THEORIES OF BEHAVIOURAL COUNSELLING

PROPONENTS/CONTRIBUTORS

Skinner (1904-1990): B. F. Skinner is considered by many authorities to have been thegreatest behavioral psychologist of all time. Earlier behaviorism had been concerned with stimulus-responseconnections. Skinner looked at the learning process in the opposite way,investigating how learning was affected by stimuli presented after an act wasperformed. He found that certain stimuli caused the organism to repeat an actmore frequently. He called stimuli with this effect the "reinforcers". Watson found that by providing reinforcement in a systematic way one couldshape the behavior in desired directions. Link to operant

Teachers have benefited the most from Skinner's fundamental work inreinforcement as a means of controlling and motivating student behavior. Itsvarious applications to classroom practice are commonly called "behaviormodification", a technique that many teachers consider to be one of theirmost valuable tools for improving both learning and behavior of their students.(Charles)

Pavlov (1849-1936): Ivan P. Pavlov is Russia's most famous scientist. He first won great distinction for his research on the physiology of the digestive system. Pavlov encountered a methodological problem that was ultimately to prove more important and more interesting than his physiological research. He had discovered "conditioning".

For Pavlov, all behavior was reflexive. But how do such behaviors differ from the behavior commonly called "instinctive" ? Instinctive behavior is sometimes said to be motivated. The animal has to be hungry, to be sexually aroused, or to have nest-building hormones before these kinds of instinctive behavior can occur. But Pavlov concluded that there seems to be nobasis for distinguishing between reflexes and what has commonly been thought ofas non reflexive behavior. As a psychologist, Pavlov was concerned with thenervous system, and specifically the cerebral cortex, not with any lawfulnessthat he might find in behavior.

At a more abstract level, Pavlov thought that all learning, whether ofelicited responses in animals or of highly conceptual behaviors in humans, wasdue to the mechanisms of classical conditioning. We now believe it to be wrong,but it is none the less one of the great ideas of our culture. (Bolles)

Watson ( 1878-1958): John B. Watson was one of the most colorful personalities in thehistory of psychology. Although he did not invent behaviorism, he became widelyknown as its chief spokesman and protagonist.

Watson was brought up in the prevalent tradition: Mechanism explains behavior. In a widely used textbook (Watson, 1914) he said that the study ofthe mind is the province of philosophy; it is the realm of speculation andendless word games. The mind has no place in psychology. A science ofpsychology must be based on objective phenomena and the ultimate explanationmust be found in the central nervous system.

It was Watson, more than Pavlov or any other one person, who convincedpsychologists that the real explanation of behavior lay in the nervous systemand that as soon as we understood the brain a little better, most of themysteries would disappear. And, it was mainly because of Watson that so manypsychologists came to believe that what they called conditioning was soimportant. (Bolles)

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS

Behavioral counselling theory is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms doincluding acting, thinking, and feelingcan and should be regarded as behaviors, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns or modifying the environment. According to behavioral counselling theory, individuals' response to different environmental stimuli shapes our behaviors. Behaviorists believe behavior can be studied in a methodical and recognizable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. Thus, all behavior can be clarified without the need to reflect on psychological mental states. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind. Behavioral counselling theory comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feeling) Behavioural theories contrast sharply with insight-oriented or Gestalt approaches. For one thing, counsellors holding on to behavioural tenets are active when conducting sessions, compared to insight therapies. Second, behavioural counsellors focus on changing clients behaviour rather than exploring thoughts and feelings. Third, counsellors using the behavioural approach work within a short frame time of sessions, with clear-cut goals to achieve in a defined time limit. Whereas insight-oriented counsellors believe on thoughts and feelings, behavioural counsellors focus on observable and measurable behaviour. They believe that behaviour is learned, thus it can be changed. The focus of counselling and therapies is often on changing the behaviour, thoughts and feelings in such a way that the change can be observed and measure. The goal of behavioural counselling is for the counsellor and the client to mutually agree on counselling goals. Since behaviourists focus on observable and measurable behaviour, the main emphasis in counselling would be to see and observe a change in behaviour, and such desired change is documented in a form of a contract. Goals are stated in terms of specific behaviour change that can be measured and can be reasonably achieved by clients. In other words, the client will get involved in deciding on what to change and how to change.

THEIR BASIC ASSUMPTION

The behavioural approach is the assumption that behaviour is learned. Experience and interactions with the environment make us what we are. This perspective has been called environment determinism because it suggests that we are determined by the environments in which we exist. The second assumption is that all behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning theory. Conditioning refers to changing behaviour in the absorbable behaviour. The third main assumption is that we need to look no further than the behaviours we can observe in order to understand and explain how humans and non-humans animals operate. It is sufficient to be concerned only with external and observable behaviour. A further assumption of the behaviour approach is that humans and non- human animals are only qualitatively different. This is supported by the theory of evolution which suggests that all animals have evolved from common ancestors and are built from the same unit. Much behaviorist research is conducted with non-human animals. It is important to recognize the contrasting perspectives within behaviourism; The nice thing about Behavioral interventions is that they force practitioners to bring some degree of science and objectivity to skill training.

Behavioral interventions keep us disciplined and focused on the objective aspects of the learning process. Without it we can't really be sure about the effectiveness of our interventions, or even the behaviors the interventions are supposed to affect. In short, the value of incorporating behavioral philosophy into skills training is that it insulates our interventions from subjective expectations that each of us carries with us.

1. Relative To Psychotherapy, Behavioral counselling theory Tends To Concentrate On Maladaptive Behavior Itself, Rather Than On Some Presumed Underlying Cause Behavioral counselling theory is practical; it concerns itself with behaviors that are incompatible with local community standards. Although there may be causative factors that underlay the target behavior, (such as emotions like anxiety or anger), behavioral counselling theory assumes they do not exist.

2. Behavioral counselling theory Assumes That Maladaptive Behaviors Are, To A Considerable Degree, Acquired Through Learning, The Same Way That Any Behavior Is Learned. Behavioral counselling theory assumes that few behaviors are not learned behavior, and strives to help clients "unlearn" them, or learn new behaviors in their place.

3. Behavioral counselling theory Assumes That Psychological Principles, Especially Learning Principles, Can Be Extremely Effective In Modifying Maladaptive Behavior. Behavioral counselling theory is often used as a training strategy for the severely mentally handicapped, such as the mentally retarded, autistic or mentally ill. Because the ability to learn is inherent in behavioral counselling theory these populations are less likely to be lost to the "palliative care" excuse for not supplying services. ("Don't waste your time. He can't learn -- he's retarded.")

4. Behavioral counselling theory Involves Setting Specific, Clearly Defined Treatment Goals. Behavioral counselling theory generates interventions based on objective measurements of observed behaviors. Therefore clearly defined goals, strategies and interventions are necessary order for interventions to maintain objectivity and validity.

5. The Behavior Therapist Adapts His Method Of Treatment To The Client's Problem. One of the dangers inherent in behavioral counselling theory is the tendency for practitioners to unwittingly develop a small number of "intervention templates" that are slightly modified to meet the needs of different learners. Practitioners must discipline themselves to remember that intervention plans are individualized, and must adapt themselves to all aspects of the client.

6. Behavioral counselling theory Concentrates On The Here And Now. Behavioral counselling theory is a pragmatic approach that is concerned only with how a behavior manifests itself in the present environment. Distant underlying causes of behavior, or consequences that may manifest themselves far in the future, are not relevant to behavioral counselling theory.

7. It Is Assumed That Any Techniques Subsumed Under The Label Behavioral counselling theory Have Been Subjected To Empirical Test And Have Been Found To Be Relatively Effective. Behavioral counselling theory has a component of strategies and interventions that have proven to be effective in laboratory conditions and have been endorsed as being effective and ethically acceptable by academia and behavior mod organizations.

THE GOALS OF BEHAVIOURAL COUNSELLING

To encourage personal growth in clients by assisting them to be brave enough to become aware of themselves, more genuine or real in their day-to-day interaction.

To encourage clients to be responsible for their own experiences and actions instead of blaming others for what they think, feel or do. In doing so, clients will hopefully increase their inner strength and not rely too much on support from others, although asking for help is not seen as a wrong thing.

To guide clients to develop skills and values that will allow them to meet their needs without trespassing on the boundaries of others.

THE ROLE OF THE CLIENT

Clients have a role to:

provide complete information about ones illness/problem, to enable proper evaluation and treatment

ask questions to ensure an understanding of the condition or problem

show respect to the counsellor and other patients

reschedule/cancel an appointment so another person may see a counsellor

pay bills in a timely manner

use prescription or medical devices for oneself only

inform the practitioner(s) if ones condition worsens

provide requests for permission to release records in writing

ROLE OF THE COUNSELLOR

To help clients develop awareness and experience the present moment, or the now.

To focus on the whole persons

To invite clients into actively experimenting with their attitudes toward life and new behaviours. Through dialogues, the counsellor will guide and provide catalyst for clients to try out new ways of behaving.

THEIR TECHNIQUES

This method of diagnosis emphasizes the surface level of organization culture--the pattern of behaviors that produce business results. It is among the more practical approaches to culture diagnosis because it assesses key work behaviors that can be observed. The behavioral approach provides specific descriptions about how tasks are performed and how relationships are managed in an organization.

Cultural diagnosis derived from a behavioral approach can also be used to assess the cultural risk of trying to implement organizational changes needed to support a new strategy. Significant cultural risks result when changes that are highly important to implementing a new strategy are incompatible with the existing patterns of behavior. Knowledge of such risks can help managers determine whether implementation plans should be changed to manage around the existing culture, whether the culture should be changed, or whether the strategy itself should be modified or abandoned.

The behaviourist approach to understanding abnormality is very reductionist because it reduces explanations for behaviour to simple reward and punishment. While some behaviours, such as the acquisition of phobias, can be explained this way, there are many abnormal behaviours that seem to be passed on genetically, for example alcoholism, autism, and schizophrenia, and so it is difficult to explain them solely in terms of classical or operant conditioning. Similarly there are many disorders, for example depression, that seem to feature abnormal levels of neurotransmitters and so a biological explanation may be more sensible than a simple behaviourist one.Behaviourism can explain the role of the media in the acquisition of certain abnormal behaviours. Anorexia has long been linked with the 'perfect' body image as portrayed in the media. People may learn to be anorexic through social learning by observing models and actresses, reading about the diets they are on, and copying the behaviour they see. Much of the research into classical and operant conditioning has been conducted on animals. Aside from the possible ethical implications of animal research, there is also the issue of generalising findings from one species and applying them to another. Assumptions have to be made that at least some human physiology and psychology is the same as animal physiology and psychology, but clearly humans are different to animals. The behaviourist approach is extremely determinist because it states that a behaviour that has been reinforced WILL be carried out, and one that has been punished WILL NOT be carried out. However humans clearly have a degree of free will and are able to decide when to carry out some behaviours and when to resist them. Cognitive theories of behaviour try to account for free will and decision making, and so it may be better to combine behaviourist and cognitive approaches when trying to explain abnormal behaviour.

COUNSELLING PROCEDURE

Psychological counsellors are increasingly faced with the challenges of multicultural work. No therapy, however, can (or indeed should) be culturally neutral. Although it is sometimes claimed that particular therapeutic frameworks are especially useful for working with minority cultures (e.g. Van Deuzen-Smith 1988), it is evident that psychological models of counselling have yet to seriously incorporate cross-cultural dimensions. The attempt to develop a distinct Intercultural Therapy ( Kareem & Littlewood 1992) has generated some interesting and useful insights but it is far from offering an effective framework to displace the more familiar forms of therapy.

Bronfenbrenner (1976) distinguishes between two levels of systems. The microsystem refers to the system parameters usually mapped by family therapists. These are contained within the constellation of relationships between the person and their immediate environment (family, home and work settings etc.). The macrosystem, in contrast consists of the overarching cultural institutions including socio-economic and legal-political infrastructure. Though usually considered to be outside the immediate scope of psychological counselling, the wider system has an undoubted impact, and may be increasingly forcing its way through the psychological microsystem. At the very least, counsellors will inevitably encounter clients who's experience of culture is markedly different from their own. For many such clients belonging to a different and minority cultural group may be an alienating and disadvantageous experience. Therapists cannot hope to help their clients intrapsychic difficulties if they unable to comprehend the impact of the macrosystem.

The counselling professions are relatively young and sometimes impatient to show themselves as above cultural biases. It is clear, however, that much needs to be done in the recruitment and training of its members. It remains an overwhelmingly white and middle class occupational group which has had very limited opportunity to work multiculturally before engaging in professional practice. Efforts to train psychological counsellors in understanding the detail of cultural diversity, however, has led to criticism of counsellors becoming psychological "tourists" visiting their clients cultural experiences (Krause & Miller 1995).

The way forwards appears to be through psychological counsellors developing multicultural sensitivity (Tien & Johnson 1994). It is essential, however, that training and supervision does not engage in reverse racism where trainees are victim blamed for their own cultural encapsulation. Equally, indoctrination through political correctness can only be counter productive. Clinical supervision has an especially important role to play in this process by encouraging trainees and practitioners to constructively explore their attitudes and expectations of multicultural work in an atmosphere of support and respect.

Psychological counsellors have the prospect of expanding their personal sensitivity and professional effectiveness by embracing multicultural work. As I have described elsewhere (Rawson et al 1999:22): "Counselling operates within a cultural context. Failure to respond sensitively will inevitably lead to a negative view of the profession. Through cross-cultural work, the counselling profession has the opportunity to take a significant part in leadingtowards a more integrated multicultural society, not just to pick up the pieces when it goes wrong. This perhaps is its greatest challenge." Counselling procedure are based on the various principles of learning proposed in the behavioural approach. Using operant conditioning principles, undesirable behaviour may be decreased or eliminated through using reinforcement or punishment, either operated by clients themselves, or by significant others in the clients environment. To learn new behaviour or skill, the counsellor will use shaping technique, where the target skill is broken down into smaller, achievable unit so that clients can accomplish one small change at one time until they acquire the whole new behaviour. Rehearsal is a major technique for clients to practice new behaviour. Using classical conditioning principles where fear or phobia has been acquired, a technique called systematic desensitization can be applied. In this technique, instead of feeling fear or anxiety about an object, person or animal, clients are taught to feel relax and calm at various small steps approaching the main feared figure. Modelling is another technique where clients observe a model demonstrates the desirable behaviour. The model can be the counsellor, a peer or a family member.

APPLICATION TO NIGERIA SITUATION

An example of a currently used behavioral approach to psychology is setting up an incentive system in order to get your child to do chores. They do a chore, they get a token, at the end of a certain amount of time they turn their tokens in for something larger (money, an outing, whatever). Behavioral psychology believes that we LEARN by manipulating (not necessarily in a negative way) the situation to provoke the desired behavior, and if it happens over and over, the person has learned it and ultimately won't need to have the situation manipulated anymore. This sprung from Pavlov's research with dogs (rang the bell, gave them food, later rang the bell and sometimes gave them food, eventually they salivated every time he rang the bell even though he'd stopped giving them food after it). Behavioral approaches deal in the here and now, and aren't terribly concerned with the inner workings of the mind, or things that happened in the past to create the current behavior. This sometimes accounts for its limitations, particularly with trauma victims. A psychodynamic approach IS interested in the inner workings of the mind. Some therapists use a combination of behavioral and psychodynamic methods.

A popular behavioral approach being used now is Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). It is probably the most complex, and the approach that most deals with the interaction between the mind, using logic and motivation, and behavior, including emotional behavior. A behavioral consultation can take place in a clinical setting(medical office or clinic) or educational setting (your kid's school), or with an independent practitioner, like a psychologist or social worker. According to Ellis, humans are both rational and irrational, sensible and crazy. Irrationality and craziness are inherent and may be encouraged unless, a new way of thinking is taught. Irrational thinking, or irrational beliefs contribute to negative emotions and ineffective behaviour. It is not the events that create bad feelings, but how humans think about the events. Irrational pattern of thinking may begin early in life or reinforced by significant others, as well as the general society and environment. Ellis believed that when people have emotional problems, their irrational thoughts would lead to verbalization or self-talk that are based on faulty logic and assumptions. Subsequently, what people tell themselves is related to the way they feel or act.

REFERENCES

Eysenck, Hans (2004) [1999]. Gregory, Richard L. (ed.). ed. Oxford Companion to the Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.9293. ISBN0-19-860224-3.

Robertson, D. (2010). The Philosophy of CognitiveBehavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac. ISBN978-1-85575-756-1.

Wolpe, J. & Lazarus, A. (1966) Behavior Therapy Techniques: A Guide to the Treatment of Neuroses, pp. 12.

Thorndike, E.L. (1911), "Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning", Animal Intelligence (New York: The McMillian Company)

In A.J. Bachrach (Ed.), Experimental foundations of clinical psychology (pp. 325). New York: Basic Books

Martin, G.; Pear, J. (2007). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it (Eighth Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-194227-1

Lindsley, O.; Skinner, B.F.; Solomon, H.C. (1953). Studies in behavior therapy (Status Report I). Walthama, MA.: Metropolitan State Hospital.

Clark, David M.; Christopher G. Fairburn (1997). Science and Practice of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-262726-0.

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