Theories of Ethnicity and Nationalism Lecture Series

Outline prepared and written by: Dr. Jason J. Campbell:

http://jasonjcampbell.org/home.php Youtube Playlist Link:

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLba_fOJviSOLryVx8ZNWmbhiOEEWlLYn5 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §1.0 Ethnicity and Ethnic Relations 2 Working Definitions for Race and Ethnicity:

1. Race: “connotes biological difference among people” … BUT “doesn’t make much sense as a biological concept,” (p.2)

a. Insignificant Biological Consequences b. Significant Sociological Consequences [Explain]

2. Ethnicity: a. “In its most basic sense, ethnicity refers to the social

reproduction of basic classificatory differences between categories of people and to aspects of gain and loss in social interaction. Ethnicity is fundamentally dual, encompassing aspects of both meaning and politics.”1

b. “A socially constructed conception of a subpopulation of individuals who are perceived to reveal shared historical experiences as well as unique (1) organizational, (2) behavioral, and (3) cultural characteristics,” (p.3).

c. American Ethnicities: i. Blacks, White, Asians, Hispanics, Native Americans

etc. as “ethnic-groups”. 1 Thomas Hylland Eriksen, “Ethnicity versus Nationalism” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Aug., 1991), pp. 263-278.

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Duality of Ethnic Conflict: “Ethnicity is a force that mobilizes people’s emotions” p. 1. Forces:

(1) Pride: potentially good [often framed, however, as superiority].

(2) Fear: interpretation of “another ethnic population as a potential threat,” (p.1) [KEY]

3 Operative FORCES of Ethnicity (as concept): 1. The demarcation of “a population of individuals,” p.3

“…country of origin, religion, family practices…language, beliefs [and] values…are used to [demarcate] a population of individuals.” 2. Labeling:

a. Is essential in sustaining the concept of ethnicity. b. REMEMBER: Ethnicity IS “A socially constructed

conception” (p.3). ii. Q: How is the concept of ethnicity sustained?

iii. A: Behavioral and Cultural Differences are normativized, i.e., turned into norms AND symbolized.

iv. Then the norm and its deviations receive labels. [Think of racial hierarchies]

v. PARADOX: “American society is one of the ethnically diverse in the world” (p.3).

vi. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: Call attention to the differences within American society and THUS paradoxically reinforce labels of difference via awareness.

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3. Convergence of Biology and Social-Constructionism: 1. [Biological]: Features of distinction are applied

[Sociological]: (1) organizational, (2) behavioral, and (3) cultural characteristics.

2. State Demography: 3. Homogeneous Social Demography

E.G: Icelandic, South Korean, Japanese Societies

4. Heterogeneous Social Demography E.G: American, French, Canadian

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §1.1: Ethnicity and Ethnic Grouping(s) THESIS: [The underlying assumption that ethnic “groups” exist] Ethnic Groups AKA Ethnic (Sub) Population(s): [DEF]: “a number of interacting individuals [already] distinguished by their ethnicity…a subpopulation of individual who are labeled and categorized by the general population,” (p.5).2 [NOTE]: the ascription of the label is itself a consequence of the “general population” [Explain]. --------------- ↓ [Ref: Ethnicity, Nationalism and Minority Rights “Ethnicity without Groups”. Author: Rogers Brubaker] ↓ ANTITHESIS: [The underlying counter argument challenges the assumption regarding the existence of “groups”] [KEY]: “The concept “group” has remained curiously unscrutinized in recent years,” (p.50). [Def]: Groupism: “the tendency to take discrete, sharply differentiated internally homogeneous and externally bounded groups as basic constituent of social life,” (p. 50) Groupism tends to be essentializing (generalizing and homogenizing), [Explain] Reinforced by tautological “argumentation”: “We need to break…with the seemingly obvious and uncontroversial point that

2 American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination

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ethnic conflict [A] involves conflict between ethnic groups, [A]” (p.52). Basically A=A. True BUT no additional meaning is added Two Attributions of Groupism: [Huge Room for Development] Graduate student should ask themselves the following question: Q: “What are the necessary and sufficient conditions needed to articulate group agency and group interests?”

1. Agency: AKA “Entities” The ontological attempt to attribute uniform general characteristics to the group, on the one hand, and in so doing the application of agency. [Detailed Explanation].

“By invoking group, they seek to evoke them, summon them, call them into being…[they] produce what they apparently describe or designate,” [Explain], (p. 53).

2. Interests: are obviously generalized thought the group, which necessitates that attempts to homogenize interests, increases the likelihood for intra-group alienation, resentment and violence.

4 Tenets of Groupness: To move beyond groupism we emphasize the sociopolitical function of the group and the sense of being, (1) not the being of the group, (2) but the sense of being in the group.

1. Groupness as event: a. [KEY]: the feeling of “collective solidarity,” (p.54). b. The conceptualization of groupness is that of an event, an

occurrence, a happening, that comes into being and potentially disintegrates.

c. This conceptualization in accordance with mobilization [Explain]

2. Groups as categories: a. Groupness is a category of identification and a means of

accessing the epistemology of its organization, i.e., a coming

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to understand how group functions and identifies itself as group.

i. Ethnography, cohabitation, shared linguistic fluency, become essential in “our” attempt to understand group cohesion etc. [Explain].

ii. The category is entrenched in myths, folklore, narratives AS a meaning-giving-activity.

3. Group-making as project: a. Deliberate violence as the means of group-making, i.e., the

existence of groupness may itself be a product of violence [Brief Explanation].

4. Groups as organizations: a. [KEY]: social mobilization is more difficult than

implementing institutional control. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §1.2: 7 Types of Discrimination

1. Ethnic Cleansing: “Systematic attempts to eliminate an ethnic or religious group from a society,” (p.314) E.g., Serbs vs. Albanians.

2. Genocide: “The killing of members of an ethnic subpopulation or, potentially, the extermination of an entire ethnic group. The most intense form of discrimination,” (p.315).

3. Expulsion: “The act of exiling members of an ethic subpopulation from a country…can take the form of (1) direct coercion or it can be (2) indirect,” (p.315).

a. “Usually forced” (p.6) Direct Coercion. b. Creation of social hostilities as a means of incentivizing

migration. Indirect Coercion. 4. Segregation: “The process of spatially isolating members of an

ethnic subpopulation in areas where they cannot have the same access to valued resources as do people who are not isolated,” (p.322). [Link to Metropolitan Lecture Series].

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5. Exclusion: “A pattern of discrimination that denies members of an ethnic group certain positions, independent of the effects of segregation,” (p.7).

a. Rights Denial, Voting Denial, Gerrymandering b. [KEY]: “Exclusion from the political arena denies an ethnic

group the power to move out of its subordinate position,” (p.9)

6. Selective Inclusion: “The process of allowing members of ethnic subpopulations into certain positions while at the same time excluding them from other positions,” (p. 9).

a. “exclusion and selective inclusion tend to operate simultaneously,” (p.9).

b. E.g., Mexican Farm labor in the United States as selectively included, while excluded from other opportunities.

7. Abusive Practices: “Patters of action against the victims of discrimination by member of other ethnic groups and particularly by those charged with the enforcement of law,” (p.9).

a. Environmental Racism: “The dumping of toxic wastes in neighborhoods inhabited by poor and relatively powerless ethnic groups. Waste-disposal sites are generally located in poor and minority neighborhoods,” (p.314)

b. Racial Profiling: “Law enforcement agencies’ use of ethnic markers to assess the likelihood of crime,” (p. 321).

Isolated Acts of Discrimination:

1. “The act of discrimination is not sanctioned by cultural values, beliefs and norms,” (p.10).

2. “They are not performed as a matter of policy within an organized structure,” (p.10).

3. They are not frequent and pervasive in the informal contact among people within the organization,” (p.10)

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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination §1.3: The Institutionalization of Discrimination

1. “exists when … individual acts are sanctioned by cultural values, beliefs, laws, and norm,” (p.10).

2. “they are part of the way a social structure normally operates,” (p.10).

3. “they are pervasive and persistent feature of the contact among people,” (p.10).

Ethnical Stereotyping in America: Groupings: Black, White, Hispanic, Asian, Native Americans. [KEY]: Ethnic identification informs (1) Behavioral expectations, (2) variations in etiquette, (3) Public Rituals The following will represent gross generalizations. You should try completing each ethnical stereotype.

1. Behavioral Expectations: a. Black: Angry/Violent b. White: Entitled/Disrespectful c. Hispanic: Loud/Use Language as means of Excluding d. Asian: Apologetic/Shy/Academic Excellence (Positive) e. Native Americans: Reclusive

2. Variations in Etiquette: a. Black: Prayer/Children are not considered equals b. White: Puritanical/Not to Interrupt c. Hispanic: Prayer/??? d. Asian: Tiger Parents/??? e. Native Americans: ???

3. Public Rituals: a. Black: Posting [Explain] b. White: Public Intoxication/Flashing c. Hispanic: Day Labor d. Asian: ??? e. Native Americans: ???

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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ↓ Anthropology, Culture and Society: Ethnicity and Nationalism ↓

Conceptual and Actual Differences in Stereotyping: “Stereotypes need not be true, and they do not necessarily give good descriptions of what people actually do…[In a research study a Chinese couple was] refused service only once (what was done). [The researcher] sent out a questionnaire to the owners of the establishment, asking whether they would ‘accept member of the Chinese race’ as guests. The vast majority affirmed that they would not (what was said). 7 General Functions of Stereotypes: [Not inherently negative, serve important sociological function].

1. helps “the individual create order,” (p.25) 2. “Make it possible to divide the social world into kinds of people,”

(p.25). 3. “provide criteria for classification,” (p.25). 4. “give the individual the impression of understand(ing),” (p.25) 5. “justify privileges,” (p.25) 6. differentiate “access…to resource(s),” (p.25). 7. when “directed toward a ruling group may alleviate feelings of

powerlessness and resignation…the symbolic revenge,” (p.25) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §1.4: Theories of Ethnic Relations: PART ONE American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination Robert Park’s 4 Stages of Assimilation:

1. Contact with diverse ethnic groups as the condition for Competition.

a. Need for political representation, jobs, resources etc, fuels interethnic competition, which can either be positive [constructive] OR negative and [destructive].

2. Accommodation: Migrated interethnic populations “change and adapt to their new environment,” (p.30).

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3. Stabilization: Cohabitation between migrated ethnic populations, under the auspice of nationalism [ideal].

4. Assimilation: “migrant ethnic [communities] merge with other ethnic groups,” (p.31).

a. Assimilation, then, where it is not forced can strengthen a shared national identity. The main difficult to this end, however, is time, as it is a long process.

b. [IDEA]: It would be a good research project for graduate students to conceptualize a mechanism that may expedite this process, i.e., the process of assimilation/inclusion without imposition and force.

Seven Types of Assimilation:

1. Cultural Assimilation: a. “occurs when the values, beliefs, dogmas, ideologies,

language, and other systems of symbols of the dominant culture are adopted,” p.31.

2. Structural Assimilation: a. “occurs when migrant ethnic groups become members of the

primary group within dominant ethnic subpopulations…[however it] is more difficult to achieve than cultural assimilation because it involves penetration into the close interactions and associations of dominant ethnic groups,” p.31.

3. Martial Assimilation: a. “the emergence of high rates of intermarriage between the

migrant and dominant ethnic group,” p.31. 4. Identification Assimilation:

a. “no longer see themselves as distinctive” p.31, i.e., their exoticism is lost/relinquished.

5. Attitude-Receptional Assimilation: a. “the lack of prejudicial attitudes and stereotypes on the part

of both dominant and migrant ethnic groups,” p.31. 6. Behavioral-Receptional Assimilation:

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a. “the absence of intentional discrimination by dominant ethnic groups against subordinate ethnic groups,” p.31

7. Civic Assimilation: a. [KEY]: which is why it’s moral: “the reduction of conflict

between [inter]ethnics groups over basic values and access to the political arena,” p.31.

Basic Structure of Pluralistic Ethnical Theories:

1. “When identity is nurtured, a pluralistic and permanent mosaic of ethnic subpopulations becomes evident” p.32 [as opposed to a melting-pot, which could challenge existing ethnical identities].

a. This is easy to agree with theoretically, within American ethnical subpopulation what would this mean for white-identity. Are people receptive to “nurturing” white-identity? If not, why not?

b. There is a logical inconsistency to both agree with this sentiment while also denying its importance for the dominant ethnical group(s).

2. Interethnic segmentary conflict resolution/mitigation/identification becomes a national priority were ethnical identity is incommensurable with “competing” ethnic identities.

3. Necessary for unified national identity, which ideally subsumes ethnical rivalries.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §1.5: Theories of Ethnic Relations: PART TWO American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination Bioethnical Theories:

4 Criteria for Pierre van den Berghe’s Sociobiological Fitness: 1. Kin Selection and Inclusive Fitness are the conditions for social

structures, i.e., social organization is indirectly influenced by our biological/genetic need to propagate our genes etc. [the concept of the selfish gene, the body as host to the gene]

2. “social structures are merely “survival machines” that exist to maintain the fitness of genes,” p.33. [Explain]

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a. The prioritization and emphasis on ethnical relationships may itself be explained by the biological need to protect and propagate our genes, which occurs socially.

3. Reciprocal Altruism: a. [Explain and contextualize as generalization masquerading

as a universal “truth”] i. [Assumptions]: (1) Human Nature, (2) Absolute truth,

(3) Epistemic “guarantees” about future conditions, (4) Denies or delegitimizes the possibility of intentional “good/beneficial” consequences as a product of egoistic motivations. [Share Personal Motivations].

4. Ethny: “an extension of…the breeding population…created by endogamy (in which mate selection is confined to specific groups)…”

a. [Assumptions]: This concept grossly generalizes heterosexual normativity as the main/sole condition for our social organization.

i. [LOGIC]: IF genes are the sources of our social relations and thus seek to propagate themselves via sexual reproduction, our social relations must seek to propagate sexual reproduction. Where such relations obviously DON’T, the argument collapse or had to identify “perversion” within the LGBTI community.

b. This biological fact is then socially reconstructed. [Basic marketing 101, the new turbocharged car, lots of $$$ = greater potential for mate selection]. So buy the car.

c. We create social structures/organizations to satisfy our tacit desires for genetic dominance. Ethnical relations may preserve these sentiments.

i. Problematized by notions of “purity” and “impurity”.

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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §1.6: Theories of Ethnic Relations: PART THREE American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination 6 Power and Stratification Ethnical Theories:

1. Stratification Theories: a. “emphasizes how the process of discrimination produces

overrepresentation of members of ethnic subpopulations in various social classes,” p.35.

b. Emphasis placed on “the mobilization of power in order to control where ethnic groups are placed in the class system,” p.35. [Explain].

2. Caste Theories: a. Four General Conditions:

i. Confinement “to lower socioeconomic positions” p.35 ii. Denial of access to power

iii. Denial of intermarriage [i.e., marital assimilation] iv. Politically Enforced Segregation

3. Colonialism Theories: a. External Colonialism: “The process by which one nation

controls the political and economic activities of another, less developed and less powerful society,” p.36.

4 Components of the External Colonization Complex: i. “Forced entry into a territory and its population” p.36

ii. “Alteration or destruction of the indigenous culture [“Fourth World” culture] and patterns of social organization” p.36.

iii. Domination of the indigenous population by representative of the invading society,” p.36.

iv. “Justification of such activities with highly prejudicial, racist beliefs and stereotypes,” p.36.

b. Internal Colonialism: i. “In order to create internal colonies, government must

actively participate. It must provide the coercive

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force needed to control those who are colonized, while legitimating patterns of domination with laws,” p.36.

4 Components of the Internal Colonization Complex: i. Descendents are bequeathed power and control via

prefabricate unjust social relations/organizations. ii. Cheap labor for increased profits, serfdom, slavery

etc. iii. Territorial domination and control:

1. An instance where national identity is inherently antithetical to previous ethnical land “ownership”/occupation.

2. Logic: Nation needs the land. Ethnical group owns/occupies land, to the exclusion of other ethnical groups. Nation ceases control of land with force and either (1) reallocates land for citizens, which is broader than any ethnical group OR (2) it reserves land for only the dominant ethnical group. BOTH are problematic, the latter more so than the former.

4. Split-Labor Market Theories: a. Based in ethnical economic competition b. Operationalizes power through ethnical antagonisms c. Edna Bonacich: Role of “Strike-breakers” by Northern

Industrialists to stop strikes, low wage labor. i. Low Wage Labor historically incentivize violence

against those willing to work for lower wages. 1. Increases horizontal violence within ethnical

communities for those few low-wage jobs. a. Subordinated vs. Privileged Minority Groups.

ii. [Explain]: 21st Century reincarnation. Imported vs. Exported Labor.

d. “Competition involves more than two antagonistic ethnic groups; it also involves third parties who wield power and who which to maximize profits by stimulating competition between ethnic groups in the labor market,” p.37.

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5. Split-Class Theories: a. “Class theories emphasize economic exploitation of the lower

classes by those in the higher classes,” (p.37). b. Basic Marxist account

6. Middleman Minority Theories: a. “Go-betweens” accommodate the economic accessibility to

ethnical subpopulation and those who own the MOP. [Assumption]: subordinated ethnical populations don’t spend money, which is false.

b. EG: “tensions have emerged between African American residents and Korean business owners in ghetto areas, As demonstrated by the attacks on these businesses during the [LA riots],” p.39. [Korean business owners as the Go-betweeners affording economic accessibility to the “ghetto”.

i. Riots may have been sparked by the beating of Rodney King but it represented deep resentment.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §1.7: Ethnical Mobilization

Ralf Ronnquist, “Identity and Intra-State Ethnonational Mobilization Ethnicity and Intra-State Conflict

Understanding Ethnoterritorial Identification: “Territoriality, attachment to a given geographical area, is recognized as a central factor in human activity and human relations, since territories, for groups as well as individuals, are a resource to secure basic needs as survival and reproduction and constitute an important power base,” (p. 146). The Power Base is typically ethnoreligious.

1. Mobilization efforts are often complicated by ethnical claims to territory. [Explain]. Typically not legally sanctioned claims, which represents a particular difficulty for indigenous, “Fourth World” inhibits.

2. A region “reflect(s) and reproduce(s) a collective history of the area…[and is] of decisive importance for the emergence of a common regional identity,” (p.146).

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a. The emergence of a new identity will require mobilization, probably under ethnoreligious, ethnoeconomical lines.

3. “Governments of state have made considerable efforts to develop a common identity among citizens,3 and to make that identity the only politically relevant territorial identity, since it is a central element in the cohesion of the state in periods of external [binary] and internal [segmentary] pressure,” 147.

a. Idealistic: The existing ethnoreligious lines will be less important than either ethnical or religious identifications.

b. Realistic: Many will never identify solely with national identity, which would have to supplant religious identity, though ethnical identity may lose importance especially where labor-markets favor national affiliation over ethnical identification.

4. Ethnoterritorial Group Identification: “…the territory naturally becomes a symbol for social kinship and an inalienable part of common ethnic identity,” (p.148).

a. Individuals as part of ethnical groups, historically bound to territorial regions, are themselves –individually– identified by their ethno-territoriality

5. “Ethnonational identity can thus be said to be closely related to an aspect of historical consciousness [and] collective memory.

3 See Section: “4 Important Criteria Concerning Nationalism”

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The Preconditions for Political Mobilization: 1. Concepts affect “frames of reference and structures of expectation”

147. 2. [KEY]: The Organization of Knowledge, E.G., Positivism

Generally 3. Method of disseminating this organization of Knowledge. [Brief] 4. Collective interpretative ability as a consequence of organized

knowledge [Brief Explanation], which means that the positivist sees and interprets the world as a verificationist.

5. Ideological Substrate [Brief] ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §1.8: General Theories of Nationalism Theories of Nationalism, Umut Ozkirimli 10 Theories of Nationalism:

1. Humanitarian Nationalism: i. A theory of nationalism that espouses “natural law and

presented as inevitable,” p.32. “The earliest…kind of formal nationalism,” p. 32.

2. Jacobin Nationalism: Democratic and Revolutionary

i. Theoretical Conception advanced by: Jean-Jacques Rousseau ii. Evolved from Democratic Nationalism

iii. “Based in [the] theory on the humanitarian democratic nationalism of Rousseau.

iv. Four Characteristics of Jacobin Nationalism: 1. Suspicious and intolerant of internal dissent, p.33 2. relied on force and militarism to attain its ends, p.33 3. fanatically religious, p.33. 4. imbued with missionary zeal, p.33

3. Traditional Nationalism: Aristocratic and Evolutionary

i. Theoretical Conception advanced by: Edmund Burke ii. Evolved from Aristocratic Nationalism

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iii. “preached loyalty to family, locality and region, and glorified the aristocrat”4

iv. “emphasized history and tradition rather than reason [humanitarian] and revolution, [Jacobin]” p.370.

4. Liberal Nationalism: i. Theoretical Conception advanced by: Jeremy Bentham

ii. Sought to “limit the scope and functions of government in all spheres of life…nationality was the proper basis for state and government. War…was peculiarly bad and should be eliminated.” p. 33

iii. Believed that, “each nationality should be a political unit under an independent constitutional government which would put an end to despotism, aristocracy and ecclesiastical influence, and assure to every citizen the broadest practicable exercise of personal liberty,” p. 34

5. Integral Nationalism: i. Theoretical Conception advanced by: Charles Maurras

ii. “The exclusive pursuit of national policies, the absolute maintenance of national integrity and the steady increase of national power – for a nation declines when it loses its might”

iii. The nation is “an end in itself” iv. “refuses cooperation with other nations” v. “the subordination of all personal liberties to its own

purpose”

4 “CONTEMPORARY IDEAS AND THEORIES OF NATIONALISM” Muhammad Badiul Alam, The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 41, No. 3 (September 1980), pp. 367-378, p.370

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6. Territorial Nationalism: i. Pre-Independence movements based on a civic model of the

nation will first seek to eject foreign rulers, the establish a new state-nation on the old colonial territory; [the] ‘anti-colonial’ nationalists. p. 155.

ii. Post-Independence movements based on a civic model of the nation will try to bring together often disparate ethnic populations and integrate them into a new political community replacing the old colonial state; [the] ‘integration’ nationalist. p. 155.

7. Ethnic Nationalism: i. Pre-Independence movements based on an

ethnic/genealogical model of the nation will seek to secede from the larger political unit and set up a new ‘ethno-nation’ in its place; these are ‘secession’ and ‘Diaspora’ nationalists.

[See Section 2.2 for processes] ii. Post-Independence movements based on an

ethnic/genealogical model of the nation will seek to expand by including ethnic kinsmen outside the present boundaries and establish a much larger ‘ethno-nation’ through the union of culturally and ethnically similar states…” p.155.

8. Primordialism: i. [See Section 2.1]

9. Modernism: i. [See Section 2.2]

10. Ethno-Symbolic Nationalism: i. [See Section 2.3]

Nationalism without Ethnicity Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism

11. Basis in “shared meaning rather than group competition,” p.115

12. National identity politics should embrace a ‘mosaic of cultures’ [Brief Explanation]

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i. “The nation is imagined as a mosaic,” 115, [rather than a melting pot]

13. The depiction of the nation as a “supra-ethnic or non-ethnic community” p.116.

i. Operationalized through (1) supra-ethnic compromise. [Open to interdisciplinary participation] (2) and “some degree of supra-ethnic symbolism is required,” p.116.

14. [Assumption] is not that ethnical identities are no longer relevant, this is false, the assumption is that ethnical identities play have only or less significantly micro-level, communal importance and never ever national importance, which is supra-ethnic.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §1.9: Ethnicity versus Nationalism Thomas Hylland Eriksen, “Ethnicity versus Nationalism” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Aug., 1991), pp. 263-278. Ethnical and National Ideological Tensions:

[When it’s Done Poorly]: …a nation “is dominated by [one] ethnic group which den(ies) [their] ethnic identity (instead presenting themselves simply as citizens or humans) and relegate(s) others to minority [ethnical] status or [seeks to] assimilate them.”5 EG: the “hyphenated-American”. There is no “White”-American. To be American, as articulated in language is to be White, i.e., its articulation assumes Whiteness, which is a denial of ethnical Whiteness, subsumed in national identification, while relegating others to identify their ethnical identities, e.g., African-American, Asian-American, Hispanic-American etc…

[When it’s Done Well]: “Ethnic ideologies are at odds with dominant nationalist ideologies, since the latter tend to promote cultural similarity and wide-ranging

5 Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism

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integration of all the inhabitants of the nation-state, regardless of their ethnic membership,” p. 263. Nationalist ideologies inherently assume a totalizing ethnical scope [assuming a morally operative stance]. In truth national ideologies do not pertain to ethnic identities, though policies might and probably will. Nationalist ideologies seek to unite or unify cultural practices and ethnical distinctiveness via citizenship [Explain] Nationalism is the “ideology of the modern nation-sate.”6 6 Forms of Nationalistic Pressures: Assumes that “state boundaries should be identical with cultural boundaries,” 265. 3 Negative National Pressure on Ethnical Identities:

1. Migration 2. Extermination 3. Enforced Assimilation

3 Positive National Pressure on Ethnical Identities 1. Allegiance: 2. Benefits of Social Contract: [See Plato’s Crito] 3. Satisfaction of Needs “Fourth World” indigenous populations are a good example of population that are ethnically distinct but may choose autonomous existence rather than formulating and espousing nationalist ideologies. How Ethnical Groupings Formalize Nationalistic Ideologies:

1. Recognition that a single ethnic group is inherently limited by its distinct social demography.

a. Negative Interpretation: Potentially becomes genocidal as it interprets ethnical and interethnic relations as potential threats to the “State,” (which is defined solely by its ethnic demography) [Explain].

i. Always unsustainable. [Explain]

6 Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism, p. 97.

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b. Positive Interpretation: Recognition that being political approximates total ethnical inclusion, via representation, pluralism etc, and organizes the system for its realization as the means of gaining political control.

i. Usually Sustainable [Explain] 4 Important Criteria Concerning Nationalism:

“Nationalism entails the ideological justification of a state, actual or potential,” (p.265). [Brief Explain]

“it sometimes serves to identify a large number of people as outsiders, but it may also define an ever increasing number of people as insiders and thereby encourage social integration on a higher level than that which is current,” (p.266). [Brief Explain]

[KEY]: “Nationalism is ever emergent and must be defended and justified ideologically,” (p.266).

“All men and women are citizens,” (p.266). o [Brief Explanation]: “the society of individuals

was simultaneously defined as a polity of citizens…[thus]…the ‘nation’ was simply the body of citizens and only the political rights of citizens –not their cultural identities – mattered.7

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §2.0: Ethnicity versus Nationalism (Continued) Thomas Hylland Eriksen, “Ethnicity versus Nationalism” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Aug., 1991), pp. 263-278. Two Main Threats to Nationalism:

1. Agents of Subversion: a. Individual Saboteurs: relatively easy to contain [Explain] b. Ethnical “Saboteurs”: necessitates a genocidal campaign

2. Agents of Fission: a. Individual Agent: Nearly Impossible to Accomplish

[Explain]

7 Theories of Nationalism

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b. Ethnical Agents: Hugely problematic, almost certainly devout ideologues [religious, political etc].

“Nationalist strategies are truly successful only when the state simultaneously increases its sphere of influence and responds credibly to popular demands. It is tautologically true that if the nation-state and its agencies can satisfy perceived needs in ways acknowledged by the citizens [Great Emphasis on Poll #s], then its inhabitants become nationalists,” (p.267). Understanding the Threats to National-Integration:

1. Social relationships [capable of satisfying] perceived needs a. The nation not only has a monopoly on the legitimate use of

violence, etc. it also has a monopoly of the satisfaction of needs.

2. Segregationist Ideologies 3. Ethnical Incommensurability: E.G. Hutu-Tutsi, any ethnical

generational conflict/grievance. 4. Disparate Socioeconomic Divisions

Binary and Segmentary Ideological Substrates: The Ethnical/Kinship Basis for Identity and Identity Based Conflict: A Segmentary Ideological Substrate: See my International War Videos for the basis of

segmentary conflicts.

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The National Basis for Identity: Heavily based in Carl Schmitt’s conceptualization of the friend-enemy. A Binary Ideological Substrate:

The binary opposition is based in “(t)he specific political distinction to which political actions and motives can be reduced is that between friend and enemy, [who needs] not be morally evil or aesthetically ugly…but he is, nevertheless, the other, the stranger; and it is sufficient for his nature that he is…existentially something different and alien,” (p.26-27). [Brief Explanation].8 First and Third World conflict may potentially be lessened by a First World conceptual identification with Third World ethnical groups rather than tribal identification since ethnical groups are represented in the First World, [empathic condition]. PRO: An ability to see the Third World other, via ethnical lines,

lines similar to “our” ethnical divisions. CON: To selectively choose to identify ethnical rather than tribal

identities institutionalizes the imposition of First World modes of identification throughout the world.

Concerning the Possibility of a Nationalistic Morality:

1. [KEY]: The attempt to subsume micro-level ethnical segmentary conflicts at the national, macro-level, becomes a moral act. [Brief Explanation].

2. [KEY]: Interethnic segmentary conflict typically occurs intrastate, which potentially weakens national-interests. Thus, to strengthen national-interests there should either (1) be an attempt to resolve or mediate interethnic segmentary conflict,

8 Carl Schmitt The Concept of the Political. p. 26-27

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[less likely and idealistic] OR, (2) incentivize a more binary worldview.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §2.1: Theories of Nationalism: Primordialism Theories of Nationalism, Umut Ozkirimli Primordialism: “Formalized by Edward Shils” “the belief that nationality is a “natural” part of human beings” p.49 “the givens that stems from being born into a particular religious community, [community/custom] speaking a particular language, or even a dialect of a language, and following particular social practices,” p.49. 4 Categories of Primordialism: The Primordialist has a “belief in, and representation of, the nation as a mystical, a-temporal, even transcendental entity whose survival is more important than the survival of its individual members ay any given time, “p. 52.

1. Nationalist: a. “an inherent attribute of the human condition” p.51. b. [Assumption]: “human beings can only “flourish” p.51.

[subjectively interpreted] if they belong to national community] 5 Themes Informing Primordial-Nationalism:

i. The Notion of Antiquity: AKA Perennialist POV. The historical need to ground and legitimize national existence within the historical context of its emergence. EG. The preconditions for the emergence of the United States predate 1776. [Explain].

ii. The Golden Age: Egypt as the ultimate reference iii. The Superiority of the National Culture: obviously

conflictual and antithetical to 21st century global interdependence.

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iv. An Awakening from Somnolence: [Phoenix metaphor].

v. The National Hero: as revolutionary/activist, revolutionary-activist.

2. Sociobiological: a. Holds that “is indeed an objective, external basis to the

existence of such [ethnical] groups without denying that these groups are also socially constructed. [Consequence of genes etc].9

3. Culturalist: AKA Cultural Primordialist Three Main Ideas within Primordialism

There is some debate concerning the nature of these ‘givens’, i.e., whether they are in-and-of-themselves determinant cause for nationhood or whether they are assumed. [I interpret them as an assumption, being that ethnical identity is biological real].

a. “Primordial identities …are ‘given’, a priori, undervied, natural…rather than sociological,” p.55.

b. “Primordial sentiments are ‘ineffable’, overpowering, and coercive…if an individual is a member of a group, he or she necessarily feels certain attachments to that group and its practices,” p.55.

c. “Primordialism is essentially a question of emotion and affect,” p.55.

4. Perennialist: a. Perennialism “refers to those who believe in the historical

antiquity of the nation,” p.58 b. In contrast to the Culturalist and the Sociobiological

theoretical position on nationalism. They “do not treat the nation as a ‘fact of nature’; but they see it as a constant and fundamental feature of human life,” p.58.

9 See Section Titled: 4 Criteria for Pierre van den Berghe’s Sociobiological Fitness:

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Two Versions of Perennialism: 1. Continuous Perennialism:

i. Emphasizes the continuity in identity. SEE the concept of Antiquity as one of the themes of Primordialism

2. Recurrent Perennialism: i. The nation is viewed as a “category of human association

that can be found everywhere throughout history. Particular nations may come and go, but the nation itself is ubiquitous,” p.58.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §2.2: Theories of Nationalism: Modernism Theories of Nationalism, Umut Ozkirimli Modernism:

“the nation…has become a sociological necessity,” p.72 [Explain] Nationalism comes to form, “in the era between the French and

Industrial Revolutions,” p.75. “The uneven wave of modernization over state territories creates ‘advanced’ and ‘less advanced’ groups [within the state]…resources and power are distributed unequally between the two groups. The powerful group, or the core tries to stabilize its advantages through the institutionalization of the existing stratification system. The economy of the core is characterized by a diversified industrial structure, whereas the peripheral economy is dependent and complementary to that of the core,” p. 80. “The core will dominate the periphery politically and exploit it economically,” p.79.

1. Political Domination [Explain] 2. Economic Exploitation [Explain]

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Process of Ethnic Nationalism: [See Section 1.8 #7 for systematic account]:

Conceptualization of Capital Expansionism via Nationalism:

1. The image does not represent increased geography, though it could [Explain.

2. Ideological capitalism necessitates the formation of nations as a means of propagating capitalism

3. “Nations and nationalism…are the products of specifically modern processes like capitalism, [etc]…” p.72.

a. Capitalism becomes a necessary though not sufficient condition for the emergence of the nation and nationalism

4. “As capitalism spread, and smashed the ancient social formations surrounding it, [ethnical identifications etc] these always tended to fall apart along the fault-lines contained inside them. It is a matter of elementary truth that these lines of fissure were nearly always ones of nationality,” p. 76-77.

“non-dominant ethnic groups…lack(ing) their own state…occupy(ing) a compact territory…dominated by an ‘exogenous’ ruling class…i.e., [a

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ruling class] belonging to a different ethnic group…sooner or later these [non-dominant ethnic] groups became aware of their own ethnicity and started to conceive of themselves as a potential nation” p.114-115 John Breuilly on Nationalism and Political Transformation:10

1. Articulates the notion of “nationalism as a form of politics,” p.84.

2. “nationalism is above all about politics and politics is about power” p.84-85.

3. The relationship between nationalism and modernization is one of transformation wherein the division of labor supports diversified sociological functions. [Explain]

a. [ME]: We must anticipate then that sociological functions warranting transformations within the divisions in labor will increase with technological advancements etc, while antiquated sociological functions will decrease as a consequence of technological obsolescence, e.g., switchboard operators etc.

b. [ME]: which necessitates that political power facilitate the emerging divisions in labor by educational reform e.g., STEM.

Three Basic Assumptions for the Nationalist Argument:

1. There exists a nation with an explicit and peculiar character. p.84.

2. The interests and values of this nation take priority over all other interests and values. p.84.

3. The nation must be as independent as possible. This usually requires at least the attainment of political sovereignty. p.84.

10 SEE Nationalism and State

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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §2.3: Theories of Nationalism: Ethnosymbolism Theories of Nationalism, Umut Ozkirimli Ethnosymbolism:

1. “Emerges from the theoretical critique of modernism,” p. 143. 2. argues that “the rise of nations need to be contextualized within

the larger phenomenon of ethnicity which shaped them,” 143. 3. [KEY]: “contemporary nationalism is nothing but the final

stage of a larger cycle of ethnic consciousness reaching back to the earliest forms of collective organization,” p.145.

a. Collective organization is less about identification of shared ethnical characteristic and more about exclusion of others based on a lack of shared characteristics.

John A. Armstrong’s Symbolic Boundary Mechanisms:

1. [Brief]: Role of the myth on the persistence on ethnical identity.

2. “…ethnic groups are not necessarily based on the occupation of particular, exclusive territories,” p.146.

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3. Mythomoteur: “the myth engine”: used nationally to preserves the “intense consciousness of loyalty and identity established through face-to-face contact in the city-sate…myth transference for political purposes.” p.147.

4. “Armstrong makes a strong case for grounding the emergence of modern national identities on patterns of ethnic persistence,” p.147 [KEY]: the mode in which these identities are neither biological nor geographical but mythical.

a. Europe’s myth is that of the transition to sedentary agricultural, which established a need for military might etc.

b. The Middle East [Generally] established its national identities on the genealogical kinships that determined national affiliations, etc.

5. Ethnies: (ethnic communities): ethno-symbolism tracks the changes in the narratives of ethnies in relation to emergences and transformations in their ethnical identities.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- §2.4 Nationalism and Symbology Victor Turner. “Symbolic Studies” Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 4 (1975), pp. 145-161, p.145. The Political Use of Symbols: [DEF]: “Symbol: is a device for enabling us to make abstractions.”11

Social dynamics link pragmatic action to symbolic action [Explain]. [General background on Charles Sanders Peirce’s Semiotic Theory]

a. Symbolic Action: operational but unknown, i.e., to collective consciousness. Socially constructed by the intelligentsia to facilitate pragmatic action.

i. Q: How is this process facilitated: A: symbols, icons, and indices

b. Pragmatic Action: is collectively contingent on the proper motives, which are created and embedded in cultural,

11 Victor Turner. “Symbolic Studies” Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 4 (1975), pp. 145-161, p.145.

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national, religious symbology for the purpose of coordination, mobilization etc.

c. EG: By definition a threat is relational in its character. (1) a knife alone is a knife. (2) Blood on someone’s hand alone is blood on someone’s hand, (3) a clenched fist is a clenched fist BUT someone’s holding a knife with blood on his hand while clenching his fist binds the relationship between the knife and the blood and implies that he is the killer. See below:

d. The image itself it powerful enough, to motivate action in

response to the implication that he is in fact the killer. e. A clear visual depiction of the motivation of action in

response to implication is the expertly done 2014 Buick LaCrosse Dance Commercial.

i. Dad identifies the young boy as a threat. In response to this threat he sends the relational signal [indices] to his daughter and her suitor, via the radio, that there’ll be no hanky-panky. She says, “We get it.” BUT nothing was communicated other than dad playing music.

“Symbols are "instruments of expression, of communication, of knowledge and of control” p. 145.

Analysis of the 2014 Buick LaCrosse Dance Commercial:

Expression: a. Dad is expressing his recognition of the suitors possible

intent.

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Communication: b. Dad is communicating his expectations for their conduct by

initiating the music playlist. Knowledge:

c. The daughter acknowledges both the reception of this indirect communication, which means that she acknowledges the potential threat. This is demonstrated by her saying, “We got it.” Meaning the reception of dad’s expectation.

Control:

d. Dad accomplishes two things, you have to look closely at the end of the video. (1) His daughter will conform (2) the young boy recognizes that her father poses a threat to his own wellbeing, albeit insignificant (for the commercial), and he did this without having to directly threaten the boy.

The actor’s face perfectly captures his knowledge of the threat dad poses him if he does not conform with dad’s expectations. [Any nation uses symbols in exactly the same way, creating nonverbal cues, which condition behavioral expectations among the mass. These cues acknowledge existing threats and pose new threat to those that would seek to undermine national interest]. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

THE END

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