Thesis part.doc

7/23/2019 Thesis part.doc

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thesis-partdoc 1/45

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODCTION

1.1 GENERAL DISCUSSION:

Now a day’s knit fabrics are used widespread in the world. The quality of a knit garment is mainly depends

on the effective dyeing process. Considering the capability and demand our country has mainly cotton based

industries. The knit products produced are mainly of cotton. So in the dyeing industries cotton is mainly

dyed. For cotton dyeing there are many types of dyes are available such as direct dye vat dye reactive dye

a!oic dye etc. To dye effectively frankly saying considering all the facts like the application process

retention of the color during use and economy reactive is the most suited dye to dye cotton goods. "eactive

dyes are used e#tensively in dyeing cotton in every factory of our country. Shades that can be produced by

reactive dye is enormous to produce a target shade perfectly monochromatic that means the primary color

are used most frequently. $ut matching with the monochromatic color combination is not always suitable assome shades can’t be found. There are also some limitations about the reactivity and production of the color

in a definite time. To remove this drawback different dye manufacturers come with the idea of some

dichromatic and tri%chromatic reactive dyes. These special types of dyes made for special shades. This dye is

mainly bluish and some are yellowish. This dye is known as turquoise color. Turquoise color is a hot brand

reactive dye. &sually reactive dye is applied to fabric at around '( )C but turquoise color is applied to fabric

at around *()C. These special dyes are made especially in comparison to normal reactive dye. They are

introduced with metal comple# structure+ their reactive group activated at higher temperature their

molecular si!e is bigger than normal reactive dyes. Considering the above facts application process will

definitely be different than normal reactive dye application. ,f process is not changed according to the

structure of dyes achieving of proper shade is really an absurd. The special colors create different types of

problems.

-



1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT WORK:

The main obect of this proect work is to find out the suitable application process of turquoise color.

Specially to find out the appropriate temperature and electrolyte concentration for applying the turquoise

color on cotton. /lso have some obects are mentioned below0

• To observe the effect of temperature on turquoise color.

• To observe the effect of electrolyte concentration.

• Finding out the difference between two different brand dyes.

• Finding out the variation in different fastness properties of sample dyed at different temperature and

different electrolyte concentration.

• To watch the change of color strength of sample dyed at different temperature and different

electrolyte concentration.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH WORK:

1. Michel Hehlen 1-2 worked on 34ffects of 5ye Substantivity in 5yeing Cotton with "eactive 5yes6.

,t represents that Fiber reactive dyes for cotton were shown to vary widely in their substantivity for the

fiber. Substantivity also depended on dye bath temperature and salt concentration as e#pected. The relative

substantivities of the hydroly!ed forms of the reactive dyes were assessed in the laboratory by means of a

simple quick and ine#pensive paper chromatography test. Correlation of the substantivity of the dye with

the amount removed from the cotton under various washing conditions indicated that it should be possible to

select higher or lower washing temperatures based on the substantivity of the dye to be removed. ,n

addition the paper chromatography test was useful for quick selection of dyes of about the same

substantivity. 7i#tures of such dyes dyed cotton with little change in hue during the dyeing process+ dyes of

different substantivity gave pronounced color changes.

2. M F H Arzu and M.M. Rahman[2] worked on

34ffect of process parameters on cotton fabric dyeing with reactive dye especially on 8reen Color6.

This paper presents the various effects on cotton fabric dyeing with reactive dyes. 7ost of the knitted cotton

fabric was dyed with reactive dyes with a view of optimi!ing dyeing procedure of cotton fabrics by varying

dyeing process and parameters. ,n isothermal process dyeing process has been completed at '(9C :for green

color dyeing;. Turquoise color cannot work at '(9C because of high dye affinity. $ut in migration process

turquoise color can work at *(9C. /nother side is dyeing procedure. Fi#ation and e#haustion has been

completed at same temperature during isothermal process for green color dyeing whereas color fi#ation

<



cannot be done properly due to turquoise color. ,n migration process Fi#ation and e#haustion has been

completed at varying temperature so that dyeing procedure is done properly for green color dyeing.

3.D. Schimmel [3] , K.C. Fagnan [3] , J.. !li"eria d#$ San%#$[3] , M.A.S.D. arr#$ [&] and '. An%#nia da Sil"a

[3] worked on 3/dsorption of turquoise blue =8 reactive dye on commercial activated carbon in batch

reactor0 >inetic and 4quilibrium studies6.

The adsorption of reactive turquoise blue =8 dye on commercial activated carbon was investigated in a

batch reactor to obtain isotherm and kinetic data under different e#perimental conditions. The absorbent was

characteri!ed by FT," method to analy!e surface area and ph ?@C and to identify functional groups.

4#periments were conducted to obtain equilibrium data at A()C within the ph effect being analy!ed in the

range of < to *. 4#periments were carried out under the optimal p h condition for dye removal to obtain

equilibrium data at A()C B)C '()C. 7a#imum dye removal capacity was observed at a ph < and

temperature A(

)

C. The best fit for the kinetic data was obtained with the pseudo%second%order model. Theadsorption of the dye on the activated carbon increased as the temperature decreased and the pD decreased.

&. J.Ru$$ell !gle12 worked on 3The influence of the degree of preparation on shade consistency wash

fastness and crock fastness properties of a fibre reactive dyed -((E cotton woven fabric6.

De states the main obective of preparation is to remove all contaminants that could inhibit the uniform

absorption of dyes and chemicals in subsequent treatment. (E of all defects in the final finished cotton

fabric are due to inadequate preparation.

(. erger, Re)ecca Rile*1'2worked on 3Fiber reactive dyes with improved affinity and fi#ation efficiency6.

The investigation represents that although fiber reactive dyes are widely used in the dyeing of cellulosic

materials several economical and environmental problems are associated with their application. ?roblems

include residual color in wastewater cost of wastewater treatment raw material cost :salt dye and water;

and quality of goods produced are e#amples of areas where improvements are needed. The afford mentioned

costs could be reduced by increasing the fi#ation efficiency and e#haustion of reactive dyes. ,n turn fi#ation

efficiency and e#haustion could be increased by increasing dye%fiber affinity. This thesis pertains to an

evaluation of four types of dye structures arising from novel but straight forward modifications of

commercially available fiber reactive dyes to produce colorants designated by ?roctor and 8amble as

Teegafi# "eactive dyes. Teegafi# dyes are produced in < steps from dichlorotria!ine :5CT; type reactive

dyes using either cysteamine or cysteine and then reacting the intermediate structures with either cyanuric

chloride :cf. Type - and < yellow dyes; or a second molecule of the starting dye :cf. Types A and B yellow

dyes;. ,n the same way red and blue 5CT dyes were converted to the corresponding Teegafi# structures.

The resultant homo%bifunctional dyes vary in molecular si!e and reactivity and are designed to enhance dye%

fiber fi#ation efficiency and affinity.

A



CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.1.1 COTTON TEXTILES:

Cotton fabrics are known to have been in use at least for ((( years 12. /lthough numerous synthetic fibres

such as polyesters acrylics polyamides and ?olypropylenes have entered the market over the past ( years

cotton has still maintained its strong consumer demand worldwide. Today cotton te#tiles represent more

than half of the global te#tile market 1*2 and the demand is e#pected to continue 1G -(2. This dominance of

cotton fibre is mainly due to its natural comfort performance and appearance .

3.1.2 COTTON FIBRE:

Cotton is the purest form of the natural cellulose polymers. The fibre is a single plant cell found as the seed

hair of a genus of the plants called Hgossypium’ 1--2. Iike all plant cells a mature cotton fibre has a distinct

cuticle well developed primary and secondary walls and a lumen :FigureA.-; 1-<2.

Figure A.- / morphological diagram of the cotton fibre :source0 1-<2;

The cuticle is the very outside or Hskin’ of the fibre. ,t is composed of pectins protein and wa#es. Therefore

it makes the fibre hydrophobic unless a wetting agent is used. The primary cell wall is immediately

underneath the cuticle. The secondary wall beneath the primary wall forms the bulk of the fibre. ,nadequate

development of the secondary wall during the growth of cotton fibres on the plant creates Himmature’ fibres.

,f there is no development of the secondary wall then the fibre is referred to as a Hdead’ cotton fibre. The

immature and dead fibres tend to become entangled into small fibrous bundles called neps during the

mechanical processes for producing yarns 1-A -B2. The immature fibres cannot be dyed to shades as dark as

mature fibres and the dead fibres remain undyed. Therefore neps can be instantly seen on the surface of the

dyed fabrics appearing as white and light spots. The color contrast between the dyed neps and mature fibres

can be reduced by swelling of immature fibres during merceri!ing :Section -.<.<.<;. The primary and

secondary walls are composed of cellulose Hfibrils’. The fibrils occur in the spiral form at certain angles to

the fibre a#is. The lumen is a longitudinally hollow canal in the centre of the fibre. 7icrographs of the raw

cotton fibres are shown in Figure A.<. 7ature cotton fibres are flattened tubes and are highly convoluted.

The surface of such fibre enables inter%fibre friction :cohesiveness; which is helpful in producing fine spun

B



yarns of adequate strength. The appearance of the cross%section of cotton fibre is bean or kidney%shaped. The

convolutions and bean%shaped cross section of the cotton fibre enable cotton apparel to be more comfortable.

This is because the particular structure of cotton fibre is more compatible with human skin and makes

apparel

more moisture absorbent 1-<2.

Figure A.<0 Scanning electron micrographs of raw cotton fibres :source0 1--2

3.1.3 CHARATERISTICS OF COTTON:

Cotton as a natural cellulosic fiber has a lot of characteristics such as+

• Comfortable Soft hand.

• 8ood absorbency.

• Color retention.

• ?rints well.

• 7achine%washable.

• 5ry%cleanable.

• 8ood strength.

• 5rapes well.

• 4asy to handle and sew.

3.1.4 COTTON POLYMER AND FIBRE POLYMER SYSTEM:

Cotton fibres are composed of cellulose polymers mostly J%cellulose 1-B2. The basic molecular structure of

cotton cellulose is shown in Figure A.A. ,ts repeating unit is cellobiose. The degree of polymeri!ation of

cotton cellulose is about ((( based on cellobiose units 1-<2.

Cotton polymer system is highly crystalline and oriented. ,mportant groups on cotton polymer :cellulose;

are hydro#yl and methylol groups. The presence of abundant hydro#yl groups and the polymer chain

conformation cause intermolecular and intra%molecular hydrogen bonding that enhances the rigidity of the

fibre structure. The e#istence of van der Kaal’s forces is of little significance.



Figure A.A The chemical structure of cotton cellulose :source0 1-A2;

REPEAT UNIT OF CELLULOSE:

Figure A.B "epeat unit of cellulose.

Typical composition of raw cotton :source0 1-A2;0

Components 7ain location /mountE

Cellulose Secondary wall *'.*

Lils wa#es Cuticle (.

?ectins ?rimary wall -.(

Carbohydrates ?rimary wall (.?roteins Iumen -.<

Salts Iumen -.(

Kater '.*

Lther <.(

Table A.-0 Typical composition of raw cotton

3.1. PROPERTIES OF COTTON FIBRE:

DM8"LSCL?,C ?"L?4"T,4S0

The cotton fibre is hydrophilic and water absorbent 1-A2. This is because the polar hydro#yl groups of

cellulose polymer attract the polar water molecules. ,ts porous structure allows ready penetration of water

molecules between the fibrils and into the amorphous regions of the fibre where they can easily form

hydrogen bonds with free cellulose hydro#yl groups. 4ven the typical cotton dyes being quite large

molecules easily penetrate into the accessible interfibrillar and amorphous regions. The standard moisture

regain of cotton fibre is about *E and rises to around <A(E at -((E relative humidity at ambient

temperature 1-A2. Cotton fibre swells with water absorption because of the swelling of the secondary wall. ,t

is one of the few fibres which gains strength when wet 1-<2. This may be due to a temporary improvement in

polymer alignment in the amorphous regions.

'



CD47,C/I ?"L?4"T,4S0

The chemical reactions with cotton cellulose occur mainly due to the activity of hydro#yl groups and depend

on the super molecular structure. /ny reaction is initiated in the more accessible amorphous regions and at

the surfaces of crystalline regions 1-B2. The reactions can be broadly classified into two categories0

esterification and etherification. 4sterification is usually carried out under acidic conditions. These reactions

include nitration acetylation phosphorylation and sulphation. /cidic conditions hydrolyse the cotton

cellulose at the glucoside o#ygen atom which links the two glucose units to form the cellobiose unit

:Figure0A.B; 1-<2. Stronger acids hydrolyse the cellulose more rapidly. / cotton fibre dissolves completely in

a (E aqueous sulphuric acid 1-2. 4therification on the other hand is favoured in an alkaline medium.

This @eaction is important for dyeing cotton with reactive dyes. ,n the presence of even dilute base

cellulose behaves as a weak acid and ionises to form a cellulosate anion according to the chemical equation

given in Figure -.B 1-'2. This anion is capable of reacting with suitable dyes by nucleophilic substitution or

addition to form covalent bonds 1-2. Oickerstaff provided the evidence for reactive dyes forming covalent

bond with the cellulosate anion :Cellulose%L ; 1-*2.

Cellulose%LD P LD :alkali; Cellul#$e+! - H 2!

The dissociation of cellulose merceri!ing is a treatment of cotton with strongly alkaline solutions where

fibre lusture tensile strength and dye uptake are improved 1-< -G2. Such improvements are principally due

to the swelling of cotton fibre and the alignment of poorly oriented fibre polymers during this treatment. The

swelling is fundamentally due to the imbibitions of water as a consequence of the sorption of alkali by thecellulose 1--2. Cellulose is readily attacked by o#idi!ing agents such as hypochlorites chlorous chloric and

perchloric acids pero#ides dichromates permanganates periodic acid periodate salts and nitrogen

tetro#ide 1-B2. L#idation of cellulose can lead to two products0 reducing and acidic o#ycellulose. ,n

reducing o#ycellulose the hydro#yl groups are converted to carbonyl groups or aldehydes whereas in acidic

o#ycellulose the hydro#yl groups are o#idised to carbo#yl groups or acids.

TD4"7/I ?"L?4"T,4S0

Cotton fibres are heat conductive 1-<2. 4#cessive application of heat energy causes the cotton fibre to char

and burn. Deating the fibre generally causes dehydration and decomposition of cellulose 1-B2. /t

temperatures above -( 9C the e#tent of browning and hardening of the fibres increases 1-A2. ,f processing

requires higher temperatures shorter treatment times are set to avoid thermal damage.

REACTIVE DYES

3.2.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF REACTIVE DYES:



/ variety of attempts have been made in the struggle to obtain the covalent bond formation between a dye

and a fibre. ,n -*G Cross and $evan achieved a covalent dye%cellulose bond with respect to the first

approach 1<2. They showed that cellulose :Cellulose%LD; treated with strong alkali was changed into Hsoda

cellulose’ :Cellulose%LNa;. The soda cellulose could be treated with ben!oyl chloride to form ben!oyl

cellulose. The resultant ben!oyl cellulose was nitrated where the nitro group was reduced and the amino

group was dia!otised. Coupling the dia!o group with N N%dimethylaniline gave Hdyed’ fibres 1<'2. The idea

of covalent bond formation between the reactive group of a dye molecule and a fibre polymer was initiated

in the early -G((s 1<2. Oarious reactive entities were found which could react with the hydro#yl groups of

cellulose and eventually be converted into coloured cellulose. ,n -GB "attee and Stephen developed the

reactive dyes for cotton fibre containing highly reactive dichloro% $tria!ine groups with a dyeing procedure

1<*2. They established that dyeing cotton with these dyes under mild alkaline conditions resulted in a

reactive chlorine atom on the tria!ine ring of the dye being substituted by an o#ygen atom from a cellulose

hydro#yl group. The role of the alkali was to cause dissociation of some of the hydro#yl groups in thecellulose to obtain cellulosate anion that reacts with the dye. This discovery led to the introduction of the

first commercial reactive dye class for cellulose that was marketed by ,C, in -G' under the trade name of

?rocion 7 1- <* <G2. These dyes were introduced for the production of fast bright colors on cellulosic

fibers using continuous dyeing methods 1A(2. ?rocion. $rilliant "ed 7%<$ :C, "eactive "ed -; is one of the

early dyes of this range 1<2. The maor factor contributing to the long delay in producing the first reactive

dye for cellulose was the belief that cellulose was a relatively inert fibre. Further was the fear that the

conditions required to effect a chemical reaction would cause serious fibre degradation 1< <G2. Therefore

in early studies dyestuff chemists were led astray in thinking that they needed to convert cellulose to the

more reactive soda cellulose which could make fiber reactivity possible 1<G A-2. No one e#pected that any

reactive group would prefer to react with a hydro#yl group of cellulose when cotton is immersed in an

aqueous dye bath containing numerous competitive hydro#ide ions of water 1<2. Dowever a large number

of reactive dyes with a variety of reactive groups have been developed. Today the fiber%reactive dyes are the

largest single dye class used for dyeing cotton.

3.2.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF REACTIVE DYES:

• "eactive dyes are anionic dyes.

• "eactive dyes are found in powder liquid and print form.

• 5uring dyeing the reactive group of this dye forms covalent bond with fiber polymer and becomes an

integral part of fibers.

• "eactive dyes are soluble in water.

• They have very good light fastness with rating about '. The dyes have very stable electron

arrangement and can protect the degrading effect of ultra%violet ray.

Te#tile materials dyed with reactive dyes have very good wash fastness with rating about B%due to strong covalent bonds formed between fibre polymer and reactive group of dye.

• "eactive dyes give brighter shades and have moderate rubbing fastness.

*



• 5yeing method of reactive dyes is easy. ,t requires less time and low temperature for dyeing.

• "eactive dyes are comparatively cheap.

• Fi#ation occurs in alkaline condition.

• "eactive dyes have good perspiration.

/ summary of the industrial history of commercial reactive dyes for cellulosic fibres. 1<2.

Y!"# C$%%!#&'"( )"%! C$%*")+

-G' ?rocion 7 ,C,

-G ?rocion D ,C,

-G Cibacron Ciba

-G* "ema!ol Doechst

-GG Ievafi# $ayer

-GG "eacton 8eigy

-GG 5rimarene Sando!

-G'- Ievafi# 4 $ayer -G'A 4lisiane Francolour

-G'B ?rima!in ? $/SF

-G'B Solida!ol Cassella

-G'B ?rocilan ,C,

-G'' Ievafi# 4/ Ievafi# ? $ayer

-G'' Ianasol Ciba

-G'* "eactofil 8eigy

-G( Oerofi# $ayer

-G( 5rimalan Sando!

-G( ?rocion D4 ?rocion Supra ,C,

-G ?rocion T ,C,

-G* Cibacron F Ciba

-GG Sumifi# Supra Sumitomo

-G*B >ayacelon Nippon >ayaku

-G* ?rocilene ,C,

-G** Cibacro Ciba

Table A.< 0 / summary of the industrial history of commercial reactive dyes for cellulosic fibres.

3.2.3 CONSTITUTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF REACTIVE DYES:

The four characteristic features of a typical reactive dye molecule are the chromophoric group the water

solubilising group:s; usually sulphonate :%SLANa; the reactive group and the bridging group that attaches

the reactive group either directly to the chromophore or to some other part of the dye molecule. 4ach of

these structural groups has an effect on the physical properties of the dye molecule. Today the names of

many companies have been changed because of the transfer e#pansion merger or division of the businesses.

The names mentioned here are when the dyes were introduced to diffuse into fibres migration within the

fibre:s; colorfastness and so on. Typical reactive dye chromophores include the a!o triphenodio#a!ine

G



phthalocyanine forma!an and anthraquinone 1< A<2. 7ost commercial ranges of reactive dyes have a

comprehensive color gamut many of which are particularly bright.

Figure A. 7olecular structure of C, "eactive "ed - :source0 1AA2;

3.2.4 MECHANISMS OF DYE ATTACHMENT TO CELLULOSE:

N&CI4L?D,I,C S&$ST,T&T,LN 74CD/N,S70

"eactive groups based on carbon%nitrogen ring structures undergo nucleophilic substitution :Figure A.;

1AA2. They react with cellulose by the substitution of a labile chlorine fluorine methyl sulphone or nicotinyl

leaving group. The adacent nitrogen atom in a heterocyclic ring activates the system for nucleophilic attack.

The attacking nucleophile can be either a cellulosate anion or a hydro#ide ion of water. The reaction with

cellulosate anion leads to Hfi#ation’ of the dye on the fibre and that with hydro#ide ion results in Hhydrolysis’

of the reactive dye.

5ichloro% $%tria!ine dye Transient species ?artly%hydrolysed dye :Q R LD;

:5 R 5ye chromophore; or dyed fibre :# R L%Cellulose;

Figure A.' Nucleophilic substitution mechanism :source0 1AA2;

N&CI4L?D,I,C /55,T,LN 74CD/N,S70

"eactive groups based on masked vinyl sulphone structures undergo nucleophilic addition :Figure A.';.

They react with cellulose by addition to a carboncarbon double bond usually activated by an adacent

electron%attracting sulphone group. This type of group is usually generated in the dyebath by elimination of

sulphate ion from a sulphatoethylsulphone precursor group in the presence of alkali. /gain the nucleophilic

addition of hydro#ide ion of water leads to dye hydrolysis.

-(



Sulphatoethylsulphone dye Oinylsulphone dye

:5 R dye chromophore;

Oinylsulphone dye Transient species Dydrolysed dye :Q R LD;

or dyed fibre :# R L%Cellulose;

Figure A. Nucleophilic addition mechanism :source0 1AA2;.

3.2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF REACTIVE DYES

Ln the basis of control parameters there are A types0

/. /lkali controllable dyes0

These dyes have optimal fi#ation temperature between B(oc and '(oc. They are characteri!ed by relative low

e#haustion in the neutral salt solution before alkali is added. They have high relative and care should be

taken to produce level dyeing. Typical e#ample of this dye 5CT dichlorodifluropyrimidine

dichloroqino#aline and OS d dyes.

$. Salt controllable dyes0

5yes in this group low optimal fi#ation temperature between *( oc and boil. Such dye e#hibit comparatively

high e#haustion at ?D that is neutral medium. So it is important to add salt a carefully to ensure level

dyeing. Typical e#ample of this class is Trichloropyrimidine /minochlorotria!ine and bis

:/minochlorotria!ine; etc.

C. Temperature controllable reactive dyes0

This group of dye reacts with cellulose above the boil in absence of alkali although this can be applied

between *(oC and boil in alkali medium. 5yes of this group have self leveling characteristics.

--



There are no need additional au#iliaries to achieve level dyeing. 8ood result can be achieved by controlling

the temperature only the kayacelon react :>M>; range of bis :/minochlorotria!ine; dyes belong to this

group.

Ln the basis of reactivity there are three types0%

• Iower reactive dyes0 here ?D

is maintained -<%-<. by using NaLD in bath.

• 7edium reactive dyes0 here ?D is maintained --%-< by using Na<CLA in dye bath.

• Digher reactive dyes0 here ?D is maintained -(%-- by using NaDCLA in dye ba

Ln the basis of dyeing temperature and method there are three types%

• Cold brand0 this type of dyes contains reactive groups of high reactivity. So dyeing can be done in

lower temperature i.e. A<%'(oC. For e#ample ?rocion 7 Ievafi# 4.

•

7edium brand0 this type of dyes contains reactive groups of medium reactivity. So dyeing is done inhigher temperature i.e. '(%(oC. For e#ample "ema!ol Ievafi#.

Dot brand0 this type of dyes contains reactive groups of low reactivity. So dyeing is done in higher

temperature i.e. <%GAoC. For e#ample ?rocion D Cibacron.

CHAPTER FOUR: MATERILAS AND METHODS

4.1.1 MATERIALS:

-<



"eactive Turquoise $lue 8%<''E obtained from ,ndian dye 7anufacturer Company and Turquoise $lue 8

:-(; has been obtained from Chinese dye 7anufacturer Company. Slub Single ersey was taken from

?ante# 5ress Itd 8S7 of -( and -((E cotton. Lthers au#iliaries such as glauber salt :electrolyte; soda

:Na<CLA; leveling agent :ionactive ??%-(; sequestering agent :kappaquest;acetic acid etc were used as

dyeing au#iliaries.

4.1.2 DYEING AUXILLIARIES AND ITS FUNCTION:

S/IT0

Salt plays crucial role of catalyst. Salt has an e#tremely high affinity for water. $roadly speaking Salt is

necessary in three ways firstly to drive dye into te#tile during the dyeing process in te#tile. Secondly use of

salt leads to ma#imum e#haustion of dye molecules during dyeing process in te#tiles. Thirdly it is used as an

electrolyte for migration adsorption and fi#ation of the dyestuff to the cellulose material. Salts plays

important role in reactive dyeing by improving the affinity of the dyestuff towards the fibre and acceleration

of the dyestuffs association and lowering its solubility. Normally 8laubers salt is used for this purpose. The

presence of chlorine ion in the common salt may cause corrosion of the equipment. Dence 8laubers salt isalways preferred over common salt. 8laubers salt is a common name for sodium sulfate decahydrate

Na<SLB.-(D<L+ it occurs as white or colorless monoclinic crystals 8laubers salt is water soluble has a

salty bitter taste and it is also widely used in dyeing1<A2.

F&NCT,LN LF S/IT ,N TD4 5M4,N8 ?"LC4SS0

• The salt in the reactive dyeing increases the affinity of the dye towards the Cellulosic substrate.

• Salt increases the e#haustion rate of reactive dyestuffs.

•

/s reactive dyestuffs have a lower affinity more inorganic salt is required when using reactivedyestuffs in order to accelerate absorption.

• Khile the amount of inorganic salt used varies according to the type of dyestuff used recently

developed high%fi#ation dyestuffs with improved affinity allow the amount of inorganic salt to be

reduced.

"LI4 LF S/IT ,N "4/CT,O4 5M4,N80

Salts have two main functions in e#haustion dyeing with reactive dyestuffs0

• ,mproving the affinity of the dyestuff

• /cceleration of the dyestuffs association and lowering of its solubility.

8enerally reactive dyes contains sulphonic acid :%SLAD; group which is insoluble in water. 5uring the

manufacturing of the reactive dyes these sulphonic acid groups are converted into the sodium salt of

sulphonic acid :%SLANa; which is soluble in water.

"eactive dye SLAD P Na⁺ "eactive dye SLANa

-A

http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2011/07/dyeing-of-textiles-textile-dyeing_5495.html

http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2011/12/dyestuff-characteristics-for-suitable.html

http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/search/label/Reactive%20Dye

http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2011/12/dyestuff-characteristics-for-suitable.html

http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/search/label/Reactive%20Dye

http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2011/07/dyeing-of-textiles-textile-dyeing_5495.html



Figure B.- "ule of salt in dyeing 1<A2

8enerally when the reactive dye goes in the water it is solublised giving dye anions and sodium cations.

"eactive dye SLANa P Kater %% "eactive dye SLA⁻ P Na ⁺

:5ye anion; :Sodium cation;

SL5/ /SD :SL5,&7 C/"$LN/T4;0

The main function of soda ash is to react dye with fibre :fi#ation ;.

F,Q/T,LN0

Fi#ation of dye means the reaction of reactive group of dye with terminal LD group of fibre and thus

forming strong covalent bond with the fibre. This is an important phase which is controlled by maintaining

proper pD by adding alkali. The alkali used for this purpose depends on brand of dye and dyeing

temperature. soda ash or Na<CLA is used as alkali. They created proper pD in dye bath and do as the dye%

fi#ing agent. 1<A2

4.2 METHODS:

4.2.1 EXHAUST DYEING PROCESS ,24-:

4#haust dyeing also is known as batch or discontinuous dyeing. ,t is the process used for most commercial

fabric dyeing.

5yeing0

4ssentially the process involves loading fabric into a bath originally known as a batch and allowing it

come into equilibrium with a solution or suspension of dye. 4#haust dyeing is the ability of the molecules

to move from the solution onto the fabric fibers :substantivity;. The substantivity of a dye can be influenced

by temperature or additives such as salt.

-B



"insing0

The e#haust dyeing process can take anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours. Khen the fabric has

absorbed or fi#ed as much dye as it can the bath is emptied and the fabric is rinsed to remove any e#cess

dyestuff.

Specific Iiquor "atio0

/n important concept in e#haust dyeing is what is known as the specific liquor ratio. This describes the ratio

of the mass of the fabric to the volume of the dye bath and determines not only the depth of color obtained

but also the environmental impact of the process.

5M4,N8 "4C,?40

"eactive Turquoise $lue 8%<''E or Turquoise $lue 8 :-(; R -E

Fabric weight R <( gm

8lauber salt R -( gUl <( gUl A( gUl B( gUl

Na<CLA R ' gUl

>appaquest :Sequestering agent; R - gUl

,onactive ??%-( :Ieveling agent; R -gUl

Temperature R '()C ()C *()C G()C70I R -0-(

Time = - hour .

DYEING FLOW CHART:

5ye P Ieveling agent P Sequestering agent P SaltP Kater

↓Fabric loading

↓"aise temperature ()C

↓"un B( minutes at ()C :7igration;

↓/dd Soda

↓"aise Temperature *()C

↓"un '( minutes at *()C

↓Stop dyeing

↓"insing

↓Dot wash :G()C # -( min;

↓Kash with /u#itech SN

↓"insing

Time

-



- /dd dye fabric and all au#iliaries.

< 7igration :B(Q()C;

A /dd soda

B 5yeing :'(Q*()C;

"insing :-(QA()C;

' Dot wash :-(QG()C;

Chemical wash :-(Q*()C;

* "insing :-(QA()C;

/t first the bleached fabric weighted and immersed into the fresh water. /fter that the fabric was dropped

into the chemical liquor which contained all the necessary chemicals au#iliaries including dyes without

soda. The ratio between the material and liquor was -0-( and dyeing was performed by lab process in lab dip

machine. Now the pot of lap dip machine was kept in the machine and run the machine. /t first migration

was completed at ()C for B( minutes. /fter completing the migration calculated amount of is soda

according to recipe was added in the dyeing liquor. ,t is mentioned here that before adding the soda ph of dye

liquor was that means neutral but after adding the soda into the liquor the ph became -(%-< that means

alkaline. Now the dyeing temperature was raised at *( )C and run for '( minutes. /fter '( minutes dyeing

was stopped and cooling for -( minutes. Now the fabric was rinsed with normal water after cold wash hot

wash was done at G()C for -( minutes. Completing hot wash chemical wash was done by wash chemical

named /u#itech SN at G()C. Iastly fabric was ironed manually and collected for fastness test.

4.2.2 DETERMINATION OF COLOR STRENGTH K/S0:

/t first reflectance :" E; was determined by 5ata Color. Then color strength was measured by below

mentioned formula.

>US value R :-%"; <U<"

4.2.3 DETERMINATION OF DIFFERENT COLOR FASTNESS:

CLIL" F/STN4SS TL K/SD0

The resistance to the loss of color of any dyed or printed material to washing is referred to as its wash

fastness. Color fastness to wash was performed by using Kash fastness testing machine. The test was done

at standard ,SL -( C('. 5yed fabric of gm was taken and stapled with multi fibre.R!&'*!:

5etergent 0 B gUl

Steel ball 0 -(

70I 0 -0(

Temperature 0 ()C

Time 0 B( minutes

/s the fabric weight was gm. So according to recipe the total water was <( ml. Now - gm detergent

added to the water and fabric was taken into the liquor. -( steel balls dropped in the pot and pot containing

fabric and liquor was set in machine. "un machine B( minutes at ( )C. /fter B( minutes machine was

-'



stopped and fabric was unloaded. Now the treated sample compared with the untreated sample and color

change measured with the help of grey scale. Color staining was measured from the multi fibre according to

grey scale comparison by ,SL -(%/(A. Color change and color staining was e#pressed by grading from -

to where is best on the other hand - is worst.

CLIL" F/STN4SS TL "&$$,N80

"ubbing fastness is the resistance to fading of dyed te#tiles when rubbed against a rough surface. Color

fastness to rubbing was performed by standard of ,SL -(%Q-<.$oth wet and dry rubbing fastness was

measured. ,SL -(%Q-< was followed to measure the fastness. The test was done by Crock master. The dyed

sample was rubbed with a crocking cloth ten times. Crocking speed is - cycle per second at a weight of GN.

Color staining was measured at comparison by ,SL-(%/(A grey scale. Color staining is graded from - to .

/t the time of testing wet rubbing the crocking cloth was moisture by water.

CLIL" F/STN4SS TL ?4"S?,"/T,LN0

Color fastness to perspiration is the ability of dyed te#tiles to resist the loss of color against perspiration.

This test was performed as ,SL -(%4(B and compared by ,SL -(%/(A 8rey Scale.

For alkaline solution For acidic solution

Distidine mono hydrochloride

monohydrate

(. gUl (. gUl

Sodium chloride gUl gUl

5isodium hydrogen orthophosphate <. gUl %

Sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate % <.< gUl

(.- N sodium hydro#ide /dust ?D to * %

(.- N acetic acid % /dust ?D to .

70IR-0( 5ip the fabric in the

above solution for A(

min at room

temperature. /llow it

dwell for B hrs at A)C

temp under kg weight

of the perspirometer.

5ip the fabric in the

above solution for A(

min at room

temperature. /llow it

dwell for B hrs at A)C

temp under kg weight

of the perspirometer.

/fter above mentioned process the sample was compared with untreated sample and color change was

graded. Now the multi fibre which was attached with the sample is observed for color staining and graded

from - to .

Yarn related defects

• Barriness

-



• Thick & Thin lines

• Dark or Light horizontal lines (due to the difference in dye pick up)

• Imperfections

• Contaminations

• narling

• pirality

!nitting "lements related defects

• #eedle & inker Lines

• Drop titches etc

$achine ettings related Defects

• Drop titches

• Yarn treaks

• Barriness

• %aric press off

• Broken "nds

• pirality

%inishing related defects

• 'igh hrinkage

• keing

• pirality• urface 'airiness & illing

• Tonal *ariation

Dyeing related defects

• Dyeing patches+ oftener $arks

• hade *ariation

• Tonal *ariation

• Color fading (oor Color %astness)

• Dull shade

• Crease or rope $arks

CHAPTER FIVECategory of Defects,

-*



Yarn related defects

-lmost all the defects appearing in the horizontal direction+ in the knitted faric are+ yarn

related. These defects are mainly;

• Barriness

• Thick & Thin lines• Dark or Light horizontal lines (due to the difference in dye pick up)

• Imperfections

• Contaminations

• narling

• pirality

!nitting "lements related defects

-lmost all the defects appearing in the *ertical direction+ in the knitted farics+ are as a cause

of ad !nitting "lements. These defects are mainly;

• #eedle & inker Lines

• Drop titches etc.

$achine ettings related Defects

These defects appear randomly in the knitted farics+ due to the rong knitting machine settings &

that of the machine parts. The defects are mainly;

• Drop titches

• Yarn treaks

• Barriness

• %aric press off

• Broken "nds

• pirality

Dyeing related defects

The Dyeing related defects are+ as follos;


• hade *ariation

• Tonal *ariation


• Dull shade


%inishing related defects

-G



Defects caused+ mainly due to the rong process parameters are;

• 'igh hrinkage

• keing

• pirality

•

urface 'airiness & illing• Tonal *ariation

• nagging (harp points in the dyeing machine or trolley etc)

• %old $arks

• /et 0ueezer $arks

• 1$ *ariation

• %aric /idth *ariation

• Curling of .2. %arics

3.4 Yarn related defectsBarriness

Definition,

Barriness defect appears in the !nitted faric+ in the form of horizontal stripes of uniform or *ariale idth.

Causes,

• 'igh Yarn Tension

• Count 5ariation

• $i6ing of the yarn lots

ackage hardness *ariation

7emedies,

• "nsure uniform Yarn Tension on all the feeders.

• The a*erage Count *ariation in the lot+ should not e more than 8 9.:

• "nsure that the yarn eing used for !nitting is of the same Lot ; $erge no.

•

"nsure that the hardness of+ all the yarn packages+ is uniform+ using a hardness tester.

treakiness

Definition,

treaks in the !nitted farics appear as; feele+ irregularly spaced & sized+ thin horizontal lines.

<(



Causes,

• Yarn slippage on the I7< ulley+ due to the yarn slipping in & out from underneath the I7<

Belt+ due to a tilted I7< ulley.

• /orn out I7< elts+ yarn guides & eyelets etc.

• %aulty inding of the yarn packages.

• Yarn running out of the elt+ on the I7< ulley.

7emedies,

• "nsure *ery smooth+ clean & ostruction free passage of the yarn+ through the eyelets+ yarn

& tension discs etc.

• #o cuts or rough surfaces+ in the orcelain "yelets+ Yarn 1uides & the Yarn %eeder holes

etc.

• %laless inding of the+ Yarn ackage (The yarn coils should unind smoothly+ ithout any

ostruction).

• The yarn should e running under the I7< elt+ eteen the elt & around the I7< pulley

ImperfectionsDefinition,

Imperfections appear on the faric surface+ in the form of une*enly placed or randomly appearing+!nots+ lus & #eps+ Thick & Thin places in the yarn.

Causes,

• Big !nots+ lus & #eps in the yarn+ Thick & Thin yarn (=ne*en =T"7)

7emedies,

• pecify the 0uality parameters of the yarns+ to e used for production+ to the yarn supplier.

• pecify the numer of acceptale Imperfections ; !m. of the yarn & the =T"7 e*enness

>+ hile ordering the yarn.

narls

Definition,

narls appear on the faric surface+ in the form of ig loops of yarn getting tisted+ due to the hightist in the yarn (=nalanced tist yarn).

Causes,

• 'igh+ tist in the+ yarn.

• 'osiery yarns are soft tisted. 'igh+ tist in the yarn+ is the cause of snarling.

• (narls cause+ faric defects & needle reakages)

7emedies,

• "nsure using 'osiery Yarns+ of the recommended T..$. only.

<-



• ('old a fe inches of the yarn in oth the hands+ in the form of a ‘U’.

• The yarn has a alanced tist+ if it doesn?t tend to rotate or turn+ in the form of a snarl.

• (uch yarn can e used for 'osiery applications.)

Contaminations

Definition,

Contaminations appear+ in the form of foreign matter+ such as; dyed fiers+ husk+ dead fiers etc.+in the staple spun yarn or emedded in the knitted faric structure.

Causes,

• resence of dead fiers & other foreign materials+ such as; dyed fiers+ husk & synthetic

fiers etc.

•Dead %iers appear in the faric+ as a result of the+ presence of e6cessi*e immature Cottonfiers+ in the Cotton fier crop.

• Dead fiers do not pick up color during Dyeing.

• resence of the foreign materials+ in the+ staple fier mi6ing

• (!itty+ 'usk+ Broken eeds+ dyed fiers & fiers like oly ropylene+ olyester+ 5iscose etc)

• Dyed & other types of fiers flying from the ad@acent !nitting machines cling+ to the yarn

eing used for knitting & get+ emedded in the 1rey %aric.

7emedies,

• =se rich fier mi6ing for the yarns+ to e used for !nitting+ in order to ha*e less dead fiers+

appearing in the faric.

• 7igid control measures in the Blo 7oom+ to pre*ent the mi6ing of foreign matters in the

Cotton mi6ing.

• egregate the pinning & !nitting $achines+ ith lastic Curtains or $os0uito #ets+ to

pre*ent the fiers flying from the neighoring machines+ from getting emedded in theyarn ; faric.

pirality

Definition,

pirality appears in the form of a tisted garment+ after ashing. The seams on oth the sides of the garment displace+ from their position & appear on the front & ack of the garment.

Causes,

'igh T..$. of the 'osiery Yarn• (pirality is caused+ y the Tisting Tor0ue as a result+ of the high yarn T..$.)

• ('osiery yarns are soft tisted+ hereas the /arp yarns are hard tisted)

<<



• =ne*en %aric Take don tension+ on the !nitting machine.

• =ne0ual rate of %aric feed on the tenter+ Calender & Compactor machines.

7emedies,

• =se the 'osiery yarns of the recommended T$ le*el for !nitting

• ('osiery yarns are soft tisted+ in comparison to the /arp yarns)

• %aric pull or the Take Don tension+ on oth sides of the grey faric tue+ on the knittingmachine+ should e e0ual.

• "nsure uniform rate of feed of the dyed faric+ on oth the edges+ hile feeding the faric to

the Calander+ Compactor or tenter machines.

5.2 Knitting Elements related defets

#eedle Lines

Definition,

#eedle lines are prominent+ *ertical lines+ along the length of the faric+ hich are easily *isile inthe grey as ell as finished faric.

Causes,

• Bent Latches+ #eedle 'ooks & #eedle stems

• Tight #eedles in the groo*es

• /rong #eedle selection (/rong se0uence of needles+ put in the Cylinder or Dial)

7emedies,

• Inspect the grey faric on the knitting machine for any #eedle lines.

• 7eplace all the defecti*e needles ha*ing+ ent latches+ hooks or stems.

• 7emo*e the fiers accumulated in+ the #eedle tricks (groo*es).

• 7eplace any ent #eedles+ running tight in the tricks.

• Check the #eedle filling se0uence in the Cylinder ; Dial groo*es (tricks).

inker LinesDefinitions

inker lines are prominent or feele *ertical lines+ appearing parallel to the /ales+ along the lengthof the knitted faric tue.

Causes,

• Bent or /orn out inkers

• inkers eing tight in+ the inker 7ing groo*es

7emedies,

• 7eplace+ all the orn out or ent sinkers+ causing inker lines in the faric.

<A



• inker lines are *ery fine & feele *ertical lines+ appearing in the faric.

• 7emo*e the fiers+ clogging the inker tricks (1roo*es)

Drop titches ('oles)

Definition,

Drop titches are randomly appearing small or ig holes of the+ same or different size+ hichappear as defects+ in the !nitted farics.

$a@or Causes,


• Yarn <*erfeed or =nderfeed

• 'igh %aric Take Don Tension

• <structions in the yarn passage+ due to the clogging of eyelets+ yarn guides & tension

discs+ ith a6 & fluff etc.

• Defects likeA lus+ #eps+ !nots etc.

• Incorrect gap eteen the Dial & Cylinder rings.

7emedies,

• "nsure uniform yarn tension on all the feeders+ ith a Tension $eter.

• 7ate of yarn feed should e strictly regulated+ as per the re0uired titch Length.

• The faric tue should e @ust like a fully inflated alloon+ not too tight or too slack.

•

"yelets & the Yarn 1uides+ should not ha*e+ any fiers+ fluff & a6 etc. stuck in them.• The yarn eing used+ should ha*e no imperfections+ likeA lus+ #eps & ig knots etc

• The gap eteen the Cylinder & the Dial should+ e correctly ad@usted+ as per the knitted

loop size.

<B



5.! "a#ine $ettings related %efets

Broken #eedles

Definition,

Defects caused y the roken needles+ sho prominently+ as *ertical lines parallel to the /ales.There are no loops formed in the /ale+ hich has a roken needle.

Causes,


• Bad etting of the Yarn %eeders

• <ld & /orn out #eedle set

7emedies,

• "nsure uniform & the right Yarn tension on all the feeders.

• !eep the recommended gap+ eteen the Yarn %eeders & the #eedles.

• eriodically change the complete set of needles.

<il Lines

Definitions,

<il lines are prominent *ertical lines+ hich appear along the length of the knitted faric tue. Thelines ecome permanent+ if the needle oil used is not ashale & gets aked+ due to the heat+during the finishing of the faric.

Causes,

• %iers & fluff accumulated in the needle tricks+ hich remain soaked ith oil.

• "6cessi*e oiling of the+ needle eds.

7emedies,

• %iers+ accumulated in the needle tricks+ cause the oil to seep into the %aric.

• ome luricating oils are not ashale & can not e remo*ed during couring.

• <il lines appear in the faric+ in the lengthise direction+ e*en after dyeing.

• 7emo*e all the #eedles & the inkers of the machine+ periodically.

• Clean the groo*es of the Cylinder & Dial of the machine thoroughly+ ith petrol.

• Blo the groo*es of the Cylinder+ Dial & inker ring+ ith dry air after cleaning.

<



Broken "nds

Definition,

Broken ends appear as e0uidistant+ prominent horizontal lines+ along the idth of the faric tue+hen a yarn reaks or is e6hausted.

Causes,


• Yarn e6hausted on the Cones.

7emedies,

• "nsure correct yarn tension on all the feeders.

• "nsure that the Yarn detectors on all the feeders are orking properly.

• Depute a skilled & alert machine operator+ on the knitting machine.

treakiness

Definition,

treaks in the !nitted farics appear as; feele+ irregularly spaced & sized+ thin horizontal lines.

Causes,

• Yarn slippage on the I7< ulley+ due to the yarn slipping in & out from underneath the I7<

Belt+ due to a tilted I7< ulley.

• /orn out I7< elts+ yarn guides & eyelets etc.

• %aulty inding of the yarn packages

• Yarn running out of the elt+ on the I7< ulley

7emedies,

• "nsure *ery smooth+ clean & ostruction free passage of the yarn+ through the eyelets+ yarn

& tension discs etc.

• #o cuts or rough surfaces+ in the orcelain "yelets+ Yarn 1uides & the Yarn %eeder holes

etc.

• %laless inding of the+ Yarn ackage (The yarn coils should unind smoothly+ ithout any

ostruction)

• The yarn should e running under the I7< elt+ eteen the elt & around the I7< pulley

<'



%aric ress <ff Definition,

%aric press off appears+ as a ig or small hole in the faric+ caused due to the interruption of the+loop forming process+ as a result of the yarn reakage+ or closed needle hooks.

ress off takes place+ hen the yarn feeding to oth the short utt & long utt needles+ suddenlystops+ due to the yarn reakage.

-t times+ complete faric tue can fall off the needles+ if the needle detectors are not functioning+or are not properly set.

Causes,• "nd reakage on feeders+ ith all needles knitting.

• Yarn feeder remaining in lifted up position+ due to hich+ the yarn doesn?t get fed in the

hooks of the needles.

7emedies,

• #eedle detectors+ should e set precisely+ to detect the closed needles & pre*ent the faric

tue from completely pressing off.

• roper yarn tension should e maintained+ on all the feeders.

urface 'airiness & iling

Definition,

urface hairiness appears in the form of e6cess superfluous fiers+ on the surface of the knittedfarics+ hich ha*e either een reprocessed+ or tumle dried.

illing appears as+ small fier alls formed on the faric surface+ due to the entanglement of loosesurface fiers.

%actors such as+ the fier staple length+ lo T..$. & faric construction (ith long yarn floats) etc.also contriute to pilling.

Causes,

• -rasion due to the contact ith rough surfaces

• "6cessi*e surface hairiness caused+ due to the arasi*e tumling action

• (%aric friction in the Tumle Dryer)

• 7ough Dyeing process & arasi*e machine surfaces (oft %lo $achine tues+ Tumle

Dryer drum etc.)

•7eprocessing of the faric is+ also a ma@or cause of piling.

7emedies,

<



• -*oid using the Tumle Dryer.

• (Control shrinkage y ma6imum faric rela6ation & o*er feed in the processing)

• 7egularly inspect the faric contact points on all the machines+ for any rough & sharp

surfaces.

• (7ectify+ if found rough)

• -*oid repeated reprocessing of the farics.

• =se anti pilling chemical treatments for the farics+ prone to pilling.

nagging

Definition,

nagging appears on the knitted faric surface+ as a pulled up yarn float+ shoing up in the form of a large loop.

Causes,

•

Caused y the pulling or the plucking of yarn from the+ faric surface+ y sharp o@ects.

7emedies,

• Inspect & rectify the faric contact points on all the machines (oft %lo Dyeing+ Tumle

Dryer & Centrifuge etc)+ on hich snagging is taking place.

BoingDefinition,

Boing appears as+ ros of courses or yarn dyed stripes+ forming a o shape+ along the faricidth.

Causes,

• =ne*en distriution of tensions+ across the faric idth hile+ dyeing or finishing the faric.

7emedies,

• Boing can e corrected+ y reprocessing the faric+ y feeding it from the opposite end.

• - special machine ($-'L<) is also a*ailale for+ correcting the oing in the knitted

farics.

.4 D+!') "(5

D+!') "(5 ")6 7!'# #!%!6'!5

Uneven dyeing Causes

<*

http://textileapex.blogspot.com/2014/04/dyeing-faults-their-remedies.html

http://textileapex.blogspot.com/2014/03/dyeing.html

http://textileapex.blogspot.com/2014/04/dyeing-faults-their-remedies.html

http://textileapex.blogspot.com/2014/03/dyeing.html



• Due to improper pretreatment.• Very rapid addition of dyes and chemicals.• Lack of controllin dyein parameters

!ure" #.$%emedies

• &heck addition of dyes and chemicals are at a steadily increasin rate.• 'roper pretreatments.• &heck the rope turnover time.• 'roper (ashin after dyein.

Running shade

&auses• )achine loadin is hiher.• %unnin at lo(er no**le pressure.• +ih ,ath drainin temperature.

-iure" #.%emedies

• 'roper cycle time should ,e ensured.• /o**le pressure should ,e accurate.• 0ath drainin temperature should ,e moderate.

Crease mark &auses

• 12cessive loadin of fa,ric durin dyein.• 3udden chane in temperature durin coolin.• Due to lack of synchroni*ation of (inch speed and pump pressure.

!ure" #.4

%emedies

<G

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JI5S4TJKqI0/U1fV9it5zJI/AAAAAAAAArQ/vG7ysCjg240/s1600/Crease-mark.jpg

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-UUPSMqYa8pI/U1fUfYrJlZI/AAAAAAAAAq8/HVE8T0vYSY8/s1600/Uneven-dyeing.jpg



• -ollo( the temperature radation durin the (hole cycle of dyein.• -a,ric must ,e loaded accordin to loop lenth.• )aintainin the proper synchroni*ation ,et(een the (inch speed and pump

pressure.Pin h!e&auses

• Due to presence of traces of -e5 and &u5 ions in the process ,ath.• 6f soda dosin is done at hih temperature then in presence of o2yen pin hole is

created.• 6nade7uate amount of sta,ili*er im +8 ,leachin.

!ure" #.9

%emedies• The (ater used in dyein should ,e free from (ater hardness.• 3oda dosin should ,e done at lo( temperature :not more than ;<<&

Dye s"#&auses

• 6mproper mi2in and dissolvin of dyestu>.• Dye ,ath hardness.

!ure" #.#

%emedies• )i2in and dosin of dyestu>s should ,e done properly.• ?ater of dye ,ath should hardness free.

$da s"#&auses

• 6f soapin start ,efore (ash• &a&84 or )&84 in soapin ,ath• @uick soda dosin

A(

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-j-GUCl16BZI/U1fXQMStnuI/AAAAAAAAArg/uchvVZ3UPYM/s1600/Dye-spot.jpg

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-oFUkwxMYxXg/U1fWf2_OOXI/AAAAAAAAArY/fedJQJm73K4/s1600/Pin-hole.jpg



!ure" #.;

%emedies• 3oda particles should ,e dissolved properly.• After preBtreatment and dyeinC proper neutrali*ation should ,e done.

F!y dye s#ains&auses

• 6f dye is mi2ed in the dyein oor then yin dust particles may come in contact(ith the dissolved dyestu>s.

• 6f dyein oor is too dirty.%emedies

• Dyes should ,e dissolved in separate drum and in separate room.• Dyein oor must ,e neat and clean.

Trims shade n# ma#%h &i#h #he 'dy&auses

• Di>erent types of yarns used in fa,ric and trims.• Dye lot is di>erent for trims and ,ody.

• 6mproper recipe settin for trims and fa,ric.

!ure" #.E

%emedies• 3ame type of yarnC dye lotC recipeC no**le pressure Cuniform distri,ution to eachno**le etc. should ,e used for ,oth fa,ric and trims.$(#ener )arks&auses

• 6f p+ is not maintained• 'oor emulsi!cation of softener applied• 6nferior 7uality of softener

%emedies

• 1nsure that the softener is uniformly dissolved in the (ater• Use the riht softener and the correct procedure for the application.

• )aintain the correct p+.*arrie&auses

• +ih yarn tension

A-

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jwYz3Lwq0oo/U1fYbVXsh1I/AAAAAAAAAr0/9v0oDpI3YsE/s1600/Trims+shade+not+match+with+the+body.jpg

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-78FG9P7x0vA/U1fXrfrwMyI/AAAAAAAAAro/O7oqKpB_dnE/s1600/Soda-spot.jpg



• &ount variation• )i2in of the yarn lots

!ure" #.F

%emedies• 1nsure uniform yarn tension to all the feeders.• 1nsure that the yarn ,ein used for knittin is from the same lot.

)e#amerism&auses

• This is ,ecauseC dye class is not same for all ropes in a ,atch or (hen collarGcu> isdyed usin dyes from one lot and ,ody fa,ric is dyed usin dyes from di>erent lot.

!ure" #.F

%emedies• To overcome thisC one has to choose same dye class (hich (ill ive same shade at

least under primary and secondary liht source.

Hand (ee! "r'!em&auses

• Use of harsh metal chemicals for processin.• 6nsuHcient softeners application in dyein machine.

%emedies 6t can ,e easily reduced ,y deminerali*ation

%&eing related defets

The Dyeing related defects are+ as follos;


• hade *ariation

A<

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-O8pkQKsaeUc/U1fZ9p07b9I/AAAAAAAAAsI/OPaoBLVdttY/s1600/Metamerism.jpg

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-kphkQghED8Q/U1fZbWnYRpI/AAAAAAAAAsA/8WvtJVa6bYY/s1600/Barrie.jpg



• Tonal *ariation


• Dull shade


%&eing 'at#es

Definition,

Dyeing patches appear+ as random irregular patches on the surface of dyed farics.

Causes,

• (couring+ Dyeing recipe+ Dyeing $achine stoppage+ oftener)

• Inade0uate couring of the grey faric is one of the primary causes of the dyeing patches.

• Improper le*eling agent is also one of the causes of dyeing patches.

• Correct p' *alue not maintained.

• Dyeing machine stoppage+ due to poer failure+ or the faric entanglement+ in the+ dyeingmachine are+ a ma@or cause of the dyeing patches.

7emedies,

• cour the grey faric thoroughly+ to remo*e all the impurities from the faric+ efore dyeing.

• =se appropriate le*eling agents+ to pre*ent patchy dyeing.

• $aintain the correct p' *alue+ during the course of dyeing.

• =se a poer ack up (In*erter) for the dyeing operation to e completed+ uninterrupted.

oftener $arks

Definition,

oftener marks appear as distinct irregular patches in the dried faric+ after the application of softener.

Causes,

• oftener not eing uniformly dissol*ed in ater

7emedies,

• cour the grey faric thoroughly+ to remo*e all the impurities from the faric+ efore dyeing.

• "nsure that the softener is uniformly dissol*ed in the ater & doesn?t remain undissol*ed

as+ lumps or suspension.

• =se the right softener & the correct procedure for the application.

• $aintain the correct p' *alue of the softener+ efore application.

tains

Definition,AA



tains appear as spots or patches of grease+ oil or dyes of different color+ in a neat & cleanfinished faric surface.

Causes,

• Dyeing $achine not cleaned thoroughly+ after dyeing a lot.

• 1rease & <il stains from the unguarded mo*ing machine parts+ like ; 1ears+ hafts+ Dri*ingulleys & Trolley heels etc.

• %aric touching the floors & other soiled places+ during transportation+ in the trolleys.

• 'andling of the faric+ ith soiled hands & stepping onto the stored faric ith dirty feet or

shoes on.

7emedies,

• /ash & clean the dyeing machine thoroughly+ after dyeing e*ery dye lot.

• %ollo the dyeing cycle of (ig#t) "edi*m) %ar+ shades & then the re*erse the cycle+ hiledyeing the faric.

• -ll the luricated mo*ing machine parts+ should e protected+ ith safety guards

• $ake sure that the faric is neatly packed in or co*ered ith olythene sheets+ hile

transporting or in storage.

• 'andle the faric carefully+ ith clean hands & do not let anyone step onto the stored faric.

Color %ading (oor Color %astness)

Definition,

The color of the garment or the faric appears+ lighter & pale+ in comparison to the original color of the product+ after a fe uses.

Causes,

• (/ashing+ Crocking+ Chlorine+ Light+ erspiration)

• Dyeing recipe i.e. the poor fi6ing of the dyes is a ma@or cause+ of color fading.

• =sing the rong comination of colors in a+ secondary or tertiary shade.

• =se of strong detergents & the 0uality of ater are also the common causes for color fading.

• rolonged e6posure to strong light ill+ also cause the colors to fade.

• 'igh le*el of acidity or alkalinity in the perspiration of indi*iduals also+ causes color fading.

7emedies,

• =se the correct dyeing recipe i.e. the appropriate le*eling+ fi6ing agents & the correct

comination of dyes.

• %ollo the ash care instructions rigidly.

• =se mild detergents & soft ater for ashing the garments.

• Don?t soak the garments for more than 49 43 minutes+ in the detergent+ prior to ashing

• Turn the et garments+ inside out+ hile drying.

AB



• Dry in shade & not in direct sunlight

• rotect the garments against prolonged direct e6posure to strong lights (sho rooms or

e6hiitions etc.).

hade *ariation(7oll to roll & ithin the same roll)

Definition,

ometimes+ there appears to e a difference in the depth of shade+ eteen the roll to roll & fromplace to place+ in the same roll. The defect ill sho up clearly+ in the garments+ manufacturedfrom such faric.

Causes,

• hade *ariation can e as a result of mi6ing of the+ farics of to different lots.

• hade *ariation is also caused+ y the *ariation in the process parameters i.e. Time+

Temperature & peed etc. from one faric roll+ to the other.

•hade *ariation can appear to e+ in farics ith 1$ *ariation+ caused due to the une*enstretching+ une0ual faric o*erfeed > etc.

7emedies,

• "nsure that the grey faric used for one shade+ is knitted from the same lot of the yarn.

• "nsure that the same process parameters (/idth+ <*erfeed+ Temperature & $achine

peed etc.) are used+ for each roll of a dye lot.

Tonal *ariationDefinition,

7oll to roll or ithin the same roll difference in the color perception i.e. 1reenish+ Bluish+ 7eddishor Yelloish etc.+ is attriuted as tonal *ariation in the shade.

Causes,

• /rong Dyeing recipe

• (/rong le*eling agent selection or rong dyes cominations)

• Improper faric couring

• (Impurities like+ <il & /a6 etc. not eing completely remo*ed in couring)• Le*el dyeing not eing done+ due to the inappropriate le*eling agents.

• 5ariation in the process parameters+ e.g. Temperature+ Time & peed etc

A



• (Tonal *ariation in the faric is caused+ due to the *ariations+ in the faric processing

parameters i.e. Temperature+ Time & peed etc. of the hrink Dryer & tenter+ especially if+the machine is repeatedly stopped.)

7emedies,

• =se appropriate le*eling agents+ to ensure uniform & le*el dyeing.

• cour the grey faric thoroughly+ to ensure the remo*al of all the impurities.

• "nsure that the hole lot of the dyed faric is processed+ under uniform processparameters.

/et 0ueezer $arksDefinition,

The faric on the edges of the faric tue gets+ permanent pressure marks+ due to the+ hardpressing y the s0ueezer rolls. These marks appear as distinct lines+ along the length of the faric& can?t e corrected.

Causes,

• These marks are caused due to the e6cessi*e pressure+ of the s0ueezer rolls of the

adding $angle+ on the et faric+ hile rinsing.

7emedies,

• =se the adding mangle+ only for the application of the softener.

• =se a hydro e6tractor (Centrifuge) for the e6traction+ to a*oid the s0ueezer roll marks.

• oon after e6traction+ open the faric manually+ to pre*ent crease marks in the damp faric.

%olding $arksDefinition,

%old marks appear as distinct pressure marks+ along the length of the faric

Causes,

• 'igh pressure of the faric Take Don rollers of the !nitting machine+ on the grey faric+ is

one of the main causes.

• Too much pressure of the feeding rolls of the Calander & Compactor is+ the primary cause

of the folding marks+ in the knitted faric.

7emedies,

•

-d@ust the gap eteen the to rolls+ as per the thickness of the faric sheet (i0ue+ .2.etc.)

A'



• 1ap eteen the to Calander rolls should e @ust enough+ to let the rolls remo*e+ the

rinkles in the faric+ ut put no pressure on the faric sheet+ especially in the case of i0ue & structured farics.

Crease $arks Definition,

Crease marks appear in the knitted faric+ as dark haphazard roken or continuous lines.

Causes,

• Damp faric mo*ing at high speed in tisted form+ in the 'ydro e6tractor (Centrifuge)

7emedies,

• =se anti Crease+ during the couring & the Dyeing process

• (The use of anti Crease+ sells the Cellulose & pre*ents the formation of Crease marks)

• pread the faric in loose & open form & not in the rope form+ in the 'ydro "6tractor.

Finis#ing related defets

urface 'airiness & iling

Definition,

urface hairiness appears in the form of e6cess superfluous fiers+ on the surface of the knittedfarics+ hich ha*e either een reprocessed+ or tumle dried.

illing appears as+ small fier alls formed on the faric surface+ due to the entanglement of loosesurface fiers. %actors such as+ the fier staple length+ lo T..$. & faric construction (ith long yarn floats) etc.also contriute to pilling.

Causes,

• -rasion due to the contact ith rough surfaces

• "6cessi*e surface hairiness caused+ due to the arasi*e tumling action

• (%aric friction in the Tumle Dryer)

• 7ough Dyeing process & arasi*e machine surfaces (oft %lo $achine tues+ Tumle

Dryer drum etc.)

• 7eprocessing of the faric is+ also a ma@or cause of piling.

7emedies,

• -*oid using the Tumle Dryer.

• (Control shrinkage y ma6imum faric rela6ation & o*er feed in the processing)

A



• 7egularly inspect the faric contact points on all the machines+ for any rough & sharp

surfaces.

• (7ectify+ if found rough)

• -*oid repeated reprocessing of the farics.

• =se anti pilling chemical treatments for the farics+ prone to pilling.

Tonal *ariationDefinition,

7oll to roll or ithin the same roll difference in the color perception i.e. 1reenish+ Bluish+ 7eddishor Yelloish etc.+ is attriuted as tonal *ariation in the shade.

Causes,

• /rong Dyeing recipe

• (/rong le*eling agent selection or rong dyes cominations)

• Improper faric couring

• (Impurities like+ <il & /a6 etc. not eing completely remo*ed in couring)

• Le*el dyeing not eing done+ due to the inappropriate le*eling agents.

• 5ariation in the process parameters+ e.g. Temperature+ Time & peed etc

• (Tonal *ariation in the faric is caused+ due to the *ariations+ in the faric processing

parameters i.e. Temperature+ Time & peed etc. of the hrink Dryer & tenter+ especially if+the machine is repeatedly stopped.)

7emedies,

• =se appropriate le*eling agents+ to ensure uniform & le*el dyeing.

• cour the grey faric thoroughly+ to ensure the remo*al of all the impurities.

• "nsure that the hole lot of the dyed faric is processed+ under uniform process

parameters.

%olding $arks

Definition,

%old marks appear as distinct pressure marks+ along the length of the faric

Causes,

• 'igh pressure of the faric Take Don rollers of the !nitting machine+ on the grey faric+ is

one of the main causes.

• Too much pressure of the feeding rolls of the Calander & Compactor is+ the primary cause

of the folding marks+ in the knitted faric.

7emedies,

• -d@ust the gap eteen the to rolls+ as per the thickness of the faric sheet (i0ue+ .2.etc.)

A*



• 1ap eteen the to Calander rolls should e @ust enough+ to let the rolls remo*e+ the

rinkles in the faric+ ut put no pressure on the faric sheet+ especially in the case of i0ue & structured farics.

/et 0ueezer $arksDefinition,

The faric on the edges of the faric tue gets+ permanent pressure marks+ due to the+ hardpressing y the s0ueezer rolls. These marks appear as distinct lines+ along the length of the faric& can?t e corrected.

Causes,

• These marks are caused due to the e6cessi*e pressure+ of the s0ueezer rolls of the

adding $angle+ on the et faric+ hile rinsing.

7emedies,

• =se the adding mangle+ only for the application of the softener.

• =se a hydro e6tractor (Centrifuge) for the e6traction+ to a*oid the s0ueezer roll marks.

• oon after e6traction+ open the faric manually+ to pre*ent crease marks in the damp faric.

$naggingDefinition,

nagging appears on the knitted faric surface+ as a pulled up yarn float+ shoing up in the form of a large loop.

Causes,

• Caused y the pulling or the plucking of yarn from the+ faric surface+ y sharp o@ects.

7emedies,

• Inspect & rectify the faric contact points on all the machines (oft %lo Dyeing+ Tumle

Dryer & Centrifuge etc)+ on hich snagging is taking place.

keing or Diagonal 1rain Lines (/ales)

Definition,

%aric /ales appear in the diagonal direction+ to the edges of the faric+ instead of eing parallel.

Causes, Improper feeding of the faric+ hile Calandering & Compacting.

7emedies,

AG



• !eep a slit line on one side of the tuular faric.

• =se the slit line+ as a reference line+ to keep the grain lines straight+ hile feeding the faric

sloly+ on the Calander+ or the Compactor machines.

'igh hrinkage

Definition,

The original intended measurements of the 1arment go+ hayire+ during storage or after the *eryfirst ash.

Causes,

• 'igh tresses & strains e6erted on the faric+ during !nitting+ Dyeing & rocessing & the

faric not eing alloed to rela6 properly+ thereafter.

• ('igh shrinkage is primarily due to the faric eing su@ect to high tension+ during the

!nitting+ Dyeing & the %inishing processes)

7emedies,

• !eep the 1rey %aric in loose plated form+ immediately after the roll is cut.

• tore the finished faric also in the plated form & not in the roll form.

• -llo the faric to rela6 properly+ efore it is cut.

•

1i*e ma6imum o*erfeed to the faric+ during the processing+ on the tenter+ Compactor &the Calandering machines.

1$ 5ariation

Definition,

The faric ill appear to ha*e a *isile *ariation in the density+ from roll to roll or ithin the sameroll of+ the same dye lot.

Causes,

• 7oll to roll *ariation in the+ process parameters+ of the faric+ likeA <*erfeed & /idthise

stretching of the dyed faric+ on the tenter+ Calander & Compactor machines.

• 7oll to roll *ariation in the faric stitch length.

7emedies,

• $ake sure that all the faric rolls in a lot+ are processed under the same process

parameters.

• The !nitting $achine settings+ likeA the uality ulley diameter etc. should ne*er e

distured.

B(



%aric /idth 5ariation Definition,

Different rolls of the same faric lot+ ha*ing difference in the finished idth of the faric.

Causes, • 1rey faric of the same lot+ knitted on different makes of !nitting $achines+ ha*ing *arying

numer of #eedles in the Cylinder.

• 7oll to roll difference+ in the Dyed %aric stretched idth+ hile feeding the faric on the

tenter+ Calander & Compactor.

7emedies,

• T'" /'<L" L<T <% T'" 17"Y %-B7IC '<=LD B" !#ITT"D <# T'" -$"

$-!" <% !#ITTI#1 $-C'I#".

• %<7 T'" -$" 1-=1" & DI-$"T"7 <% T'" !#ITTI#1 $-C'I#"+ T'"7" C-#

B" - DI%%"7"#C" <% - 'I1' - E9 #""DL"+ %7<$ <#" $-!" T< T'"<T'"7 $-!" <% T'" $-C'I#".

• T'I DI%%"7"#C"+ I# T'" #=$B"7 <% #""DL"+ C-=" - DI%%"7"#C" <%

=T< FG :G I# T'" %I#I'"D /IDT' <% T'" %-B7IC.

• T'" T7"TC'"D /IDT' <% T'" 17"Y %-B7IC '<=LD 7"$-I# C<#T-#T+

D=7I#1 %I#I'I#1 <# T'" T"#T"7.

rolems faced in !nits on the Cutting Tale(Curling of the ingle 2ersey %arics)

Definition,

ingle 2ersey farics+ hen layered on the cutting tale tend to+ curl at the edges.

Causes,

• Dimensional instaility of the ingle 2ersey knitted farics

• The face side of the faric has loops+ hereas the ack side has only yarn floats. o+ there

is an imalance+ eteen the face & the ack side of the faric.

7emedies,

• 1umming on oth the edges of the .2. farics+ hile tentering+ can control the curling.

$easurement rolemsDefinition,

B-



The measurements of the garments totally change after+ a fe hours of rela6ation & after the firstash. The arm lengths or the front & ack lengths of the garments may *ary+ due to the mi6 up of the parts.

Causes,

• hrinkage caused due to the inade0uate rela6ation of the knitted farics+ efore cutting.

• $i6ing of the garment parts cut from+ different layers or different rolls of the knitted faric.

7emedies,

• =se a trolley+ for laying the faric on the tale+ to facilitate a tension free+ laying.

• Let the faric rela6 for a fe hours+ efore cutting+ especially the Lycra farics.

• "nsure the numering of the different layers of the faric+ to pre*ent the mi6 up of the

components.

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION

Due to the increasin demand for 7uality dyed fa,ricsC hih 7ualityre7uirements aretoday reater since customer has ,ecome more a(are of I/on 7ualityJ pro,lems.6n order to avoid fa,ric reKectionB

C knik dyein mills have to dye fa,rics of hih 7ualityCconstantly.Detection of faults durin production of knit dyein fa,ric (ith dyeinmachine is crucial for improved 7uality and productivity. Any variation tothe knit dyein process needs to ,e investiated and corrected. The hih7uality standard can ,euaranteed ,y incorporatin appropriate 7ualityassurance. 6ndustrial analysis indicate that product 7uality can ,eimprovedC and defect cost minimisedC ,y monitorin of dyein process.Dyed knitted fa,ric faults are very di>erent in nature and appearance andare often superimposed. They can ,e attri,uted not only to the dyeinC

,ut also to the7uality of dyein !nishin.

3o in every step of dyein is to ,e careful to avoid the dyein faults andalso ,e alart from ,efore C3o that arn relafted faults Cknittin elements relatefd faultsC machinerelated faults can not e>ect on the dyed fa,rics.

B<



REFERENCES:

1-2.7ichel Delen

Sando! Canada ,nc

F,"ST ?I/C4 K,NN4" : =uebec Section

,ntersectional technical paper competition0-GG-

1<27 F D /r!u and 7.7. "ahman 5epartment of Te#tile 4ngineering Facultyof Science V

,nformation Technology 5affodil ,nternational &niversity.

1A25. Schimmel >. C. Fagnani- W. $. Lliveira dos Santos

and 4. /ntonio da SilvaX

-Kestern State &niversity of ?aranY "ua da Faculdade 'B ?hone0 P :;

:B;AAG(AG

Fa#0 P :; :B; AAG%((< *G(A%((( Toledo % ?" $ra!il.

4%mail0 edsondeqZunioeste.br + edsondeqZhotmail.com1B2 7. /. S. 5. $arros

5epartament of Chemical 4ngineering State &niversity of 7aringY

/v. Colombo G( $loco 5%G( *(<(%G(( 7aringY % ?" $ra!il

[(].J.Ru$$ell !gle

.1'2"ebecca "iley $erger

Kest 4nd North Carolina.

Korked for 8uilford 7ills in >enansville North

Carolina.12 : Wuly <(-(;. he $%#r* #/ c#%%#n. /vailable0

http0UUwww.cotton.orgUpubsUcottoncountsUresources.cfm

BA



1*2 S. 8ordon and M.%I. Dsieh C#%%#n0 Science and echn#l#g* First ed.0

Koodhead ?ublishing Iimited <((.

1G2 O. S. $orland [>ing cotton0 Dere today and here tomorrow % From fiber to

fashion cotton weaves its way through the supply chain[ e%ile #rld, vol.

-'( <(-(.

1-(2 $. Dembree [Korld cotton demand remains strong[ S#u%hea$% Farm re$$,

Wuly -G <(-(.

1--2 T. ?. Nevell [Cellulose0 structure properties and behaviour in the dyeing

process[ in Cellul#$ic$ D*eing W. Shore 4d. First ed0 Society of 5yers and

Colourists -GG pp. -%*(.

9F1-<2 4. ?. 8. 8ohl and I. 5. Oilensky e%ile Science0 An '4lana%i#n #/ Fi)re

r#4er%ie$ Second ed. 7elbourne0 Iongman Chashire -G*A.

1-A2 [Natural cellulosic fibres[ in a$ic rinci4le$ #/ e%ile C#l#ra%i#n /. 5.

$roadbent 4d. First ed0 Society of 5yers and Colourists <(( pp. (%G-.

1-B2 M. I. Dsieh [Chemical structure and properties of cotton[ in C#%%#n0

Science

and echn#l#g* S. 8ordon and M.%I. Dsieh 4ds. First ed0 Koodhead

?ublishing Iimited <(( pp. A%AB.

1-2 [&nion dyeing[ in a$ic rinci4le$ #/ e%ile C#l#ra%i#n /. 5. $roadbent

4d.

First ed0 Society of 5yers and Colourists <(( pp. B--%B<'.

1-'2 W. 5. Damlin [Novel au#iliaries with reactive dyes to solve environmental

problems[ ?h5 5epartment of Chemistry &7,ST 7anchester -GGG.

1-2 ,. 5. "attee ["eactive dyes in the coloration of cellulosic materials[

J#urnal #/

%he S#cie%* #/ D*er$ 5 C#l#uri$%$, vol. * pp. <A%A- Wanuary -G'G -G'G.

1-*2 T. Oickerstaff ["eactive 5yes for Te#tiles[ J#urnal #/ %he S#cie%* #/ D*er$

and

C#l#uri$%$, vol. A pp. <A%<B -G.

1-G2 K. S. Dickman [?reparation[ in Cellul#$ic$ D*eing W. Shore 4d.0 Societyof

5yers and Colourists -GG pp. *-%--.

1<(2 Te#tilelearner.blogspot.com

1<-2 www.n!itrap.com

1<<2 ,ndiamart.com

1<A2 http0UUte#tilelearner.blogspot.comU<(-<U(-Udyeing%mechanism%of%

reactivedye.

html\i#!!A<bkuQDSb1<B2 www.hktdc.com

BB



1<2 /. ,. /hmed ["eactive dyes development0 a review[ e%ile D*er 5

rin%er, vol.

<* pp. -G%<B -GG.

1<'2 C. F. Cross and 4. W. $evan Re$earcher$ #n Cellul#$e. Iondon0 Iongmans

8reen and Company -G-<.

1<2 ["eactive dyes[ in a$ic rinci4le$ #/ e%ile C#l#ra%i#n /. 5. $roadbent

4d.

First ed0 Society of 5yers and Colourists <(( pp. AA<%A.

1<*2 5. 7. Iewis , /. D. "enfrew and /. /. Siddique [The synthesis and

application

of a new reactive dye based on disulfide%bis%ethylsulfone[ D*e$ and igmen%$,

vol. B pp. --%-' <(((.

9M1<G2 ?. W. 5olby [5yeing of cellulosic fibres with reactive dyes[ e%ile Chemi$%

and

C#l#ri$%, vol. G pp. <'B%<'* -G.

1A(2 ,. 5. "attee ["eactive 5yes for Cellulose -GA-G*A[ Re"ie6 #/ r#gre$$

in

C#l#ra%i#n and Rela%ed #4ic$, vol. -B pp. (% -G*B.

1A-2 8. N. 7ock [/ short history on fiber reactive dyes[ e%ile Chemi$% and

C#l#ri$%, vol. <* pp. -(%-- -GG'.

1A<2 [5yes 8eneral survey[ in 7ndu$%rial D*e$ >. Dunger 4d. Third ed0

Kiley%OCD

<((A pp. -%-<.

1AA2 W. Shore [5yeing with reactive dyes[ in Cellul#$ic$ D*eing W. Shore 4d.

First

ed0 Society of 5yers and Colourists -GG pp. -*G%<B.

Documents

Thesis part.doc