Theories:

Human resource management (HRM) theory:

Training helped people to learn how to be more effective at work by modifying

knowledge, skills or attitudes through learning experience to achieve effective

performance. Human resource theory supports the significance of training in which it is

considered as one of the processes in achieving organizational goals by attracting and

maintaining employees, and also managing them effectively. Prior studies suggested

that training is a significant predictor of employees’ work commitment and performance.

Results of prior empirical studies also suggested that training comprised four

dimensions namely training commitment, training needs assessment, training contents

and delivery approaches, and training evaluation. This research attempted to contribute

additional empirical evidence on the influence of training on employee’s work

commitment and performance. In particular, this study examined the role of training in

determining the employee’s work commitment and performance in Malaysia. One

hundred and eighty two employees in Malaysia were surveyed for this purpose. The

results of this study revealed that training commitment, training needs assessment,

training contents and delivery approaches, and training evaluation positively and

significantly influence the employee’s work commitment and performance. Training

commitment and training evaluation were found to be more important dimensions of

training in affecting employee’s work commitment and performance.

Most of managers sent their employees for training because of performance problems

arise in organizations as they expecting to see them to come back, a day or so later,

and able to perform satisfactorily. However, the manager not aware of the purpose of

training nor he was given tools to help in coaching the employees in applying what they

had learned in training on the job. So, employees often questioned the value of the

relevance of training they received as they returned to work environment that did not

support a change, even though they wanted to make some changes in their behaviors

and trying out new skills on their works. Research into training influence employee’s

work commitment and performance has generated much debate among previous

academic researchers. The desire for training is supported by human resource

management (HRM) theory, which training is one of the processes in achieving

organizational goals by attracting and maintaining employees, and also to manage them

effectively. HRM theory indicated that training is the field concerned with organizational

activity aimed at bettering the employee’s work commitment and performance in

organizational settings.

Recent studies mentioned that training is an essential element for sustainable

competitive advantage and survival in the 21st century as it is the process of providing

employees with specific skills or helping them to correct deficiencies in their

performance (Poh, 2001). It can be defined as development of skills, specifies

measurable objectives, and should result in observable change in behavior

(Wagonhurst, 2002). Training is a systematic process, which helps people to learn how

to be more effective at work by modifying knowledge, skills or attitudes through learning

experience to achieve effective performance (Buckley and Caple, 2000).

Most of managers give training to their employees for three main purposes (Belcourt,

Wright and Saks, 2000), which are: -

(1) To increase productivity or the performance of employees.

(2) To achieve organizational goals.

(3) To invest in employees to succeed in the unpredictable and turbulent business

environment.

Theory of productive behavior:

Researchers have frequently attributed the rise and evolution of work ethics to changing

economic and religious environments in the Western world. These researchers claim

that economic expansion in Europe and later in the USA created new forms of

economic enterprises and subsequently changed the nature and meaning of work.

Zuboff (1983) argued that as industrial capitalism emerged in the 18th century

employees faced the demands of new work and asked themselves why they should do

it. Zuboff indicated that the answer came from the employers rather than from

employees. Employers sought a theory of productive behavior which offered the

promise of engaging the spirit as well as the body of the worker. He argued that the

conceptualization of work ethic was necessary to ease the management of the newly

invented work organization.

Weber's theory:

According to Ali (2007) researchers have given increasing interest to work ethic and the

role of religion in pursuing economic gain and the wealth accumulation after the

publication of Max Weber works on the role of work ethic in accumulating wealth and

the rise of capitalism. Initially, Weber’s theory of work ethic encompassed several

positive elements of less leisure and long working hours, hard working, perfection in

doing job, feel pride in the job, recognize achievement, wealth accumulation, thrift,

frugality and prudent in investment (Ali et al., 1995). Work ethic is very important

because it was proved has a positive relationship with organizational outcomes (Ali &

Gibbs, 1998; Engel, 1995).

Work ethic and its linkages with organizational commitment, job satisfaction as well as

individual and organizational variables have received considerable attention in the

literature (e.g. Putti et al., 1989; Oliver, 1990; Aldag and Brief, 1975; Blood 1969;

Kidron, 1978; Abboushi, 1990; Furnham and Rajamanickam, 1992; Jones, 1997; Yavas

et al., 1990; Beutell and Brenner, 1986; Elizur et al., 1991; Wayne, 1989). Such

attention might be attributed to the fact that work ethic, in particular, is believed to reflect

an individual's attitudes towards various aspects of work, including preference for

activity and involvement, attitudes toward monetary and non-monetary rewards, and the

desire for upward career mobility (Cherrington, 1980). Additionally, work ethic facilitates

economic development (Congleton, 1991). It also induces employees to be highly

involved in their jobs (Randall and Cote, 1991; Fodor, 1990). Nonetheless, much of the

research on the work ethic has been carried out in the West, with the focus on the

Protestant work ethic (PWE). The concept of the PWE was advanced by Weber (1958)

who proposed a causal relationship between the Protestant work ethic and the

development of capitalism in Western society.

Weber's theory related success in business to religious belief. He proposed that the

Protestant-Calvinistic faith had a spiritual thrust towards capitalism and was based on

the assumption that work and financial success were means to achieve not only

personal goals but religious goals as well (Kidron, 1978).

Weber's theory was introduced into psychology by McClelland (1961), who offered a

social-psychological explanation for the link between Protestantism and capitalism. He

subsumed the PWE concept into the need for achievement concept which he saw as a

basic dimension of personality (Furnham, 1990).

However, the concept of the Islamic work ethic (IWE) has its origin in the Quran, the

sayings and practice of Prophet Mohammed, who preached that hard work caused sins

to be absolved and that ``no one eats better food than that which he eats out of his

work.'' For instance, the Quran often speaks about honesty and justice in trade, and it

calls for an equitable and fair distribution of wealth in the society. The Quran

encourages humans to acquire skills and technology, and highly praises those who

strive in order to earn a living. The Quran is against laziness and waste of time by either

remaining idle or engaging oneself in unproductive activity. The ethics of Islam counsels

against begging and against living as a parasite on the labors of others (Abeng, 1997).

The Islamic work ethic views dedication to work as a virtue. Sufficient effort should go

into one's work, which is seen as obligatory for a capable individual.

Work Ethic:

Belief about work ethic differs across time and countries. Scholar began to show an

interest in the subject after Max Weber publicized the role of work ethic in accumulating

wealth and the rise of capitalism (Ali, 2007). Cherrington (1980) concluded that the

essence of work ethic that derived from Weber theory contains element of hard work,

long hours with little or no time for leisure, pride in work and a job well done, an

orientation toward achievement as well as acquired wealth, along with frugality, thrift

and wise investment. All the elements were practicing by organization in Western world

and also were followed by Islamic regions itself.

Herzberg’s (1996) hygiene/motivator theory:

For reward and recognition, it can be defined as benefits such as increased salary,

bonuses, and promotion which are awarded as public acknowledgement of superior

performance with respect to goals (Juran & Gryna, 1993). Rewards for quality efforts

appear to have a significantly positive relation to employee morale (Kassicieh &

Yourstone, 1998). According to Herzberg’s (1996) hygiene/motivator theory, recognition

is one of the four motivators, which can contribute to employee commitment when it is

present. Reward and recognition activities are valued by employees, and therefore

provide motivation or incentives. If executed appropriately, these activities can, to a

certain degree, secure employees’ commitment to their jobs and make their jobs more

enjoyable; thus creating an overall commitment within the organization (Zhang, 2000). It

could be hypothesized that.

According to Schermerhorn et al. (2000), Frederick Herzberg theorized that employee

satisfaction depends on two sets of issues, which are hygiene issue and motivator

issue. As shown in Table 2.3, he developed the Two-factors Theory or known as the

Motivator-Hygiene Theory.

Two-factors Theory:

Referring to this theory, hygiene factors are sources of job dissatisfaction and these are

associated with the environment in which people work, but any improvement in these

factors will only prevent the people from being dissatisfied. Herzberg identified eight

hygiene factors. The factor is organizational policies.

Organizational policies will guide people in an organization. If the organization creates

unclear or unnecessary policies, it will cause frustration among the employees (Syptak,

Marsland & Ulmer, 1999).

The next motivator factor is recognition. Syptak et al. (1999) believed that every

individual at all levels in the organization would like the organization especially for those

who did the job well. Therefore, acknowledgement to those workers who show good

performance can help to maintain their satisfaction. Responsibility also helps to

motivate people when their have ownership of their work. Given more responsibility and

authority to the people to do their work does not only encourage the workers to do work

more efficiently, but also let the workers feel more confidently to themselves (Syptak et

al., 1999).

The next motivator factor in Two-factor Theory is advancement. The organization can

motivate workers’ loyal and good performance by giving new title to reflect the level that

they have achieved. Moreover, organization can also support their workers further their

education. This is not only beneficial to the workers but to the organization as well

because they will produce more professional and knowledgeable employees (Syptak et

al., 1999).

Social Exchange Theory:

Exchange theory begun as a reaction against what was seen as an overly macro level

view of the world in the structural functionalist perspective. Developed by George

Homan (1910-1989), the theory focuses on the dynamics of interpersonal relationships

and reasons underlying individuals’ choices; Homan suggested the best way to

understand society role is by examining human interaction, specifically the pattern of

rewards and costs that occurs within these relationship (Stockard, 2000).

According to exchange theory, social action is an ongoing interchange, or exchange, of

activity between rational individuals who decide whether they will perform a given action

based on its relative rewards or costs. Blau, 1964 also mentioned that reward and cost

will yield enduring mutual trust and attractions.

Homan referring ‘rewards’ not only tangible things like money but also nonmaterial

things such as love, esteem, approval and affection (Stockard et. al., 2000; Yukl, 1994).

That is, we tend to believe that we, and others should receive rewards that equal to

what we contribute to a relationship or interaction (Homan, 1961; Howard & Hollander,

1997; Vander Zanden, 1987).

In working environment, employee will expect some rewards like recognition, promotion

etc for their hard work; Jawahar and Hemmasi (2006) indicated that when one party

does a favour to another, there is an expectation of some future return. Central to both

social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity is the concept of unspecified

obligation this is, obligation may be enacted in the form of increased commitment to the

relationship and over time, a pattern of reciprocity evolves, resulting in perceive balance

in exchange relationship (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960; Rousseau, 1989).

Social learning theory:

Social learning theory (imitation of behavior derived from social interactions) has been

linked to a variety of settings and a variety of human behaviors. In these studies, it was

found that four elements associated with social learning theory were supported and may

be related to workplace violence in one or two ways (Alexander & Langford, 1992). The

fist is internal to the organization, where social learning may be associated with the

culture or environment of the organization.

The other is external, where the subject is influenced through family, society and other

environments outside the organization. In both instances, the four major components of

social learning and differential association (learnt behaviors from deviant social groups)

are present: imitations of admired models, individual definition regarding deviant

behavior, extent of differential association and the extent of differential reinforcement

(Akers, 1973).

Whether it is inside or outside the workplace, possible aggressors start the violence for

the acceptance or the rewards through their awareness of what they see as acceptable

or rewarded behavior (Gill, Fisher, & Bowie, 2002).