-TV, Romanian TV channels (TVR, PRO-TV,

Antena 1, etc.): news (e.g. news series – Antena 1, etc.): news (e.g. news series – Tu stii ce mai face copilul tau?) talk-Tu stii ce mai face copilul tau?) talk-shows , etc.shows , etc.

• international TV channels: Euronews, international TV channels: Euronews, BBC World, etc.BBC World, etc.


Audio-visual texts: films:Audio-visual texts: films:• Feature films:Feature films:

Romanian: Romanian: OccidentOccident (2002, director Cristian Mungiu (2002, director Cristian Mungiu)), , ItalienceleItaliencele (2004, director Napoleon Helmis), (2004, director Napoleon Helmis), Cum mi-am Cum mi-am petrecut sfarsitul lumiipetrecut sfarsitul lumii (2006, director Catalin (2006, director Catalin Mitulescu)Mitulescu)

Foreign: Foreign: LeoLeo (2000, director Jose Luis Borau), (2000, director Jose Luis Borau), Sex TrafficSex Traffic (2004, TV-series UK); (2004, TV-series UK); Je vous trouve tres beauJe vous trouve tres beau (2006, (2006, director Isabelle Mergault), director Isabelle Mergault), La notteLa notte (to be released in (to be released in 2008, director Francesco Munzi).2008, director Francesco Munzi).

• Documentaries:Documentaries: Romanian: Romanian: Satul sosetelorSatul sosetelor (2006, director Ileana (2006, director Ileana

Stanculescu) ; Stanculescu) ; Orfani pe termen limitatOrfani pe termen limitat (2006) ; (2006) ; IndependentaIndependenta (2006, director Rastko Petrovic) (2006, director Rastko Petrovic)

Foreign: Foreign: The Last Peasants – TemptationThe Last Peasants – Temptation (2003, (2003, director Angus Macqueen); director Angus Macqueen); Leaving Transylvania Leaving Transylvania (2006, (2006, director Dieter Auner) ; director Dieter Auner) ; Stam – We are stayingStam – We are staying (2006, (2006, directors Anne Schiltz and Charlotte Gregoire); directors Anne Schiltz and Charlotte Gregoire); StellaStella (2006, director Vanina Vignal); (2006, director Vanina Vignal); Beyond the ForestBeyond the Forest (2007, (2007, director Gerald Igor Hauzenberger)director Gerald Igor Hauzenberger)


Electronic texts/ Internet: Electronic texts/ Internet: • BlogsBlogs: : http://blogsearch.google.com/http://blogsearch.google.com/; ;

Romanian language blog directory Romanian language blog directory (http://dir.blogflux.com/lang/romanian.html)(http://dir.blogflux.com/lang/romanian.html)

• PodcastsPodcasts: e.g. racist music by DJSyto (Spain): e.g. racist music by DJSyto (Spain)• forumsforums : : www.e-migrant.rowww.e-migrant.ro; ;

www.comunitati.netwww.comunitati.net; ; www.romania-italia.info/portalwww.romania-italia.info/portal; ; www.italiaromania.comwww.italiaromania.com; ; www.spaniaromaneasca.com/s/www.spaniaromaneasca.com/s/; ; www.romaniinspania.3xforum.rowww.romaniinspania.3xforum.ro; ; www.rgnpress.rowww.rgnpress.ro; ; www.romanul.co.ukwww.romanul.co.uk, etc., etc.

Documents

Thematic Study on National Identity and the Media (WP4) Participants: “Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati, Department of English. Romania “Dunarea de