Thesis Full

Running head: GENDER AND RISK FOR COLLEGE BINGE DRINKING

Gender and Risk for College Binge Drinking

Audra Roemer

Zach Walsh

University of British Columbia

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Abstract

The current study seeks to better understand the relationship among personality factors

and parenting on college drinking behaviors. This study will compare the drinking behaviors to

determine the influence of impulsivity, self-esteem and parenting styles on alcohol use and

alcohol-related problems among university students. We will also examine differences between

males and females to determine the extent to which the influence of these factors varies

according to gender. The participants will be university students between the ages of 18 and 35.

Questionnaires will be used to determine demographics, parenting styles, self-esteem,

impulsivity, and the drinking behaviours of participants. We expect that lower self-esteem will

be associated with higher rates of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems, with a stronger link

existing in females. Higher impulsivity will be associated with more alcohol use and alcohol-

related problems, and males and females will compared to determine if differences exist. We also

expect that more restrictive parenting will be associated with lower self-esteem, higher

impulsivity, and predict higher rates of drinking. Authoritative parenting will be associated with

higher self-esteem and predict lower rates of drinking.

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Gender and Risk for College Binge Drinking

Introduction

Binge drinking is widely recognized issue and is associated with many risks. Some of

these risks include, but are not limited to: injury, assault, abuse, vandalism and property damage,

drunk driving, and death. The college-aged population may be more at risk as young adulthood is

the period of life when substance use disorders are at peak prevalence (Patock-Peckham,

Morgan-Lopez, 2009). It is estimated that the total annual cost of alcohol use by the college-age

population is $61.9 billion (Miller, Levy, Spicer, & Taylor, 2006). Furthermore, students have

reported that the transition from high school to college has been followed by an increase in

alcohol consumption and the adverse effects associated with drinking including: fatigue,

increased illness, lack of motivation, and an overall decrease in grades (Leeman, & Wapner,

2001). Due to the magnitude and costs of college drinking, the behavior has been widely studied

in attempts to identify factors that contribute to alcohol use (AU) and alcohol-related problems

(AP) that would be helpful in designing effective interventions for high-risk drinking. In the

present study we seek to determine the influence of impulsivity, self-esteem and parenting styles

on (AU) and (AP). We also examine differences between males and females to determine

whether these influential factors vary according to gender.

Numerous studies have identified predictive relationships between a number of factors

including parenting styles (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2009, 2007, 2006), impulsivity,

and self-esteem (Buri, Louiselle, Misukanis, & Mueller, 1988; Schuckit & Smith, 2006).

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Parenting styles can have a direct impact on drinking behaviors, but they also have a lasting

influence on one’s character dispositions and behaviour, and can influence AU and AP (Patock-

Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2001). In addition to the direct effects of these factors, personality

traits such as self-esteem and impulsiveness may also mediate the relationship between parenting

styles and college drinking behaviors (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006, 2007). Finally,

differences between males and females have been identified concerning the impact of parenting

styles on alcohol use as well as the predictive value of impulsiveness and self-esteem on drinking

behaviors (Corbin, Mcnair, & Carter, 1996; Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006).

Impulsivity and alcohol use

Impulsivity is characterized by a tendency for risk taking, non-planning, and liveliness

and has been linked to certain traits like neuroticism and deceitfulness (Eysenck & Eysenck,

1978). Impulsivity is associated with measures of poor inhibitory control (Pietrzak, Sprague, &

Snyder, 2008) and increased alcohol consumption. It has been proposed that a failure to self-

monitor appropriate behaviors may underlie the association between impulsivity and AU

(Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006). In examining the link between impulsiveness and

binge drinking in university students, research has indicated that impulsiveness can significantly

predict binge drinking frequency, even after controlling for demographic variables. The authors

explained that binge drinking is a form of uninhibited alcohol involvement; individuals high in

impulsiveness may find it more difficult to refrain from drinking even when there are potentially

negative consequences (Carlson, Johnson, & Jacobs, 2010). The influence of impulsivity has

been linked not only to higher levels of alcohol use, but also higher levels of alcohol-related

problems. Furthermore, this influence may also vary across different types of drinkers, such as

hazardous drinkers, who display heavy levels of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems, and

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social drinkers. A sample of undergraduates was examined to compare levels of impulsivity

between hazardous drinkers and social drinkers and hazardous drinkers had higher levels of

impulsivity. This was interpreted to indicate that impulsiveness was more strongly associated

with misuse of alcohol not just use (MacKillop, Mattson, Mackillop, Castelda, & Donovick,

2007).

Impulsivity is associated with alcohol consumption in both males and females, but gender

has also been proposed to moderate the association between impulsivity and drinking behaviors.

However, there have been mixed results regarding gender differences and the strength of the

impact of impulsivity on drinking behaviors. One study reported that impulsiveness was

correlated with positive alcohol expectancies and AP in men and women, but AU in women

only. Furthermore, there was a direct impact of impulsivity on AU among females, where as

impulsivity only affected AU through positive alcohol expectancies among males (Fu et al.,

2007). Contrary to this, a study by Baker and Yardley (2002) found that among individuals with

low levels of impulsivity there were no significant difference between males and females on AU

and misuse. Among individuals with high levels of impulsivity both males and females showed

higher levels of AU compared to their low impulsivity counterparts. However, males had

significantly higher levels of AU and misuse compared to females. These results illustrate

impulsivity is linked to AU in both genders, but at high levels of impulsiveness the association is

stronger in males. Finally, a study examining impulsivity as a predictor of smoking and alcohol

consumption found that although impulsivity predicted smoking behaviors only in females, the

association between impulsivity and alcohol consumption was not dependent on gender (Grano,

Virtanen, Vahtera, Elovainio, & Kivimaki, 2004). In sum, the mixed findings regarding the

influence of impulsivity and gender requires further research to clarify gender variations across

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levels of impulsivity and alcohol consumption.

Self-esteem and alcohol use

Self-esteem is defined as the global, subjective evaluations one makes about the quality

of their behavioral traits (Glindemann, Geller, & Fortnery, 1999). Rosenberg (1965) explains that

high self-esteem is indicative of a sense of self-respect and self-worth; where as low self-esteem

indicates self-rejection and self-dissatisfaction. Low self-esteem has been implicated as risk

factor for risky drinking behaviors among college students (Corbin et al., 1996; Glindemann et

al., 1999; Walitzer & Sher, 1996) and various explanations have been provided to explain this

association. In examining the link between self-esteem, drinking motives, and drinking behaviors

individuals with low self-esteem have been found to consume alcohol to regulate affect, gain

social approval or avoid social rejection, and to maintain or enhance one’s self-esteem

(Neighbors, Larimer, Geisner & Knee, 2004). It is also argued that people with low self-esteem

may consume more alcohol because it provides a rationalization for poor performance (Seeman

& Seeman, 1992) or to cope with anxiety and reduce stress levels (Pullen, 1994).

The direct effect of self-esteem on AU and AP has been widely reported however, there

also seems to be an indirect effect with gender acting as a possible moderator. Males and females

have been compared to determine the stability of the link between self-esteem and AU and AP

across gender. A study that examined gender differences in the link between self-esteem and

problem drinking across 6 categories of drinkers (abstinent, light, moderate, light heavy, heavy,

and very heavy) reported that the relationship between self-esteem and alcohol consumption was

moderated by gender; specifically, among females heavy drinkers had the lowest self-esteem

scores, whereas among males there was a trend of heavier drinkers to have slightly higher self-

esteem scores (Corbin et al., 1996). Similarly, a longitudinal study of college students reported

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that low-self esteem was particularly relevant to the development of AP in women and that

baseline self-esteem predicted alcohol problems over the course of the study. Moreover, among

participants without an alcohol use disorder, no significant gender differences were found in self-

esteem, suggesting that gender differences in self-esteem may exist in regards to AP, but not AU

(Walitzer & Sher, 2006). In sum, the relationship between self-esteem and AU and AP does vary

according gender and therefore, gender should be taken into consideration when examining

association between self-esteem and drinking behaviors.

Parenting styles and alcohol use

Parenting styles, which are defined as the extent to which parents decide to monitor their

child (Baumrind, 1971) and different styles have been implicated as determinants of drinking

behaviors. Baumrind (1971) developed three general categories of parenting styles: authoritarian,

permissive, and authoritative. According to these typologies, authoritarian parenting is rule

driven, directive, and lacking in feelings of warmth. It is characterized as low in acceptance and

involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting. Parents of this style have a

tendency to use punitive measures to control their children and value unquestioned obedience.

Authoritarian parenting has been associated with negative outcomes for children; adolescents

with authoritarian parents had higher levels maladjustment and problems compared to

adolescents reared by authoritative parents (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Owens, 2010). Further,

authoritarian parenting has been associated with higher levels of obedience and conformity to

adult’s expectations, and lower levels of self-confidence and self-reliance (Lamborn, Mounts,

Steinberg, and Dornbusch, 1991). These adverse outcomes may be explained by the fact that

authoritarian parenting promotes subordination and minimizes opportunities for children to learn

successful coping skills. The second type described by Baumrind (1971) is permissive parenting,

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which is characterized by warmth and acceptance, but also non-involvement. Permissive parents

allow their children to regulate their own activities with little monitoring and few rules, demands,

or punishments. Permissive parents tend to treat their children more like friends and allow their

children to make decisions that are more generally reserved for adults. Lamborn et al. (1991)

found that adolescents reared by permissive parents scored high on social competence and self-

confidence, but also showed disengagement from school and more involvement in deviant

behaviors. The third type is authoritative parenting, which is defined by high acceptance and

involvement, adaptive control techniques, and appropriate autonomy granting. Authoritative

parents provide children with firm and clear direction, but also moderate with warmth, reason,

flexibility, and verbal give and take. Authoritative parenting is considered to reflect the most

positive style of parenting (Baumrind, 1971). Compared to other parenting styles, adolescents

with authoritative parents tend to do better in school, be more self-reliant, report less

psychological distress, and engage in less delinquent activity (Baumrind, 2010; Lamborn et al.,

1991). Further, a recent review examining the relationship between parenting styles and health-

risk behaviors in adolescent health reported that adolescents reared by authoritative parents

consistently demonstrated fewer risk behaviors than adolescents reared by non-authoritative

parents (Newman, Harrison, Dashiff, & Davies, 2008).

Many studies have looked at the direct and indirect effects of parenting styles on alcohol

related problems. In a review examining the relationship between parenting styles and adolescent

outcomes, adolescents reared by permissive or authoritarian parents were at an increased risk for

drinking compared to adolescents reared by authoritative parents (Newman et al., 2008). A study

of college students found that overprotective parenting predicted AP and higher rates of

depression via decreased autonomy and lower levels of self-esteem. The authors of the study

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explained that overprotecting parenting implies a lack of confidence and sends a message that

their child is not ready to be an adult (Patock-Peckham and Morgan-Lopez, 2009). Further,

Parenting styles can also indirectly affect drinking behaviors, as they are influential on

personality traits such as self-esteem and impulsivity. Past research examining the effects of

parenting style on the self-esteem of college students indicated that authoritarian parenting leads

to lower levels of self-esteem than authoritative parenting (Buri et al., 1988). A study examining

cross-cultural differences in the relationship between parenting style and self-esteem in

adolescence reported similar results. The study compared Anglo-Australian to Vietnamese

Australian adolescents and found that across both cultures authoritarian parenting style was

related to lower levels of self-esteem (Herz & Gullone, 1999). As mentioned previously, lower

levels of self-esteem can predict alcohol use and alcohol related problems (Corbin et al., 1996;

Glindemaan et al., 1999; Walitzer & Sher, 1996). Parenting styles have also been related to

impulsivity. A study of university students that examined the link between parenting styles and

impulsiveness reported that authoritative parenting was associated with lower levels of

impulsiveness (Patock-Peckham, King, Morgan-Lopez, Ulloa, & Moses, 2011). Another study

examining the relationship between parenting styles and self-regulation in college students

reported that permissive parenting was associated with lower levels of self-regulation (Patock-

Peckham, Cheong, Balhorn, & Nagoshi, 2001).

The studies described above support the idea that different parenting styles can have a

direct impact on an adolescent’s personality, which in turn may affect drinking behaviors;

however, research has also been done to directly test whether self-esteem and impulsivity

mediate the effect of parenting styles on drinking behaviors. A study that examined self-esteem

as a possible mediator between parenting styles and alcohol related problems reported that

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authoritarian parenting contributed to lower levels of self-esteem, which in turn predicted

increased depressive symptoms and increased alcohol-related problems (Patock-Peckham and

Morgan-Lopez, 2009). These results may be partially due an element of warmth that

authoritative and permissive parenting styles, which may be lacking in the authoritarian

parenting style. This feeling of warmth was found to increase feelings of autonomy; increased

autonomy was associated with higher levels of self-esteem, which has been found to be a

protective factor in the pathway between depression and alcohol-related problems (Patock-

Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2009). Impulsiveness has also been examined as a mediating factor

between parenting styles and alcohol-related problems. An examination of impulse control as a

mediator of the association between parenting styles and college drinking behaviors found that

permissive parenting by one’s same gender parent increased impulsiveness, which in turn

decreased drinking control and increased AU and AP. The study also identified authoritative

parenting of one’s same gender parent was negatively related to impulsiveness, therefore acting

as a protective factor against AP (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006). The results provide

further support for the idea that parenting styles are influential factors in determining drinking

behaviours of college students.

The results of these studies indicate that gender may mediate the association between

parenting and drinking behaviors (King & Chassin, 2004; Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez,

2007; Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006). The relationship each individual has to each

parent may play unique roles in alcohol-related behaviors. Specifically, Patock-Peckham and

Morgan-Lopez (2006; 2007) found that a negative parental bond with an authoritarian father

more strongly impacts females’ alcohol consumption, and having a same-sex permissive parent

can directly influence impulse control and indirectly influence alcohol-related behaviors.

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Moreover, a stronger link has identified between parenting styles and self-esteem in females

compared to males (Buri, et al., 1988). In addition, there are gender differences in alcohol related

behaviors and in the factors associated with alcohol consumption. Alcohol consumption and

high-volume drinking tends to be more prevalent among males, and alcohol absenteeism is

higher among women (Wilsnack, Wilsnack, Kristjanson, Vogeltanz-Holm, & Gmel, 2009).

Furthermore, women tend to consume more alcohol in response to negative emotions and

interpersonal conflicts, and their consumption is more strongly mediated by depression severity

(Lau-Barraco, Skewes, & Stasiewicz, 2009). Given these findings, it seems that examining males

and females separately may provide clearer understanding in the how parenting and individual

factors are associated with college drinking behaviors.

Limitations of Past Research

National differences

The majority of research on college drinking behaviors has been conducted in the United

States with American students. However, differences between the drinking behaviors of

Canadian and American students have been identified. Specifically, a study comparing American

and Canadian university students reported that Canadian students have significantly higher rates

of lifetime and past-year alcohol use, whereas male American students have higher rates of

heavy alcohol use than their Canadian counterparts. Furthermore, female students in the U.S

show slightly higher lifetime and past-year alcohol use compared to males, but males were more

likely to engage in heavy alcohol use. In Canada, there were no significant gender differences in

heavy alcohol use. Finally, the protective effect of living at home with parents was found to be

greater among American students than Canadian students (Kuo, et al., 2002). These national

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differences may be partially attributed to the differences in minimum legal drinking age. The

legal drinking age is lower in Canada and therefore alcohol is more accessible to Canadian

undergraduate students. This could lead to increased drinking as well as an increase in risk

factors associated with drinking. However, the effect of the minimum legal drinking age on

alcohol use has not been conclusively determined (Kuo et al., 2002). Given these important

differences, the generalizability of studies done in American universities to Canadian universities

may be limited. Further research in Canadian universities is required to gain more knowledge on

the drinking behaviours and factors associated with alcohol use of Canadian students. If

significant differences are found between the two countries, it could have implications for future

research such that research done in American universities may have limited generalizability.

Furthermore, comparisons across different countries can further our knowledge in how variations

in cultural, political, social, and environmental factors can influence drinking behaviors.

Drinking Measures

Most of the research on drinking behaviors has relied on self-report measures of drinking

(Ham et al., 2009; Neighbors et al., 2004; Patock-Peckham et al., 2001). However, a review

examining the validity of self-reported alcohol consumption and alcohol related problems found

there was variation in the validity of which self-report measures. While recent reports of alcohol

consumption were found to be fairly reliable and valid, measuring long-term drinking practices

was associated with more problems (Midanik, 1982). Furthermore, most studies employ quantity

frequency measures, which require blending drinking behaviors over time to obtain an estimate

of typical drinking patterns (Collins, Kashdan, Koutsky, Morheimer, & Vetter, 2008). However,

drinking patterns have found to vary according to situational factors among college students (Del

Boca, Darkes, Greenbaum, & Goldman, 2004). Therefore, using quantity frequency measures

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may not result in the most accurate picture of drinking patterns among college students. In

response to this, the present study seeks to use improved methodology in order to derive more

accurate reports of drinking patterns.

The improved methodology the current study will be using is called the Timeline

Followback method. During an interview, participants are asked to provide retrospective

estimates of their daily drinking over the past year, which are recorded on a calendar. Memory

aids are used to help participants recall the past year. For example, key dates (e.g. birthdays,

weddings, exam dates, holidays) can act as anchors and the interviewer employs motivational

interviewing techniques to enhance recall. This method is recommended by the National Institute

on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) and has been shown to have good psychometric

properties. Furthermore, because this methods allows for a collection of drinking behaviors over

the period of a year, it yields a more accurate and complete picture of drinking behaviors

(NIAAA, n.d.)

Aims and Implications

The current study seeks to gain a better understanding of the factors that influence college

drinking behaviors and how these factors may vary according to gender. This new understanding

can be used to increase campus and public awareness of drinking and alcohol-related problems.

We are particularly interested in preventing binge drinking and decreasing the adverse outcomes

associated with drinking among university populations. If gender differences are identified, this

could have implications for differential treatment in interventions for treating alcohol-related

problems. Furthermore, the current study improves on the methodology of prior studies. Where

as prior studies have relied on self-report and quantity frequency measures, in the current study

we will be using the Timeline Followback, a more precise method to measure drinking (NIAAA,

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n.d.). This method is a valid and reliable measure that previous studies of attachment and college

drinking have not used (Ham et al., 2009; Neighbors et al., 2004; Patock-Peckham et al., 2001).

Based on previous research (Carlson et al., 2010; MacKillop et al., 2007), we predict that

higher levels of impulsivity will be associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption. Gender

differences of impulsivity will also be examined to provide clarification of previous mixed

findings. Furthermore, lower levels of self-esteem will be associated with higher rates of

drinking and AP, with a stronger link among females. We also predict that authoritarian

parenting styles will be associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption and the

authoritative parenting style will be linked with lower levels of alcohol consumption. We also

seek to examine mediations between parenting styles and self-esteem and impulsivity on

drinking behaviors and AP. Based on past research, we predict that authoritarian parenting will

be associated with lower levels of self-esteem, which will in turn predict higher levels of AU and

AP. The authoritative parenting style will be associated with lower levels of impulsivity and

higher levels of self-esteem, which will in turn predict lower levels of AU and AP.

Method

Participants

A university sample of 139 students was recruited from University of British Columbia

Okanagan through the SONA research pool and recruitment across campus. Participants must

have been raised by two parents and had English as their first language. The data was collected

over the course of three semesters, beginning in May 2010 and ending February 2011. In the first

semester, there was no exclusion criterion in regards to alcohol consumption. In the following

semesters we excluded potential participants who had consumed less than 3 three drinks in the

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previous 3 months in order to increase the ratio of participants who consumed alcohol on a

regular basis. The sample consists of a range of drinkers (from abstainers to heavy binge

drinkers). Each participant received either credit or $15 for participating in the study.

Measures

Parenting styles. The Parental Authority Questionnaire (Buri, 1991) is a 60-item questionnaire

that yields permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative scores for both the mother and the father

(30-items per parent). Participants were asked to report on a 5-point scale the extent to which

they agree with the statements (1 = strongly disagree-5 = strongly agree). Participants filled out a

separate questionnaire for each parent. The questionnaire has been shown to be psychometrically

sound and a valid measure of Baumrind’s parental authority prototypes. There were a relatively

low number of permissive parents so in order to create roughly equivalent groups and maximize

power participants were recoded into two groups. If participants had both parents scoring as

authoritative they were coded as being in the authoritative parent group (AP), and if they had one

or both parents scoring as authoritarian or permissive, they were coded as being in the non-

authoritative parenting group (NAP).

Impulsiveness. The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale is a 30-item self-report questionnaire using a 4-

point Likert scale (1 = rarely/never - 4 = almost always/always). The scale has been found to a

reliable and valid measure of impulsiveness (Stanford et al., 2009). The scale also results in an

overall impulsiveness score with a possible maximum score of 120.

Self-esteem. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale is a 10-item self-report questionnaire using a 4-

point Likert scale (0 = strongly agree – 3 = strongly disagree). Participants are asked to respond

to the items with regard to the extent that the item agrees with their general feelings of their self.

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The scale is a widely used measure of self-esteem.

Alcohol-related problems. The Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index (RAPI) is a 23-item measure

designed to assess problems associated with alcohol use. Items include descriptions of problems

that may be associated with alcohol use and participants are asked to rate the past year frequency

of each problem on a 4-point scale (0 = never - 3 = more than 5-times).

Drinking. The Timeline Followback uses a calendar and a structured interview to obtain

retrospective reports of daily alcohol consumption within the last year; this method allows one to

take into account situational variations in alcohol use (Collins et al., 2008). A drink is defined as

a 12oz can or bottle of beer, 5oz glass of wine, or a drink with one 1.5oz shot of liquor or spirits.

This method is a valid and reliable alternative to quantity frequency measures (Collins et al.,

2008) and has been recommended by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

ProcedureThe study consisted of two separate components: an online portion and an interview

portion. Participants first completed an online survey, which consisted of the Parental Authority

questionnaire, Barratt Impulsiveness scale, the Rosenberg Self-esteem scale, and the RAPI. After

completing the online questionnaires, participants were asked to book an appointment for the

interview component of the study. The response rate of participants was approximately 80%.

Participants provided informed consent prior to the online portion and then provided with an

additional consent prior to beginning the interview. The structured interview took approximately

45 minutes to complete. Using the Timeline Followback method, participants were asked how

often in the last 12 months had they consumed alcohol and how much alcohol they consumed on

each occasion.

Analytical Approach

All analyses were conducted using PASW Statistics 18.0. In order to examine gender

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differences analyses were run separately on males and females. Total scores were calculated for

self-esteem, impulsiveness, and RAPI. Separate scores on the Parental Authority Questionnaire

for each parenting style were calculated and parents were classified as permissive, authoritative,

or authoritarian based on their highest score. After the Timeline Followback calendar had been

completed, total drinking days and total binge drinking days were calculated. A drinking day was

considered any day that the participant consumed one or more alcoholic beverage and binge

drinking was defined as four or more drinks for females and five or more drinks for males in a

two-hour period. This definition is recommended by the NIAAA and is supported by the finding

that women who typically drink four or more drinks have the same likelihood of experiencing

AP as men who typically consume five or more drinks (Wechsler, Davenport, & Rimm, 1995).

Univariate analyses were conducted to determine the effect of parenting on binge drinking, total

drinking days, RAPI scores, self-esteem, and impulsiveness. Correlations were then conducted to

examine the bivariate associations among dichotomous variables. Finally, given that past

research has reported that self-esteem (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2009) and

impulsiveness (Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006) can act as mediators between

parenting styles and drinking behaviors, multiple linear regressions were conducted to determine

if such mediations occurred within our sample.

Results

Descriptives

There were 139 participants, 37% male and 63% female, from the University of British

Columbia Okanagan. Participants ranged between the ages of 17 – 35 (M = 21.67, SD = 3.34).

Drinking levels ranged from abstinence to heavy drinking, (Table 1). The data indicated that all

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three types of parenting styles were present in our sample: 7.5% permissive, 54.5 %

authoritative, and 38% authoritarian. Once participants were re-coded as being in the

authoritative parent group (AP) 47.5%, or in the non-authoritative parenting group (NAP) 52.5%.

Outliers

Values 3 standard deviations above or below the mean were classified as outliers. We

identified 4 outliers on binge drinking, 5 on total drinking days, and 4 on RAPI scores. The

outliers were transformed into the next highest score, which involves converting the outliers into

one score higher than 3 standard deviations above the mean (Field, 2005).

Normality

A normality test was used to test the null hypothesis that the sample distribution does not

differ from the population distribution. The test indicated non-significance therefore, it is

reasonable to assume the sample is normally distributed.

Gender Differences

A univariate analysis of variance was conducted to examine gender difference in drinking

behaviors. Gender differences were found on binge drinking days and total drinking days. Binge

drinking days, drinking days, and RAPI scores for males and females are reported in (Table 2).

Males reported more total binge drinking days than females, F(1, 137) = 6.24, p < .05. Males

also reported more total drinking days than females, F(1, 137) = 11.96, p < .01. No gender

differences existed on the RAPI, F(1, 137) = .71, p = .40, self-esteem, F(1, 137) = .07, p = .79, or

impulsivity, F(1, 137) = .98, p = .32.

Parenting Styles

A univariate analysis of variance was conducted to examine the differences between

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parenting groups on drinking behaviors, self-esteem, and impulsivity. Drinking behaviors, self-

esteem scores, and impulsiveness scores of males and females across parenting styles is reported

in (Table 2). Results for males are as follows; the AP group reported more total drinking days the

NAP group, F(1, 49) = 4.16, p < .05. There was also a slight trend with the AP group showed

higher levels of binge drinking than the NAP group F(1, 49) = 3.45, p = .07. However, parenting

groups did not differ on RAPI scores F(1, 49) = .10, p < = .76, self-esteem F(1, 49) = 1.01, p

= .32, or impulsiveness, F(1, 49) = .22, p = .64. In females, parenting groups did not differ on

binge drinking F(1, 86) = 1.99, p = .16, drinking days F(1, 86) = .96, p = .33, RAPI scores F(1,

86) = .66, p = .42, or impulsiveness F(1, 86) = 1.32, p = .25. However, the AP group showed

higher levels of self-esteem than the NAP group F(1, 86) = 4.13, p < .05.

Correlational Analyses

Correlations were conducted to examine the bivariate associations between parenting

style, self-esteem, impulsiveness, and drinking variables. Parenting styles were coded as NAP =

0 and AP = 1. The correlations are reported in table 3. In males, there was a positive relationship

between parenting style and drinking days. Further, self-esteem was negatively correlated with

scores on the RAPI. In females, there was a positive relationship between parenting and self-

esteem. Lastly, impulsiveness was positively correlated with RAPI scores, binge drinking, and

total drinking days.

Multiple Regression

Linear regressions were conducted to determine if self-esteem or impulsiveness mediated the

association between parenting style and drinking days and binge drinking days. According to

Baron and Kenny (1986), mediation requires there to be an association between the independent

variable and the mediator, an association between the mediator and the dependent variable, and

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for the association between the independent and the dependent variable to no longer be

significance once the first two associations are controlled for. The results indicated that self-

esteem did not mediate the effect of parenting style on drinking behaviors among males ( = .95

R = .03, p = .20), or females ( = .85 R = .00, p = .20). Impulsiveness also did not mediate the

effect of parenting style on drinking behaviors among males ( = .64 R = .01, p = .53), or

females ( = -.15 R = .00, p = .82).

Discussion

Our findings suggest that alcohol use and related problems are influenced by gender,

parenting styles, impulsivity, and self-esteem. However, our findings provided mixed support for

our hypotheses. We predicted that higher levels of impulsivity would be associated with higher

levels of alcohol consumption. This hypothesis was supported, but not among males. Our second

hypothesis was that lower levels of self-esteem would be associated with higher rates of drinking

and alcohol-related problems, with a stronger link among females. This hypothesis was partially

supported; lower levels of self-esteem were found to be associated only with higher rates of

alcohol-related problems, but not among females. Our third hypothesis that the authoritative

parenting style would be linked with lower levels of alcohol consumption was not supported; the

authoritative parenting style was associated with more alcohol consumption in males and this

relationship and was unrelated among females. Finally, we predicted that self-esteem and

impulsivity would mediate the effects of parenting style on alcohol consumption and alcohol-

related behaviors; this was also not supported as no mediation was found.

Our findings of inconsistencies across gender are not without precedent as mixed findings

have been found regarding gender differences on the impact of impulsiveness on drinking

20


behaviors. One study found impulsivity to be correlated with alcohol use only among females

(Fu et al., 2007), where as another study found the link between impulsiveness and alcohol use to

be stronger among males (Baker & Yardley, 2002). Finally, another study found that the

association between impulsiveness and alcohol use was not dependent on gender (Grano et al.,

2004). Our findings supported previous findings of a stronger association between impulsiveness

and alcohol consumption among females relative to males (Fu et al., 2007). There are several

possible explanations for this association. One study that examined the role of impulsivity and

expectancies in alcohol use college students found a direct effect of impulsiveness and alcohol

use among females; however there was also an indirect effect in both genders via positive

alcohol expectancies. Positive alcohol expectancies mediated the relation between impulsiveness

and alcohol use, meaning that more impulsive individuals were more likely to learn from

positive experiences, which in turn leads to more alcohol use (Fu et al., 2007). This implies that

impulsiveness may be associated with alcohol consumption in males, but through a third variable

such as alcohol expectancies that was not examined in our study. Another study examining

impulsiveness and risk-taking behavior in high school and college students found the association

between higher levels of impulsiveness and risk-taking behaviors to be stronger in females. The

authors proposed that generally higher levels of impulsivity and risk taking might have led

ceiling effects that could mask associations (Stanford, Greve, Boudreaux, Mathias, &

Brumbelow, 1996). This is evident in our study as males scored higher than females in

impulsivity, therefore potentially masking the effects of impulsivity on their drinking behaviors.

Future research that employs more sensitive measures of impulsivity is needed to clarify the link

between impulsiveness and drinking behaviors and to determine the stability of its predictive

value across gender.

21


The present study confirmed the link between self-esteem and alcohol related problems;

however, it was surprising that this relationship appeared only among males, as this is

inconsistent with previous reports that self-esteem is more strongly associated with alcohol

related problems in females (Corbin et al., 1996; Walitzer & Sher, 2006). A possible explanation

for this is that males have been found to describe more positive effects of drinking on self-esteem

compared to females (Orford & Keddie, 1985). If drinking is used as a form of self-esteem

enhancement in males it is possible that males with lower levels of self-esteem may continue to

drink past moderate levels in attempts to raise their self-esteem. Drinking for reasons of

enhancement or coping have been found to be associated with alcohol related problems (Lyvers,

Hasking, Hani, Rhodes, & Trew, 2010). However, the lack of association found between self-

esteem and drinking among females is surprising, as previous research reports that low-self

esteem is relevant to the development of AP among women (Walitzer & Sher, 2006). Therefore,

further research will be important in determining the role of self-esteem in alcohol consumption

across gender.

The association between parenting style and drinking behaviors is not consistent with

previous research. Authoritative parenting has been reported to be associated with lower levels of

alcohol consumption, where as authoritarian and permissive parenting have been linked with

higher levels of alcohol consumption and related problems (Lamborn et al., 1991; Newman et al.,

2008; Patock-Peckham & Morgan-Lopez, 2006, 2007, 2009). However, our surprising finding is

not without precedent; a longitudinal study examining the role of parental alcohol-specific

communication in early adolescents’ alcohol use found that more alcohol specific

communication predicted more alcohol use. Further, the impact of alcohol-specific

communication on later alcohol was stronger in males, especially moderate to heavy drinking

22


males (Vorst, Burk, & Engels, 2010). Therefore, our results could be explained by the

communication that occurs between parents and adolescents. The authoritative parenting style is

characterized by warm, open, and flexible communication (Baumrind, 1971). Adolescents with

authoritative parents are more likely to have a positive relationship with their parents and are

therefore more likely to communicate with their parents about alcohol use (Patock-Peckham &

Morgan-Lopez, 2007). Although this has been proposed to be generally positive, alcohol related

communication could lead to an increase in alcohol use and alcohol-specific communication may

lead to increased heavy drinking males. However, it is important to note that although

authoritative parenting was associated with more alcohol consumption, it was not related to

alcohol-related problems. This could imply that those with authoritative parents may drink more

frequently, but in a manner that does not lead to alcohol-related problems. Again, drinking

motives may play an important role in explaining our results. Those with authoritative parents

are likely to be well-adjusted and more likely to drink for social motives; social motives have

been found to be associated with alcohol consumption, but not hazardous drinking (Kuntsche &

Cooper, 2010).

There are some limitations to the present study. The Parental Authority Questionnaire

relies exclusively on children’s self-reported recollections of parenting style. Supplementing this

assessment with parental or other informant reports might increase the validity of the assessment.

Indeed, a study examining these discrepancies found that parents tended to perceive themselves

as being higher in demandingness, responsiveness, and involvement compared to their

adolescents children (Paulson & Sputa, 1996). Nonetheless, the PAQ is a well-validated measure

of parenting styles and evidence and theory both highlight the importance of adolescent

perception in predicting behavior than the parents’ perception (Buri, 1991). Another limitation of

23


our study was the low level of the permissive parenting style in the sample, which limited the

comparisons to authoritative versus an aggregate of non-authoritative parenting groups. This

approach is not unusual in that the authoritative parenting is style is often reported in a way that

compares it to the other parenting styles, with the other parenting styles being viewed together in

a more negative light (Buri et al., 1988; Lamborn et al., 1991; Newman et al., 2008). However,

essential differences between the permissive and authoritarian parenting styles remain and the

examination of these styles may yield further insights into problematic drinking among college

students. Future research with a large sample yielding all three parenting styles would be helpful

in teasing apart the different outcomes regarding drinking behaviors. Although there are

limitations to our study, there are also strengths. The sample size was quite large, which allowed

for an increased power and accuracy. Furthermore, our improved methodology allowed for a

more accurate measure of drinking behaviors. As mentioned previously, most studies employ

quantity frequency measures (Collins, Kashdan, Koutsky, Morheimer, & Vetter, 2008) that do

not allow situational factors to be taken into account. The Timeline Followback method allows

for collection of data over a longer period of time and therefore provides a more accurate and

complete picture of drinking behaviors.

The findings from the present study have clinical and academic implications. First, the

results indicate the importance of considering gender when dealing with alcohol-related

problems, as the pathways to these problems may differ according to gender. If the pathways to

the problems differ, perhaps the approaches to treatment could also be different. Second, risk

factors such as self-esteem and impulsivity should be taken into consideration as they may play a

key role in the development and maintenance of hazardous drinking behaviors. It may be

important to focus on low self-esteem when dealing with males, where as impulsiveness may be

24


a key focus when dealing with females. This leads to the suggestion that the same treatment

program may not be effective for all individuals; perhaps more individualized treatment

programs should be considered. Further, the knowledge that these factors, along with parenting

style can influence drinking behaviors can be helpful in prevention or awareness campaigns

regarding risky drinking behaviors. Risky drinking is a common practice among college

campuses and providing knowledge to parents, students, and faculty about ways to reduce the

harm associated with drinking is important. The results of the study also suggest that further

research is required to better parse the factors that underlie the important issue of problematic

drinking behaviors. First, impulsivity needs to be further examined to determine the stability of

its predictive power across gender. Second, future research would also be helpful in examining

the role self-esteem has in the development of alcohol-related problems in males. Finally,

parenting styles may also need to be re-examined, especially in terms of comparing how the

pathway to light, social drinking may differ from the path to hazardous drinking.

25


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Table 1

Descriptive Statistics of Drinking Variables

Min Max M SD

Total Binge Days/Year

0 106 23.24 26.43

Total Drinking Days/Year

0 144 48.37 34.60

RAPI Problem Score

0 30 8.63 7.14

Note: Transformed

Table 2

Reported Alcohol Consumption and Alcohol-Related Problems In Males and Females Across Parenting Styles

Males Females

Authoritative (N=26)

Non-Authoritative (N=25)

Authoritative (N=40)

Non-Authoritative (N=48)

M SD M SD Total M SD M SD Total

Binge Drinking

39.35 38.18 22.44 25.23 30.63* 22.90 22.07 16.13 22.70 18.95*

Drinking Days

75.85* 45.16 50.52* 43.44 61.16* 44.70 27.79 38.46 31.20 40.97*

RAPI Scores

9.37 7.17 9.00 9.35 9.29 8.93 6.89 7.75 6.64 8.24

* Indicate significant differences at .05 level (2-tailed)

Table 3

33


Summary of Correlations Between Parenting, Self-Esteem, Impulsiveness, Alcohol Consumption and Alcohol-Related Problems

Males Self-Esteem

Impulsiveness Binge Drinking

Drinking Days

RAPI Scores

Parenting Style

.14 -.07 .26 .28* .045

Self-Esteem – -.51** .01 .19 -.32*

Impulsiveness – – .09 .06 .23

Females Parenting Style

.21* -.12 .15 .10 .09

Self-Esteem – -.19 -.05 -.03 -.03

Impulsiveness – – .29** .34** .42**

* Correlations significant at the .05 level (2-tailed)** Correlations significant at the .01 level (2-tailed)

34